Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe

Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe

2015 Suggested citation:

Contact e-mail address UNICEF Zimbabwe 6 Fairbridge Avenue Belgravia Harare Zimbabwe Tel: +263 4 703941/2 Ext: 2130 Email: [email protected] Website: www.unicef.org/zimbabwe

Design: Lucia Marisamhuka

Printed by: UNICEF Zimbabwe Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe

Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe

2015

A Acknowledgements

We dedicate this study to the late Lasten Mika

The production of this report was made possible through the generous ﬁnancial, technical and in-kind contributions of the following individuals and partners:

Principal investigator and lead author of the Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Report: Sara Feresu

Survey coordinators: Collen Matema and Doreen Tirivanhu

Energy survey supervisors: MufaroTamanikwa, Tafadzwa Mataruse, Patricia Nyabadza, Itai Gwelo, Liberty Dube and Fiona Mundoga

Energy audit leader: The late Lasten Mika

Energy audit technicians: Nelson Banda and Livingstone Mutizwa

Energy survey data analysis: Collen Matema, Jacob Feresu and the late Lasten Mika.

Administrative and technical support: Doreen Tirivanhu, Spiwe Chirinda, Chipo Nyandoro, Ellen Marufu, MufaroTamanikwa, Kingstone Mbonga and Benias Mandizvidza

UNICEF Zimbabwe Social Policy and Research Section

Engineer Mashamba, Chief Executive Oﬃcer, Rural Electriﬁcation Agency for technical support and energy framework

The Provincial and District Education Oﬃcers of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education

The Provincial and District Health Oﬃcers of the Ministry of Health and Child Care

District Administrators of the Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and National Housing

Head teachers and teachers of primary and secondary education institutions

Health Care workers at clinics included in the study

The Ministry of Energy and Power Development, in particular the Department of Renewable Energy

Last, but not least, sincere appreciation goes to all the school children, household heads, communities and business people who participated in the survey.

i Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe

T Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...... 1 List of Figures...... iv List of Tables...... v List of Abbreviations ...... vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction to the Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe ...... 1 1.2 Deﬁnitions of Energy ...... 1 1.3 Justiﬁcation for the Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe ...... 2 1.4 The Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe ...... 4

CHAPTER 2: THE CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND TO AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY AND ITS GOVERNANCE IN ZIMBABWE ...... 8 2.1 Zimbabwe’s Energy Resource Base ...... 9 2.2 Energy Governance ...... 17

CHAPTER 3: PREVIOUS EFFORTS TO PROVIDE MODERN ENERGY TO RURAL AREAS OF ZIMBABWE AND LESSONS LEARNT FROM PAST INTERVENTIONS ...... 25 3.1 Public Sector Service Providers ...... 25 3.2 Non-Governmental Organizations ...... 28 3.3 The Private Sector ...... 36 3.4 Enablers to Adoption of Renewable Energy ...... 36

CHAPTER 4: STUDY SITES, METHODS AND DATA ANALYSIS ...... 38 4.1 Introduction ...... 39 4.2 Desk Study ...... 39 4.3 Study Sites ...... 39 4.4 Data Collection ...... 47

CHAPTER 5: HOUSEHOLDS AND CHILDREN ENERGY STATUS ...... 56 5.1 Introduction ...... 57 5.2 Sample Characteristics ...... 57 5.3 Results of the Assessment of the Energy Dimensions ...... 66 5.4 Barriers to Access to Cleaner Energy ...... 86 5.5 Solutions to the Energy Crisis ...... 93 5.6 Conclusions ...... 95 iii Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Table of Contents

CHAPTER 6: THE ENERGY STATUS OF INSTITUTIONS THAT SUPPORT CHILDREN ...... 98 6.1 Deﬁnitions Used for the Energy Audit ...... 99 6.2 Scope of Energy Audit ...... 100 6.3 Characteristics of Energy Use in Institutions ...... 100

CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES ...... 126

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 A typical energy ladder for cooking fuels ...... 5 Figure 1.2 The Multiple Energy Mix/Stack Model ...... 6

Figure 2.1 A summary of the existing and potential hydro-electricity sites ...... 12 Figure 2.2 Zimbabwe annual mean radiation (Global Extract) (MJ/m 2/day ...... 13 Figure 2.3 Zimbabwe’s annual diﬀuse radiation (global extract) (MJ/m 2/day) . . .14 Figure 2.4 A map depicting Zimbabwe’s wind power situation ...... 17 Figure 2.5 The Institutional arrangements and mandates within the Ministry of Energy and Power Development ...... 20

Figure 3.1 Examples of improved mud stoves ...... 28 Figure 3.2 Examples of Jengetahuni stove ...... 29 Figure 3.3 Examples of tsotso stoves ...... 30 Figure 3.4 Three stone/open ﬁre stove ...... 30 Figure 3.5 Mbare stove ...... 31 Figure 3.6 Chingwa stoves in Sedze, Nyanga ...... 33

Figure 4.1 Map of Zimbabwe showing districts sampled for the sustainable energy for children study ...... 40 Figure 4.2 Map of Chiredzi District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study ...... 41 Figure 4.3 Map of Gutu District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study ...... 42 Figure 4.4 Map of Hurungwe District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study ...... 43 Figure 4.5 Map of Nyanga District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study ...... 44 Figure 4.6 Map of Tsholotsho District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study ...... 46

Figure 5.1 Number of children per household ...... 58 Figure 5.2 Religious aﬃliation of household heads by district ...... 60 Figure 5.3 Household head education level ...... 61 Figure 5.4 Usual residence of household heads ...... 61 Figure 5.5 Monthly income categories (real) for the sample households ...... 64 Figure 5.6 Agricultural equipment ownership ...... 65 Figure 5.7a Main sources of energy for lighting (Adult household questionnaire) .67 Figure 5.7b Main energy sources of energy for lighting (children day scholars questionnaire) ...... 67 Figure 5.8 Energy mix for lighting ...... 72 Figure 5.9 Duration of light from clean energy sources ...... 75 iv Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Table of Contents

Figure 5.10 Time of day when children do their homework ...... 76 Figure 5.11 Types of stoves used for cooking by district ...... 79 Figure 5.12 Proportion of households with children in the kitchen when preparing meals ...... 79 Figure 5.13 Households with knowledge of biogas ...... 81 Figure 5.14 Energy source for communication and information ...... 85 Figure 5.15 Knowledge of clean energy sources and technologies ...... 86 Figure 5.16 Participation of energy organizations in surveyed districts ...... 89 Figure 5.17 Proportion of households who report that they were not consulted before intervention ...... 89 Figure 5.18 Perceived mean cost of clean energy sources ...... 90 Figure 5.19 Proposed energy business model ...... 97

