Equivocal Subjects Between and Africa—Constructions of Racial and National Identity in the Italian Cinema

Shelleen Greene

99781441190437_FM_Rev_txt_prf.indd781441190437_FM_Rev_txt_prf.indd iiiiii 33/13/2001/13/2001 66:57:34:57:34 PPMM Continuum International Publishing Group 80 Maiden Lane, New York, NY 10038 The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX

www.continuumbooks.com

© Shelleen Greene, 2012

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publishers.

ISBN: HB: 978-1-4411-9043-7

A part of Chapter 3 has been previously published as “Il Mulatto: The Negotiation of Interracial Identity in the Italian Post-War Narrative Film,” in Terrone to Extracomunitario: New Manifestations of Racism in Contemporary Italian Cinema, ed. Grace Russo Bullaro (Leicester: Troubador Publishing Ltd, 2010), 25–60.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Greene, Shelleen. Equivocal subjects: between Italy and Africa—constructions of racial and national iden- tity in the Italian cinema/by Shelleen Greene. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Includes f lmography. ISBN-13: 978-1-4411-9043-7 (hardcover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-4411-9043-0 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Racially mixed people in motion pictures. 2. Race in motion pictures. 3. Blacks in motion pictures. 4. Africa, North—In motion pictures. 5. Italy—In motion pictures. 6. Motion pictures—Social aspects—Italy. 7. Motion pictures—Political aspects—Italy. I. Title.

PN1995.9.R23G84 2012 791.43’652905--dc23 2011038820

Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India Printed and bound in the of America

99781441190437_FM_Rev_txt_prf.indd781441190437_FM_Rev_txt_prf.indd iviv 33/13/2001/13/2001 66:57:35:57:35 PPMM To Roma Webb-Greene and to the late Mr Albert Hollander

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List of Figures viii Filmography ix Acknowledgments xi

Introduction 1

Chapter 1: From “Making ” to Envisioning Postcolonial Italy 14

Chapter 2: Mixed-Race Relationships in the Italian Colonial and Postcolonial Imaginary 50

Chapter 3: Negotiations of Mixed-Race Identity and Citizenship in the Postwar Cinema and Beyond 116

Chapter 4: Transatlantic Crossings: Representing Hierarchies of Whiteness in the Cinema of the Economic Miracle 185

Chapter 5: Zumurrud in her Camera: and the Global South in Contemporary Italian Film 210

Conclusion 253

Notes 266 Bibliography 289 Index 301

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1.1 Maciste and Fulvius Axilla 32

1.2 Gerima at the Dogali monument, Piazzale dei Cinquecento , 46 1.3 Gerima in the Piazzale dei Cinquecento with the descendants of those who fought at Dogali 47

2.1 Enrico and Elisabetta in the Rainbow Bar 89 3.1 Angelo 124

3.2 Catari and the image of the Black Madonna 142

3.3 A scenario for mixed-race unions in the Italian Republic 145 3.4 Making a case against racial integration 145

3.5 Lee evokes the Italian and African American encounters from Italian neorealist f lms 169 3.6 A bust of a “native” female marks Marcella’s racial “in-betweenness” 177

3.7 Racial performance as a means of questioning cinematic realism 178 4.1 Encounter between the Sicilian “immigrant” and the black American 197 C.1 The “survivor” 260

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Adwa: An African Victory , directed by Haile Gerima (1999; Washington, DC: Mypheduh Films, 1999) VHS. Angelo , directed by Francesco De Robertis (1949; Italy and USA: Scalera Films S.p.a., 1951) Film. Appunti per un’Orestiade africana (Notes for an African Orestes ), directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini (1970; Bologna: Cineteca Bologna, 2009) DVD. L’assedio (Besieged ), directed by (1998; New York, NY: New Line, 1999) DVD. Bianco e Nero , directed by Cristina Comencini (2008; Italy: 01 Distribution S.R.L., 2008) DVD. Cabiria , directed by Giovanni Pastrone (1914; New York, NY: Kino Video, 2000) DVD. Il Decamerone (The Decameron ), directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini (1970; Los Angeles, CA: MGM World Films, 2002) DVD. La donna scimmia (The Ape Woman ), directed by (1963; Italy: Surf Video, 2011) DVD. Il f ore delle mille e una notte (Arabian Nights ), directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini (1974; London: British Film Institute, 2001) DVD. fuori/outside , directed by Kym Ragusa (1997; New York, NY: Third World Newsreel) VHS. Il gattopardo (The Leopard ), directed by (1963; New York, NY: The Criterion Collection, 2004) DVD. Gomorra (Gomorrah ), directed by (2008; New York, NY: The Criterion Collection, 2009) DVD. Ma f oso , directed by (1963; Italy: Rialto Pictures, 2002) DVD. Miracle at St. Anna , directed by Spike Lee (2008; Los Angeles, CA: Touchstone, 2009) DVD. Il Mulatto , directed by Francesco De Robertis (1949; Italy: Scalera Films, S.p.a.) Film. Paisà ( ), directed by (1946; New York, NY: The Criterion Collection: 2010) DVD. Pane e cioccolata ( ), directed by (1974; Fort Wayne, IN: Hen’s Tooth Video, 2002) DVD. La ragazza dalla pelle di luna (Moonskin ), directed by Luigi Scattini (1972; Aquila Cinematograf ca – P.A.C.) VHS.

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Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma (Salò or the 120 Days of Sodom ), directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini (1975; London: British Film Institute, 2001) DVD. Senza pietà (Without Pity ), directed by Alberto Lattuada (1948; Italy: Cecchi Gori, 2009) DVD. Sotto la croce del sud (Under the Southern Cross ), directed by (1938; Italy: Consorzio Italiano Noleggiatori Filmi (CINF) and Esperia Film Distributing Col. Inc.) Film. Tempo di uccidere (A Time to Kill ), directed by (1989; USA: Westlake, 2002) DVD. Violenza segreta ( Secret Violence ), directed by Giorgio Moser (1963; Italy: Globe International Film) Film. Western Union: small boats , directed by Isaac Julien (2007; London: Isaac Julien Studio, 2009) 35 mm, DVD Transfer.

99781441190437_FM_Rev_txt_prf.indd781441190437_FM_Rev_txt_prf.indd x 33/13/2001/13/2001 66:57:35:57:35 PPMM Chapter 4 Transatlantic Crossings: Representing Hierarchies of Whiteness in the Cinema of the Economic Miracle

Ref ecting upon her f rst journey from Sicily to northern Italy in 1975, author Edvige Giunta articulates the “in-betweenness” of southern Italian identity, of being “‘white,’ but not quite.” Arriving in , Giunta describes being complimented on her perfect standard Italian and abil- ity to hide all traces of her Sicilian accent, a compliment that evokes feel- ings of both pride and guilt. Giunta describes the experience as one of “passing”—in which she draws parallels to a process undertaken by black and other nonwhite Americans, who because of their light complexion, can pass for white, thereby allowing them to evade institutional racism and take part in the “privileges of whiteness.” As discussed in Chapter 3, beginning with their arrival in the middle to late nineteenth century, Italian immigrants in the United States, espe- cially southern Italians and Sicilians, were considered an inferior race, a categorization inscribed upon them by existing racial hierarchies in Italy and carried over into their newly adopted country. Giunta’s narrative is notable in that it marks the existence of racial hierarchy in modern Italy, one established during Italy’s post-unif cation north/south division and continuing into the postwar period after Italy had established itself as part of the First World economic and geopolitical bloc. Recalling her arrival in Milan and the feeling of “passing,” Giunta writes:

This cultural confrontation triggers my f rst serious ref ection on the signif cance of race and racism. I feel like a trespasser, an outsider who has found a way to be on the inside: I am at once betrayed and betrayer. If I regard myself as Sicilian, I also regard myself as Italian. And these people, who discriminate against my own, are my people, too. Even though I may not be able to articulate it to myself or others,

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I become acutely aware that passing is a strategy of survival adopted to escape damning racial identif cation, but one adopted at a certain cost in terms of one’s sense of cultural and personal integrity. I may speak Italian, but there is something inauthentic about my Italian identity: I have adopted and adapted, but remain an outsider. Race, I begin to understand . . . is a slippery concept, part of a story made up by those in charge of language. 1

Giunta’s ref ections on race and national belonging arise from her experi- ence of migration, physical and psychic movements that are thematically explored in two f lms produced during and after Italy’s economic boom period: Maf oso (1962) and Pane e cioccolata (Bread and Chocolate, 1974). In previous chapters, I argued that cinematic representations of African Italian mixed-race subjects register shifts in the conceptualization of Italian racial and national identity, from the mixed-race Maciste who projects and reconciles (albeit temporarily) Italy’s internal racial heterogeneity (par- ticularly the racialized Italian south and Sicily) to its African colonies in the late Liberal period, to the ejection of the mixed-race Mailù to secure a white Italian-Aryan identity during the fascist era, and the acceptance but ultimate rejection of the mixed-race Angelo from the national body in the post–World War II era. In each instance, the attempt to construct and stabilize a white racial identity for the Italian national subject remains tenuous or altogether elusive, revealing the instability of race and racial cat- egorization. Departing from Giunta’s narrative, in this chapter I examine the representation of the Italian southern as a mixed-race subject, in the sense of being what scholars have noted as the racial “in-betweenness” of Italian identity. The discourses of race and national belonging in both Maf oso and Bread and Chocolate demonstrate the persistence of the racialized north/ south divide into the economic boom period and beyond. Due to inter- nal and external migration, the protagonists of Maf oso and Bread and Chocolate must continuously negotiate hierarchies of whiteness in their home and host countries. As will be discussed in the f nal chapter, this process continues even into the present moment of neoliberal global capitalism, a period when Italians are for the most part racially def ned as white. However, the two f lms, moving from the early 1960s to the mid-1970s, demonstrate processes of Italian racial and national identity formation that will have ramif cations for cultural constructions of rela- tions between Italian nationals, African migrants, and other nonwhite,

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non-Western European subjects who began immigrating to Italy in larger numbers by the late 1970s and early 1980s. That southern and eastern Europeans have been constructed as non- white, both within Western Europe and in the United States, is not a new assertion.2 In the United States, discourses surrounding immigra- tion during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including eugenics and social Darwinism, constructed Italians (both northern and southern, but by the end of the nineteenth century, mainly south- ern), Irish, Jewish, Polish, and Swedish immigrants as racially inferior and less desirable migrants than northern Europeans, and as in need of reform and generational breeding to remove their undesirable traits. To be white connotes, as Richard Dyer argues in his seminal book on the concept of whiteness, a series of moral, mental, and physical attri- butes, including purity, goodness, enterprise, beauty, and intelligence.3 As shown in Giunta’s narrative, whiteness in the Italian context is con- structed through mastery of standardized Italian, and “proper” behavior and comportment, different from what is expected from southerners and Sicilians. Through processes of migration and assimilation, the Italian south- erner could be reformed or raised to the status of white, a tenuous and diff cult process that demonstrates the instability of racial categories, and particularly the difference between categories of color and race. Discussing the reception and representation of Italian and other non- northern European immigrants in the United States beginning in the late nineteenth century, Giorgio Bertellini writes:

On the one hand, it is crucial to stress that European immigrants did not experience forms of racial discrimination and exclusion compara- ble with the violent and unbending exclusion endured by Latinos and by Native, Asian, and African-Americans . . . On the other hand, it is also important to avoid reifying the distinction between color and race. The risks that we may overlook both the historicity of race’s physical and biological ascriptions—which included skull shape, physiognomic traits, and hair type, as well as color—and the different roles that such ascriptions played in allowing or denying narratives of adaptation. 4

Thus, although white, Italian immigrants were subject to racial discrimi- nation, positioned within a hierarchy of whiteness that constructed them as lower than other Western European subjects, and, as deployed in

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post-unif cation Italy, positioned southern Italians as racially inferior to northerners. Joseph Pugliese writes:

The deployment of the loaded signif er “Africa,” as the lens through which the South was rendered intelligible for Northerners, marks how the question of Italy was, from the very moment of unif cation, already racialised by a geopolitical fault line that split the peninsula and its islands along a black/white axis. From the beginning, then, the so- called questione meridionale (Southern Question) encoded a set of racia- lised presuppositions in which the whiteness of the North operated as an a priori, in contradistinction to the problematic racialised sta- tus of the South, with its dubious African and Oriental histories and cultures. 5

Pugliese argues that this deployment of hierarchies of whiteness in the Italian context has been “constitutive in the formation of hege- monic Italian identity, politics and culture,” from its colonial and post- colonial eras to present-day debates concerning immigration and the extracomunitari. 6 In my reading of Ma f oso and Bread and Chocolate , I examine how the two f lms deconstruct a “hegemonic Italian identity” by placing the southern Italian citizen, already racially conscribed by the north/south division, in different national contexts (the United States, Switzerland). The humor and tragedy in both these commedia all’italiana f lms comes from the protagonists’ desire to overcome racial stereotypes of the Italian southerner without denying their cultural roots, akin to the experience of passing that Giunta describes in the passage quoted above. I argue that the cinematic representation of southern Italian racial and national identity as both white and nonwhite appears at a moment in the Italian postwar period when an Italian white identity (for both northerners and southerners) is becoming fairly secure as the country becomes a major Western European economic and political power. What f lms such as Ma f oso and Bread and Chocolate reveal is that the massive societal shifts brought about by the “economic boom” and dramatized in the commedia all’italiana , including changes in marriage, women’s emancipation, reli- gion, and sexuality, are underscored by considerations of race and racial hierarchy within postwar Italy. Ma f oso narrates the story of Antonio “Nino” Badalamenti (), an engineer at a Fiat plant in Milan. Nino is about to leave for vacation, taking his Milanese wife Marta () and two young

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daughters on their f rst visit to his hometown of Càlamo, Sicily, to meet his parents and extended family. Just as he is about to leave, Nino is summoned to the off ces of the factory manager, who asks Nino to take a “gift” to Don Vincenzo, Càlamo’s padrone , from friends in the United States. Honored by the request, Nino takes the package without question and sets off with his family on their journey to Sicily. The “gift,” a jewel-encrusted heart with the names of “friends” from the United States, is actually a message that marks one of the New Jersey bosses, Pescalise di Càlamo, as the target of a maf a hit. Don Vincenzo, knowing Nino’s skill as a marksman, commits Nino to carrying out the maf a hit. Upon arrival in New York City, Nino meets the US associates and comes to understand the gravity of his situation. Nino is dropped off near a barbershop where he f nds his target and executes the hit. Nino is quickly dispatched back to Sicily, and eventually returns to Milan and his job at Fiat, where compliments about his honesty and eff ciency ring painfully ironic in light of his recent act of murder. Released in the same year as Pasolini’s Mamma Roma and 2 years after Luchino Visconti’s Rocco and His Brothers , Lattuada’s Ma f oso shares with its art f lm counterparts a concern with the impact of the internal migra- tion of Italy’s southern populations in the postwar period. As discussed in Chapter 3, Lattuada’s work during the Italian neorealist period included Senza pietà (Without Pity , 1947), notable for its portrayal of race relations between Italians and African Americans during the immediate postwar period, a theme that I will return to later in my discussion of Ma f oso . Marco Ferreri (The Ape Woman ) and Rafael Azcona initially developed the screenplay for Ma f oso , which was later reworked by,Agenore Incroci and (Age and Scarpelli), the screenwriting team responsible for penning some of the best-known f lms of the commedia all’italiana genre.7 Beginning in the late 1950s, supported by US f nancial aid in the form of the Marshall Plan, economic reforms that stimulated Italian industrial production (particularly its automobile and petrochemical industries), along with the lowering of tariffs, state regulation and other protec- tionist measures, and new markets opened through the creation of the European Economic Community, transformed Italy from an impover- ished postwar nation to a Western European economic power. 8 Italians enjoyed unprecedented economic prosperity, particularly the rural peas- antry who through migration to northern and central Italy had access to consistent work, higher wages, and improved housing conditions. The higher per capita income of Italian households led to a rise in consumerism, with Italians buying cars, televisions, electrical appliances,

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and mass-produced foods. Along with economic prosperity and a new consumer society, Italy experienced massive cultural and social shifts. Along with the Second Vatican Council (1962–65), which allowed mass to be conducted in languages other than Latin, church attendance decreased in the country, from 69 percent in the mid-1950s to slightly over 30 percent by the end of the 1970s. 9 While the Catholic Church retained a prominent position within Italian society, the boom period brought changing perceptions and greater acceptance of premari- tal sex, women’s emancipation, divorce, birth control, and abortion. 10 The commedia all’italiana f lms not only satirized Italy’s new consumer society but also exposed the underside of the “economic miracle,” exploring the excesses and detrimental effects of Italy’s rapid economic development.11 Italy’s economic boom period saw not only a rise in industrialization and consumerism but new patterns of internal migration, as Italians from the peninsular south began moving to northern industrial centers for employment opportunities.12 It was during this period of internal migra- tion, as opposed to the great overseas emigration between 1890 and 1915, that southerners comprised the largest group of Italian migrants. 13 The internal migrations were partially stimulated by the enormous eco- nomic growth of the country’s northern regions, which outpaced eco- nomic development in the south. Southerners not only migrated to the northern industrial centers, but also moved to other European coun- tries such as Germany and Switzerland, and overseas in search of employ- ment. Although taking part in the postwar economic recovery, southern Italian migrants in north Italy were subject to stereotyping and racial discrimination. As Palumbo and Dawson write:

When industrialized cities of northern Italy went through an economic upswing during the late 1950s and 1960s, national attention focused on the question of how to deal with the supposedly pathological char- acteristics of the Mezzogiorno and of the southern migrants who were being drawn north by the boom. Economic refugees arriving in indus- trialized cities of the North, such as Turin and Milan, experienced severe forms of social and economic discrimination. Such prejudice was generated in many cases by the continuing circulation of racial ste- reotypes concerning the “barbarous” denizen of the Mezzogiorno.14

Southern Italians and Sicilians migrating north for employment were called derogatory names such as terrone , a word that derives from the

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Italian word for earth (terra ) but was used to label southerners as debased, primitive, and inferior. 15 In her study of responses to southern migration to north Italy during the 1950s and 1960s, Enrica Capussotti argues that anti-southerner sentiment during this period was informed by the same southern question discourses that had emerged in the early unif cation period.16 Southerners were still constructed as the nation’s internal “other” and characterized as an uneducated, economic bur- den on northern regions, although southerners who proved themselves hardworking and industrious, like Ma f oso ’s Nino, could be tolerated and assimilated into the north. Capussotti writes:

Rights of citizenship depended not only on territorial belongings but on class as well; and class alliance with northerners was also one of the strategies employed by southerners who wanted to differen- tiate between the civilized meridionali— economically well-off and educated—and their poor and ignorant counterparts. 17

These persistent stereotypes of the Italian south and southerners serve as both the comedic and dramatic bases of Ma f oso . However, Ma f oso is particular in that it demonstrates how racial hierarchies in both Italy and the United States circumscribe the Italian southerner, bringing into question the belief that economic prosperity and southern “reform” will bring an end to the racialized north/south divide and lead to full national unif cation. With its transmigrant protagonist who travels both within Italy and between Italy and the United States, Ma f oso stages the encounter between the “reformed” southern Italian and the Italian American, brought about not by a desire to foster cultural ties among members of the Italian diaspora, but by the rise of multinational capital- ism that impacts the relations between the Sicilian maf a and their US counterparts. Ma f oso ’s dramatization of the lingering impact of the north/south division within the country is given heightened effect through Sordi’s tragicomic performance of Nino’s affable denial of the ongoing strife between the two regions. Nino’s attitude ref ects a changing Italy, and the belief that with industrial development the south will overcome its “difference” from the north. The stereotypes of northern and southern Italy are presented to comic effect in a brief scene early in the f lm dur- ing which Nino speaks to his father-in-law on the phone prior to the family’s departure for Sicily. Nino explains that a typhus vaccine is not required for their journey and they are not going to “Mau Mau Land.”

