Source: © Nikolay Doychinov, Reuters. Doychinov, © Nikolay Source: Source: © Source: Itar Tass , Reuters. Other Topics Is Islam a Part of Eastern Europe? Thoughts on History, Religion, and National Identity in the Eastern EU Countries Alexander Beribes / Leo Mausbach / Johannes Jungeblut 68 The refugee crisis revealed lines of division in the EU that had previously been hidden, especially with respect to the eastern member states. The discussion in Germany often fails to take sufficient account of the variety of experiences and perspec- tives in these countries. One significant explanatory factor for the reaction to the reception of refugees from Islamic coun- tries is the historic understanding of national identity. The EU expansion eastwards was intended to Visegrád Countries finally remedy almost half a century of Euro- pean division. However, in light of the refugee The Visegrád Group, founded in 1991 and still crisis and conflicting views it brought about on at a lower level of institutionalisation, consists the placement of asylum seekers, stereotypes of Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and are returning, dividing in media discourse our Hungary. After the four countries achieved continent into “progressive and tolerant West- membership in NATO and the EU, interest in the ern Europeans” on the one hand and “backward cooperation declined. It experienced no signifi- Eastern Europeans” on the other. Despite the fact cant revival until the European refugee crisis of that populist and Islamophobic parties have even 2015. been successful in Western Europe as well, it is crucial to examine the matter in a nuanced light What especially unites the four East-Central when considering the eastern part of the EU. European countries is their objection to the majority decision of the Council of the EU The purpose of this article therefore is to illus- Ministers of the Interior of 22 September 2015 trate several explanatory approaches, the intent regarding the placement of refugees. One justi- of which is to better understand the social and fication for this stance is the assertion that those political framework conditions that shape rela- seeking asylum from predominantly Muslim tions with Islam and Muslims in eastern EU countries pose a security threat from which cit- countries. To this end, the states in question are izens must be protected. divided into three groups: the Visegrád Group, the Baltic States, and the EU members in South- For example, in the autumn of 2015, the pres- east Europe. Within these groups, the focus will ident of the Czech Republic, Miloš Zeman, be on Poland, Lithuania, and Bulgaria. characterised the refugee flow as an “organ- ised invasion”1 and made it clear in a number This article does not claim to establish general of interviews that he did not deem it realistic truths about the relationship of mainstream soci- to integrate Muslim refugees. In the autumn of ety to Islam in all eastern EU countries. Rather, last year, he emphasised that he would rather the intent is to encourage a nuanced study of do without EU subsidies than accept refugees.2 this complex and multifaceted issue through Fidesz, the party of Viktor Orbán, who was a mosaic of approaches. Particular attention will re-elected Hungary’s prime minister in April of be paid to historic developments and internal 2018, even plans to declare the redistribution of and foreign policy. The results should serve to refugees unconstitutional via an EU resolution provide objectivity to a frequently emotionally- as long as it does not receive explicit approval by charged debate. the Hungarian parliament. Other Topics 69 The governments of the Visegrád countries can former Communist part of Europe. For instance, count on support from large swathes of their shortly after the German Chancellor’s decision populations for restrictive refugee policy. There to grant entry to refugees stranded in Budapest, are a number of reasons for this. absurd conspiracy theories emerged purport- ing to expose Angela Merkel’s “true” motives. Trust in the effectiveness of Hungary’s own nas- Politically, East-Central cent national institutions also remains lacking. Europeans do not feel Although a modest level of prosperity has been that they are equally achieved after difficult years of transformation and a rising middle class has emerged, great treated within the EU. social inequalities persist. Every achievement seems fragile. The persistent lagging behind Western Europe is also agonising. Instead of First, people have little contact with Muslims native businesses, the cityscape is dominated by in their everyday lives.3 Their most central international chains and companies. Politically, source of information is therefore the media, East-Central Europeans do not feel