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Energy dimensions, indicators, deprivations and sustainability ...... 6

Table 2.1 Hydro-electricity Potential Sites along the Zambezi River ...... 10 Table 2.2 Hydro potential for existing dams in Zimbabwe ...... 11 Table 2.3 The hydro potential for future dams ...... 11 Table 2.4 Hydro potential from run-oﬀ river schemes ...... 12 Table 2.5 Biomass resources currently used and potential future resources in Zimbabwe ...... 15 Table 2.6 Potential energy that can be harvested from the various Municipal sewage treatment works in Zimbabwe (m 3/day) ...... 15 Table 2.7 The potential energy that can be produced from livestock manure . . .16 Table 2.8 Classiﬁcation of wind’s potential to generate electricity ...... 16

Table 3.1 Status of biogas digester plant installations as at 31 March 2015 . . . . .27

Table 4.1 A summary of the characteristics of the 5 chosen districts ...... 47 Table 4.2 Target survey sample size ...... 48 Table 4.3 Questionnaire survey yield ...... 50 Table 4.4 Distribution of respondents to the household and children questionnaires by district and type of school ...... 51 Table 4.5 Qualitative data collection yield ...... 52 Table 4.6 Energy audit yield ...... 53 Table 4.7 A summary of analysis outputs answering research questions ...... 55

Table 5.1 Sample size and households composition...... 57 Table 5.2 Households’ size by district ...... 58 Table 5.3 Household heads by gender ...... 59 Table 5.4 Household heads age by district ...... 59 Table 5.5 Dominant ethnic groups by district ...... 60 Table 5.6 Household livelihoods and income generating activities by district . . .62 Table 5.7 Sample households’ mean incomes by district ...... 63 Table 5.8 Mean livestock ownership by district ...... 64 Table 5.9 Solar panel and generator ownership by district ...... 66

v Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Table of Contents

Table 5.10 Access to clean energy source for lighting (electricity from solar, main grid and generator powered) ...... 68 Table 5.11 Number of hours when light available from solar home system by district ...... 69 Table 5.12 Quality rating of the different types of lighting energy by respondents ...... 73 Table 5.13 Status of household deprivation to energy for lighting ...... 74 Table 5.14 Status of household deprivation to energy for lighting by district . . . .74 Table 5.15 Willingness to change current energy source for lighting ...... 76 Table 5.16 Household energy mix for cooking ...... 78 Table 5.17 Health impacts of energy source for lighting and cooking on children by gender and age ...... 80 Table 5.18 Sample household energy for cooking deprivation status ...... 82 Table 5.19 Proportion of households wanting to change from using fuel wood . .82 Table 5.20 Willingness to pay to change from using fuel wood for cooking by district ...... 84 Table 5.21 Amount of money households are willing to pay to change from firewood energy source for cooking ...... 84 Table 5.22 Cooling dimension by district (ownership of refrigerator and fan) . . . .84 Table 5.23 Deprivation of energy for information and communication ...... 85 Table 5.24 Affordability of cleaner energy technologies and price ranges ...... 91

Table 6.1 Student and Staﬀ Statistics for audited secondary schools ...... 101 Table 6.2 The energy mixes for Dewure and Tsholotsho Secondary Schools . . .103 Table 6.3 Student and staﬀ statistics for Malipati and Nyafaru Secondary Schools ...... 103 Table 6.4 The energy mix for Malipati and Nyafaru ...... 104 Table 6.5 Energy mixes for Chikwanda, Sipepa and John Landa Secondary Schools ...... 105 Table 6.6 Energy mixes for Chikwanda, Sipepa and John Landa Secondary Schools ...... 107 Table 6.7 Energy mix of Secondary day schools connected to grid electricity .109 Table 6.8 The energy mix of secondary day schools without grid electricity . . .110 Table 6.9 The energy mix of primary schools not connected to grid electricity and without solar ...... 112 Table 6.10 The energy mix of primary schools connected to grid electricity . . . . .112 Table 6.11 Energy mix at primary schools with solar energy ...... 113 Table 6.12 Energy mix of clinics not connected to the grid ...... 115 Table 6.13 The energy mix used by clinics connected to grid electricity ...... 117 Table 6.14 The energy mix at Chikombedzi and Sipepa Rural Hospitals ...... 120 Table 6.15 Firewood consumption in households that were audited ...... 121

vi Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe L List of Abbreviations

BEC Biomass Energy Conservation CBM Coal Bed Methane CNG Compressed Natural Gas CREET Centre for Renewable Energy and Environmental Technology CSP Concentrated Solar Power EMA Environmental Management Agency GEF Global Environment Facility GTZ/GIZ The Deutsche Gesellschaftfür Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) HIVOS Humanist Institute for Cooperation (HumanistischInstituutvoorOntwikkelingssamenwerking) InWent Capacity Building International (InternationaleWeiterbildung und ntwicklunggGmbH) IPPs Independent Power Producers KWh Kilowatt hour LPG Liqueﬁed Petroleum Gas MW Megawatt NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NOIC National Oil Infrastructure Company OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief ProBEC Programme for Biomass Energy Conservation PV Photovoltaics REA Rural Electriﬁcation Agency SADC Southern African Development Community SDG Sustainable Development Goal SE4ALL Sustainable Energy for All SNV The Netherlands Development Organisation TV Television UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund W Watts W/m2 Wind Power Density per square metre WHO Wealth Health Organisation ZENT ZESA Enterprises ZERA Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority ZETDC Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and Distribution Company ZIm-Asset Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-economic Transformation ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe Statistical Agency vii Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 1Introduction Introduction

1.1 Introduction to the Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe

This chapter provides a background to the situational analysis of the energy status of institutions that support children in five purposively selected representative districts of Zimbabwe, namely Chiredzi, Gutu, Hurungwe, Tsholotsho and Nyanga. It introduces the concepts of sustainable energy and the importance of access to clean and renewable energy with a focus on children and their well being. It then presents a general overview of energy access in Zimbabwe and how children are affected by the energy poverty. It finally presents the conceptual framework used in the study.

1.2 Deﬁnitions of Energy

In this study, three broad categories of energy are distinguished, namely, conventional renewable and alternative energy although some of these categories overlap. Conventional energy sources include coal, hydro, oil, natural gas and nuclear energy. In contrast renewable energy is considered as energy that is generated from natural processes that are continuously replenished. The energy cannot be exhausted and has the potential of being constantly renewed. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water and various forms of biomass.

Biomass, is a renewable organic matter, and can include biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels. Wood energy is derived both from harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste products. Waste energy can be generated from household, animal, municipal and manufacturing waste as well as landﬁlls. Biomass is the most used source of energy in Zimbabwe, and although renewable there are issues of supply and demand as well as management of the biomass which have to be sustainable.