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His father-in-law equates Sicily with Africa and the negative connotations of primitiveness and disease abound. The emphasis on the modernity of the north is revealed in the pre- sentation of Nino’s home in Milan. It is a contemporary f at crammed with every modern convenience possible, including garbage disposal, telephone, and electric kitchen appliances. To further emphasize stereo- types of the Italian north, Nino is shown preparing for the journey using an electric shaver and an electric shoe shiner, all the while timing their trip down to the last minute. Time eff ciency becomes an important marker of the difference between the north and south. Maf oso begins (and ends) with various images of the Fiat factory f oor, steel frames moving with precision along the assembly line and hydraulic equipment operated by workers in silent repetition, serving to create an impression of northern Italian industri- alization at the height of Italy’s post–World War II “economic miracle.” Nino moves through the plant, stopwatch in hand, regulating the work- ers who are to be kept in pace with their machine counterparts. As the f lm illustrates later through Nino’s forced “migration” from Sicily to the United States, he along with the plant workers are part of the larger structure of postwar global capitalism in which Italy now f nds itself a part. The plot takes place when Nino is on vacation, or rather when he is supposedly not “on the clock” or subject to the time of the factory machines. Throughout the f lm, Nino is most vulnerable when he loses control of “time” or when others are in control of his time of action, as when he is made to work during his vacation by the maf a after the geo- graphic and temporal displacement of his movement from Sicily to the United States. The relation to the United States is raised by the appearance of Mr Zanchi, a director at Nino’s Fiat plant. The scene between Nino and Zanchi is a careful balance of familiarity and formality. The dialogue is set in Zanchi’s off ce, where the two speak across Zanchi’s imposing desk. Although the two men are seated at the same level, Zanchi is also shown with the microphone used to make announcements heard through- out the plant. His automated door and microphone are signif ers of Zanchi’s power and ability to control others with technology. Zanchi compliments Nino on his exceptional work record, claiming it proves that “the Sicilian technician now equals his counterpart in Turin or Milan. Even the Germans.” 18 Zanchi’s language suggests a kind of pater- nalism toward Nino, similar to that used toward racial minorities in the United States who are a “credit to their race.” Zanchi’s movement from

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northern Italian to German workers reveals an adherence to a racial hierarchy that posits northern Europe as superior to southern Europe, a disturbing reference when considered in the light of World War II. In this brief scene, the blending of familial and professional ties is closely linked to the question of diaspora and connections between Italians and Italian Americans that are now further complicated by post- war global capitalism. Migration, along with the maintenance of regional allegiance, can be read as a rejection of the Italian unif cation process and the homogeneous Italian identity it sought to produce. The logic of postwar global capitalism also challenges the nation-state formation, and Ma f oso continually exploits the parallels between the multinational Fiat and the Sicilian maf a, both of which operate without regard to the boundaries of the nation-state. Ma f oso conveys the optimism of early 1960s Italy through Nino’s jour- ney from Milan to Càlamo. Making their way to Sicily with the precision granted by Italy’s modern railway system, the family takes the f nal leg of the trip to Sicily via ferry. As the ferry begins to enter Messina’s port, Marta laments: “I was just watching Italy fade away.” 19 Just as he refuses to recognize the split within himself between his birth home and his current north Italy location, Nino also romanticizes Sicily, overlooking the long history of the island’s ambivalent relation to the peninsula that prompts Marta’s comments. Nino celebrates the power of technology and modernization by directing Marta’s attention to two power lines: one off the coast of Italy, the other in Sicily, which connects the penin- sula to the island. Nino’s remark, “Tomorrow, the bridge,” makes clear his belief that Italy’s industrialization and economic prosperity will allow for the development of the Italian south and Sicily, completing the uni- f cation process begun in the nineteenth century. The images of industrialization continue as Nino and his family travel to Càlamo. As they drive on modern highways, we see images of tele- phone lines stretching across the countryside. In these images, Ma f oso highlights the country’s transition to a modern industrial society. Old and new cultures clash as the family car arrives in the town and are greeted on an adjacent street by a Sicilian carriage. The carriage becomes another opportunity for Nino to displace his anxiety concerning Sicily’s “primitiv- ism” by adopting a tourist mode. As the camera pans across the carriage, Nino tells his family about the carriage workmanship, then relates the story of the Christian crusaders Rinaldo and Orlando’s battles against the Muslim Moors. As tour guide, Nino’s explanation raises Sicily’s his- tory of invasion and conquest at a safe distance. Yet, Sicily’s “difference”

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emerges as they make their way through the town. Forced to stop by one of the Sicilian carriages, Marta sees a wake, with the body of the deceased surrounded by family members. Here, Lattuada makes use of wide-angle framing to emphasize Marta’s disorientation, creating the sensation of the grotesque and macabre. When Nino learns that the man died because of maf a-related violence, he quickly moves his family, not wanting to disrupt the picturesque view of Sicily he attempts to construct. In Ma f oso , as in many Italian-style comedy f lms, gender comes to play a signif cant role in conveying the dynamics of the north/south divide in early 1960s Italy. Nino’s wife Marta represents a modern, northern Italian femininity. With her blonde hair and contemporary outf ts, Nino’s family receives Marta as a nontraditional woman. While Marta is the object of hostile looks from the other women in the Baladamenti household, she is desired by the young, itinerant men of Càlamo for whom Marta signi- f es “northernness,” economic prosperity, and social mobility. Dressed in white throughout the f lm, Ma f oso also associates Marta with whiteness and a racial hierarchy that associates the Italian and European north with economic and social advancement. The Baladamenti women, dressed in traditional black dresses and headscarfs, frown upon Marta’s “modern” dress and comportment. When Marta attempts to refashion Nino’s younger sister, Rosalia, into a modern woman with a gift of a short-sleeved shirt, the clothing item is considered too revealing by the older women. Rosalia suffers from minor hirsutism and has a moustache and overgrown eyebrows that give her a slightly masculine appearance; this is a source of embarrassment and an obstacle to her marriage to her unemployed f ancé. As argued in Chapter 2’s discussion of The Ape Woman (1964), released 2 years after Ma f oso and directed by one of Ma f oso ’s assistant screenwriters, Marco Ferreri, 20 Rosalia’s hairiness can be read as a sign of racial difference. But Rosalia’s hairiness and her assumed backwardness can be “cured” through the advantages of modernization: Her hirsutism is taken as bad luck until Marta introduces the benef ts of northern consumer culture by buying hair-waxing products for Rosalia. As layers of excess hair are removed from Rosalia’s face and body, her more feminine appearance garners compliments, with Nino saying her skin is, “so white, smooth as porcelain.” 21 Rosalia’s hair removal increases her chances of getting married and bringing possible f nancial gain to the family. This scene humorously interrogates the belief that adapting modern technologies and industrialization, southern Italians can overcome traditional stereo- types of southern “backwardness” just as easily as Rosalia sheds her hair

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(here read as racial difference) with a simple waxing kit. The resolution of Rosalia’s hairiness also suggests that by the early 1960s, whiteness is recognized as a valuable commodity, something that can be purchased (in this case waxing can be seen as a form of skin whitening) and can increase one’s social and economic opportunities. Identities become even more unstable as Nino becomes unknowingly entrapped in Don Vittorio’s plan. Time is once again brought to the fore as Don Vittorio calls Nino, who during his vacation has abandoned his stopwatch, back to “work.” When Nino is deceived into going on a sup- posed hunting trip, he meets Don Vittorio in a car just before being sent on his journey overseas. As Vittorio asks for Nino’s fealty, with overtones of the primal mother–child relationship, Nino’s symbolic regress is con- nected to a shift in temporality, both of which will be staged in his jour- ney to the United States. When Nino asks where he is being sent, Vittorio responds: “You’ll know when you get back.” Later when he gets on the lorry that will take him to the plane hanger, Nino asks the driver about the length of his journey, to which he responds the trip will be “long and short.” The confusion of time and space will remain until Nino returns to Milan. As Nino is cargo-shipped to the United States, the viewer is given Nino’s point of view as he sits in the dark hearing sounds of an engine and seeing brief f ashes of light piercing the crate’s wooden boards. When Nino’s crate-womb is opened, he emerges wobbling and half- blind. Nino’s regression to the “womb” suggests a rebirth in the United States. Certainly, the immigrant experience can be described as a new beginning; however, the US sequence can be read as an interrogation of Italian racial and national identity by means of transnational migration. As outsourced labor for a maf a hit to take place in the United States (the f lm’s original title was Voyage to America ), Nino becomes the object of a violent displacement on two levels: in the necessary repression of his southern culture in his transition to the north and in his forced partici- pation in the transcontinental criminal syndicate under the pretense of tradition and familial obligation. Although the men who transport Nino in the United States speak Italian, they do not establish any rapport with Nino, who remains a for- eigner. The only American who offers any greeting is the New Jersey don. Upon meeting Nino for the f rst time, the don gives Nino a lingering kiss on the lips, an impropriety which leaves Nino stunned. If the relationship between Nino and Vittorio is one of mother and child, the one with the New Jersey don moves to that of incest. Whether the don is attempting

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to intimidate Nino or has in fact misinterpreted and stereotyped Sicilian culture, the kiss signif es an estrangement between Italians and Italian Americans, emphasized by the don’s assumption of automatic, natural aff nity that Nino does not share. This estrangement continues as Nino is shown an amateur home f lm of the intended target. The home footage provides very little information as to how or why Pescalise has “dug his own grave.” Nino is only told to observe Pescalise in order to identify the correct target. This inability to fully comprehend the reasons for the hit is related to Nino’s inability to construct a narrative to comprehend the Italian Americans he encounters in the United States. Unaware of his true purpose in the United States and not knowing the people he sees in the f lm, Nino begins to ask questions about the women and children he sees on screen, attempting to construct a family unit out of the unidentif ed people as a means of connecting to Italians in America. At no time during the screening is Nino given the names of the people f lmed or the exact reason he is being sent to kill a man he’s never met. Nino is once again placed in a situation where he cannot dis- tinguish between leisure time and work time. Nino’s full estrangement from himself and his “countrymen” in Italy and abroad is made apparent when he is sent to assassinate Pescalise. Nino comprehends the gravity of his and his family’s situation after he is given a gun and told that he must kill Pescalise. In another instance of impropriety, the New Jersey don grabs Nino’s knee, stating that “our Sicily [is] shaped like a heart,” that “we are one big, heart,” and then offers another inappropriate embrace. The don implies that there is some collective Sicilian identity that connects the island with its diaspora in the United States. Ma f oso makes evident the hypocrisy of the don’s supposed f lial connection to Nino and the exploitation that underscores the don’s words and actions. However, Maf oso opens several questions around the issue of diaspora, global capitalism, and, as will be discussed, racial identity. After receiving an explanation of the escape route, Nino is dropped off across the street from the barbershop where his intended victim awaits him. With a gun concealed in his pocket, he begins to walk toward the barbershop but stops suddenly in front of a bar when the barkeeper throws an inebriated African American man out of the bar directly in his path. Because Nino does not speak English, he remains silent as the man becomes increasingly frustrated with what he interprets as Nino’s refusal to acknowledge him. The African American raises the question of rights, in this instance the “right” to use a public toilet. The African American

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states: “No one has the right to tell me how long I can stay in a toilet . . . otherwise what would become of American democracy? Why don’t you answer me?” Nino becomes confused, stares at the man, and only responds “Yes.” Time becomes central once again as the unexpected delay causes Nino to nervously look at his watch. The African American stops him again and states: “Your silence sir, affronts me. Perhaps you think you’re better than me? Are you by any chance a dirty radical?” The black man shakes Nino’s hand, but Nino pushes him away and continues on to his destination (Figure 4.1). This encounter between the Sicilian “immigrant” and the black American, implicitly draws connections between southern Italian immi- gration to the United States from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and southern immigration to northern Italian urban centers in the late 1950s and early 1960s. 22 The African American man’s behavior, his lack of discretion, his public drunkenness brings to the fore paral- lels between the southern Italian and African American experiences of racism and economic exploitation. It is through his encounter with the African American that Nino is for the f rst time in the f lm pulled out of time and taken off schedule. Nino is also unable to speak with the African American man, making him powerless to address the man’s questions

Figure 4.1 Encounter between the Sicilian “immigrant” and the black American (Ma f oso , dir. Alberto Lattuada, 1963). Courtesy of the Centro Sperimentale di Cinematograf a—Cineteca Nazionale, Rome, Italy.

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or demands, communicate his own, or even forge solidarity. Having believed that his white identity was secure, Nino, because of his lack of language, disorientation, even estrangement from the Italian American community, is now in the position of being “fresh off the boat,” as his family had joked upon his triumphal return to Sicily, bringing hopes for an improved Sicily and the completion of Italian unif cation. The scene described above also returns to the representation and sym- bolic function of the African American GI in Italian neorealist and post- war narrative f lms. As discussed in Chapter 3, a reoccurring stereotype associated with the character is inebriation, often accompanied by mute- ness or an inability to communicate in Italian. For instance, drunkenness and language def ciency characterize the relationship between Joe, a US Army MP, and the orphaned Pasquale in the episode of Paisan. The language impasse between the two becomes evident in one scene as Joe laments about his life in the American south while the young boy sits with a perplexed look, unable to comprehend Joe’s language and complaints. The cinematic representation of the African American subject during this stage of the postwar economic recovery relates to how the black American’s position within the United States is once again used as a model for the incorporation of the southern Italian within the nation- state. In Chapter 3’s reading of Paisan ’s Naples episode, I argued that Joe’s identif cation with the Neapolitans is achieved only after Joe sub- limates his anger toward the racist aggression he has suffered in the United States. In Paisan , the black male’s acceptance then forced dis- avowal of his racial difference becomes illustrative of the manner in which the Italian southerner’s claim to regional and cultural difference are acknowledged, mainly as commodities for the Italian tourism and f lm industries, but then subsumed within a supposedly unif ed Italian nation-state. The ramif cations of this process are dramatized in Ma f oso. Removed from both his native home in Sicily and his life in Milan, Nino is not only a foreigner in the United States and unable to communicate in English, much like his countrymen before him, but in the era of postwar global capitalism, he constitutes a new type of subject: “global” but apparently from nowhere. Unlike the Sicilians in the late nineteenth and turn-of-the twentieth centuries, Nino did not immigrate, but instead was shipped as cargo by an international criminal syndicate. Nino’s exploitation by the maf a and his betrayal by “mother” Vincenzo dislodges him from his “home,” the town that anchors his identity and serves as his reference

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point as he migrates and settles in north Italy. Nino’s confrontation with the African American accentuates his identity crisis as he is forced to see himself in the black male, who serves as a reminder of the failure of “liberation” and the still incomplete unif cation process. Having no language by which to express his spatial and psychic dis- placement, Nino kills his “countryman,” who is as unfamiliar to Nino as Nino is to himself. Nino’s alienation from himself and his countrymen abroad is emphasized by the use of the mirror image in the execution scene. When he enters the barbershop, three barbers attending to their clients greet Nino. Like the African American, the barbers assume Nino speaks English and ask him to be seated. For the moment, Nino is lost, unable to communicate and identify his target because the faces of all three clients are covered with towels. Nino identif es Pescalise through his cigar and ring, two items he noticed from the home f lms. When the barber furthest from the door f nally acknowledges Nino, we see Nino’s small mirror ref ection in the far left corner. The barber turns Pescalise toward Nino and tells his coworkers and clients to duck for cover. While Pescalise fumbles for his gun, Nino shoots and mortally wounds him. With his last shot, Nino shoots the mirror directly behind Pescalise, an odd move considering Nino’s expert shooting skills. The misf re can be interpreted as a sign of heightened anxiety due to the circumstances. However, considering the question of identity and lack of access to lan- guage as a means of constructing a self, Nino’s shot into the mirror, one in which we never see his ref ection, underscores Nino’s alienation from himself and from the Italian diaspora due to his exploitation by both the multinational Fiat and the Sicilian maf a within a system of global capitalism. Nino is freight-shipped back to Càlamo, repeating the crate-womb journey that brought him to the United States; Nino is then forced to maintain the pretense of having gone on a hunting trip, regardless of the fact that many in the town know the true reason of Nino’s excursion. As he lies in his parents’ bed, the camera pans across to Nino’s blonde wife and daughters. Turning around and covering his ears, Nino hears gun- shots. The memory of his act is represented as trauma. The f nal scenes of the f lm return us to the Fiat plant. When Nino dutifully returns a pen to his coworker, he is complemented for his diligence, remarking that “it would be a better world” with more people like Nino. An unlikely maf a hit man, Nino can no longer def ne himself as “civilized” and an example of Sicilian and southern Italian “uplift.” Nino’s Italian identity is based on the idea that Sicily seamlessly merged into the mainland peninsula in

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the postwar period. Ma f oso suggests that even at this late moment, Sicily both is and is not Italy. In restaging the neorealist encounter between African American and southern Italian subject, Ma f oso reveals the fail- ures of the neorealist project and represents the conditions under which national “unif cation” will take place in the neocapitalist era beginning in the late 1960s.

Pane e cioccolata: Whiteness in the Italian Cultural Imaginary of the 1970s

Although 12 years separates Lattuada’s Ma f oso from Franco Brusati’s Bread and Chocolate (1974), a period that not only saw the end of the economic boom period, but a radically transformed social and political climate, we f nd a similar representation of southern Italian identity as “mixed” or split between white and nonwhite identities. The f lm’s main protagonist, Nino Garofalo (), is a southern Italian immi- grant working in Switzerland on a temporary guest permit. Although there was an Italian migrant presence in Switzerland since the late nine- teenth century, the postwar economic recovery period saw a rise in Italian migration to Switzerland, comprised mostly of men seeking temporary employment. 23 The f lm is divided into three parts structured around Nino’s three deportations, all of which he resists by disembarking from his train and refusing to return to southern Italy. After 3 years of working at various labor jobs, Nino has an opportunity to gain a prized residency permit and a stable job as a waiter that will allow him to bring his family to Switzerland. However, after being caught urinating in public, Nino loses his temporary permit and is scheduled for deportation. Upon see- ing his fellow countrymen displaying southern Italian stereotypes, Nino decides to remain in Switzerland illegally rather than return home. As Nino meets people of the Italian immigrant community in Switzerland, from a suicidal industrialist to a family of manual laborers who live in a chicken coop, Bread and Chocolate conveys the discrimina- tion experienced by Italian migrants in their adopted country as well as their nostalgia for their “homeland,” a sentimentality that both attracts and repulses Nino. His only respite from the ups and downs of being a clandestine is a political exile from Greece, Elena (), who eventually marries a Swiss immigration off cer in order to gain legal resi- dency for her young son Grigory. After repeatedly failing to gain employ- ment and becoming estranged from the Italian immigrant community,

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Nino makes a f nal attempt to remain in Switzerland by bleaching his hair and passing as a white northern European. However, Nino’s façade is broken when he is overcome by a wave of patriotic fervor while watching an Italian–Swiss football match. As Nino is about to be deported, Elena arrives with a temporary residency permit that will allow him to remain in Switzerland for another 6 months. At f rst, Nino decides to return to Italy, but forced to listen to songs about the “sun” and “sea,” Nino gets off the train. Without a country, somewhere between Switzerland and Italy, Bread and Chocolate ends with Nino walking toward an unknown destination. Bread and Chocolate is particularly effective at illustrating the psycholog- ical impact of racial hierarchies and the desire to occupy a white racial category on the part of Italian immigrants who were seen as racially infe- rior. In Bread , Switzerland is constructed as a country of hyper-whiteness. In the f rst scene of the f lm, we are introduced to a dark-haired, “swar- thy” Nino as he spends a day in the park surrounded by blonde, blue- eyed Swiss people. Here, whiteness, as Nino states later in the scene, is associated with Western “civilization” and high culture. A violin quartet plays Mozart as park visitors ride horseback, prepare elaborate picnics, and row small boats upon a shimmering lake with white swans. Nino wishes to assimilate and take part in the cultural ref nement that he asso- ciates with being northern European, but his difference is made evident through his colorful suit and dark features. The bread and chocolate roll he chews loudly to the consternation of the other park guests symbolizes Nino’s dilemma. Dark inside, white on the exterior, Nino is a transna- tional migrant who returns us once again to the concept of racial “in- betweenness,” of occupying different racial categories depending upon national context. Nino tries to blend into Swiss society and makes excuses for their prejudiced behavior toward Italians, perhaps due to his experience of racial hierarchy in Italy. However, the veneer of a pristine and civilized society is challenged within the f lm, particularly through its cynical representation of the police state and the precarious existence of both legal immigrants and clandestines. Bread exposes the perverse underbelly of this apparently civilized society when, toward the end of the f lm’s f rst scene, Nino f nds the body of a murdered girl. In the context of the opening scene’s “hyper-whiteness,” child murder becomes black comedy as Nino is torn between reporting the murder to the authorities or escap- ing lest he, as a foreigner, be accused and convicted of the crime. The scene plays with the viewer’s knowledge of the criminal, non-Western,

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European, male migrant stereotype that even today is still used to sup- port anti-immigration polices. Related to this stereotype is the foreigner who desires and poses the threat of rape to the white European female body, an oft-used metaphor for the loss of Western civilization due to foreign invasion. Fearing arrest for a crime he did not commit, Nino walks away from the body, unknowingly passing the actual murderer who is revealed to be a Swiss priest. Racial hierarchy becomes more evident in the space of the restaurant where Nino competes for a permanent position. The restaurant, where foreign guest workers from Turkey, Spain, and Italy service a predomi- nately Swiss clientele, becomes a microcosm of the larger society. Nino’s main competitor is a worker from Turkey with whom he f ghts to gain the one available permanent job at the restaurant. Bread’ s humor comes from Nino’s passive–aggressive attacks on the Turk as he attempts to disqualify him from the position. After a particularly diff cult day, Nino takes a break on the restaurant’s outdoor patio with Gianni, his young Italian assistant server, and the “Turk.” Only Nino and Gianni speak to each other, the “Turk” being unable to communicate in Italian. Gianni asks Nino why the Swiss dislike Italians, and he responds that there are too many, an “invasion” of foreign guest workers that make the Swiss uncomfortable. While he does not speak explicitly of racial hierarchy, it is evident in his self-deprecating remarks and in his earlier admonish- ment of Gianni’s and other guest workers’ behavior such as lateness and stealing food. However Nino, comparing the southern migrant experi- ence in northern Italy to northern Europe, comments: “Go see how they treat southern Italians in Milan!” The suggestion that Italian southerners experience a more severe form of discrimination and prejudice in their own country points to a recurring idea throughout Bread : internalized racism, or the ways in which southern Italians adapt, negotiate, and contest racial hierarchy and whiteness. In Bread , Nino’s comments regarding the Milanese speak to an othering mechanism by which the northern Italians can construct a racial identity separate from southerners, a mechanism that has also been used to justify internal colonialism and economic exploitation. Since northern Italian immigrant laborers would mostly likely be dis- criminated against in Switzerland as well, Bread illustrates how “north” and “south” are unstable, shifting positions. Nino’s competitor, The Turk, who is known in the f lm only by his nationality, is on the same level as southern Italians in terms of societal (and racial) standing. However, Nino’s hostility toward him suggests that