that they are whose portrayal of the Islamic world has been treated equally in the EU. In view of the Nord heavily influenced by terrorism and the wars Stream natural gas pipeline and its planned in North Africa, the Middle East, and Afghani- expansion, which entirely bypasses the transit stan for many years. After their countries joined countries in East-Central Europe, many find the EU in 2004, many East-Central Europe- German calls for solidarity less than credible. ans migrated to Western Europe and came in contact with people of the Islamic faith for the Given inter alia these concerns, there is a grow- first time. The heated debates on integration, ing conviction among the Visegrád states that parallel societies, and Islamic fundamentalism their restrictive approach is the only one that often reinforced existing reservations, but did represents responsible handling of the refugee not seem to affect the Visegrád states directly. crisis. This is clearly formulated in the Hun- This changed with the looming refugee crisis. garian Visegrád presidential programme of After September 2015, Poland, for example, saw 2017/2018.5 Slovakia holds the rotating pres- a balance between advocates and opponents of idency for 2018/19. The only Euro member granting asylum to refugees from the Middle in the Group often strives to fulfil the role of East and Africa.4 As the number of refugees mediator between the other three countries and grew, however, concerns of becoming inun- the European Commission. At an April meet- dated grew. Hungary was in the centre of the ing with the new prime minister of Slovakia, action and later participated in the closing of the Peter Pellegrini, Commission president Juncker refugee route through the Balkans. Germany’s expressed optimism that the relationship with crisis management was often perceived in the the Visegrád countries “could enjoy continued Visegrád states – quite contrary to the self-image improvement when Slovakia assumes the presi- of German policy-makers – as ruthless and irra- dency on 1 July”.6 This could become significant tional, since it allegedly overlooked concerns in the context of the ongoing negotiations over and made moral convictions absolute. the reform of the Dublin Regulation. The refugee crisis fostered still deeper differ- A closer examination of Poland is beneficial ences between old and new EU member states. because of the country’s political and economic Even today, the experience that the noble aims prominence within the Visegrád Group. Poland professed by the Communists usually concealed is also Germany’s second-largest neighbour deceit, injustice and lack of freedom means and its most important trade partner in Eastern that justifying policies using values-based argu- Europe. In the aftermath of the two Chechen ments arouses suspicion among many in the wars in the 1990s, Poland absorbed almost 70 International Reports 2|2018 Need for orientation: The identity defining the Catholic Church in Poland is deeply divided on the refugee issue. Source: © Damir Sagolj, Reuters. 90,000 Chechen refugees, of which an esti- Muslims and stoked it. Parliamentary elections mated one in ten remained.7 At the time, solidar- were held in Poland at the end of October 2015. ity in view of the fierce Russian conduct of the The victory of the national-conser vative Law war and the desire to enter the Western commu- and Justice (PiS) was also due to the fact that, nity of nations played a role. Although granting unlike the liberal Civic Platform (PO) which had asylum to these people garnered a certain public preceded it as the ruling political force, the PiS awareness, it never led to conflict within Polish strictly opposed the reception of refugees. society. It was only the spotlight of the refugee crisis that triggered controversy over asylum There are not many historic references to Islam seekers from Chechnya. It was primarily politi- in Polish history. In the 14th century, the Muslim cians on the right who capitalised on the fear of Tatars settled in what was then Poland-Lithuania, Other Topics 71 which is why one occasionally comes across pictur- Primate of Poland, Wojciech Polak, the sym- esque wooden mosques from the 19th century bolic head of the Polish church, has repeatedly in Poland, Lithuania, and Belarus. The so-called expressed support for the openness of Pope Lipka Tatars assimilated over the course of the Francis and said that he would suspend any centuries, which is why today there are few priest in his archdiocese who participated in a Poles who identify themselves with this minor- demonstration against refugees.9 ity. The Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683, when a Christian army under the command of King John III Sobieski defeated the Ottomans, has The East-Central