Biofuels are made from plant materials which are converted into oils and alcohols that can be used in engines. They are typically made of renewable organic raw materials such as soya bean, rapeseed, maize, sugarcane, animal fats, waste vegetable and microalgaes. In Zimbabwe ethanol is derived mainly from sugarcane.

Alternative energy is a term used for any energy source that is an alternative to using dirty fossil fuels. Generally, it includes energies that are non-traditional and have a lower environmental impact compared with dirty fossil fuels. These include natural gas, compressed natural gas (CNG) (made by compressing natural gas to less than 1 per cent of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and paraffin. Natural gas consists mostly of methane and is drawn from gas wells. In Zimbabwe, there is confirmed natural gas in the Lupane-Hwange area in Matebeleland as well as Beitbridge and Chiredzi. Natural gas is a cleaner fossil fuel when compared to coal. Liquefied petroleum gas consists mainly of propane, propylene, butane and butylene in various mixtures. It is produced as a by-product during natural gas processing and petroleum refining. Liquefied petroleum gas can be used for cooking, heating and lighting; similar to natural gas. It is not locally available in Zimbabwe and has to be imported. 1 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe I Introduction

1.3 Justiﬁcation for the Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe

“Access to energy is fundamental to improving the quality of life and is a key imperative for economic development”. Lack of access to energy services dramatically aﬀects and undermines health, limits opportunities for education and development; and can reduce a family's potential to rise out of poverty. Thus to those that have it, modern energy unlocks access to improved healthcare, improved education, improved economic opportunities and, even a longer life, while to those that do not have energy, it is a major constraint on their social and economic development.

The problem of energy access for the poor has become even more acute because of the increased vulnerability brought about by climate change, the global ﬁnancial crisis and volatile energy prices. Estimates point out that unless stronger commitments and eﬀective policy measures are taken to reverse current trends, half the population in sub- Saharan Africa will still be without electricity by 2030, and the proportion of its population relying on traditional fuels for household energy needs will remain the highest among all world regions.

The energy mix in Zimbabwe has traditionally been coal, fuel wood, electricity (hydro, thermal and solar) and petroleum fuels. According to the 2009 National Energy Balance, fuel wood provided the bulk, 61 per cent, of the total energy supply, followed by liquid fuels 18 per cent; electricity 13 per cent; and coal 8 per cent (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012). This energy mix has been the main contributor to the country’s greenhouse gas emissions accounting for 60.7 per cent of the total emissions in the country and is undesirable (Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate, 2015). With the global urgent need for climate change mitigation, there are calls for increased use of renewable sources of energy.

Zimbabwe has a population of 13,061,239 people (Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), 2013) and it is estimated that 8 million are without access to electricity (Africa Energy Outlook Report, 2014). Thus only about 40 per cent of the population has access to electricity, with 37 per cent of households having access to electricity that is connected via power lines. At a greater disadvantage are children below the age of 15 that make up 41 per cent of the population who have to grow under these constrained conditions.

There are huge disparities between rural and urban areas in their access to electricity, with 83 per cent of urban households being connected to electricity compared to 13 per cent in rural areas (ZIMSTAT, 2013). Rural communities get 94 per cent of their cooking energy requirement from traditional fuels, mainly fuel wood while 20 per cent of urban households use fuel wood as their main cooking fuel. The majority of urban households use electricity for cooking (73 per cent) compared to only 6 per cent of rural households (ZIMSTAT, 2013). Increased load shedding in urban areas has resulted in an increase in use of fuel wood among even households that are connected to electricity. Less that 1 per cent of households use coal, charcoal and liqueﬁed petroleum gas.

Fuel wood is normally collected in rural and peri-urban areas, while it is purchased in urban areas. This has resulted in the depletion of tree resources in rural and peri-urban areas and led to a decline in the households’ welfare caused by increased use of inferior fuels; walking long distances in search of fuel wood; and a reduction in the quality and frequency of cooked meals.

Women and children bear the brunt of collecting and using fuel wood, which seriously compromises their time and capacity to undertake other activities. They are reportedly 2 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Introduction I walking longer distances every year to fetch fuel wood as tree resources become further apart. In Buhera for example, whereas ﬁve years ago women and children got fuel wood within a kilometre radius, presently they have to walk between one and thirty kilometres to fetch fuel wood.

There has been an increase in incidences of school children missing classes in rural schools because of having to fetch fuel wood. Responses from the children included in the “Children and Climate Change in Zimbabwe” study indicated that 50 per cent of the children from rural areas and 40 per cent in urban areas assisted their families in collecting fuel wood (Manjengwa et al., 2014). As the distances became longer and/or the load became bigger, boys would be mainly responsible for fetching fuel wood.

Further, this fuel wood is burnt on inefficient three stone stoves. In most instances the cooking is done inside poorly ventilated kitchens where dangerous air pollutants are released affecting the health of women and girls who are responsible for preparing family meals. Women often cook with babies on their backs and in the company of their other young children. Continuous attendance to fire exposes women and children to high indoor air pollution levels that are far above permitted WHO guidelines levels (World Health Organization, 2014).

Smoke is the fourth greatest risk factor for death and disease in the world’s poorest countries. It is linked to 4.3 million premature deaths per year, of which nearly 600,000 are in Africa and which can be attributed to household air pollution, a death toll greater than that caused by malaria (World Health Organization, 2014). It is a known cause of acute respiratory infections, low birth weight among other health challenges. According to the Zimbabwe Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2014, about 5.3 per cent of the children under 5 years had acute respiratory infection symptoms and one in ten of the most recent live births in the last two years had low birth weight (ZIMSTAT, 2015).

With regards to energy for lighting, most households in rural areas use paraffin, lamps, candles, solar torches and cell phone torches. They spend much of their income on poor sources of lighting. For example, households can typically spend 20-25 per cent of their income on poor quality paraffin lamps. The quality of light given by a paraffin lamp measured in lumens is lower than that of an incandescent light bulb or a compact fluorescent bulb and costs 600 times higher than a compact fluorescent lamp when costed per bulb output measured in $/lumen hour (Africa Energy Outlook, 2014).

Fuel-based light sources are also intrinsically more dangerous than electric ones although electricity is not risk-free. The many potential health consequences of fuel- based lighting include respiratory ailments from indoor air pollution (bronchitis and asthma); burns from direct contact with ﬂames; injuries from explosions caused by adulterated fuels; dermatitis from contact with fuel; poisoning and pneumonia from fuel ingestion; and adverse impacts on visual health. A study of eight major urban hospitals in Zimbabwe, including Mpilo Hospital, found that paraﬃn was the main cause of childhood poisonings (Tagwireyi et al., 2002).