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his proximity to an easterner makes him uncomfortable. While Nino is supportive of migrants from traditionally southern European coun- tries such as Spain and Greece, he is openly hostile toward the Turkish immigrant, whose country, often associated with the “Orient,” chal- lenges the boundaries of Western Europe. During his f rst deportation, Nino watches the “Turk” greet his family and receive veneration from male family members. Although Muslim, the “Turk’s” extended family arrangement is similar enough to Nino’s family (as seen in his family photo) for him to acknowledge the missed opportunity for social and economic advancement that is now conferred upon a non-European. Through the characters of Gianni and the industrialist, Bread posits that there is no singular Italian identity, and in the case of Nino, one does not achieve familiarity with someone simply because they claim to be a paisan. Like Ma f oso , Bread explores the Italian diaspora and identity formation in relation to racial hierarchy, and like the former, consid- ers the intersections of class, age, and gender. Nino rests uncomfortably between his native and adopted cultures, wanting to improve his family’s prospects through migration but unable to fully embrace Swiss society, especially when the Italian migrant is forced to internalize discrimina- tion and, in a sense, reject himself in order to be acknowledged within the host society. This rejection of self in order to assimilate within the host country is nowhere more evident than in the storyline devoted to the suicidal indus- trialist. Nino is introduced to the industrialist while working at the restau- rant. Although the two men occupy different class positions, they have a rapport based on their shared Italian heritage. Commenting on the rela- tion of the two Italian men, Parati notes, “Brusati’s protagonist focuses on the disorientation of displacement, on being different because being a migrant makes a person ‘other’ even vis-à-vis other richer Italians who travel as tourists.” 24 However, the mystery surrounding the industrialist, his fugitive status, his illegitimate business, his transnational movement, even the fact that he is never referred to by a proper name suggests that, like Nino, the processes of migration and a sense of “racial” inferiority have complicated his relation to his Italian identity. After Nino loses his guest worker permit, he asks the industrialist to help him secure another position. Again, signs of wealth and aff uence, such as a large home and a blonde American escort, surround the indus- trialist. The class tensions between the two men become heightened as it becomes apparent that the Italian industrialist is operating a pyramid scheme. He uses their shared Italian heritage to con Nino out of his

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entire savings with promises to double his investment. The industrialist’s relationship to lower-class Italians such as Nino not only helps support his lavish lifestyle, but also allows him to perform whiteness by enacting the same economic exploitation of Italian migrants that is undertaken by the Swiss and other northern Europeans. The industrialist’s exploitation of Italian laborers is further underscored by his mismanagement of his factories leading to the loss of over 10,000 jobs. The industrialist’s “in-betweenness” becomes heightened as he takes Nino to meet his family at an airf eld. Nino and the industrialist expect a happy reunion, but as his two sons descend from the plane, they main- tain a physical distance and hardly acknowledge their father. The dis- tance between the industrialist and his family is further accentuated by the absence of his wife. As the group walks away from the plane, the two boys begin speaking English with each other, with Nino commenting that the boys “look like foreigners.” While the boys walk at a distance from their father, an elegant car pulls up and a young blonde-haired boy calls out to the industrialist’s sons. In their f rst display of enthusiasm, the two boys run and greet their friend, speaking animatedly in English. The boys immediately ask their father if they can join their friend, and the industrialist permits their departure, albeit with a curse. While the boys’ preference to join their friend can be read as a result of their father’s dissolute behavior or as a cliché of the modern bourgeois family, in the context of my discussion of Bread ’s hyper-whiteness and critique of racial hierarchy, the two boys reject their Italian father for their British friend who embodies the northern European identity they have been taught to desire. The emptiness of the airf eld points to the emotional and psycho- logical consequences of migration and the negotiation of racial hier- archy for the Italian diaspora. In the following scene, the industrialist laments the loss of his family in an open grassy f eld, unaware of his own responsibility for his loss or of Nino’s plight. In an attempt to show sympathy and perhaps forge solidarity with the industrialist, Nino shows him a photo of his family, telling the industrialist that he too feels the estrangement and distance that occurs when separated from home and loved ones. However, the industrialist does not acknowledge any connec- tion between himself and Nino, and becoming angered by thoughts of his wife, he thoughtlessly rips apart Nino’s only family portrait. Without family or an identity outside of economic exploitation, the industrialist moves from the emptiness of the airf eld to an open f eld on the side of a highway, to the squalor of his disarrayed “home.” The industrialist’s

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storyline ends with his death by suicide, leaving Nino without employ- ment, legal status, or his savings. During his three aborted attempts to return to Italy, Nino encounters other Italian migrants who for various reasons are being sent away from or voluntarily leaving Switzerland. As with his f rst departure attempt, Nino decides to remain in Switzerland after seeing a group of Italians performing “Italianness” by singing famous southern Italian songs. At f rst, Nino’s attitude toward other Italian migrants on the train seems like a shame response to what he perceives as vulgar and debased behavior on the part of southern Italians. On the three occasions he sees the other Italians on the train, they become stereotypes, a reminder of how south- ern Italians are constructed in other parts of the world (overemotional and passionate, musical, prone to violent outbursts, etc.). These south- ern types appear swearing, playing hand organs, guitars, and singing Neapolitan favorites such as Simmo’e Napule Paisan and Torna a Surriento. In Switzerland, Nino is “Italian,” an identity made homogenous through the experience of migration. However, Nino resists what is considered an authentic southern Italian identity because the Italian migrant becomes “Italian” by adopting stereotypes of “Italianness” circulated in popular media. As seen in his interactions with other Italian and foreign migrants, there is no unitary “Italian” identity within or outside of Italian national borders. What emerges in the three segments divided by Nino’s near departures is a contingent “Italian” identity, akin to what Gayatri Spivak has described as a “strategic essentialism” in which Nino forges tempo- rary alliances with other Italians in order to achieve economic, political, or social goals that can only be gained through solidarity. In Bread , we f nd an example of the contingent nature of Italian trans- national identity formation in the episode at the industrial factory bar- racks during which Nino meets with his old friend and former coworker, Gigi. Once again, Nino f nds himself an unemployed clandestine with- out a home after the industrialist’s suicide and Elena’s developing rela- tionship with a Swiss immigration off cer. Gigi offers him temporary accommodations in his small room in a large barracks for Italian manual laborers. Gigi encourages Nino to take to the stage once again and per- form as one of the “three graces,” an improvised performance troupe. Nino reluctantly agrees and Renzo, a young worker who is supporting a wife and two children in Italy, joins the two men. In their mess hall, the male laborer community is treated to a drag performance in which the three men offer humorous tales of women who provide sexual services for the Italian workers separated from their

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wives. While Gigi’s cross-dressing performance as “la Giga” is read as the pretense it is meant to be, Renzo’s “la Rosina” disturbs gender boundar- ies, unsettling the men. As “la Rosina” is introduced, the room falls silent, and the men become confused as to how to respond to “her” presence. One exhausted man raises his head and hallucinates that “la Rosina” is his Rosa, a wife who never writes to him. Rather than being a humorous critique of their lives as migrants far from home, Renzo/Rosina becomes a painful reminder of geographic and temporal distance from families that may not be seen again. After this initial disturbance, the performance begins again, and we see Nino is a prof cient musician who sings in Neapolitan dialect and willingly aligns himself with the other southern Italian migrants. The “three graces” performance is intercut with shots of solitary men play- ing cards, rereading letters, and mending old clothes, providing a view into the lives of migrant laborers expressed in the f lm’s earlier nostalgia sequence in which Nino “speaks” with family members, defending his hopes and aspirations in the face of diff cult circumstances. Here, Nino accepts a southern Italian identity in solidarity with other Italians with whom he shares a common experience of migration. Ultimately, it is Renzo/Rosina who breaks the temporary reverie. As nostalgia turns to anger toward the indignities that the Italian migrant suffers in their host country, Nino joins Renzo in condemning the workers’ complicity with their low conditions. Nino calls for “change,” but without legal standing or employment he decides to return to Italy, only to abort his departure when once again confronted by Italian stereotypes. The third part of the f lm is a surrealist episode that sees Nino once again attempt to remain in Switzerland, this time with an extended southern Italian family living as tenant laborers on a large estate. Upon arrival, Nino learns that he is hired to slaughter chickens, and is taken through the process by the family patriarch. The deprivation and poor conditions of Italian migrants in Switzerland become palpable as Nino and the patriarch emerge from the slaughterhouse covered in chicken feathers, and Nino is directed to the chicken coop that serves as the fam- ily home. Not only does the family live in conditions that they most likely sought to escape through immigration, they begin acting like chickens themselves. Nino, taken aback by the family’s condition, rises and asks the family: “Who am I? What do I look like to you?” The family responds, “You are like us.” However, Nino does not f nd solidarity with the family, and his question returns to the identity crisis he encounters throughout his journeys.

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Nino’s inquiry is interrupted as the youngest woman of the family draws everyone’s attention to the arrival of the landowner’s children. The family and Nino rush to a chicken wire fence where they gaze upon the youths bathing at a nearby pond. Again, Bread presents an image of hyper-whiteness as the blonde, blue-eyed youths become for the immi- grants an idealized vision of physical beauty. As one of the young men begins to take off his clothes, the young woman turns her head away and returns to the table to sit with the older women. She is neither allowed to look upon the youths with desire nor can she embody the desired whiteness of the Aryan group. The chicken coop episode encapsulates the effects of economic exploitation and internalized racial hierarchy on the Italian immigrant. A transition from a reverse shot of Nino looking upon what we f rst believe to be the mountainous Swiss landscape in which the youths bathe to a mundane landscape painting in a public toilet, foregrounds Nino’s transformation. A pan shot follows an older Swiss woman attendant to a stall from which Nino emerges, walks to a mirror, and looks at his newly bleached blonde hair. Having decided to become a white northern European, Nino walks the streets, gazing at his new identity in a series of storefront windows. He is greeted on the street in a positive manner and even children approach him without apprehension. While Nino’s transformation is used for comedic effect, as with Maf oso , it becomes another instance of passing, here literalized through the use of blonde hair. Nino’s attempt to blend into Swiss society once again illuminates parallels between ethnic white and African diasporic experiences of racial hierarchy. In Bread , Nino believes blonde hair will give him entrée into Swiss society and is something anyone can purchase as easily as the items in the stores that he walks past. But like any other racial passing, Nino’s performance brings conse- quences and he is unable to maintain his masquerade of whiteness. After a day of enjoying his new white identity, Nino stops at a bar where a group of Swiss citizens have gathered to watch a football game. However, upon hearing the Italian national anthem he is overcome by a sense of patriotism, and when the Italian team scores a goal, Nino takes the tri- umph as his own and cheers the Italian team. Devastated by his failure to maintain a white identity, and perhaps by his desire to uphold a f ctitious Italian national identity by supporting the Italian football team, Nino looks at himself one last time before smashing his head through a glass mirror. Bloodied and exposed, Nino is thrown out into the street. A f nal irony appears in the guise of a blonde woman, who removes her wig and

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reveals that she is Spanish, another southern European attempting to “pass” as white northern European. Nino’s identity crisis is never fully resolved. Once again he is forced by Swiss authorities to leave the country. In the last scenes of the f lm, Nino is bandaged from the wounds suffered at the pub, and his hair is a mix- ture of blonde and dark brown roots. Elena meets Nino at the train sta- tion and comments that he is “half-blonde” and “half-brown,” to which Nino replies that he always feels “half-something.” This in-betweenness is made evident in the f nal shot of the f lm as Nino, having once again removed himself from a train bound for Italy, emerges from a dark tun- nel and walks along the train tracks. Elena has secured a work permit for Nino, but as he stands on the tracks somewhere between Switzerland and Italy, it is not evident that he will return to Switzerland. As the image sug- gests, Nino is in transit, not Italian but not northern European, neither white nor nonwhite. The ending of Bread and Chocolate f nds Nino occupying a position of being neither here nor there, an in-betweenness that speaks to the southern Italian internal and external migrant experience. Yet, Nino’s non-place status at the end of the f lm also anticipates the experience of contemporary global migration. Bread was released just prior to Italy’s transformation from a country of emigration to one of “destination” for non-Western European migrants. By the mid-1970s, Italy begins to experience new migration patterns that will change the racial and eth- nic landscape of the country. With the increased ability to rapidly and affordably travel, communication technologies that allow for “virtual” migrations and online diasporic communities, and multinational labor and business practices, the formation of stable, homogeneous national identities is no longer within the exclusive purview of the state. As dis- cussed at the end of Chapter 3 , the African, Asian, Eastern European, and Middle Eastern migrants who settled in Italy in the middle to late 1970s have produced a new generation of Italian citizens who challenge a homogeneous, white identity and propel Italy toward its current status as a multicultural and multiracial country. Many of the experiences of Italian guest workers in Switzerland depicted in Bread and Chocolate —black labor, onsite injury and fatality, the longing for a “homeland,” and new identities formed through migration and resettlement—resonate with the experiences of immigrants in Italy today. As Italy begins experiencing an inf ux of non-Western European migrants, f lms are produced that explore the changes brought about by the appearance and settlement of new migrants. As Karen Pinkus

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observed in the late 1990s: “The generation of Italians now in their twen- ties is probably the f rst to have seen black bodies circulating in urban and suburban areas, but even today in certain regions, blackness always elicits a gaze; a black body is black before it is anything else (gendered, clothed, still or in motion, old or young, African or Western, and so on).”25 Several of these f lms, such as ’s Pummarò (1990) and Mouhammed Soudani’s Waalo Fendo (Where the Earth Freezes, 1998), are inspired by actual events and explore the racist backlash against African migrants in Italy. Other f lms, such as Lamerica (, 1994) explore the fascist colonial legacy in Albania. By illustrating paral- lels between Italian migration of the late-nineteenth and early- twentieth centuries, and post–Cold War Albanian migration, Amelio’s f lm is also a damning indictment of Italian treatment of Albanian refugees. In par- ticular, the transformation of the f lm’s protagonist, Gino (Enrico Lo Verso), from Italian national subject to Albanian refugee, illustrates once again the “in-betweenness” of Italian racial and national identity, even at the close of the twentieth century.26 Neither Ma f oso nor Bread and Chocolate is a “political cinema.” Rather, these two commedia all’italiana humorously draw attention to issues con- cerning migration and Italian racial and identity formation that antici- pate post–Cold War era debates concerning external immigration and the Italian nation-state. Although the appearance of Asians, Middle Easterners, Africans, and Eastern Europeans transforms Italy’s racial composition, the north/south division remains as a lens through which to view Italy’s current multiracial landscape.

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Introduction

1 Alessandra Di Maio, “Black Italia: Contemporary Migrant Writers from Africa,” in Black Europe and the African Diaspora , ed. Darlene Clark Hine, Trica Danielle Keaton, and Stephen Small (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009). 2 Étienne Balibar, We, the People of Europe?: Ref ections on Transnational Citizenship , trans. James Swenson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 6. 3 Ibid., 7. 4 Stefano Allievi, “Immigration and Cultural Pluralism in Italy: Multiculturalism as a Missing Model,” Italian Culture 28, no. 2 (September 2010): 95. 5 For contemporary discussions of African Italians, see among others, Mauro Valeri, Black Italians: Atleti neri in maglia azzurra (Rome: Palombi, 2006); Mauro Valeri, Negro, ebreo, comunista: Alessandro Sinigaglia, venti anni in lotta contra il facismo (Black, Jewish, Communist: Alessandro Sinigaglia, Twenty Years of Struggle Against Fascism) (Rome: Odradek, 2010); Mauro Valeri, Nero di Roma: storia di Leone Jacovacci, l ’invincibile mulatto italico (Black in Rome: The Story of Leone Jacovacci, the Invincible Italian Mulatto) (Rome: Palombi, 2008); Pap Khouma, Noi italiani neri: storie di ordinario razzismo (Milan: B.C. Dalai, 2010); Jacqueline Andall and Derek Duncan, eds, National Belongings: Hybridity in Italian Colonial and Postcolonial Culturei (Bern: Peter Lang, 2010). 6 See Patrica Palumbo, ed., A Place in the Sun: Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-Unif cation to the Present (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003). 7 Karen Pinkus, Bodily Regimes: Italian Advertising under Fascism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 27. 8 Ibid., 79–81. 9 See Robin Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White: Female Spectatorship and the Miscege-National Body in Under the Southern Cross ,” in Re-Viewing Fascism: Italian Cinema, 1922–1943 , ed. Jacqueline Reich and Piero Garofalo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 194–222. 10 Andrew Higson, “The Concept of National Cinema,” Screen 30, no. 4 (Autumn 1989): 36–46. Also see Valentina Vitali and Paul Willemen, eds, Theorizing National Cinema (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). 11 Higson, “The Concept of National Cinema,” 44. 12 Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1998); Richard Dyer, White (New York and London: Routledge, 1999), 4. See also

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Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno, eds, Are Italians White?: How Race Is Made in America (New York and London: Routledge, 2003). David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Classes , revised edn (London and New York: Verso, 1999). 13 Miguel Mellino, “Italy and Postcolonial Studies: A Diff cult Encounter,” International Journal of Postcolonial Studies 8, no. 3 (2006): 463. 14 Ibid., 462. 15 Vetri Nathan, “Mimic-Nation, Mimic-Men: Contextualizing Italy’s Migration Culture through Bhabha,” in National Belongings: Hybridity in Italian Colonial and Postcolonial Cultures , ed. Jacqueline Andall and Derek Duncan (Bern: Peter Lang, 2010), 59. 16 Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 2005), 66. 17 Ibid., 66. 18 Homi Bhabha, “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse,” in The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 121–31. 19 Ibid., 62. 20 Balibar, We, the People of Europe?: Ref ections on Transnational Citizenship , 6–7. 21 Ibid., 6–7. 22 Iain Chambers, Mediterranean Crossings: The Politics of an Interrupted Modernity (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2008), 68–9.