Other studies show that the light levels recommended by professional illuminating engineering societies for electric lighting, based on visual health and eyestrain considerations, are often 10 to 100 times greater than the levels achieved by lanterns (Mill and Borg, 1999). Insuﬃcient illumination is one of many factors that can lead to long-term development of myopia (near-sightedness) (Kittle, 2008; Gaumam, 2013).

Lack of clear sources of lighting has an eﬀect on children’s studies and the teachers’ ability to deliver quality service as it is straining to read, mark or plan after sun set. Teachers and nurses have been known to shun rural schools and clinics without electricity. 3 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe I Introduction

Lack of adequate lighting has also caused poor maternity delivery in remote rural clinics resulting in high mortalities especially of premature children and for complicated pregnancies. According to the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2014, the infant mortality is 55 deaths per 1,000 live births and has been above 50 for the past 15 years (ZIMSTAT, 2015).

Energy demand is growing gradually in Zimbabwe, with the growth estimated to be 2 per cent annually. The long term scenario predicts that the electricity demand of the country will have doubled by 2020 and to meet this demand energy generation capacity should increase by more than twice the current capacity. There are already shortages of electricity caused by internal generation shortfalls that are expected to continue because of the high demand by the current connected customers and the increasing population. Internal generation supplemented by imports is only meeting 60 per cent of the 2,000 MW demand per day (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012). There has been stagnation in new power infrastructure development because of lack of ﬁnancing, non-viable energy pricing and a slowdown in adoption of new and renewable sources of energy. It is projected that grid extension will take time to reach the most isolated of rural communities because of generation capacity constraints within the region and lack of ﬁnancial resources.

1.4 The Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe

It is against this background that UNICEF Zimbabwe Country Office commissioned a study to determine the situational analysis of the energy status of institutions that support children in five districts of Zimbabwe. The Sustainable Energy for Children Study was targeted at designing innovative energy solutions to address environmentally sustainable energy issues affecting children, with the aim of having communities empowered to address challenges and associated negative impacts of barriers to energy. This would enable them to come up with solutions that maximize the use of indigenous, clean and plentiful renewable energy found in Zimbabwe to ensure long term sustainability.

Thus a detailed study on the impacts of energy access on children in Zimbabwe was conducted that was aimed at trying to understand the linkages between energy access in households and public institutions that support children and how it impacts on provision of basic services to the children. The study attempted to establish the root causes and barriers to enhancing energy access, a step that is critical towards facilitating the development of innovative environmentally sustainable energy solutions for children.

1.4.1 Conceptual Framework

The following conceptual framework was used to guide the design and analysis of the ﬁndings of the study. The framework recognizes that energy has multiple uses that include lighting; cooking and water heating; cooling of food, medicines and other supplies as well as space cooling; space heating; and information and communication. Embedded in the overall framework are four sub-frameworks, the child deprivation; the energy deprivation, the multiple fuel/energy mix and the sustainability frameworks. The basis of the framework is that energy is critical for the wellbeing of children. Lack of access to energy at household level and at institutions that service children especially schools and clinics can lead to child deprivations. Therefore the study took into consideration the Child Deprivation Framework when considering energy access because lack of access to energy can lead to child deprivations such as lack of access to adequate and properly prepared nutrition; education; communication; water and sanitation. 4 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Introduction I

With regards to energy deprivation, the energy ladder envisions that households are exposed to a number of fuel choices that could be arranged in an order of increasing technological sophistication and eﬃciency. For example for cooking, biomass fuels occupy the bottom of the ladder while electricity is at the top. As a household or institution increases its prosperity, there is an increase in their energy source eﬃciency and clea n liness ( Figure 1 .1).

Figure 1.1 A typical energy ladder for cooking fuels

s Ethanol, methanol s e n i l

n LPG, gas a e l c

n Kerosene a

y c n e i

c Charcoal ﬃ e

g n

i Wood s a e r c n

I Crop, waste, dung

Increasing prosperity

Source: United Nations Development Fund (UNDP), 2007.

It is assumed that energy transition occurs linearly from the bottom to the top with increasing socio-economic status of households either through a rise in income or a fall in price (United Nations development Fund, 2007). However, for rural households use of energy sources tends to be in mixes rather than unitary and linear as suggested by the energy ladder. Also because of the many uses of energy, households and institutions usually do not rely on one type of energy but use a multiple fuel/energy mix or a portfolio of energies that are embedded in an energy mix approach or multiple-fuel model (Hosier and Dowd, 1987). Thus, a multi-criteria framework is the most suitable model for assessing energy poverty which is multi-dimensional in nature. The study therefore adopted the Practical Action Framework for Energy Poverty. Embedded in this framework is the use of the energy mix approach or multiple-fuel model that stems from a further development/improvement of the energy ladder approach.

This “multiple-fuel” model (Hosier and Dowd, 1987) for stove and fuel management more accurately depicts cooking fuel use patterns in rural households based on the observed pattern of household accumulation of energy operations, rather than the simple progression depicted in the traditional energy ladder scenario. The “multiple- fuel” model integrates four factors demonstrated to be essential in household decision making under conditions of resource scarcity or uncertainty:

a) Economics of fuel and stove type and access conditions to fuels. b) Technical characteristics of cook-stoves and cooking practices. c) Cultural preferences. d) Health impacts.

The model also incorporates the fact that there is a transition and overlaps when moving from primitive to transition and to advanced fuels, thus it is also referred to as the 5 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe I Introduction

Mix/Stack Approach (Figure 1.2). This model also allows better estimates of the expected fuel wood demand and indoor air pollution in rural households. Thus we adopted the model to understand energy issues that aﬀect households and children.

Figure 1.2 The Multiple Energy Mix/Stack Model

Advanced fuels l LPG Advanced fuels l Electricity l LPG l Biofuels l Electricity l Biofuels Transition fuels l Charcoal Transition fuels l Kerosene l Charcoal l Coal s l tu Kerosene ta l s Coal ic Primitive fuels m o n l o Primitive fuels Firewood c e l Agricultural - l io Firewood c l Animal waste o l S Agricultural l Animal waste

Source: Kroon et al, (2012)

The study also assessed the community’s access to sustainable energy for economic purposes since energy is a driver of economic development. Therefore the overall conceptual framework that was used to interrogate the impacts of energy access for children in Zimbabwe considered these aspects and used the indicators given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Energy dimensions, indicators, deprivations and sustainability Dimension Variable Deprivation cut-off (poor Sustainability if...), quantity, quality and clean [Mix] Lighting Access to No access to electricity Supply side electricity Economically Access to solar Has less than 4 hours of viable Availability or generator light from solar or generator powered powered lights at night lighting Cooking and water heating Type of Use any fuel other than Demand side cooking electricity, LPG, paraffin Efficiency fuel natural gas or biogas Affordability Pollution/ Cooking using stove/ Culturally risk factor/ open fire (no chimney) if acceptable exposure using any fuel other than electricity, LPG, Kerosene, natural gas or biogas Cooling Food Households Not owning and using a Policy Enabling appliance refrigerator policies Space ownership Not owning and using a space cooling fan Space heating Not owning and using an Environmentally electric heater Using clean energy traditional heater (without Sustainable yields chimney) Information and Education and Gadget Has no radio, TV or communication entertainment ownership computer Communication Has no phone 6 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Introduction I

With regards to lighting, the children were judged to be energy poor if their household and/or school did not have electricity; or if they had less than 4 hours of light in circumstances where they were using solar or generator powered lighting at night (Table 1.1).

In terms of cooking and water heating two aspects were considered, the type of cooking fuel they used and its pollution/risk factor/exposure. The household or institution was considered energy poor if it used any fuel other than electricity, LPG, paraﬃn, natural gas or biogas and the household members and children were considered at risk if they cooked using a un-improved stove on an open ﬁre with no chimney or if they used any fuel other than electricity, LPG, kerosene, natural gas or biogas (Table 1.1).

For cooling (food and space) and space heating, energy poverty was judged by ownership of household appliances such as not owning and using a refrigerator or fan for cooling; and not owning and using a heater or using a traditional heater for space heating. The energy deprivation for information and communication was also measured through not possessing a radio or TV, not having a landline or mobile phone and not having and using computers (Table 1.1).

Sustainability is aﬀected by the supply and demand sides, the environment as well as aﬀordability and is impacted by energy policies pertaining in a country.

The minimum international requirements for electricity, cooking and lighting are as follows:

Electricity – Provision of 1 unit of electricity per day per household is considered a basic energy requirement. In many developing countries the 30 units of electricity per month category is provided at a very concessionary rate to enable access to electricity (World Health Organization, 2006).

Cooking – Minimum standard for cooking - 1 kilogramme fuel wood or 0.3 kilogrammes charcoal or 0.04 kilogrammes LPG or 0.2 litres of paraﬃn per person per day, taking less than 30 minutes to obtain per household per day (GTZ-HERA, 2009; World Health Organization, 2006).

Lighting – Eﬀective or standard lighting requires a minimum of 300 lumens, an equivalent of 30 W incandescent bulb (Reich et al, 2010). This is suﬃcient for reading and doing other household tasks. It has been proven that lighting below 300 lumens is associated with an increase in work related accidents in a workplace. According to Practical Action 300 lumens should be available for at least four hours per night...

The overall conceptual framework was used to assist in answering the following questions: l What is the current energy poverty status of households, schools and clinics? l What is their energy mix and how sustainable is it? l Does the energy mix include renewable/ sustainable energy? l How does the energy status aﬀect children? l What are the barriers/opportunities to adoption of renewable energy? l What is the best energy mix option and how can we introduce innovative solutions to make it sustainable?

The main aim of the study was for the energy used by rural communities to move towards sustainable energy sources that are both eﬃcient and renewable. Recommended sustainable energy solutions should allow communities to evolve and grow the mix of resources needed to meet their energy needs of present and future generations while enhancing the environment, the economic viability of the community and achieving equitable treatment of people. 7 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

As noted in Chapter 1 this study aimed to gather evidence on the root causes and barriers associated with energy access to enable the designing of innovative energy solutions to address environmental sustainability issues aﬀecting children. It also aimed to have communities empowered to enable them to address the challenges and associated negative impacts of barriers to energy access using innovative solutions which maximize the use of indigenous, clean and plentiful renewable energy to ensure long-term sustainability. Therefore the starting point is to review energy availability in Zimbabwe and its governance.

2.1 Zimbabwe’s Energy Resource Base

According to the National Energy Policy (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012), Zimbabwe is well endowed with sources of both fossil fuels and renewable energy. It has: l Twelve billion metric tonnes of proven coal resources. l Approximately 1,132 terra cubic metres of coal bead methane. l Hydro-power potential concentrated along the Zambezi river, with potential also at many micro-hydro sites in the Eastern Highlands and dams across the country. Existing inland dams have an estimated 20 MW potential; run-oﬀ-river schemes could generate 150 MW; and proposed dams have a potential of 260 MW, however, more accurate ﬁgures would require feasibility studies. l An annual daily average solar radiation of 20 megajoules per square metre which is greatly under-exploited and which at 3,000 hours a year could produce 10,000 Gwh of electrical energy per year. l An annual yield of fuel wood from natural forests estimated at 4.6 million tonnes.

The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency has carried out an assessment on the availability and utilization of the various renewable energy sources in Zimbabwe whose results follow.

2.1.1 Installed and Potential Hydro- Electricity Generation Capacity

The potential of developing Large Hydro Schemes in Zimbabwe is limited because the Zambezi River is the only source available for the generation of large scale hydro-power. Thus, Zimbabwe has only one large hydro-electricity plant with a capacity of 750 MW which is located along the Zambezi River. There are, however, other potential sites along the Zambezi River (Table 2.1).

9 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

Table 2.1 Hydro-electricity Potential Sites along the Zambezi River Dam Power MW Energy GWh Present 1. Kariba 750 5,150 Total 750 5,150 Future 1. Katombora 390 2,000 2. Batoka 800 4,370 3. Devils Gorge 600 3,000 4. Mupata 600 3,000 Total 2,390 12,370 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

Planning, development and operation of dams on the river is the responsibility of the Zambezi River Authority, a body jointly owned by Zimbabwe and Zambia. According to the Zambezi River Authority Act, each country is entitled to 50 per cent of the available power generation.

There is potential for small scale hydro-electricity in Zimbabwe and this is likely to be an important source of future growth in capacity. The country has other isolated decentralized mini- and micro-hydro schemes of capacity less than 100 kW. Water availability, competition for scarce water resources and broader environmental factors are key constraints on the future growth of hydro-electricity generation in Zimbabwe.

The assessment of power potential from mini- and small hydro-generating stations attached to storage reservoirs is based on the yield and height of dams where data is available. Of the 253 dams registered as large dams (basically structures over 15 m in height) in Zimbabwe the majority fall far short of the requirements of the yield and head necessary for the generation of over 100 kW.

Most of Zimbabwe’s inland dams already have infrastructure adaptable to mini-hydro power. With the exception of the schemes along the Zambezi river (Table 2.1), all other proposed power plants have the advantage of lower water requirements and smaller environmental impacts than larger schemes. The potential of Zimbabwe’s dams remain largely unexploited despite the conﬁrmed potential. Only Siya dam in Bikita has been developed with a small decentralised 75 kW system.