Chapter 1

1 Aicha Ben Abed, ed., Stories in Stone: Conserving Mosaics of Roman Africa: Masterpieces from the National Museums of Tunisia (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2006), 2. 2 F. La Cecla, S. Savona, and I. Sposito, Mazara del Vallo/Tunis: Osmosis—Mohammed Beshir, Fisherman , Stefano Boeri and Maddalena Bregani, eds, Uncertain States of Europe: A Trip Through a Changing Europe (Milan: Skira Editore, 2003), 187. 3 Susan Raven, Rome in Africa , 3rd edn (London: Routledge, 1993), 37. 4 Ben Abed, Stories in Stone , 1–2. 5 For discussion of the Maciste character’s relation to the Italian working classes see Steven Ricci, “The Italian Cinema under Fascism: Film Culture and Public Discourse from 1922 to 1943,” dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1996, 145–50. 6 Stella Dagna and Claudia Gianetto, eds, Maciste: L’uomo forte , Il Cinema Ritrovato (Bologna: Tipograf a Moderna, 2009), 5. 7 Steven Ricci, Cinema and Fascism: Italian Film and Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2008), 85–6. 8 Giorgio Bertellini, “Colonial Autism: Whitened Heroes, Auditory Hetoric, and National Identity in Interwar Italian Cinema,” in A Place in the Sun: Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-Unif cation to the Present , ed. Patricia Palumbo (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), 260. Bertellini also notes that this “whitening” of other “strong men” charac- ters such as Saetta, Ausonia, and Cimaste begins in the middle to late 1910s, 259–60. Bertellini uses the term “autism” to describe a process by which the

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narrative and visual absence of black African subjects, as well as the challenges of the African colonial endeavor, are obfuscated by a hyberbolic representa- tion of national identity through symbols of imperial triumph. 9 See note 18 in ibid. Also reproduced in Paolo Cherchi Usai, Giovanni Pastrone: Gli anni d’oro del cinema a Torino (Torino: Strenna UTET, 1986), 75. 10 Bertellini, “Colonial Autism,” 274. 11 Ibid., 258. 12 Aliza S. Wong, Race and Nation in Liberal Italy, 1861–1911: Meridionalism, Empire and Diaspora , ed. Stanislao G. Pugliese, Italian and Italian American Studies (New York and Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 26. 13 Antonio Gramsci, The Southern Question , ed. Antonio D’Alfonzo, trans. Pasquale Verdicchio, Picas Series 46 (Toronto: Guernica, 2005), 32–3. 14 Wong, Race and Nation in Liberal Italy, 1861–1911, 11. 15 Ibid., 47–77. 16 Some northern factions advocated the division of Italy into separate federa- tions, preventing the south from further hindering the advancement of the north. For example, the Lega Nord (Northern League), an inf uential far-right political party, in the late 1990s proposed northern secession and creation of a new country, Padania, because of its cultural, economic, ethnic, and racial incompatibility with the rest of the country, particularly the Italian south. For additional reading, see “Conclusion” of John Dickie’s Darkest Italy and the various studies that address the signif cance of the north/south division to contemporary Italy, including Italy’s “Southern Question:” Orientalism in One Country , ed. Jane Schneider (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2001). Grace Russo Bullaro, ed., From Terrone to Extracomunitario: New Manifestations of Racism in Contemporary Italian Cinema , Troubador Italian Studies (Leicester: Troubador Press, 2010); Anna Cento Bull and Mark Gilbert, The Lega Nord and the Northern Question in Italian Politics (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, and New York: Palgrave, 2001). 17 See Pasquale Verdicchio, Bound by Distance: Rethinking Nationalism through the Italian Diaspora (Cranbury, London, Mississauga, and Ontario: Associated University Presses, 1997). See also Wong, Race and Nation in Liberal Italy . 18 Norma Bouchard, “Reading the Discourse of Multicultural Italy: Promises and Challenges of Transnational Italy in an Era of Global Migration,” Italian Culture 28.2 (September 2010), 107. 19 Pasquale Verdicchio, “The Preclusion of Postcolonial Discourse in Southern Italy,” in Revisioning Italy: National Identity and Global Culture , ed. Beverly Allen and Mary Russo (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 199. 20 Ibid., 199–200. 21 Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks , trans. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1999), 68. 22 Bouchard, “Reading the Discourse,” 107. 23 John Dickie, Darkest Italy: The Nation and Stereotypes of the Mezzogiorno, 1860– 1900 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 8. 24 Maria Wyke, Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema and History (New York and London: Routledge, 1997), 17–18.

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25 Ibid., 18. 26 I refer to the large-scale costume productions of Italy’s “golden age” of silent cinema, including La caduta di Troia (The Fall of Troy , Giovanni Pastrone, 1911), Antonio e Cleopatra (Anthony and Cleopatra , Enrico Guazzoni, 1913), Gli ultimi giorni di Pompeii (The Last Days of Pompei , Mario Caserini, 1913), and Quo Vadis? (Enrico Guazzoni, 1913). 27 Ibid., 20. 28 Arthur Lennig, “Myth and Fact: The Reception of The Birth of a Nation ,” Film History 16.2 (2004), 121. 29 See Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretative History of Blacks in American Films , 4th edn (New York: Continuum, 2001). Also see Manthia Diawara, ed., Black American Cinema , AFI Film Readers (New York: Routledge, 1993). 30 Giorgio Bertellini, Italy in Early American Cinema: Race, Landscape, and the Picturesque (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2010), 4–5. 31 Ibid., 10. 32 See Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color . 33 Bertellini, Italy in Early American Cinema , 168. 34 John Kuo Wei Tchen, “Modernizing White Patriarchy: Re-Viewing D. W. Griff th’s Broken Blossoms ,” in Moving the Image: Independent Asian Pacif c American Media Arts , ed. Russell Leong (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1991), 140–1. 35 Liliana Ellena, Paola Olivetti, et al., eds, Film d’Africa: f lm italiani prima, durante e dopo l’avventura coloniale. Cinema Esedra 29 Ottobre–7 Novembre 1999 (Turino: Centro Stampa Giunta Regionale, 1999), 19–38. 36 Ibid., 19. 37 Ibid., 34. 38 These stereotypes were particular to the political climate of the pre– and post– Civil War and Reconstruction eras. 39 Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 22. 40 Adam Lively, Masks: Blackness, Race and the Imagination (London: Chatto & Windus, 1998), 16–17. 41 Lott, Love and Theft , 6. 42 See Mary Wood, Italian Cinema (New York and Oxford: Berg, 2005), 66–7. Wood succinctly draws the parallel between Cabiria ’s representation of the ancient Roman Empire and Liberal Italy. 43 Carlo J. Celli, “ Cabiria as a D’Annunzian Document,” Romance Languages Annual IX 9 (1998), 180. 44 Angela Dalle Vacche, The Body in the Mirror: Shapes of History in Italian Cinema (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 7–10. 45 Robert Brown, “Comte and Positivism,” in The Nineteenth Century: Routledge History of Philosophy , ed. C. L. Ten, Routledge History of Philosophy (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 151. 46 Ibid., 152. 47 Mary Gibson, “Biology or Environment? Race and Southern ‘Deviancy’ in the Writings of Italian Criminologists, 1880–1920,” in Italy’s “ Southern Question ” :

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Orientalism in One Country , ed. Jane Schneider (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2001), 101. 48 Ibid., 101–2. 49 Anthony Walsh, “The Holy Trinity and the Legacy of the Italian School of Criminal Anthropology,” Human Nature Review 3.15 (January 2003), 2. 50 Thorsten Sellin, “A New Phase of Criminal Anthropology in Italy,” Annals of the American Academy of Political Science 125 (May 1926), 233. 51 Gibson, “Biology or Environment?” 100. 52 Ibid., 101–4. 53 Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 34. See also “Marinetti’s Mafarka: A Paradigm,” 33–41. 54 Filippo Tomaso Marinetti, Mafarka the Futurist: An African Novel , trans. Carol Diethe and Steve Cox (London: Middlesex University Press, 1998), 21. 55 Richard Drake, “Decadence, Decadentism and Decadent Romanticism in Italy: Toward a Theory of Decadence,” Journal of Contemporary History 17.1 (January 1982), 67. 56 Celli, “Cabiria as a D’Annunzian Document,” 181. 57 Drake, “Decadence, Decadentism and Decadent Romanticism in Italy,” 70. 58 Celli, “Cabiria as a D’Annunzian Document,” 180. 59 Dickie, Darkest Italy , 1. 60 Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian War: 1935–1941 , trans. P. D. Cummins (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1969), 4. 61 Ibid., 12. 62 Mellino, “Italy and Postcolonial Studies,” 462. 63 See Bullaro, From Terrone to Extracomunitario ; Alessandro Dal Lago, Non- persone: L’esculsione dei migranti in una società globale , 4th edn, Saggi Universale Economica Feltrinelli (Milan: Feltrinelli, 2009); Chambers, Mediterranean Crossings ; Graziella Parati, Migration Italy: The Art of Talking Back in a Destination Culture (Buffalo and Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). 64 Chambers, Mediterranean Crossings , 131. 65 See both Graziella Parati’s discussion of transmigration literature in Italy in Migration Italy and dal Lago’s Non-persone . 66 Hamid Naf cy, An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001). 67 Tekeste Negash, Italian Colonialism in , 1882–1941: Policies, Praxis and Impact (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1987), Dissertation (Uppsala University), 125. 68 Alessandra Speciale, “Haile Gerima: Adowa, When We Were Active Travellers in History,” African Screen 24 (1998), 78. 69 Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image , trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 222. 70 Ibid., 220. 71 Haile Gerima, Adwa: An African Victory (Mypheduh Films, 1999), VHS; Krystyna von Henneberg, “Monuments, Public Space, and the Memory of Empire in Modern Italy,” History & Memory 16.1 (2004), 76. 72 Andall and Duncan, National Belongings , 6. 73 Speciale, “Haile Gerima,” 77. 74 Ibid., 81.

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Orientalism in One Country , ed. Jane Schneider (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2001), 101. 48 Ibid., 101–2. 49 Anthony Walsh, “The Holy Trinity and the Legacy of the Italian School of Criminal Anthropology,” Human Nature Review 3.15 (January 2003), 2. 50 Thorsten Sellin, “A New Phase of Criminal Anthropology in Italy,” Annals of the American Academy of Political Science 125 (May 1926), 233. 51 Gibson, “Biology or Environment?” 100. 52 Ibid., 101–4. 53 Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 34. See also “Marinetti’s Mafarka: A Paradigm,” 33–41. 54 Filippo Tomaso Marinetti, Mafarka the Futurist: An African Novel , trans. Carol Diethe and Steve Cox (London: Middlesex University Press, 1998), 21. 55 Richard Drake, “Decadence, Decadentism and Decadent Romanticism in Italy: Toward a Theory of Decadence,” Journal of Contemporary History 17.1 (January 1982), 67. 56 Celli, “Cabiria as a D’Annunzian Document,” 181. 57 Drake, “Decadence, Decadentism and Decadent Romanticism in Italy,” 70. 58 Celli, “Cabiria as a D’Annunzian Document,” 180. 59 Dickie, Darkest Italy , 1. 60 Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian War: 1935–1941 , trans. P. D. Cummins (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1969), 4. 61 Ibid., 12. 62 Mellino, “Italy and Postcolonial Studies,” 462. 63 See Bullaro, From Terrone to Extracomunitario ; Alessandro Dal Lago, Non- persone: L’esculsione dei migranti in una società globale , 4th edn, Saggi Universale Economica Feltrinelli (Milan: Feltrinelli, 2009); Chambers, Mediterranean Crossings ; Graziella Parati, Migration Italy: The Art of Talking Back in a Destination Culture (Buffalo and Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). 64 Chambers, Mediterranean Crossings , 131. 65 See both Graziella Parati’s discussion of transmigration literature in Italy in Migration Italy and dal Lago’s Non-persone . 66 Hamid Naf cy, An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001). 67 Tekeste Negash, Italian Colonialism in Eritrea, 1882–1941: Policies, Praxis and Impact (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1987), Dissertation (Uppsala University), 125. 68 Alessandra Speciale, “Haile Gerima: Adowa, When We Were Active Travellers in History,” African Screen 24 (1998), 78. 69 Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image , trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 222. 70 Ibid., 220. 71 Haile Gerima, Adwa: An African Victory (Mypheduh Films, 1999), VHS; Krystyna von Henneberg, “Monuments, Public Space, and the Memory of Empire in Modern Italy,” History & Memory 16.1 (2004), 76. 72 Andall and Duncan, National Belongings , 6. 73 Speciale, “Haile Gerima,” 77. 74 Ibid., 81.

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75 Alessandro Triulzi, “Adwa: From Monument to Document,” in Italian Colonialism: Legacy and Memory , ed. Jacqueline Andall and Derek Duncan (Oxford: Peter Lang Publishers, 2005), 143. 76 Mark I. Choate, “From Territorial to Ethnographic Colonies and Back Again: The Politics of Italian Expansion, 1890–1912,” Modern Italy 8.1 (2003), 157. See also Speciale, “Haile Gerima,” 82–3. Although he received support from the Ethiopian government, Gerima was hampered in the f lming of Adwa , even subject to house arrest and censorship, due to his criticism of the Ethiopian government and their approach to the nation’s colonial legacy.

Chapter 2

1 As quoted in Karen Pinkus, Bodily Regimes: Italian Advertising under Fascism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 56. 2 As quoted in ibid., 58. 4 Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 56–8. 5 Alberto Sbacchi, Ethiopia under Mussolini: Fascism and the Colonial Experience (London: Zed Books, 1985), 48. 6 Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1997), 28. 7 Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, Volume I , trans. Robert Hurley, 2nd English ed. (New York: Vintage-Random House, 1990), 141. 8 Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire , 34. 9 Ruth Ben-Ghiat, “Envisioning Modernity: Desire and Discipline in the Italian Fascist Film,” Critical Inquiry 23 (1996), 111. 10 Jacqueline Reich and Piero Garofalo, eds, Re-viewing Fascism : Italian Cinema, 1922–1943 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 4. 11 Ruth Ben-Ghiat and Mia Fuller, “Chronology,” in Italian Colonialism , ed. Stanislao G. Pugliese, Italian and Italian American Studies (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), xiv. 12 Sbacchi, Ethiopia under Mussolini , 43. 13 Comin refers to colonial genre f lms produced prior and during the Italo- Ethiopian war of 1935–36. For a detailed discussion of these f lms see chapter six “Italian Colonial Films and the Myth of the Empero,” in James Hay, Popular Film Culture in Fascist Italy: The Passing of the Rex (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1987); Marcia Landy, Fascism in Film: The Italian Commercial Cinema, 1931–1943 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986). 14 “Cinema , III, no. 41, 10 March 1938,” in Film d’Africa: f lm italiani prima, durante e dopo l’avventura coloniale. Cinema Esedra 29 Ottobre–7 Novembre 1999 , ed. Liliana Ellena, Paola Olivetti, et al. (Turino: Centro Stampa Giunta Regionale, 1999), 73. 15 Ellena and Olivetti, Film d’Africa , 95–7. See also chapter 12 , “Italian Colonization,” 95–118. 16 “Bianco e nero , II, no. 9, 30 September 1938” in Ellena and Olivetti, Film d’Africa , 74.

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17 “‘Cinema,’ anno III, n. 43, 10 aprile 1938” in Ellena and Olivetti, Film d’Africa , 73. 18 Pierre Sorlin, Italian National Cinema: 1896–1996 (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 52–4. 19 Jacqueline Reich, “Musolini at the Movies: Fascism, Film and Culture,” in Re-viewing Fascism: Italian Cinema, 1922–1943 , ed. Jacqueline Reich and Piero Garofalo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 7. 20 Reich and Garofalo, Re-viewing Fascism , 7–9. 21 Reich, “Mussolini at the Movies,” 3. 22 Ricci, “The Italian Cinema under Fascism,” xiv. 23 Aaron Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy , Routledge Studies in Modern European History (London: Routledge, 2002), 13–15. Indo-Aryanism was popularized in Germany beginning in the early nineteenth century. Noting similarities between Sanskrit, Latin, and Germanic languages, scholars argued that Europeans could trace their ancestry to an Aryan people who migrated to Europe from India in the tenth century BC. The Aryans were believed to be responsible for the character and great achievements of Western civilization. The term “Nordic” identif es peoples of northern European countries, but racially came to def ne physical characteristics of the “ideal” type, including blonde hair, blue eyes, and fair complexion. 24 Sergi argued that Nordics were not Aryans, rather “Aryanized Eurafricans” and that Nordic Germans were more closely related to black Africans than Aryans. Sergi’s “Hamitic” thesis is often viewed as a reaction to the Nordic the- sis and the debasement of Italians and other southern European populations as an inferior race. During the fascist era, the Hamitic thesis was considered controversial because it basically argued that Europeans were descendants of Africans, an affront to the Aryan thesis and in particular to the racial policies being established by the regime. For a discussion of Giuseppe Sergi and the inf uence of Italian anthropological studies on the fascist regime, see Barbara Sòrgoni, “Italian Anthropology and the Africans” in A Place in the Sun: Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-Unif cation to the Present , ed. Patrica Palumbo (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003). Also see Giuseppe Sergi, The Mediterranean Race: A Study of the Origin of European Peoples (Oosterhout N.B.: Anthropological Publications, 1967); Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy . 25 Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy , 43. 26 Aaron Gillette, “The Origins of the ‘Manifesto of Racial Scientists,’” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 6.3 (2001), 319. 27 Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy , 72. 28 Gillette, “The Origins of the ‘Manifesto of Racial Scientists,’” 318. 29 Richard Pankhurst, “Racism in the Service of Fascism, Empire-Building and War: The History of the Italian Fascist Magazine ‘La difesa della razza,’” Marxist Internet Archives (March–April 2007). Originally published in Stefan Brune and Heinrich Scholler, eds, “Auf dem Weg zum mod- ernen Äthiopien: Festschrift für Bairu Taf a” (Münster: Lit Verlag, 2005), 134–64.

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30 Giulia Barrera, Dangerous Liaisons: Colonial Concubinage in Eritrea, 1890–1941 (Evanston: Northwestern University, Program of African Studies, 1996), 26. 31 Barbara Sòrgoni, Parole e corpi: antropologia, discorso giridico e politiche sessuali interrazziali nella colonia Eritrea, 1890–1941 (Naples: Liguori, 1998). 32 Barrera, Dangerous Liaisons , 1–2. 33 Ibid., 33–4. 34 Pankhurst, “Racism in the Service of Fascism, Empire-Building and War.” 35 Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 46. 36 Robin Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White: Female Spectatorship and the Miscege-National Body in Under the Southern Cross ,” in Re-Viewing Fascism: Italian Cinema, 1922–1943 , ed. Jacqueline Reich and Piero Garofalo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 209. 37 William W. Brickman, “Under the Southern Cross (Under the Southern Cross), Review,” The Modern Language Journal 25.9 (October 1941), 743. Also, Frank S. Nugent, “At the Broadway Cine Roma,” New York Times April 10, 1939. This 1939 New York Times review of the f lm also refers to Simone as a “half-breed Greek” and Mailù as his “oriental-looking mistress.” 38 See Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian War: 1935–1941 , trans. P. D. Cummins (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1969). 39 Roy Armes, Patterns of Neorealism (London: Tantivy Press, 1971), 37–9. 40 Ibid., 37. 41 Ruth Ben-Ghiat, “The Formation of Fascist Culture: The Realist Movement in Italy, 1930-43,” dissertation, Brandeis University, 1991, 41. 42 Marcia Landy, Italian Film (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 13. 43 Sotto la croce del sud ( Under the Southern Cross ), dir. Guido Brignone, Consorzio Italiano Noleggiatori Filmi (CINF) and Esperia Film Distributing Col. Inc., 1938. 44 Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White,” 209. 45 Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2002), 69–70. 46 Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White,” 207. 47 Ibid., 207–8. 48 Barrera, Dangerous Liaisons , 36. 49 Under the Southern Cross . 50 Hay, Popular Film Culture in Fascist Italy , 190–1. 51 Landy, Fascism in Film , 152–5. 52 Gigliola Gori, “Model of Masculinity: Mussolini, the ‘New Italian’ of the Fascist Era,” in Superman Supreme: Fascist Body as Political Icon—Global Fascism , ed. J. A. Mangan, Sport in the Global Society (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2000), 42–3. 53 Hay, Popular Film Culture in Fascist Italy , 133–5. 54 Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 58–9. 55 Under the Southern Cross . 56 Sbacchi, Ethiopia under Mussolini , 26.

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57 See Nicholas Doumanis “Italian as ‘Good’ Colonizers: Speaking Subproletariats and the Politics of Memory in the Dodecanese,” in Italian Colonialism: Legacy and Memory , ed. Jacqueline Andall and Derek Duncan (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2005). Italy suppressed several resistance movements over its 50-year occu- pation of Libya. General Rodolfo Graziani led some of the most severe campaigns, leading to the deaths of thousands of Libyans. Also see Nicolas Lablanca, “Studies and Research on Italian Colonialism, 1922–35: Ref ections on the State of the Art,” in Palumbo, A Place in the Sun , 37–61. Both authors argue that a full assessment of Italian colonialism in the fascist period requires a reevaluation of Italian colonialism in the Liberal period (1914–22), the coun- try’s occupation of Eritrea, Tripolitania, and Cyrenaica (Libya) and Somalia, and its activities during the f rst period of decolonization, which began in the post–World War I era. 58 For discussions of how the fascist regime addressed Italian women as colo- nial settlers, see Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White.” Also, Pickering-Iazzi, “Structures of Feminine Fantasy and Italian Empire Building, 1930–1940,” Italica 77.3 (Autumn 2000); Victoria de Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922–1945 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1992). 59 For a discussion of colonial subjects as f lm spectators, see Salvatore Ambrosino, “Cinema e propaganda in Africa Orientale Italiana” (Cinema and Propaganda in ) in Ellena and Olivetti, Film d’Africa , 253–69. Ambrosino examines fascist colonial policies concerning f lm distribution, content, audience statistics, and theater segregation. Apparently, the colonial administration was concerned with censoring the content of f lms shown to indigenous audiences. Quoting one contemporary author, Ambrosino notes the general condescending attitudes toward indigenous spectators: “After emphasizing once again that ‘for the indigenous African, the cinema, along with the airplane, is one of the most impressive revelations of the superiority of the white race,’ he aff rms that the problem is political, psychological and artistic.” The administration distributed f lms that would not only display the superiority of the Italian people, but also prevent identif cation with “white” Italian characters, believing such identif cation would incite revolt. 60 Radhika Singha, “Settle, Mobilize, Verify: Identif cation Practices in Colonial India,” Studies in History 16.2 (2000), 138. 61 Sarah Madsen Hardy and Kelly Thomas, “Listening to Race: Voice, Mixing, and Technological ‘Miscegenation’ in Early Sound Film,” in Classic Hollywood, Classic Whiteness , ed. Daniel Bernardi (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 416. 62 See Andre Bazin, What Is Cinema? trans. Hugh Gray, vol. 1 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2004). 63 Hardy and Thomas, “Listening to Race,” 421. 64 Siobhan B. Somerville, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000), 64. 65 Sorlin, Italian National Cinema , 56.