The hydro potential of existing dams is given in Table 2.2, while that of the potential future dams is given in Table 2.3.

10 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2

Table 2.2 Hydro potential for existing dams in Zimbabwe No Name River Province Power MW GMWh 1 Mazoe Mazoe Mashonaland Central 0.17 0.74 2 Sebakwe Sebakwe Midlands 0.82 3.59 3 Mutirikwe Mutirikwe Masvingo 5.00 26.67 4 Bangala Mutirikwe Masvingo 5.51 24.13 5 Manjirenji Chiredzi Masvingo 1.43 6.26 6 Ingwenzi Ingwenzi Matebeleland South 0.11 0.48 7 Mwenji Mwenje Mashonaland Central 0.25 1.09 8 Lesapi Lesapi Manicaland 0.20 0.88 9 Upper Ncema Ncema Matebeleland South 0.15 0.66 10 Manyuchi Mwenezi Masvingo 1.40 5.00 11 Siya Turgwe Masvingo 0.65 2.85 12 Ruti Nyanyadzi Manicaland 0.88 3.85 13 Ngezi Ngezi Midlands 0.45 1.97 14 Mazvikadei Mukwadzi Mashonaland West 0.98 4.29 15 Biri Manyame Mashonaland West 0.75 3.28 16 Masembura Pote Mashonaland Central 0.10 0.44 17 Arcadia Pote Mashonaland Central 0.12 0.53 18 Mteri Mteri Masvingo 0.18 0.79 19 Mundi Matanga Mundi Midlands 0.10 0.44 20 Lilstock Ruya Mashonaland East 0.10 0.44 Total 19.35 86.99 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

Table 2.3 The hydro potential for future dams No Name River Province Power MW GWh 1 Condo Save Manicaland 24 105.12 2 Mukosi Tokwe Masvingo 12 52.56 3 Tende Runde Masvingo 7.20 31.50 4 Mozwa Tuli Matebeleland South 1.90 8.50 5 Glyn – Mel Manyame Mashonaland West 1.50 6.60 6 Mhondoro Mapfure Mashonaland West 1.60 7.00 7 Dande Dande Mashonaland Central 0.70 3.07 8 Silverstroom Musengedzi Mashonaland Central 0.66 2.89 9 Lions Head Mubvunzi Mashonaland Central 0.97 4.25 10 Muda Mupfure Mashonaland East 0.27 1.18 11 Kudu Munyati Midlands 6.94 30.40 12 Bindura Mazowe Mashonaland East 0.58 2.54 13 Manyange Tuli Matebeland South 0.20 0.88 14 Marovanyati Mweihavi Manicaland 0.19 0.83 15 Silobela Gweru Midlands 0.18 0.79 Total 58.93 258.11 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency 11 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

There is also potential to harness run-oﬀ river schemes for electricity (Table 2.4).

Table 2.4 Hydro potential from run-oﬀ river schemes Site MW GWh/a Gairezi 30.0 70.0 Tsanga 3.3 8.0 Rusitu 2 4.5 30.7 Rusitu 1 1.0 7.2 Duru 2.3 6.0 Micro Hydro (Manicaland Province) Total 14.1 121.9 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

Figure 2.1 shows a summary of the existing and potential hydro-electricity sites.

Figure 2.1 A summary of the existing and potential hydro-electricity sites

Key

Existing Dam sites with Mini Hydro Potential

Proposed Dam sites with Mini Hydro Potential

Existing Large Hydro Site

Exiting Large Hydro Potential Sites

Proposed Mini Hydro Runoﬀ river schemes Potential

Area with Micro hydro potential (Runoﬀ river schemes)

Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency 12 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2

2.1.2 Solar Power Capacity

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric eﬀect.

Zimbabwe’s annual mean radiation is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Zimbabwe annual mean radiation (Global Extract) (MJ/m 2/day

Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

The data for annual normal beam radiation for Zimbabwe were obtained using all data on global direct and diffuse radiation presently available. Generally the beam radiation in Zimbabwe can be expected to average about 20 MJ/m 2/day (2.03 kWh/m 2/year) with a peak of 26 MJ/m 2 (2.64 kWh/m 2/year) around Victoria Falls. The upward gradient towards the western end of the country is based on observations from one station only (Victoria Falls). More extended measurements should be carried out to confirm or correct these figures. Zimbabwe has 300 days of sunshine a year which is more than twice that in some European countries.

Zimbabwe has about 0.01 per cent (39 km 2) of its total land surface area (390,000 km 2) from which solar radiation is collectible (Figure 2.3). The net eﬀect is that a total of 202 kWh/m 2/year and 7.91*10 10 kWh/year is collectable.

13 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

Figure 2.3 Zimbabwe’s annual diﬀuse radiation (global extract) (MJ/m 2/day)

Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

2.1.3 Biomass Resources

Biomass can be used as a renewable energy on condition that the use is sustainable. The National Energy Policy, however, notes that most rural areas in Zimbabwe are facing fuel wood shortages as a result of agricultural land-use and unsustainable harvesting of fuel wood (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012). Demand for fuel wood is noted to exceed supply in Manicaland, Mashonaland East, the Midlands and Masvingo Provinces which are heavily populated while Mashonaland Central and Matebleland North are approaching the same situation. Estimates are that more than 6 million tonnes of fuel wood are harvested annually when the sustainable output of natural forests is 4.6 million tonnes. This translates to a loss of 330,000 ha of forest area, or over 60 million trees per year.

Inspite of celebrating tree planting day in Zimbabwe, the current annual tree planting rate is only 10 million trees. However, fuel wood will continue to be used for cooking and space heating by rural and low-income urban households for the foreseeable future. Thus the National Energy Policy proposes to establish an institutional and funding framework for developing implementing strategies to deal with the fuel wood crisis.

An estimated 1.5 million tonnes of bagasse is produced annually from waste in the production of sugar in the Lowveld at Triangle and Hippo Valley Estates. The two estates generate 72.5 MW of electricity for their own consumption and can sell 10 MW of this to the national grid. Additional bagasse has come on stream from Chisumbanje and Middle Save areas where sugarcane plantations are being developed for ethanol production.

About 70,000 tonnes of forest residue are produced from commercial forests that have potential for generating 150 MW power and for creation of a more formalized fuel wood and charcoal market. Biomass resources currently used and potential future resources and outputs are given in Table 2.5. 14 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2

Table 2.5 Biomass resources currently used and potential future resources in Zimbabwe Biomass Groups Current Resources Future Resources Agricultural related Livestock wastes: Crop and food residues from wastes and their -Manure harvesting and processing: products -Abattoir wastes solids by- -Large scale wheat husks products -Cotton ginning and cereal straw -Small-scale maize cobs and nut shells Sugar cane Bagasse, fibrous residue of the Trash, leaves and tops from sugar cane milling process and harvesting C-mollasses Energy crops High yield crops Jatropha -Sugar cane and starch crops Algae -Oil bearing – sunflower, soya New seed oils beans Forest residues Wood from plantation forests. Wood from plantation forests and indigenous forests Wood related waste -Sawmill residues (wood chips - and saw dust) -Pulp and paper mill residue (black liquor and wet wastes) Urban solid waste -Biodegradable waste Food related wastes, garden organics, paper and cardboard materials Landfill Methane emitted from landfills - from mainly Municipal and industrial solid wastes

Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

2.1.4 Biogas Resources

Methane can be harvested from Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants and from bio- digesters. The potential energy that can be harvested from the various sewage treatment works in Zimbabwe is given in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Potential energy that can be harvested from the various Municipal sewage treatment works in Zimbabwe (m 3/day)

Sewage (m 3/day) Biogas (m 3/day) Methane(m 3/day) Harare Firle 1,800 17,000 46,500 Harare Crowbrough 940 8 ,500 23,500 Mutare 30,000 1,07 554 Masvingo 16,800 621 311 Total 72,340 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

15 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

Energy Production from Livestock

Table 2.7 shows the potential energy that can be produced from livestock manure.

Table 2.7 The potential energy that can be produced from livestock manure Livestock type Population Annual biogas yield GWh Cattle 25,000 10.0 22 Sheep and Goats 435,000 2.0 95 Pigs 131,000 1.5 30 Poultry 5,428,000 0.1 71 Total 219 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

2.1.5 Wind Resources

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, using technologies such as wind turbines to make electrical power. Wind speed determines wind power density (W/m 2), which in turn becomes the measure of the wind’s potential to generate electricity. Wind power density is categorized as shown in Table 2.8.

Table 2.8 Classiﬁcation of wind’s potential to generate electricity Wind Power Density (W/m 2) Output < 150 Poor 150 – 250 Fair 250 – 350 Good >350 Excellent Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

Wind energy has been used for a power-generation project at Temaruru in Rusape and for water pumping at various sites around the country. However, generally wind speed over Zimbabwe, averaging 3 metres per second is too low for most wind-based power generation technologies.

Figure 2.4 is wind power map depicting Zimbabwe’s wind power situation. As indicated in the map, Zimbabwe’s density is classiﬁed as poor with a highest density in the 80-90 W/m 2 range. This density is only concentrated in the central Midlands Province and extends to North Western Masvingo. Investing in wind power generation will therefore be uneconomical for the country given the possible minimum wind speed to produce power output.

16 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2

Figure 2.4 A map depicting Zimbabwe’s wind power situation

Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

Uranium and geothermal energy resources exist but need more exploration work to quantify amounts. 2.2 Energy Governance

2.2.1 The Ministry of Energy and Power Development

The Ministry of Energy and Power Development has the overall responsibility for energy issues in Zimbabwe. The Ministry’s mandate includes policy formulation, performance monitoring an d regula tio n of th e en ergy s ector; as well as research, development and promotion of new and ren ewable sources of energy. In addition, the Ministry sup ervises and oversees the performance of state-o wned enterprises wh ich include the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA), the National Oil Infrastructure Company (NOIC ), Petrotrade, and the Rural Electrification Agency (REA). It also regulates Independent Power Producers (IPPs) such as the Rusitu Power Corporation. The Government of Zimbabwe subscribes to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The proposed SDG number 7 – “Ensure access to affordable reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all” aims to address this issue by: l increasing the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix; l doubling the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency; l enhancing international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technologies; l promoting investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technologies; and, l expanding infrastructure and upgrading technology for supplying modern 17 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries by 2030. Zimbabwe has domesticated some of these objectives in its national energy policies and objectives. The mission of the Ministry of Energy and Power Development is to achieve universal access to sustainable energy in Zimbabwe by 2030. Its vision is to ensure the provision of adequate and sustainable energy supply through formulating and implementing eﬀective policies and regulatory frameworks.

The right to energy is not captured in the Constitution of Zimbabwe (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013a). However, energy is deﬁned as a key enabler to productive socio- economic development in the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-economic Transformation (Zim-Asset) which is Zimbabwe’s mid-term strategy for the period 2013- 2018 (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013b). During this period the energy sector will prioritize attainment of optimal generation of power; the production and use of biofuels as enablers for economic productivity; and growth through the following: a) Raising the installed generation capacity of existing power stations to their optimum. b) Expanding existing power stations such as Hwange and Kariba. c) Completing new big and mini-hydro-power projects such as Batoka and Gairezi, respectively. d) Resuscitating small thermal power stations of Harare, Bulawayo and Munyati to full power generation capacity. e) Utilizing fully alternative forms of energy such as coal bed methane gas. f) Deliberate development of solar and wind energy initiatives.

The energy sector belongs to the Infrastructure Cluster in the Zim-Asset. The target for power generation is to increase power generation by 300 MW by December 2015; increase power access to rural households and institutes by constructing and upgrading sub-stations; and to complete grid expansion in rural areas.

With regards to renewable energy, the target is to increase usage of alternative forms of energy through implementing the Biogas Digesters Programme for institutions, households and farms with a target of 1,250 biogas plants installed by 2018. Another target on renewable energy is to initiate a Mini-hydro Programme for integrated mini- hydro schemes which should be functional by 2015 as well as installing a 10 MW solar plant. These projects are already being either planned or underway through either REA or Non-governmental organizations in partnership with REA.

Energy and power fall under the Value Addition and Beneﬁciations Cluster where the Sector is envisaged to improve supply of liquid fuels; reduce gas imports using strategies such as promotion of alternative sources of energy (biogas, solar and wind); and to encourage and enforce the use of solar energy for lighting and heating.

Zimbabwe launched a National Energy Policy in 2012 (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012). The Energy Policy’s objective is to ensure that Zimbabwe promotes research and development and the use of renewable sources of energy to support regional and international goals for increasing access to socially and environmentally sustainable energy services.

The Zimbabwe National Energy Policy is aligned to the strategic goal of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Regional Energy Access Strategy and Action Plan of 2010(Southern African Development Community,2010) which is “to harness regional energy resources to ensure, through national and regional action, that all the people of the SADC Region have access to adequate, reliable, least-cost, environmentally sustainable energy services and at the operational level that the proportion of people without such access is halved within 10 years for each end-use and halved again in 18 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2 successive 5 year periods until there is universal access for all end users.” The National Energy Policy notes that since it is unlikely that there is a single technology that can meet all the end-use needs for a given consumer, it is necessary to consider a portfolio of energy sources. Thus the ultimate objective of the National Energy Policy it to ensure universal access to a portfolio of modern energy services that fulﬁll the light, heat, static and motive power needs for enhancing economic productivity and quality of life.