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66 Carlo J. Celli, “A Master Narrative in Italian Cinema?” Italica 81.1 (2004), 82–3. 67 I thank Paola Menabue for bringing to my attention the use of Italian dialects in the f lm. 68 Celli, “A Master Narrative in Italian Cinema?” 81. 69 Giorgio Bertellini, “Colonial Autism: Whitened Heroes, Auditory Rhetoric, and National Identity in Interwar Italian Cinema,” in Palumbo, A Place in the Sun , 262. 70 Ibid., 262. 71 Ibid., 270. 72 Dialogue from Under the Southern Cross . 73 Ibid. 74 Karl G. Heider, Ethnographic Film (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006), 5. 75 Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White,” 202. 76 Ibid., 203. 77 See “Biology as Destiny: Brignone’s Under the Southern Cross ,” in Ben-Ghiat, “Envisioning Modernity,” 135–42; Pickering-Iazzi, “Ways of Looking in Black and White”; and de Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women . 78 Fatimah Rony Rony, The Third Eye: Race, Cinema and Ethnographic Spectacle (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1996), 169. 79 Judith Butler, “Passing, Queering: Nella Larsen’s Psychoanalytic Challenge,” Female Subjects in Black and White: Race, Psychoanalysis, Feminism , ed. Barbara Christian and Helene Moglen Elizabeth Abel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 269. 80 Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 2005), 86. For a discussion of the applicability of Bhabha to analyses of Italian colo- nial and postcolonial culture, see Vetri Nathan, “Mimic-Nation, Mimic-Men: Contextualizing Italy’s Migration Culture through Bhabha,” in National Belongings: Hybridity in Italian Colonial and Postcolonial Cultures , ed. Jacqueline Andall and Derek Duncan (Bern: Peter Lang, 2010), 41–62. 81 Bhabha, The Location of Culture , 86. 82 Roger Caillois, “Mimicry and Legendary Psychasthenia,” trans. Claudine Frank and Camille Naish, in The Edge of Surrealism: A Roger Caillois Reader , ed. Claudine Frank (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003), 99. 83 John D. Hargreaves, “The Postwar World,” in Decolonization in Africa , ed. A. J. Nicholls and Martin S. Alexander, 2nd edn (London and New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 1996), 95–6. 84 Roberto Poppi, Dizionario del cinema italiano: i registi dal 1930 ai giorni nostri , vol. 1 (Rome: Gremese Editore, 2002), 300. 85 See Robert L. Hess, Italian Colonialism in Somalia (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1966). 86 Hay, Popular Film Culture in Fascist Italy , 192. 87 Robert Aldrich, Colonialism and Homosexuality (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 2. 88 Karen Pinkus, “Empty Spaces: Decolonization in Italy,” in Palumbo, A Place in the Sun , 315.

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89 Giovanna Trento, Pasolini e l’Africa, l’Africa di Pasolini: panmeridionalismo e rap- presentatzioni dell’Africa postcoloniale (Milano: Mimesis, 2010), 226. 90 See Elisabetta Bini, “Fonti fotograf che e storia delle donne: la rappresen- tazione delle donne nere nelle fotograf e coloniali italiane,” in La storia contemporanea in Italia oggi: linee di tendenza e orientamenti di ricerca (2003). Also, Barrera, Dangerous Liaisons . 91 Nino Ferrero, “Cinema e letteratura: conversazione con Giorgio Moser ed Enrico Emanuelli (I: Giorgio Moser),” Filmcritica: mensile di cinema, teatro, tv 14.133 (May 1963). 92 Pinkus, “Empty Spaces,” 313. 93 Ibid., 312. 94 Joseph A. Boone, “Vacation Cruises: Or, the Homoerotics of Orientalism,” PMLA 110.1 (January 1995), 101. 95 Arturo Gismondi, “L’occhio del critico: Violenza segreta ,” Cinema 60 4.33 (March 1963), 47. 96 Boone, “Vacation Cruises: Or, the Homoerotics of Orientalism,” 94. 97 Peter Bondanella, Italian Cinema from Neorealism to the Present (New York: Continuum Press, 2001), 145. 98 Jan Bondeson, A Cabinet of Medical Curiosities (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999), 233–41. 99 For recent and canonical essays on Sarah Bartmann and the representation of black female sexuality in Western art, see Deborah Willis (ed.), Black Venus 2010: They Called Her “Hottentot” (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010). 100 Barbara Sòrgoni, “‘Defending the Race’: The Italian Reinvention of the Hottentot Venus During Fascism,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 8.3 (2003), 412–13. 101 Ibid., 413. 102 For the alternate ending English dubbed version, see The Ape Woman, directed by Marco Ferreri (1963; Italy: Something Weird Video, 1994) VHS. 103 See Sander Gilman, “The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Towards an Iconography of Female Sexuality,” in Black Venus 2010: They Called Her “Hottentot ,” ed. Deborah Willis (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010), 18. 104 Ibid., 22–3. 105 Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–1988 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 211–12. 106 T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting, Black Venus: Sexualized Savages, Primal Fears, and Primitive Narratives in French (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 76–85. 107 Gian Piero Brunetta, The History of Italian Cinema: A Guide to Italian Film from Its Origins to the Twenty-First Century (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003), 185. 108 Trento, Pasolini e l’Africa, l’Africa di Pasolini , 226. “Above all, the centrality of the fear of contagion evident in Naldini’s Tempo di uccidere can also be read, retrospectively, in light of the experiences and of the distresses seen by those who were sexually active in Europe in the very dark years of AIDS . . .” 109 Graziella Parati, Migration Italy: The Art of Talking Back in a Destination Culture (Buffalo and Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005), 138.

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110 David Kehr, “Besieged,” Film Comment 35.2 (March/April 1999), 8. 111 Bianco e Nero: All the Colors of a Set (Commentary and Interview with Cristina Comencini) , DVD, 01 Distribution S.R.L, Italy, 2008. 112 Ibid. 113 Ibid. 114 For an extended discussion of the representation of African women and black female sexuality in Italian cinema and Bianco e Nero, see Áine O’Healy, “[Non] è una somala’: Deconstructing African femininity in Italian f lm,” The Italianist, no. 29 (2009), 175–98. 115 See Stefano Allievi, “Immigration and Cultural Pluralism in Italy: Multiculturalism as a Missing Model,” Italian Culture 28.2 (September 2010). 116 Gwen Bergner, “Black Children, White Preference: Brown v. Board, the Doll Tests, and the Politics of Self-Esteem,” American Quarterly 61.2 (June 2009), 302. 117 See Philomena Essed, Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory , Sage Series on Race and Ethnic Relations (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1991). 118 David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell, 1993). 119 Comencini brief y mentions the scene’s reference to Spike Lee’s Jungle Fever in the DVD audio commentary. See Cristina Comencini, Bianco e Nero , DVD, 01 Distribution S.R.L., Italy, 2008. 120 John Gennari, “Giancarlo Giuseppe Alesandro Esposito: Life in the Borderlands,” in Are Italians White? How Race Is Made in America , ed. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), 244. 121 For a discussion of the problematic aspects of Spike Lee’s representation of Italian Americans in Jungle Fever see Pasquale Verdicchio’s essay “It’s a Jungle in Here,” in Bound By Distance: Rethinking Nationalism through the Italian Diaspora (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997), 106–15. In light of Comencini’s Bianco e Nero, the questions Verdicchio poses at the end of his analysis of Jungle Fever: “How do we, black and white, men and women, react to the characters in Jungle Fever: a professional black man, a black career- woman, and working-class Italians? Are the conf icts portrayed in the f lm classist, ethnic, racial, or all of these taken together? (114), could also be used consider how an African American director’s portrayal of Italian Americans are received by contemporary Italian audiences. 122 Pasquale Verdicchio, Bound by Distance: Rethinking Nationalism through the Italian Diaspora (Cranbury, London, and Mississauga, Ontario: Associated University Presses, 1997), 111.

Chapter 3

1 Pap Khouma, Noi italiani neri: storie di ordinario razzismo (Milan: B.C. Dalai, 2010), 81. 2 Ibid., 67–8.

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3 Jacqueline Andall, “Second-Generation Attitude? African-Italians in Milan,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 28.3 (July 2002), 394. 4 A. W., “The Screen: 3 Features Arrive; Universal’s ‘Up Front’ Brings Bill Mauldin’s Willie and Joe to Loew’s State ‘Rawhide,’ With Tyrone Power, Opens of Rivoli—‘Angelo’ is 60th St. Trans-Lux Bill,” The New York Times March 26, 1951, 19. 5 Home of the Brave (dir. Mark Robson, 1949). For an analysis of this f lm, see David Marriot’s essay, “Frantz Fanon’s War” in On Black Men (Columbia University Press: 2000). 6 “Le prime visioni a Roma,” Intermezzo April 16– 30, 1950, 6. 7 Il Mulatto , directed by Francesco De Robertis (1949; Italy: Scalera Films, S.p.a.) Film. 8 David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 1993), 6–7. 9 Peter Bondanella, Italian Cinema from Neorealism to the Present (New York: Continuum Press, 2001), 81. 10 Ibid., 74. 11 Mary Wood, Italian Cinema (New York and Oxford: Berg, 2005), 101–4. 12 Chandra M. Harris, “Who’s Got the Power? Blacks in Italian Cinema and Literature, 1910–1948,” dissertation, Brown University, 2004, 18. 13 See Harris, “Who’s Got the Power?” in particular, her analysis of Paisan , “From American Idea to Italian Realization: Roberto Rossellini’s Paisà. ” 14 Ibid., 133. 15 Gino Bedani, “The Christian Democrats and National Identity,” The Politics of Italian National Identity: A Multidisciplinary Perspective , ed. Gino Bedani and Bruce Haddock (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000), 228–9. 16 Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–1988 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 48. 17 Bedani, “The Christian Democrats and National Identity,” 216. 18 Ibid., 223. 19 Ibid., 228. 20 Lutz Niethammer, “Structural Reform and a Compact for Growth: Conditions for a United Labor Union Movement in Western Europe after the Collapse of Fascism,” in The Origins of the Cold War and Contemporary Europe , ed. Charles S. Maier (New York: New Viewpoints; Franklin Watts, 1978), 212. 21 Bedani, “The Christian Democrats and National Identity,” 229. 22 Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy , 49. 23 John David Rhodes, Stupendous, Miserable City: Pasolini’s Rome (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 59–60. See chapter 3 , “‘Scandalous Desecration’: Accattone against the Neorealist City” for a further discussion of Pier Paolo Pasolini’s critique of . 24 Ruth Ben-Ghiat, “The Formation of Fascist Culture: The Realist Movement in Italy, 1930–43,” Brandeis University, 1991, 15–16. 25 Ibid., 15. 26 Riccardo Strada, “Il cinema neorealista: tra arte e verita ritratto di Francesco De Robertis: intervista a Danela De Robertis,” l’efante 4 (January 2007), online article, accessed on January 1, 2008.

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27 Callisto Cosulich, “Regista in nome della Marina,” Paese Sera March 15, 1986. 28 Angela Dalle Vacche, The Body in the Mirror: Shapes of History in Italian Cinema (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 65. 29 Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 2: The Time-Image , trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1997). 30 For a discussion of the reception of neorealism and its relationship to radical left politics in postwar Italy, see Rhodes, Stupendous, Miserable City: Pasolini’s Rome . In discussing Pier Paolo Pasolini’s critique of neorealism (chapters 3 and 5), Rhodes presents Marxist critiques of neorealism that argue the move- ment did not live up to its potential to aid in the fundamental transformation of Italian society. Rhodes writes: “First we must recognize that he is criticizing a movement that he believes to have failed in its attempt to assist and promote the ‘complete reorganization of the culture.’ As a Marxist (though not an off cial member of the PCI), he knew that such a reorganization would have meant only one thing: a proletarian revolution . . . Part of the history of the reception of neorealism is, in fact, the history of the persistence with which it was judged a failure, particularly by critics on the left, and Pasolini shows himself to be writing and thinking in this tradition”; pp. 59–60. 31 Giulia Barrera, Dangerous Liaisons: Colonial Concubinage in Eritrea, 1890–1941 (Evanston: Northwestern University, Program of African Studies, 1996), 29. 32 Ibid., 31. 33 Ibid., 32–3. 34 Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2002), 76. 35 Ibid., 78. 36 Victoria de Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922–1945 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1992), 52. 37 Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power , 63–4. 38 Barrera, Dangerous Liaisons , 25. 39 Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power , 76. 40 Il Mulatto . 41 Robert G. Weisbord and Michael W. Honhart, “A Question of Race: Pope Pius XII and the ‘Coloured Troops’ in Italy,” The Historian 65.2 (Winter 2002), 403. 42 Harris, “Who’s Got the Power?” See chapter 4, “(African) American Cultural Power: The Black Soldier in La Pelle and Paisà .” 43 Weisbord and Honhart, “A Question of Race,” 416. 44 Frantz Fanon, Black Skins, White Masks , trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1994), 178–9. 45 Il Mulatto . 46 Timothy Rice, ed., Europe: Garland Encyclopedia of World Music , vol. 8, 9 vols. (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000), 609–10. 47 Max Vajro, “E.A. Mario: Notizie sulla vita e appunti per un saggio,” Ministero delle Poste e Telecomunicazioni (1984), 14, online source accessed on August 13, 2006. 48 Nicolardi, Edoardo and E. A. Mario, Tammurriata Nera. Published in Christopher Wagstaff, “Appendix 26: Tammurriata nera (1944),” in Italian Neorealist Cinema:

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An Aesthetic Approach , Toronto Italian Studies (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007), 453. The original version is written in Neapolitan dialect. There are several versions of the Tammurriata Nera , which include additional varia- tions on the lyrics. 49 “Impressionare,” Il Nuovo Dizionario Inglese Garzanti , Redazioni Grandi Opere Garzanti, ed. Garzanti Editore, S.p.a., 2nd edn (Garzanti, 1984). 50 Vajro, “E.A. Mario: Notizie sulla vita e appunti per un saggio,” 14. 51 Michel Foucault, “7 January 1976 lecture,” in Colin Gordon, ed., Power/ Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), 81–2. 52 Pasquale Verdicchio, Bound by Distance: Rethinking Nationalism through the Italian Diaspora (Cranbury, London, and Mississauga, Ontario: Associated University Presses, 1997), 141. 53 Monique Scheer, “From Majesty to Mystery: Change in the Meanings of Black Madonnas from the Sixteenth to Nineteenth Centuries,” The American Historical Review 105.5 (2002), 1414. 54 Ibid., 1412–13. 55 Stephen Benko, The Virgin Goddess: Studies in the Pagan and Christian Roots of Mariology , Studies in the History of Religions, vol. 59 (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2004), 213–15. 56 Scheer, “From Majesty to Mystery,” 1424. 57 Ilaria Pagani, “Il Santuario di Montevergine: Monumenti funebri di eta angio- ina tra cultura francese e centro italiana,” Storiadelmondo 32 (February 2005), online source. 58 Kalpana Seshadri-Crooks, Desiring Whiteness: A Lacanian Analysis of Race (London: Routledge, 2000), 21. 59 Ibid., 3. 60 Ibid., 21. 61 Dialogue from Angelo (1951). 62 Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s Northside Center (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 90–2. 63 Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie P. Clark, “Emotional Factors in Racial Identif cation and Preference in Negro Children,” The Journal of Negro Education 19.3 (Summer 1950), 8. 64 Il Mulatto . 65 As quoted in Marouf Hasian Jr., “Revisiting the Case of Plessy v. Ferguson ,” in Brown v. Board of Education at Fifty: A Rhetorical Perspective , ed. Clarke Roundtree (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2004), 13. 66 As reproduced in ibid., 17–18. 67 Ibid., 12–13. 68 I have not found any documentation indicating when the f lm was edited, if other versions of the f lm exist, or whether the revisions along with subtitling were completed in Italy or the United States. Scalera Films S.p.a. is listed as producer and distributor for both Il Mulatto and Angelo. 69 Dizionario del cinema italiano: gli attori, vol. 2 M-Z, ed. Enrico Lancia and Roberto Poppi (Rome: Gremese Editore, 2003), 11.

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70 Rudi Berger, “Italia: vivere in pace,” Cinema nuovo: rassegna quindicinale 2.11 (May 15, 1953), 312. 71 Ibid., 312. 72 Ibid. 73 Ibid. 74 Paolo Valmarana, “I pericoli del moralismo contenutista,” Rivista del cin- ematografo 41.11 (1968), 606. 75 Viviana del Bianco, “Interview: Spike Lee,” Italian Vogue ( July 2008), 52. 76 Richard Owen, “Italian War Veterans Denounce ‘Insulting’ Spike Lee Film,” The Times October 1, 2008, online article. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid. 79 Chiara Ratti, ed., Miracle at St. Anna: the Motion Picture (New York: Rizzoli, 2008), 13. 80 Alberto Sbacchi, Legacies of Bitterness: Ethiopia and Fascist Italy, 1935–1941 (Lawrenceville and : The Red Sea Press, 1997), 3–4. 81 Ibid., 6–13. 82 Karen Pinkus, Bodily Regimes: Italian Advertising under Fascism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). 83 See Harris, “Who’s Got the Power?” 170. 84 William R. Scott, The Sons of Sheba’s Race: African-Americans and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935–1941 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993), 99. 85 Sbacchi, Legacies of Bitterness , 15–16. 86 Scott, The Sons of Sheba’s Race , 104. 87 Raymond X. Dozier, “50,000 Volunteers for Abyssinia Warn World ‘Africa for the Africans,’” Amsterdam News March 2, 1935. 88 Sbacchi, Legacies of Bitterness , 14. 89 Scott, The Sons of Sheba’s Race , 101. 90 Alain Locke, “The New Negro,” in The New Negro , ed. Alain Locke (New York: Atheneum, 1968), 5. 91 See chapter 4, “The Battles for the Serchio Valley,” in Buffalo Soldiers in Italy: Black Americans in World War II , ed. Hondon B. Hargrove (Jefferson, North Carolina, and London: McFarland & Company, 1985). 92 Chandra Harris, “Nero su Bianco: The Africanist Presence in Twentieth- Century Italy and Its Cinematic Representations,” in ItaliAfrica: Bridging Continents and Cultures , ed. Sante Matteo (Stony Brook: Forum Italicum Publishing, 2001), 293. 93 Locke, “The New Negro,” 16. 94 Harris, “Who’s Got the Power?” See chapter 4, “(African) American Cultural Power: The Black Soldier in La Pelle and Paisà ,” and discussion of Malaparte’s La Pelle , “Othello Debased: The Black Soldier in Curzio Malaparte’s La pelle ,” 137–56. 95 Harris, “Nero su Bianco,” 168. 96 Bondanella, Italian Cinema from Neorealism to the Present , 44. 97 Ibid., 45. 98 Harris, “Nero su Bianco.”

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99 David Marriott, On Black Men (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 68. 100 Ibid., 77. 101 See Wood, Italian Cinema , 103. 102 Bondanella, Italian Cinema from Neorealism to the Present , 82. 103 Leonardo De Franceschi, “Senza pietà di Alberto Lattuada,” Cinemafrica (July 15, 2009), f lm review; www.sentieriselvaggi.it/170/32995/CINEMAFRICA_-_ Senza_pieta_di_Alberto_Lattuada.htm, accessed on April 4, 2011. 104 Franca Faldini and Goffredo Fof , eds, Da La canzone dell’amore a Senza pietà , vol. 1 (Bologna: Cineteca di Bologna, 2009), 231. 105 Franceschi, “Senza pietà di Alberto Lattuada.” 106 Faldini and Fof , Da La canzone dell’amore a Senza pietà , 231. See Lattuada’s inter- view based on his ref ections on the making of Senza pietà and his observations on the relationships between African American soldiers and Italian women. 107 Jennifer Guglielmo, “White Lies, Dark Truths,” in Are Italians White?: How Race is Made in America, eds. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York: Routledge, 2003), 2. 108 See Pasquale Verdicchio, “The Preclusion of Postcolonial Discourse in Southern Italy,” in Revisioning Italy: National Identity and Global Culture , ed. Mary Russo Beverly Allen (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1997), 192. 109 See also M. Heather Hartley, Linciati: Lynchings of Italians in America , National Film Network, United States, 2004, documentary. 110 Faldini and Fof , Da la canzone dell’amore a Senza pietà , 231. 111 Ibid., 231. Another possible source of Senza pietà’s discourse on race and racism in both the US and Italian contexts is one of the f lm’s screenwrit- ers, author, and f lm director (1906–99). Between 1929 and 1931, Soldati lived in the United States, during which time he taught at Columbia University. In 1935, Soldati published a memoir of his experience in Depression-era United States, America primo amore (Mondadori, 1990). 112 Kym Ragusa, The Skin Between Us: A Memoir of Race, Beauty, and Belonging (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2006), 17. 113 Ibid., 18. 114 Ibid., 234. 115 Ibid., 143. 116 Ibid., 143–4. 117 Ibid., 145. 118 Livia Tenzer, “Documenting Race and Gender: Kym Ragusa Discusses ‘Passing’ and ‘Fuori/Outside,’” Women’s Studies Quarterly 30.1, 2 (Spring 2002), 217.

Chatper 4

1 Edvige Giunta, “Figuring Race,” in Are Italians White?: How Race Is Made in America , ed. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), 228. 2 See among others, Bertellini, Italy in Early American Cinema ; Dyer, White ; Guglielmo and Salerno, Are Italians White? ; Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color ; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness .

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3 See chapter 1, “The Matter of Whiteness,” in Dyer, White , 1–40. 4 Bertellini, Italy in Early American Cinema , 169. 5 Joseph Pugliese, “Whiteness and the Blackening of Italy: La guerra cafona, Extracommunitari and Provisional Street Justice,” Portal 5.2 (July 2008), 3. 6 Ibid., 32. 7 Rémi Fournier Lanzoni, Comedy Italian-Style: The Golden Age of Italian Film Comedies (New York: Continuum, 2008), 121. 8 Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy , 211–13. See also Lanzoni, Comedy Italian-Style , 52–4. 9 Lanzoni, Comedy Italian-Style , 58–9. See also Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy , 245. 10 Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy , 243–4. 11 Lanzoni, Comedy Italian-Style , 31. 12 Sorlin, Italian National Cinema , 116. See also chapter 4 “Fourth Generation: The Sweet Life,” 115–43. 13 Donna Gabaccia, “Two Great Migrations: American and Italian Southerners in Comparative Perspective,” in The American South and the Italian Mezzogiorno: Essays in Comparative History , ed. Enrico Dal Lago and Rick Halpern (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 219. 14 Ashley Dawson and Patrizia Palumbo, “Hannibal’s Children: Immigration and Antiracist Youth Subcultures in Contemporary Italy,” Cultural Critique 59 (Winter 2005), 169. 15 Giunta, “Figuring Race,” 228. 16 Enrica Capussotti, “Nordisti contro sudisti: Internal Migration and Racism in Turin, Italy: 1950s and 1960s,” Italian Culture 28.2 (September 2010). 17 Ibid., 130. 18 Dialogue from Maf oso. 19 Ma f oso , dir. Alberto Lattuada, Rialto Pictures, 2002. 20 Paolo Cherchi Usai, “Maf oso,” in Alberto Lattuada: il cinema e il f lm , ed. Adriano Aprà (Venezia: Marsilio, 2009), 220–1. 21 Dialogue from Maf oso. 22 Parati, Migration Italy , 144. 23 Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy , 227–9. 24 Parati, Migration Italy , 42–3. 25 Karen Pinkus, “Shades of Black in Advertising and Popular Culture,” in Revisioning Italy: National Identity and Global Culture , ed. Beverly Allen and Mary Russo (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 134. 26 For a discussion of Italian f lms concerning non-Western European migration released over the last twenty years, see Áine O’Healy, “Mediterranean Passages: Abjection and Belonging in Contemporary Italian Cinema,” California Italian Studies 1.1 (2010), online.

Chapter 5

1 Pier Paolo Pasolini, Heretical Empiricism , trans. Ben Lawton and Louise K. Barnett (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), 167–86.

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2 Pasolini, Il f ore delle mille e una notte ( Arabian Nights ) (Italy and France: British Film Institute, 2001), DVD. 3 Pasolini, Heretical Empiricism . 233–7. 4 Ibid., 197–222. 5 Ibid., 175. 6 Angelo Restivo, The Cinema of Economic Miracles: Visuality and Modernization in the Italian Art Film (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2002), 48. 7 Bouchard, “Reading the Discourse,” 105. 8 Pasolini arrives at this conclusion in his f lm Comizi d’amore (1963) an analysis of Italian society of the early 1960s, conducted by way of a series of interviews that encompassed various geographic, economic, and social groups. 9 Andrew Levine (trans.), “For Communism: Theses of the Il Manifesto Group,” Politics & Society 1.4 (1971), 409–13. 10 Carlo Celli and Marga Cottino-Jones, A New Guide to Italian Cinema (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 113–14. 11 Maurizio Viano, “The Left According to the Ashes of Gramsci,” Social Text 18 (Winter 1987–88), 55. 12 Ibid., 56. 13 Quoted from Chiara Praindel, “Africa e terzo mondo nell’opera letteraria e cinematograf ca di Pier Paolo Pasolini,” Tesi di Laurea, University of Studies, Trento, 2001–02, 59. 14 Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa , 162–8. 15 Chris Bongie, Exotic Memories: Literature, Colonialism and the Fin de Siècle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), 190. 16 Quoted in Letizia Giulia Giannuzzi, “Terzo mondo, tra ideologia ed espe- rienza poetica nell’opera di Pier Paolo Pasolini,” Tesi di Laurea, University of Bari, 1977–78, 57. 17 Pasquale Verdicchio, “Colonialism as a ‘Structure that Wants to Be Another Structure’,” in The Savage Father , ed. Guernica Editions Antonio D’Alfonzo (Toronto and Lancaster (UK): Guernica, 1999), 58. 18 Roberto Chiesi, “Pasolini e la ‘nuova forma’ di Appunti per un’Orestiade afri- cana ,” in Appunti per un’Orestiade africana , ed. Roberto Chiesi, Il Cinema Ritrovato (Bologna: Tipograf a Moderna, 2008), 8. 19 Sam Rohdie, The Passion of Pier Paolo Pasolini , ed. Colin MacCabe and Paul Willemen, Perspectives (Bloomington, Indianapolis, and London: Indiana University Press and BFI Publishing, 1995), 87. 20 Kim Gardi, “The Crisis of Transition: Pier Paolo Pasolini’s African Oresteia ,” Quaderni d’Italianistica 27.1 (Spring 1996), 93. 21 Pier Paolo Pasolini, Appunti per un’Orestiade africana (Notes for an African Orestes) (Bologna: Cineteca Bologna, 2009), DVD. 22 Ibid. 23 Trento, Pasolini e l’Africa, l’Africa di Pasolini , 248. 24 Verdicchio, “Colonialism as a ‘Structure that Wants to Be Another Structure,’” 63. 25 Pasolini, Heretical Empiricism, 191–3. 26 Ibid., 193–4. 27 Giuliana Bruno, “Heresies: The Body of Pasolini’s Semiotics,” Cinema Journal 30.3 (Spring 1991), 32.

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28 Pasolini, Heretical Empiricism, 167–8. 29 Ibid., 168. 30 Ibid., 200. 31 Ibid., 169–70. 32 Ibid., 175–6. 33 Deleuze, Cinema 2 , 148. 34 Giuseppe Cardillo, “Le borgate romane me sembrarono un sogno: New York ’69 Un’intervista inedita,” 2005, 58. 35 Enzo Siciliano, Pasolini: A Biography , trans. John Shepley (New York: Random House, 1982). See chapter 6, “The Discovery of Rome,” 151–72. 36 Louis-Georges Schwartz, “Typewriter: Free Indirect Discourse in Deleuze’s ‘Cinema,’” SubStance 34.3 (2005), 117. 37 John David Rhodes, “Pasolini’s Exquisite Flowers: The ‘Cinema of Poetry,’” in Global Art Cinema: New Theories and Histories , ed. Rosalind Galt and Karl Schoonover (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 155. 38 Verdicchio, “Colonialism as a ‘Structure that Wants to Be Another Structure,’” 52–3. 39 Pier Paolo Pasolini, “Le mie ‘Mille e una notte,’” Playboy Edizione Italiana (September 1973), 123. 40 Ibid., 123–4. 41 Pasolini, Il f ore delle mille e una notte (Arabian Nights) . 42 Oswald Stack, ed., Pasolini on Pasolini: Interviews with Oswald Stack (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969). As opposed to the use of a long-take charac- teristic of neorealist f lms, Pasolini employs shorter takes, and usually positions the camera directly in front of the f lmed subject. At once, this means of f lm- ing speaks to Pasolini’s lack of technical training and late start as a director (he made his f rst f lm at the age of 40), but also his rejection of “naturalism,” or the reenactment of “real life.” Pasolini states of his approach: “I recon- struct everything. I never have somebody talking in a long shot away from the camera, I have to have him talking straight into the camera, so there is never a scene in any of my f lms where the camera is to one side and the characters are talking away to themselves . . . ” 43 Pasolini, Il f ore delle mille e una notte (Arabian Nights) . 44 See Maurizio Viano, A Certain Realism: Making Use of Pasolini’s Film Theory and Practice (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1993). Also see Pier Paolo Pasolini, “Trilogy of Life Rejected” reprinted in Pier Paolo Pasolini, Lutheran Letters , trans. Stuart Hood (Manchester and Dublin: Carcanet New Press, Raven Arts Press, 1983). 45 Aldrich, Colonialism and Homosexuality, 4. 46 Viano, A Certain Realism , 271. 47 From her section, “Noi, ‘altri,’” Trento writes, “Much later, in the 1970s, Pasolini will present in the f lm Arabian Nights another f gure of the poet in which it is possible to recognize a personal identif cation. It concerns the poet Abu Nuwas at the court of King Harun: not a principal f gure, but sketched with care, serving as autobiographical cues. He, in fact, more than a poet, is homosexual and ‘negro’ (therefore ‘marginal’), with good looks, but not very young, and loved by poor and inexperienced, yet beautiful youths,” 99.

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48 Luca Caminati, Orientalismo eretico: Pier Paolo Pasolini e il cinema del terzo mondo (Genova: Bruno Mondadori, 2007), 112. 49 For a discussion of the Gennariello articles, see Verdicchio, “Colonialism as a ‘Structure that Wants to Be Another Structure,’” 75–83. 50 Pasolini, Lutheran Letters, 21. 51 Ibid., 21–2. 52 Kobena Mercer, “Skin Head Sex Thing: Racial Difference and the Homoerotic Imaginary,” in Welcome to the Jungle: New Positions in Black Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1994), 219. 53 Pasolini, “Le mie ‘Mille e una notte,’” 122. 54 Ibid., 122–3. 55 “L’ultimo nudo di Pasolini,” Il Lombardo October 13, 1973. 56 Quoted in Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 56. 57 Ibid. 58 Quoted in ibid., 58. 59 Bini, “Fonti fotograf che e storia delle donne.” See section “Le fotograf e nei rapporti di madamato .” 60 “L’ultimo nudo di Pasolini.” 61 Ibid. 62 Images from the collection of Roberto Villa, courtesy of the Archivio Pasolini. 63 Patrick Rumble, Allegories of Contamination: Pier Paolo Pasolini’s Trilogy of Life (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 70–1. 64 For a discussion of the inf uence of images of black women from the colonial period on contemporary Italian visual culture, see Sandra Ponzanesi, “Beyond the Black Venus: Colonial Sexual Politics and Contemporary Visual Practices,” in Andall and Duncan, Italian Colonialism: Legacy and Memory, 165–89. Ponzanesi examines the continued circulation of the “Smiling Negress” and “Faccetta Nera” icons in late-twentieth-century Italian advertisements ranging from food products to digital technologies. As these icons are revised and invested with new meaning, Ponzanesi concludes: “Grasping how the elabora- tion of contemporary racial stereotypes depends upon past ingrained legacies is overdue, because of the earlier removal and denial of the Italian colonial chapter”; 185. 65 I thank Roberto Villa, the set photographer who traveled and worked with Pasolini during a 3-month period f lming the Arabian Nights , for this produc- tion information. 66 Michel Foucault, “Las Meninas,” The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage Books, Random House, 1994). 67 John R. Searle, “Las Meninas and the Paradoxes of Pictorial Representation,” in The Language of Images , ed. W. J. T. Mitchell (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980), 257. 68 Ibid., 257–8. 69 Trento, Pasolini e l’Africa, l’Africa di Pasolini , 246. 70 Ibid., 246. 71 Bruno, “Heresies,” 37. 72 Pasolini, Lutheran Letters, 50.

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73 Ibid., 50–1. 74 Michael Caesar, “Outside the Palace: Pasolini’s Journalism (1973–1975),” in Pasolini Old and New: Surveys and Studies , ed. Zygmunt G. Baranski (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1999), 369. 75 Pinkus, Bodily Regimes , 33–5. 76 Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2000), 12. 77 See Áine O’Healy, “Mediterranean Passages: Abjection and Belonging in Contemporary Italian Cinema,” California Italian Studies 1.1 (2010), online article; O’Healy, “Humanity, Hospitality, and the Detention Camp: Screening Migration in Contemporary Italian Cinema,” International Journal of the Humanities 4.3 (2006); David Forgacs, “African Immigration on Film: Pummarò and the Limits of Vicarious Representation,” in Media and Migration: Constructions of Mobility and Difference , ed. Nancy Wood Russell King (London and New York: Routledge, 2001); Enrica Capussotti, “Moveable Identities: Migration, Subjectivity and Cinema in Contemporary Italy,” Modern Italy 14.1 (2009); Monica Rossi, “Apologia della differenza: uno sguardo dall’esterno alla condizione degli immigranti africani in Italia in Pummarò e L’articolo due di Maurizio Zaccaro,” Canadian/American Journal of Italian Studies 20.54 (1997). 78 Rachel Donadio, “Living Where Crime Conquers All,” The New York Times online (February 5, 2009). 79 John Hooper, “John Hooper talks to Roberto Saviano about his reckless def - ance of the maf a,” Guardian online (January 14, 2008). 80 Roberto Saviano, Gomorrah , trans. Virginia Jewiss, 1st American edn (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 45. 81 Rhodes, Stupendous, Miserable City , 59. 82 Megan Ratner, “The Gomorrah Doctrine,” Film Quarterly 62.4 (Summer 2009), 79. Ratner draws attention to a similar ethos of “macho fatalism” in Gomorrah ’s depiction of the young clan members of the Secondigliano district and the small-time criminals who scrape out a meager existence in Accatone (1961). The “Letters to Gennariello” are collected in Pasolini, Lutheran Letters . 83 Ratner, “The Gomorrah Doctrine,” 79.

Conclusion

1 Restivo, The Cinema of Economic Miracles . 18. 2 Ibid., 3–4. 3 Ibid., 13. 4 Ibid., 16. 5 For a description of one variation of the Western Union installation that was staged for the Brooklyn Academy of Music’s PERFORMA 07 (2007), see Craig Houser, “Racial Castaway,” MUSEO , 2008, online. 6 Isaac Julien: Western Union: Small Boats , interview, Art Newspaper , 2007. 7 This description is based on a DVD transfer of the audio-visual installation: Isaac Julien, Western Union: small boats (Italy: Isaac Julien Studio, 2007). 8 Houser, “Racial Castaway.”

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9 Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, Luchino Visconti , vol. 3, Cinema One (New York: The Viking Press, 1973), 80. 10 Millicent Marcus, Filmmaking by the Book: Italian Cinema and Literary Adaptation (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 48. 11 Ibid., 49. 12 James Hay, “Visconti’s Leopard : Remaking a National-Popular History,” Forum Italicum 21 (Spring 1987), 37. 13 Ibid., 38–9. 14 Derek Duncan, “Italy’s Postcolonial Cinema and Its Histories of Representation,” Italian Studies 63.2 (Autumn 2008), 196. 15 Cristina Lombardi-Diop, “Ghosts of Memories, Spirits of Ancestors: Slavery, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic,” in Recharting the Black Atlantic: Modern Cultures, Local Communities, Global Connections , ed. Annalisa Oboe and Anna Scacchi, Routledge Research in Atlantic Studies (New York and London: Routledge), 163. 16 Parati, Migration Italy , 50. 17 Isaac Julien: Western Union: small boats , interview. 18 Marcus, Filmmaking by the Book , 53. 19 Ibid., 53–4. 20 Houser, “Racial Castaway.”

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A Bell of Torment 46 see also Adwa: Alfa Tau (1942) 130 An African Victory (1999) see also De Robertis, Francesco Accatone (1961) 13 see also Pasolini, Alima (1921) (Cerruti) 26 Pier Paolo Allied Forces (World War II) 11 , 117 , Adua (Anna Bonaiuto) 109–10 122 , 126 , 134 , 154 , 163 , 167 , see also Bianco e Nero (2008) 170 , 174 Adwa 3 , 42 , 44–9 , 69 , 109 Allied invasion of Sicily (World War II) see also Italo-Abyssinian War Almirante-Manzini, Italia 37 (1896) see also Cabiria (1914) Adwa: An African Victory (1999) 10 , Other Race, The (altra razza, La, 1920) 21 , 42–9 , 158–9 , 256 (Camerini) 26 Adwa Complex 42 Lamerica (1994) (Amelio) 209 Africa 16 see also Italian colonialism Americanization 121 African American 2–4 , 8 , 11–12 , Andall, Jacqueline 47–8 71 , 98 , 109 , 113–14 , 117–23 , Anderson, Benedict 73 126–7 , 134 , 147 , 152 , 154–94 , Angela () 172–8 187 , 189 , 196–200 , 254 , 257–8 see also Without Pity (1948) black American GI 4 , 11 , Angelo (1951) (De Robertis) 4 , 8 , 11 , 117 , 121–3 , 126–7 , 134 , 100 , 117–53 , 165–6 , 175 , 177 , 152–80 , 196–200 , 254 , 257 179–83 , 211 , 253 , 255 , 257 see also Johnsons, Dots M. ; see also Mulatto, Il (1949) Kitzmiller, John ; Miracle at St. Angelo (Angelo Maggio) 4 , 119–53 Anna (2008); Ragusa, Kym; see also Angelo (1951); Mulatto, Il Without Pity (1948) (1949) African diaspora 10 , 49 , 180 , 181 , Angelo (Matteo Sciabordi) 154–60 , 257 , 261 , 264 163–4 , 167 , 169 , 171 African Italian (citizenship) 2 , 5 , see also Miracle at St. Anna 10 , 27 , 55 , 61–6 , 100 , 105–15 (2008) see also Andall, Jacqueline ; Antonio () 94–100 Angelo (1951); Bianco e Nero see also Ape Woman, The (1964) (2008); Khouma, Pap; Maggio, anti-Semitism 34 Angelo; Mulatto, Il (1949); see also Race Laws of 1938 Ragusa, Kym Antonioni, Michelangelo 85 , 89 , 109 Age and Scarpelli 189 see also Eclipse, The (1963) see also Incroci, Agenore ; Ape Woman, The (donna scimmia, La , Ma f oso (1962) ; Scarpelli, Furio 1964) (Ferreri) 11 , 54 , 92–101 , Albania 209 see also Lamerica (1994) 189 , 194 , 256

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Arabian Nights (Il f ore delle mille e una Bertolucci, Bernardo 11 , 54–5 , 103–5 notte, 1974) 4 , 8 see also Besieged (1998) Arlecchino 28 Besieged (assedio, L’ 1998) Armes, Roy 63 (Bertolucci) 11 , 55 , 102–5 , Araya, Zeudi 4 , 101 see also Moonskin 256–7 (1972) Bhabha, Homi 7 , 8 , 28 Aryan 16 , 34 , 59 , 60–2 , 80 Biafran War (1967–1975) 219 Aryan-Mediterranean racial Bianco e Nero (2008) (Comencini) 4 , identity 34 , 52–3 , 60 , 62 , 80 55 , 105–11 “Ashes of Gramsci” 215 Birth of a Nation (1915) (Griff th) 22–5 see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo see also Griff th, D.W. “Asiatic mode” 69 Birth Regression: Death of a People Besieged (assedio, L’ 1998) (1928) (Korherr) 59 (Bertolucci) 11 , 55 , 102–5 , Bishop (Michael Ealy) 155–6 , 162–7 , 256–7 169 , 171–2 see also Miracle at St. Associazione nazionale partigiani d’Italia Anna (2008) (ANPI) 157 Black Madonna 122 , 125 , 139–44 , Axum Obelisk 48 149–50 see also Angelo (1951); Azcona, Rafael 189 Madonna of Montevergine; Aziz and Aziza 228 , 238 Mulatto, Il (1949) see also Arabian Nights (1974) blackface 10 , 20 , 23 , 27–8 , 41 , 65 , 71 , 90 , 95–6, 179 , 254–5 Bal Negre 98 blackface minstrelsy (United Baker, Josephine 98 States) 23 , 27–8 Baldwin, James 99 blackface performance in Balibar, Étienne 4 , 9 Ape Woman, The (1964) 95–6 Bandit, The ( Bandito, Il 1947) Cabiria (1914) 10 , 20 , 27–8 , 41 , (Lattuada) 125 254–5 Barbie doll (icon) 106–11 Eclipse, The (1963) 90 see also Bianco e Nero (2008) Without Pity (1948) 179 Barrera, Giulia 61 , 66 , 68 see also Cabiria (1914) ; Lott, Bartmann, Sarah 93–4 , 96 , 100 Eric ; Maciste see also The Ape Woman (1964); Bondanella, Peter 125–6 , 168–9 , 173 Hottentot Venus Boitelle (Guy de Maupassant) 104 Battle of Dogali (1887) 42 , 44–7 , 159 Bordastoret 35 , 36 see also Cabiria see also Adwa: An African Victory (1914); criminal anthropology; (1999) (Gerima) North Africans Batto 30–1 , 38 see also Cabiria (1914) Bread and Chocolate (Pane e cioccolata, Ben-Ghiat, Ruth 130 1974) (Brusati) 12 , 93, 184 , Benetton 6 186 , 188 , 200–9 , 211 Berhame (Fessazion Gherentiel) 233 Brignone, Guido 10 , 26 see also Arabian Nights (1974) ; British colonialism 54 , 81–2 , 85 , 90 , 103 Gherentiel, Fessazion in Somalia 81–2 , 85 see also Secret Berger, Rudi 151–2 Violence (1963) Berlinguer, Enrico 215 Broken Blossoms: The Yellow Man and Berlusconi, Silvio 1 , 2 the Girl (1919) (Griff th) 24–5 Bertellini, Giorgio 15–16 , 23–4 , 73 , 187 see also Griff th, D.W.

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Brown, Jim 154 Chambers, Iain 9 , 43 Brown v. Board of Education Cinecittà 72 , 154 (1954) 108 , 146 , 150 “A Cinema of Poetry” (1965) 210 , 224–6 see also Clark, Kenneth see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo and Clark, Mamie ; Doll Cines 27 Experiments Cicutto, Roberto 154 see also Miracle at Brunetta, Gian Piero 101 St. Anna (2008) Brusati, Franco 12 , 184 , 200 , 203 Christian Civilization (Civiltà see also Bread and Chocolate critiana ) 128 (1974) Civil War (U.S.) 22–4 Buffalo Soldiers see 92nd Buffalo Clark, Kenneth and Clark, Infantry Division; Miracle at St. Mamie 108–9 , 144–7 Anna (2008) in Angelo (1951) 144–7 Butler, Judith 65 , 77 in Bianco e Nero (2008) 108–9 in Mulatto, Il (1949) 144–7 Cabiria (1914) (Pastrone) 10 , 14–43 , see also Angelo (1951) ; Bianco 45 , 49 , 54 , 116 , 153 , 245 , 255 , e Nero (2008) ; Brown v. Board 256 of Education (1954) ; Doll blackface performance in Experiments ; Mulatto, Il (1949) Cabiria 10 , 23–9 see also Maciste ; Cold War 43 , 83 , 120–1 , 128–9 , 218 Pagano, Bartolomeo post-Cold War 43 , 184 , 209 , 248 Cabiria (Elissa) 21–2 , 25 , 30–1 , 35–6 , Comencini, Cristina 4 , 55 , 105–7 , 38–40 see also Cabiria (1914) 114–5 see also Bianco e Nero Caillois, Roger 78 (2008) calligraphism 63–4 Comin, Jacopo 56–7 see also Under the in Under the Southern Cross (1938) 64 Southern Cross (1938) Camerini, Mario 28 commedia all’italiana (comedy Caminati, Luca 231 Italian-style) 12 , 92 , 105 , camorra 213 , 246–58 188–90 , 209 Cane, Sandy 2 commedia dell’arte 27–8 Cantebury Tales (1972) 227 , 235 Contardi (Enrico Maria see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo Salerno) 81–5 , 90–2 Carlo (Fabio Volo) 105–15 see also Secret Violence (1963) see also Bianco e Nero (2008) Continente perduto (1954) 81 Carthage 14 , 15 , 21 , 22 , 31 , 35 , 38 , see also Moser, Giorgio 39 , 49 criminal anthropology 20 , 33–5 , 41 , Carthaginians 15 , 27 , 31 , 33 254 see also Lombroso, Cesare see also Cabiria (1914) Crispi, Francesco 19 , 42 Catari 129 , 140–4 , 146–7 , 150 , Cyrenaica 15 , 20 , 26 , see also Italo- 153 see also Angelo (1951); Turkish War 1911–12 Mulatto, Il (1949) Catholic Action 128 Dagna, Stella 15 Catholic Colateralism 128 dal Lago, Alessandro 43 Celli, Carlo 29–30 , 38–9 Dalle Vacche, Angela 32 Cerruti, Gino 26 see also Alima (1921) D’Annuzio, Gabriele 16 Césaire, Aimé 99 , 217 see also Cabiria (1914) Chakrabarty, Dipesh 7 Dante 243

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Darwin, Charles 33 , 150 , 187 Eclipse, The (eclisse, L’, 1962) see also social Darwinism (Antonioni) 85 , 89–90 , 92 , 100 Davoli, Ninetto 222 see also Pasolini, Ekberg, Anita 112 Pier Paolo Elena (Anna Karina) 200–8 De Robertis, Francesco 4 , 11 , 100 , see also Bread and Chocolate 118 , 130 , 152 see also Alfa Tau (1974) (1942); Mulatto, Il (1949); Elena (Ambra Angiolini) 105–11 Uomini sul fondo (1941) see also Bianco e Nero (2008) De Santis, Giuseppe 63 Elisabetta (Alexandra Stewart) 81 , De Sica, Vittorio 157 85 , 88–90 see also Secret Violence decadentism 38 (1962) Christian Democratic Party Eumenides 219–20 , 222–3 (Democrazia Cristiana ) 121–2 , see also Furies ; Notes for an 125 , 127–9 , 131 , 214–5 , 219 African Orestes (Appunti per Depretis, Agostino 42 un’Orestiade africana, 1970) difesa della razza, La 61–2 , 93 , 180 (Pasolini) diverso 13 , 212–14 , 222 , 224 , Emmanuelli, Enrico 54 , 82 231 , 234–5 , 244 , 255 see also Secret Violence (1962); see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo Settimana Nera (1958) Sweet Life, The (dolce vita, La 1960) Emperor Menelik II 42 , 45 (Fellini) 112 see also Adwa: An African Victory Criminal Woman, The ( donna (1999) deliquente, La, 1895) Empire (2000) 245 see also Hardt, (Lombroso) 96 Michael ; Negri, Antonio Do the Right Thing (1989) 157 , 171 Empress Taitu 42 see also Adwa, an see also Lee, Spike African Victory (1999) ; Gerima, Doll Experiments 108–9 , 144–7 , 149 Haile in Angelo (1951) 108–9 equal, but separate doctrine 11 , 117 , in Bianco e Nero (2008) 146 , 148–51 , 153 see also Plessy in Mulatto, Il (1949) 108–9 v. Ferguson (1896) see also Clark, Kenneth and Eritrea 7 , 20 , 26 , 42 , 55 , 56 , 61 , 66 , 82 , Clark, Mamie 131–3 , 217 , 219 , 234 , 235 , 237 DuBois, W.E.B. 162 Italian colonization (1890–1944) 20 , Duranti, Doris 65 see also Mailù; Sotto 26 , 42 , 82 , 131–3 , 234 la croce del sud (1938) madamismo in Eritrea 51 , 60–1 , 66 , Dyer, Richard 187 76 , 85–8 , 236 Universal Exhibition of Rome Eastwood, Clint 154 see also Flags of ( Esposizione Universale Roma, Our Fathers (2006) ; Letters from EUR) 90 , 109 Iwo Jima (2006) ; Miracle at St. Ethiopia (Abyssinia) 3 , 10 , 29 , 42–9 , Anna (2008) 50–3 , 55 , 56 , 61–73 , 75–7 Bertrand (Eriq Ebouane) 105–11 Italian colonization (1936– see also Bianco e Nero (2008) 1944) 42–9 , 50–3 , 56 , 59 , 64 , economic miracle (1958–1963) 8 , 69 , 72 , 75 , 82 , 102 11 , 82 , 117 , 153 , 184 , 185 , 190 , eugenics 52 , 59 , 133 , 150 , 187 192 , 214 , 218 , 255 , 256 in fascist Italy 52 , 59 , 133

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in the Italian East African History of Sexuality 51 Empire 52 , 59 , 133 lectures at Collège de France see also Angelo (1951); (1975–76) 52 see also Stoler, Mulatto, Il (1949) Laura Ann European Common Market 215 14th Amendment 148 see also Angelo European Union 1 , 2 , 14 , 43 (1951) ; Mulatto Il (1949) The Expedition Trilogy (2004–7) France 7 , 51 , 69 , 80 , 97–9 , 106 , 140 , (Julien) 258–9 , 262 222 see also Julien, Isaac ; WESTERN African American expatriates UNION: small boats (2007) in 98–9 extracomunitario 188 , 259 colonialism in Africa 7 , 51 , 80 French-Algierian War (1954–62) 99 , Faccetta Nera 13 , 50–1 , 160 , 235–8 , 218 286n. 64 see also Arabian Nights negrophilia 98 (1974); Under the Southern Cross Franco (Tony Servillo) 248–50 (1938) see also Gomorrah (2008) Fanon, Franz 99 , 112 , 170 free-indirect subjective 13 , 211 , 213 , Farnenti 81 , 84–7 , 90 see also Secret 224–7 , 232–3 , 240–2 , 245 , 255 , Violence (1963) 257 see also “Cinema of Poetry” ; Fasci giovanili di combattimento (Fascist Pasolini, Pier Paolo Combat Youth Group) 67 French-Algerian War 99 , 218 Fascio di Combattimento 55 French Poetic Realism 130 , 173–4 Italian Fascism 51–69 , 126–7 , 130 , Friulian 212 138 , 235 , 238 Fulvio (Fulvius) Axilla 10 , 15 , 18 , Favino, Pierfrancesco 166–7 20 , 21 , 25 , 28 , 31 , 32 , 39 , 41 see also Miracle at St. Anna (2008) see also Cabiria (1914) Fellini, Federico 4 fuori/outside (1997) 12 , 118 , 181–4 , Ferreri, Marco 11 , 54 , 93 , 189 , 194 256–7 , 259 see also Ragusa, Kym Ferri, Enrico 18 The Furies (Eumenides) 219–20 , Ferroni, Giorgio 126 , 152 , 172 222 see also Notes for an African see also Tombolo, Black Paradise Orestes ( Appunti per un’Orestiade (1947) africana, 1970) (Pasolini) Arabian Nights ( f ore delle mille e una note, Il, 1974) (Pasolini) 4 , Galla Sidama 59 see also Under the 8 , 12–13 , 210–11 , 213 , 216 , Southern Cross (1938) 226–32 , 235–8 , 241–2 , 245 Garrone, Matteo 13 , 213–14 , 246–8 , Fiat 188–9 , 192–3 , 199 see also Ma f oso 257 see also Gomorrah (2008) (1964) Garvey, Marcus 158 , 162 Flags of Our Fathers (2006) 154 see also United Negro see also Eastwood, Clint ; Miracle Improvement Association at St. Anna (2008) ; Lee, Spike ; (UNIA) Letters from Iwo Jima (2006) Genina, Augusto 26 Flaiano, Ennio 102 see also A Time to Don Genna 129 , 134–5 , 141 , 143–4 , Kill (1990) 146–7 , 148–9 see also Angelo 40 Acres and a Mule 154 (1951); Mulatto Il (1949) see also Lee, Spike Gennariello (Letters to) 232 , 248 , Foucault, Michel 51–2 , 139 , 240 257 see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo

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Gerima, Haile 10 , 21 , 42–9 , Intolerance (1916) 22 , 25 117 , 158–9 , 172 , 183 , 256 Guazzoni, Enrico 38 see also Adwa: An African Victory Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1968) (1999) (Kramer) 110 German National Socialism Germany Year Zero (1948) Hallelujah! (1929) (Vidor) 71–2 Gianetto, Claudia 15 Hannibal 21 , 27 , 38 see also Cabiria Gianni Amelio 209 see also Lamerica (1914) (1992) Hardt, Michael 245 see also Empire Gibson, Mary 34 (2000) Gilles Deleuze 45 , 131–2 , 225 Harlem 161–3 , 167 , 182 Gillette, Aaron 60–1 in Miracle at St. Anna (2008) 161–3 , Gilman, Sander 96 167 Gilroy, Paul 262 Harlequin (l’Archelino) 28 Gaeta, Giovanni Ermete Harris, Chandra 126 , 163 , 168–9 (E.A. Mario) 136 , 138 Hasdrubal 21–2 , 38–9 see also Cabiria see also Nicolardi, Eduardo ; (1914) Tammuriata Nera Hay, James 58 , 66 , 68 , 84 Giunta, Edvige 185–8 Higson, Andrew 6 , 7 Gherentiel, Fessazion 233–7 hirsutism 93–100 , 194–5 see also Arabian Nights (1974) in Ape Woman, The (1964) 93–100 subproletariat 12–13: , 212–18 , in Ma f oso (1964) 194–5 223–4 , 226 , 228 , 231–2 , 234 , HIV/AIDS 54 , 102 , 276n. 108 237 , 241–9 , 252 , 255 , 257 Home of the Brave, 1949 (Robson) 119 , body 12–13 , 213 , 216 , 228 , 231 , 170–1 234 , 242 , 244–5 , 255 Plessy, Homer 148 see also Plessy v. global 13 , 217 , 224 , 231 , 245–6 , Ferguson (1896) 252 Hollywood 58 , 73 , 76 , 121 , 151 , 170 , Goldberg, David Theo 123 248 Gomorra (Gomorrah, 2008) homosexuality 81 , 84–5 , 90–2 , 215 , (Garrone) 13 , 213–4 , 245–52 , 229–34 , 242 256–8 in Arabian nights (1974) 229–34 Goodbye, Othello 174 see also Without and Italian colonialism 90–2 Pity (1948) in Secret Violence (1963) 81 , 84–5 , Goulette, La (Tunisia) 14 90–2 , 104 see also Contardi Gramsci, Antonio 17 , 19 Hottentot Venus 93–4 , 96–7 “Some Aspects of the Southern in La difesa della razza 93–4 , 96–7 Question” (1926) 17 see also The Ape Woman (1964) ; Graziani, Rodolfo 51 Bartmann, Sarah Great Britain 7 , 24–5 , 69 , 80 , 82 , hypertrichosis terminalis 93 101 see also The Ape Woman (1964) ; British Somaliland 82 Pastrana, Julia Great Migration (African American) 161–2 Immigration 1–2 , 5 , 8 , 12–13 , 23 , 27 , Griff th, D.W. 22–5 36 , 43–4 , 55 , 102–6 , 115 , 117 , Birth of a Nation (1915) 22–5 183 , 188 , 209 , 213–4 , 245–6 , Broken Blossoms (1919) 24–5 256 , 258 , 260–1

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African immigration to Italy 1–2 , Jerry () 172–9 5 , 43–4 , 102–6 , 115 , 117 , 183 , see also Kitzmiller, John ; Without 188 , 245–6 , 260 Pity (1948) Italian immigration to Jim Crow 28 , 150 , 161–2 , 171 Switzerland 200 , 202 , 206 see also blackface minstrelsy see also Bread and Chocolate Johnson, Dots M. 4 , 126 (1974) Julien, Isaac 258–64 see also WESTERN Italian immigration to the UNION: small boats United States 174 , 176 , 197 Jungle Fever (1991) 113–14 , 157 , 171 see also Ma f oso (1964); Without see also Lee, Spike Pity (1948) Impero 66 Kalida’a, the Story of a Mummy Incroci, Agenore 189 see also commedia (Kalida’a, la storia di una all’italiana ; Ma f oso (1963) mummia, 1918) (Genina) 26 Intolerance (1916) (Griff th) 22 , 25 Karthalo 21 , 33 , 35 , 36 , 38 see also Birth of a Nation (1915) see also Cabiria (1914) Island of Lost Souls (1932) Khouma, Pap 116 see also We Black (Kenton) 76 Italians: Stories of Ordinary Italian colonialism 3 , 6 , 7 , 51 , 53–4 , Racism (2010) 66 , 80 , 82 , 85 , 90 , 91–2 , King Harun al-Rashid 228–30 , 233 , 99–100 , 105 , 109 , 110 235 , 237–8 , 245 see also Arabian internal colonialism, southern Nights (1974) Italy and Sicily 6 , 9 , 14–20 , 26 , King Kong (1933) 76 , 98 , 166 28–32 , 37 , 40–1 Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia 14 , Italian East African Empire (Africa 18 , 19 Italiana Orientale, L’ ) 5 , 6 , Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 18 51–3 , 56–7 , 59–60 , 64 , 66 , 76 , Kitzmiller, John 4 , 152 , 172 80 , 82 see also Without Pity (1948) Italian Communist Party (PCI) 63 , Korherr, Richard 71 121 , 127–31 , 214–19 Kramer, Stanley 122 see also Guess Italian neorealism 12 , 63 , 117, 121 , Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967) 125–7 , 129–31 , 157–8 , 248 Italian Resistance 117 , 129–33 , 139 , unione cinematograf ca educative, L 157–8 , 218–19 (LUCE) 58 , 63 , 70 Italian Socialist Party 18 , 34 Lamerica (1991) (Amelio) 209 42 , 81–2 , 88 La canzone dell’amore (1933) see also Secret Violence (1963) Landy, Marcia 64 Italo-Abyssinian War (1896) 3 , 20 , 21 , Pelle, La ( The Skin, 1949) 167 42–9 , 256 see also Adwa Resistenza Negra, La 216–18 Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–6) 42 , see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo 48–9 , 50 , 53 , 56 , 59 , 64 , 72 , 82 , Lampedusa 258–60 see also WESTERN 102 , 131 , 158–61 , 257 UNION: small boats (2007) Italo-Turkish War (1911–12) 10 , 15 , Landra, Guido 60 20 , 42–3 , 56 Larsen, Nella 77 see also Passing (1929) Lacan, Jacques 142–3 Las Meninas 240 see also Velasquez, theory of sexual difference 142–3 Diego

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Lasdun, James 102 see also Besieged Lubiano, Wahneema 65 (1998) Lo Cascio, Luigi 154 , 156 Lateran Concordat of 1926 128 see also Miracle at St. Anna (2008) Lattuada, Alberto 11 , 12 , 117–18 , Lutheran Letters 238 126 , 152–3 , 172 , 178–84 , 189 , see also Gennariello ; Pasolini, 194 , 197 , 200 see also Ma f oso Pier Paolo (1963); (1950); Without Pity (1948) Maciste 10 , 15–22 , 25–9 , 31–41 League of Nations 56–7 , 69 , 158 , in Maciste against the Sheik 160–1 (Maciste contro lo sceicco, 1927) Lee, Spike 113–14 see also Jungle Fever (Camerini) 26 (1991) ; Miracle at St. Anna in Maciste in the Mouth of the (2008) Lion (Maciste nella gabbia Lega Nord (Northern League) 2 , dei leoni, 1926) (Brignone) 183–4 , 246 26 see also blackface minstrelsy ; Lent, Theodore 93 see also The Ape Cabiria (1914) ; Pagano, Woman (1964); Pastrana, Julia Bartolomeo Senghor, Leopold 217 madamismo (madamism) 51 , 60 , 61 , Leopard, The (Gattopardo, Il 66 , 76 , 85 , 87–8 1962) (Visconti) 259–64 Madonna of Montevergine 122 , 125 , see also WESTERN UNION: small 139–44 see also Angelo (1951); boats (2007) Black Madonna; and Mulatto Il Letters from Iwo Jima (2006) (1949) (Eastwood) 154 see also Lee, Mafarka the Futurist: An African Novel Spike ; Miracle at St. Anna (1910) 37 see also Marinetti, F.T. (2008) Ma f oso (1962) (Lattuada) 9 , 12 , 93 , Liberal era (1876–1914) 9 , 15 , 16 , 184 , 186 , 188–200 , 203 , 207 , 18 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 29 , 32 , 36 , 41 , 209 , 211 , 254 43 , 45 Maggio, Angelo 4 , 123 , 151–2 colonialism in Africa 16 see also Angelo (1951); Mulatto Il Libya 5 , 15 (1949) Italo-Turkish War 1911–12 15 Maggio, Dante 151 Locke, Alain 162 , 167 see also The New Nadine (Aïssa Maïga) 105–15 Negro (1925) see also Bianco e Nero (2008) White Squadron, The (squadron bianco, Mailù 53 , 56–8 , 62–8 , 72–9 , 82 Lo 1936) (Genina) 57 , 67 , 82 see Sotto la croce del sud (1938) Lombroso, Cesare 18 , 33–5 , 41 , 52 , 96 Malaparte, Curzio 167 see also La Pelle The Criminal Man (1876) 33–4 (1949) The Criminal Woman (1893) 96 Mamma Roma (1962) 13 , 189 , 212 , The White Man and the Man of Color 218 , 247 , 260 see also Pasolini, (1871) 34 see also criminal Pier Paolo anthropology Mankiewicz, Joseph 131 Lost Boundaries, 1949 (Werler) 119 Manifesto of Racial Scientists Lott, Eric 26–7 (1938) 53 , 59–62 , 71 Lo Verso, Enrico 209 see also Lamerica Maraza del Vallo (Sicily) 14 (1994) Marcella () 173–7 Loving v. Virginia (1967) 110 see also Without Pity (1948)

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Marinetti, F.T. 37 , 39 , 69 Moroccan soldiers 134 , 138 Mafarka the Futurist: An African Nove Moser, Giorgio 10 , 54 , 80–1 , 86–9 , (1910) 37 91–2 see also Lost Continent Maria (1954) 81; Secret Violence in Angelo (1951) 123 , 127 , 134 , 141 , (Violenza segreta 1963) 10 166 Mulatto, Il (1949) (De Robertis) 4 , 8 , in Ape Woman, The (1964) 94–100 11 , 100 , 117–53 , 165–6 , 175 , in Mulatto Il (1949) 123 , 127 , 134 , 177 , 179–83 , 211 , 253 , 255 , 141 , 166 257 see also Angelo (1951); De Mario, E.A. 136 , 138 see also Gaeta, Robertis, Francesco Giovanni Ermete Mr. Kinksy () 102–5 Marshall Plan 121 , 189 see also Besieged (1998) Massinissa 21–2 , 33 , 36–9 Mt. Etna 21 , 30 , 37–8 , 41 see also Cabiria (1914) see also Cabiria (1914) Matteo (Renato Baldini) 123–55 multiculturalism 6 , 108 , 111 , 115 see also Angelo (1951); Mulatto Il ` in Italy 108 , 111 , 115 (1949) see also Bianco e Nero (2008) Mau-Mau uprising 217 Multiplicity (art and research McBride, James 11 , 154 , 156–7 collective) 14 see also Miracle at St. Anna (2008) Musee de l’Homme 93 see also Ape Mediterranean (sea) 9 , 15 , 43 , 79 , Woman, The (1964) ; Bartmann, 118 , 216–7 , 231 , 258 , 262 Sarah Mediterranean (racial identity) 16 , Musini, Luigi 154 see also Miracle at St. 52 , 59–62 Anna (2008) meridionalisti (Southernists) 17 Mussolini, Benito 15 , 55 , 59 , 67 mezzogiorno 33 , 139 , 190 “My Thousand and One Mercer, Kobena 232 Nights” 228–9 , 233 , 236–7 , 245 Middle Passage 180 , 259 , 262 , 264 see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo A Midsummer Night’s Dream 114–15 Myriam (1928) (Guazzoni) 26 see also Bianco e Nero (2008) Maryam 81, 85–7 see also Regina ; Secret Marcus, Millicent 263 Violence (1962) Miguel, Mellino 7 Myrie, Vanessa 259 see also WESTERN Miracle at St. Anna (2008) (Lee) 11 , UNION: small boats (2007) 117 , 153–72 , 180 , 256 , 257 , 259 (Julien) miscegenation 51 , 59 , 61–2 , 76 in La difesa della razza 61–2 Naf cy, Hamid 43 in Italian East Africa 51 , 59 , 61–2 , Nana (Émile Zola, 1880) 97 66 , 76 see also Zola, Émile and synchronized sound 71–4 Naples 93–7 , 117 , 121–3 , 126–7 , 136 , Moloch 21 , 37–9 , 41 see also Cabiria 140 , 151 , 157 , 160 , 167–72 , (1914) 174 , 177 , 198 , 247–51 , 257 Moonskin (ragazza dalla pelle di luna, in Angelo (1951) 117 , 121–3 , La, 1974) (Scattini) 4 , 101–2 136 , 138 , 140 , 151 , 177 see also Scattini, Luigi see also tammurriata nera moor 27 , 168 in The Ape Woman (1964) 93–7 in Ma f oso (1963) 193 in Bread and Chocolate (1974) 200–9 in Paisan (1946) 168 in Gomorrah (2008) 247–51 , 257

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in Mulatto Il (1949) 117 , We Black Italians: Stories of Ordinary 121–3 , 136 , 138 , 140 , 151 Racism (Noi italiani neri: storie see also tammurriata nera di razzismo ordinario, 2010) 116 in Paisan (1946) 126–7 , 157 , 160 , see also Khouma, Pap 167–72 , 174 , 198 see also Miracle North Africa 14–20 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 30 , at St. Anna (2008); Without Pity 32–7 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 (1948) Italian colonization in Nathan, Vetri 8 representation of North Native Son, 1951 (Chenal) 119 Africans 26–39 , see also North Atlantic Trade Organization Italo-Turkish War 1911–12 (NATO) 215 north/south division 5 , 6, 8 , 14–20 , nave bianca, La (1942) (De 22–3 , 26 , 28–32 , 34 , 36 , 40–1 , 49 , Robertis) 130 51 , 61 , 72 , 93 , 100 , 108 , 114–15 Nazi Germany 59 , 62 , 126–7 , 138–9 , Notes for an African Orestes (Appunti 151 , 155–6 , 159–60 , 163 , 165–6 per un’Orestiade africana, 1970) inf uence on Fascist Italy 59, 62 , (Pasolini) 211 , 213 , 219–20 , 151 226 , 228 , 244 see also Pasolini, Negri, Antonio 245 see also Empire Pier Paolo (2000) Northern League (Lega Nord ) 2 , negritude 99 183–4 , 246 Negron (Laz Alonso) 155–6 , 159–62 Numidian 15–6 , 18 , 21 , 27 , 31 , 33 , 36 see also Miraéle at St. Anna Maciste as Numidian slave 15–16 , (2008) 18 , 31 negrophilia 98 Nur-ed-Din 210 , 228 , 235 , 239 neo-neorealism 247 see also Gomorrah see also Arabian Nights (1974) (2008) neocapitalism 13 , 214 , 218 , 242 , Obama, Barack 2 245–7 , 249 , 254 On Beauty (2005) 105 neofascism 254 one-drop rule 120 see also Angelo neorealismo nero (black (1951) ; Mulatto Il (1949) neorealism) 126 Opera nationale dopolavoro (National The New Negro (1925) 162 Organization of Free-Time see also Locke, Alain Activities) 58 , 67 Niceforo, Alfredo 18 Opera nazionale balilla (National Nicolardi, Eduardo 136 , 138 Organization of Fascist Party see also Tammuriata Nera Youth Members) 67 Nights of Cabiria (Le notti di Opera nazionale maternità e infanzia Cabiria 1957) (Fellini) 4 (National Maternity and 92nd Buffalo Infantry Division 126 , Infancy Agency) 59 154–5 , 163–4 see also Miracle at Oresteia 219 see also Notes for an African St. Anna (2008) Orestes (Appunti per un’Orestiade Nino (Alberto Sordi) 188–208 africana, 1970) (Pasolini) see also Ma f oso (1964) Orlando and Rinaldo 193 Nino (Nino Manfredi) 200–8 Obsession (Ossessione, 1943) (Visconti) see also Bread and Chocolate 157 (1974) Othello (Shakespeare, William c.1603) No Way Out (1950) (Mankiewicz) 131 174

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Pagano, Bartolomeo 15 , 16 , 20 , 36 , 41 Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) 146 , 148–50 , see also Cabiria (1914); Maciste 162 see also “equal, but Paisan (Paisà 1946) (Rossellini) 4 , 11 , separate” ; Plessy, Homer 126–7 , 152 , 154 , 157–63 , 167 , Poema sul terzo mondo (Poem on the third 169–70 , 172–3 , 179–80 , 198 , World) 219 see also Pasolini, 247 , 257 Pier Paolo Palazzo Gangi 259 , 262–4 see also The Pope Pius XI (1922–1939) 128 Leopard (Il gattopardo 1962); Pope Pius XII 134 WESTERN UNION: small boats Port of 42 see also Italian (2007) colonialism pan-Africanism 44 , 48 , 117 , 158–62 , positivism 33 171–2 , 257 post-neorealism 212 , 225 Paris (France) 93–4 , 97–9 postcolonialism 5 , 7–8 , 10–11 , 21 , 47 , in The Ape Woman (1964) 93–4 , 97–9 49 , 53–5 , 80 , 88–107 , 112 , 113 , Partito Populare Italiano 128 117 , 160 , 212–13 , 219 , 228 , Pasolini, Pier Paolo 4 , 12–13 , 231 , 241 , 247 , 256 , 261 129 , 189 , 210–58 , 260 postcolonial consciousness (in see also Accatone (1960); Arabian Italy) 8 , 10–11 , 21 , 47 , 49 , 80 , Nights (1974); “A Cinema of 83 , 88–107 , 112 , 113 , 117 , 160 , Poetry” (1965); Mamma Roma 212–13 , 261 (1961); Salò (1975) postcolonial theory (in Italy) 7 Pasquale 152 , 157 , 167–70 , 176 , 198 Prince Salina (Burt Lancaster) 259 , see also Paisan (1946) 263–4 see also The Leopard, 1963 ; Pasquale (Salvatore Cantalupo) 248 , WESTERN UNION: small boats 250–2 , 258 see also Gomorrah Pugliese, Joseph 200 (2008) Pummarò (1988) (Placido) 4 , 209 passing (racial) 64 Punic Wars (third and second Passing (1929) 77 centuries BC) 15 Pastrana, Julia 93 , 99 , 100 see also The second Punic War 15 , 21 , 32 , 42 Ape Woman (1963) see also Cabiria (1914) Pastrone, Carmine 10 , 14 , 16 , 32 , 41 see also Cabiria (1914) Queen Zeudi 228–3 , 235 , 238 Pelligrini, Inez 4 , 13 , 211 , 213 , 235–9 , see also Arabian Nights (1974) 241 , 243 , 255 in Arabian Nights (1974) 4 , 13 , 211 , Race Laws of 1938 51 , 61–3 , 71 , 116 , 213 , 235–9 , 241 132–3 , 150 , 213 , 236 , 244 in Salò (1975) 243 , 255 racial fetishism 93–8 , 111 , 114 , 234 , Petrolio 231 see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo 245 Piazzale dei Cinquecento 46–7 , 159 in The Ape Woman (1964) 93–8 see also Adwa, an African Victory in Arabian Nights (1974) 234 , 245 (1999) in Bianco e Nero (2008) 111 , 114 Pickering-Iazzi, Robin 64–5 in-betweenness (racial) 12 , 35 , 96 , Pier, Luigi (Pierre Claudé) 173 , 175, 176–7 , 185–6 , 204 , 208–9 178 see also Without Pity (1948) in The Ape Woman (1964) 96 Pinkus, Karen 5 , 69 , 85 , 90 in Bread and Chocolate (1974) 204 , Pinky, 1949 (Kazan) 119 208–9 Placido, Michele 4 , 209 in Cabiria 35

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in Without Pity (1948) 176–7 Rome, Open City (Roma, città Ragazzi di Vita (Boys of Life, aperta, 1945) (Rosellini) 157 1956) 218 , 225 , 257 Rossellini, Roberto 126–7 , 130 , see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo 152–3 , 157 , 163 , 168–9 , 172–3 , Ragusa, Kym 12 , 118 , 181–4 , 256–7 , 257 see also Paisan (1946) 259 Rumble, Patrick 238 fuori/outside (1997) 12 , 118 , 181–4 , Sade, Marquis de 242 see also Salò, or 256–7 , 259 the 120 days of Sodom (1975) Skin Between Us: A Memoir of Race, Salò, or the 120 days of Sodom (Salò, Beauty, and Belonging, The o 120 giornate di Sodoma, (2006) 181–2 1975) 211 , 213 , 234 , 242 recolouring 262 see also Parati, see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo Graziella Saviano, Roberto 13 , 213 , 246–8 Red Brigades 101 , 214 see also Gomorrah (2008) Regina 54 , 81–2 , 85–9 , 92 Scalfaro, Oscar 48 see also Maryam ; Secret Violence Scampìa 247 see also Gomorrah (1963) (2008) Reich, Jacqueline 55 Scarpelli, Furio 189 see also Age and Renaissance (Italian) 4 , 38 Scarpelli ; Incroci, Agenore ; Republic of Italy 7 , 11 , 61 , 117 , Ma f oso (1962) 120–2 , 127–8 Scattini, Luigi 4 , 101–2 Restivo, Angelo 212 , 254 see also Moonskin (1972) Rhodes, John David 226 Scheer, Monique 140 see also Black Rialto Bridge 250 Madonna Italian unif cation 3 , 7 , 9 , 14–15 , Scheherazade 227 , 231 17–21 , 23–5 , 29 , 34 , 36 , 40 , 42 , see also Arabian Nights (1974) 51 , 56 , 60 , 100 , 121 , 183 , 185 , Scipio Africanus 21–2 , 39 188 , 191 , 193 , 198 , 199–200 , see also Cabiria (1914) 213 , 222–3 , 253–4 , 256–60 , 262 Second Vatican Council (1962– Robeson, Paul 99 1965) 190 , 214 Roberto (Carmine Secondigliano 247–9 see also Gomorrah Paternoster) 248–50 , 258 (2008) see also Gomorrah (2008) Seghor, Léopold 99 Rocco and his Brothers (Rocco e i suoi Selassie, Haile 158 , see also Italo- fratelli, 1960) (Visconti) 100 , Ethiopian War 1935–6 189 , 260 Senegal 55 , 105–6 , 109 , 112 Roman Africa 15 , 118 , 264 in Bianco e Nero (2008) 55 , 105–6 , Roman borgate 212 , 217–8 , 226 , 237 , 109 , 112 247–8 , 257 Bronze Sentinels ( Sentinelle di bronzo, Roman Catholic Church 55 , 125 , 128 , 1937) (Marcellini) 57 , 82–3 137 , 141 , 190 , 214 Without Pity (Senza pietà 1948) Roman Empire 4 , 10 , 15 , 16 , 20 , 22 , (Lattuada) 4 , 11 , 118 , 126 , 32 , 36 , 38 , 41 , 45 152–3 , 172–80 , 189 , 198 , 254 , “second” Roman Empire 15 , 29 , 257 43 , 45 see also Cabiria (1914) Sergi, Giuseppe 18 Roman Question (1870) 128 Seshardri-Crooks, Kalpana 142–3 romanità 22 see also Black Madonna

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Settimana nera 66 , 83 , 91 St. Anna di Stazzema massacre 155 see also Emmanuelli, Enrico ; see also Miracle at St. Anna Secret Violence (1963) (2008) Shangerai (Thandie Newton) 102–5 St. George (St. Ghiorgis) 45 see also Besieged (1998) steatopygia 93 see also Ape Woman, The Shazaman and the Demon 228 (1964) ; Bartmann, Sarah see also Arabian Nights (1974) Stoler, Laura Ann 51–2 , 66 Sicily 1 , 14 , 15 , 17–19 , 25–7 , 29–31 , strapese 80 40–1 Summer of Sam (1999) 157 Allied invasion (1943) see also Lee, Spike and southern Italy 1 , 14 , 15 Switzerland 12 , 140 , 188 , 190 , 200–2 , Simone 56 , 61–70 , 74–9 see also Under 205–6 , 208 the Southern Cross (1938) in Bread and Chocolate (1974) 12 , Sium 226 , 228–35 , 237 , 245 140, 188 , 190 , 200–2 , 205–6 , see also Arabian Nights (1974) 208 Smiling Negress 248 , 286n. 64 synchronized sound 71–2 Smith, Zadie 117 in Under the Southern Cross social Darwinism 150 , 187 (1938) 71–2 socialist realism 53 , 67–9 , 73 , 130 , 224 Somalia 21 , 54 , 56 , 80–3 , 90–1 , 92 , Tagi and Princess Dunya see Arabian 100 Nights (1974) Italian colonialism in 21 , 26 , 54 , 56 , Tammurriata Nera 122 , 135–9 , 141 , 80–3 , 91 , 92 , 100 see also Italian 147 see also Angelo (1951); Somaliland Mulatto Il (1949) Sophonisba 21 , 22 , 33 , 36–9 , 41 Tchen, John Kuo Wei 25 see also Cabiria (1914) A Time to Kill (Tempo di Uccidere, 1990) sopraluogo 219 , 222 , 228 , 233 , 245 (Montaldo) 101–2 , 256 , 276n see also Pasolini, Pier Paolo terrone 190 , 216 Sordi, Alberto 188 , 191 Ladri di biciclette (The Bicycle in Ma f oso (1962) Thieves, 1948) Sòrgoni, Barbara 93–4 , 272n. 24 The Children of Adwa: Forty Years Under the Southern Cross (Sotto la croce Later 48 see also Adwa: An del sud 1938) (Brignone) 10 , African Victory (1999) ; Gerima, 52–8 , 62–85 , 91 , 116 , 122 , 133 , Haile 153 , 211 , 253 , 255 , 256 The Decameron (Decamerone, Il Soudani, Mohammed 4 , 209 1971) 227 , 235 see also Pasolini, see also Where the Earth Freezes Pier Paolo (Waalo Fendo, 1997) The Dirty Dozen (1967) 154 southern question 3 , 16–18 , 20 , 23 , Mediterranean Race: On the Origins 31 , 34 , 40 , 51–2 , 188 , 191 , of European Peoples, The 253–4 (1901) see also Sergi, Giuseppi Soviet Union 215 Siege, The (James Lasdun,1985) Spivak, Gayatri 7 102 see also Besieged, 1998 Stamps (Derek Luke) 155–6 , 162–7 , The Skin Between Us: A Memoir of Race, 172 see also Miracle at St. Anna Beauty and Belonging (2006) 181 (2008) see also Ragusa, Kym

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The White Man and the Man of Color Uomini sul fondo (1940) (De (1871) 34 see also Lombroso, Robertis) 130 see also De Cesare Robertis, Francesco Thérèse Raquin (Emile Zola, 1867) 97 , U.S. Civil Rights Movement 108 , 120 , 103–4 see also Zola, Emile 146 , 149 , 153 Third World 12–13 , 45 , 81–3 , 101 , U.S. Supreme Court 110 , 120 , 146 , 117 , 151 , 158–9 , 212–21 , 226 , 148 see also Brown v. Board 235 , 244–5 , 252 , 255 of Education (1954); Loving cinema 12–13 , 45 , 158–9 v. Virginia (1967); Plessy v. 13th Amendment 148 see also Angelo Ferguson (1896) (1951) ; Mulatto Il (1949) Tiff Kebbi (1928) (Camerini) 26 Valmarana, Paolo 153 di Lampedusa, Giuseppe Variety Lights (Luci del varietà, 1952) Tomasi 259–60 , 263 (Fellini/Lattuada) 152 , 172 Tombolo, black paradise (Tombolo Vatican State 128 , 134 paradiso nero , 1947) Vajro, Max 138 see also Tammurriata (Ferroni) 126 , 152 , 172 Nera see also Ferroni, Giorgio Velazquez, Diego 240 Touadi, Jean-Leonard 1 Las Meninas (1656) see also Arabian Train (Omar Benson Miller) 155–7 , Nights (1974) 160 , 163–72 see also Miracle at Venice 72 , 249–50 St. Anna (2008) in Gomorrah (2008) 249–50 tragic mulatto/a 64 Verdicchio, Pasquale 19 , 188 , 219 , 227 Treaty of Paris (1947) 117 Viano, Maurizio 215–16 , 227 , 231 Treaty of Wuchale (Wichale) 44 Vidor, King 71 see also Hallelujah! (1929) Trevi fountain 112 Villari, Pasquali 17 see also southern in Bianco e Nero (2008) question Trilogy of Life, The 12 , 226–7 , 231 , Secret Violence ( Violenza segreta, 1963) 234–5, 241–2 , 245 (Moser) 80–92 , 100 , 256 “Trilogy of Life Rejected” 235 see also Moser, Giorgio Tripoli Films 27 Visconti, Luchino 100 , 157 , 189 , Tripolitania 15 , 20 , 26 , see also Italo- 259–64 Turkish War 1911–12 Il Gattopardo (The Leopard, 1962) Triulzi, Alessandro 48–9 Rocco e i suoi fratelli (Rocco and his Tunisia 14 Brothers, 1960) Turin 190 , 192 , 216 Vitti, Monica 89 Turkey 202 (Vivere in pace , , 1946) 126 , 152 , 157 , Violent Life, A ( vita violenta, Una 1958) 172 (Pasolini) 218 von Hennenberg, Krystyna 46 Uncle Tom 23 , 166 Voyage to America 207 see also Ma f oso United Negro Improvement (1963) Association (UNIA) 158 see also Garvey, Marcus Washington, Booker T. 162

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Where the Earth Freezes (Waalo Fendo Xian 248 , 250–2 , 258 see also Gomorrah 1997) (Soudani) 4 , 209 (2008) White Man and the Man of Color, The (1871) 34 see also criminal Zampa, Luigi 126 , 152 , 157 , 172 anthropology ; Lombroso, see also To Live in Peace (1946) Cesare Zola, Emile 97 , 103–4 see also Nana WESTERN UNION: small boats (2007) (1880); Therese Raquin (1867) 258–64 see also Julien, Isaac Zumurrud (Inez Pelligrini) 13 , whiteness (concepts of) 7 , 12 , 23–4 , 210–11 , 226–8 , 231 , 36 , 40 , 77 , 92 , 95–6 , 114 , 119 , 235 , 237–40 , 245 , 252 142–3 , 165 , 179 , 183–8 , 194–5 , see also Arabian Nights (1974); 200–4 , 207 Pelligrini, Inez Wood, Mary 125 Wright, Richard 99 , 119

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