The challenges noted for rural energy supply and adoption of renewable energy are lack of aggressive promotion in the households and commercial market; poor back up service; limited local experience and expertise for some technologies; high-up-front costs for adoption of technology; resistance to new technologies; lack of awareness of available options by end-users; as well as uncoordinated and unfocussed research in renewable energy.

Policy objectives include increasing usage of, and investment in renewable energy; promoting renewable energy as an environmentally friendly form of energy; diversifying supply options and increasing access to modern energy in rural areas. Several policy measures are enounced including adopting a long-term government-driven renewable energy technology programme; instituting innovative funding mechanisms and tapping into financing opportunities such as the Clean Development Mechanism, feed-in tariffs etc; capacity building programmes; raising awareness; encouraging local production and commercialization of technology; promoting investment into stand-alone solar energy systems to cater for rural communities; promoting the efficient use of biomass cooking and use of waste biomass for energy purposes; developing incentives for investment in renewable energy; and strengthening the institutional framework for research and development in renewable energy technologies.

Some of the strategies for biomass include increasing the tree-planting rate from the current 10 million to 20 million trees per year by 2015 and promoting rural fencing using live trees; supporting end-user-focussed research, awareness and education programmes to increase the eﬃciency of fuel wood use; and promoting the use of alternative heating and cooking fuels such as coal, solar and biogas in rural households and institutions (boarding schools and hospitals) and in rural commercial applications such as bakeries, brick moulding and tobacco curing. Strategies for solar relating to rural areas include promotion of solar technologies such as solar pumping for oﬀ-grid boreholes and river irrigation; and solar PV-charged lights.

The National Energy Policy also notes that there is unexploited potential for using LPG and paraffin to address cooking fuel challenges for the majority of the population, who either have no access to electricity or are unable to afford the cost of using it for cooking and heating. This will be targeted at urban households as most rural households are unlikely to have access to LPG. However, they could use biogas as an alternative fuel. Government is planning to roll out the use of biogas in rural institutions (schools and hospitals) for heating and cooking. It also plans to promote use of suitable alternatives to fuel wood such as LPG, paraffin, electricity, fuel wood briquettes and solar cookers.

The National Energy Policy separated policy-making, policy-monitoring and policy- implementation functions by creating an independent regulator and public/private-sector providers. Currently the policy-monitoring is vested in the Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority (ZERA) while the implementation is by ZESA and its subsidiaries. The institutional arrangements within the Ministry of Energy and Power Development are shown in Figure 2.5.

19 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

Figure 2.5 The Institutional arrangements and mandates within the Ministry of Energy and Power Development

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

MINISTRY OF ENERGY AND POWER DEVELOPMENT

• National Energy policy formulation • Performance monitoring • Administration of the energy sector

ZERA ZESA HOLDINGS RURAL ELECTRIFICATION BOARD Regulate operations FUND BOARD of the energy sector ZESA HOLDINGS RURAL ELECTRIFICATION AGENCY

• Generation Facilitate rapid & • Transmission equitable electrification of rural areas in Zimbabwe • Distribution

2.2.2 Regulatory Institution

The Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority

The Government of Zimbabwe established the Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority (ZERA) to deal with regulation of the electricity and petroleum sub-sectors by promulgating the Energy Regulatory Authority Act of 2011. The Act regulates the two sub-sectors and any other sub-sector. Previously there were two Acts the Electricity Act of 2002 and the Petroleum Act of 2006 that dealt with the two sub-sectors separately.

ZERA was established to regulate the production, procurement, importation, transmission, distribution, transportation and exportation of energy derived from any energy source. Thus ZERA was created for policy monitoring and enforcement. The Act gives ZERA independent decision- making authority for clearly defined functions that are critical for ensuring operational, financial and investment efficiency in the energy sector. The decision making role of ZERA is concerned with the development, monitoring and enforcement of product and service standards; energy prices; dispute resolution; and the issuing, enforcement, renewal, amendment or cancellation of licences.

ZERA’s key objectives include ensuring the security of energy supply, encouraging energy eﬃciency at utility and consumer levels and encouraging use of renewable energy and environmental protection, among others.

To this end ZERA has developed the renewable energy feed-in tariff scheme which is yet to be implemented. The renewable energy feed-in tariff is a policy instrument that mandates power utilities operating the national grid to purchase electricity from renewable energy sources at a pre-determined price so as to stimulate investment in the renewable energy sector. The feed-in tariffs were developed for renewable energy technologies applicable to Zimbabwe such as solar PV, small hydro, biomass, bagasse 20 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2 and biogas. The scheme is meant to promote renewable energy projects up to a maximum capacity of 10 MW.

The Authority has also developed net-metering regulations to support the feed-in-tariﬀ scheme. Net-metering is a billing mechanism that credits renewable energy system owners for the electricity they add to the grid. The objectives of net-metering are to generate additional power from renewable energy resources onto the national grid, reducing the investment requirement of utilities and conventional independent power producers. It also allows customer-generators to reduce their oﬀ-take from distribution networks through generating for own consumption, and to export to distribution networks excess renewable energy generated. Net-metering also promotes sustainable renewable energy sources and small-scale investments in the electricity sector. The net- metering regulations are soon to be promulgated.

ZERA has developed a solar PV integration code. The code establishes the basic rules, procedures, requirements and standards that govern the operation, maintenance and development of solar PV systems in the country to ensure the safe, reliable and eﬃcient operation of the Electricity System. The code includes governance; oﬀ-grid connections; grid connections; protection (to minimize damage to plant and consumer appliances); metering and information exchange requirements.

The Authority is also working with the Standards Association of Zimbabwe and other stakeholders to develop standards for solar PV system components such as batteries, panels, charge controllers, inverters, lighting kits and lanterns, system installation standards and for geysers Once these standards are in place ZERA will enforce them through a Statutory Instrument on Solar PV regulations. In addition ZERA is set to fund the establishment of a dedicated solar PV equipment testing laboratory at the Standards Association of Zimbabwe to certify solar PV system components.

The Authority is also registering all renewable energy and energy eﬃciency providers operating in Zimbabwe with a view of developing a database and providing recommended suppliers.

21 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 2 The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

2.2.3 Other Government Policies and International Agreements that Support Provision of Renewable Energy

The Ministry of Energy and Power Development is currently working with ZERA to develop a Renewable Energy Policy for Zimbabwe. The Policy is going to give guidelines and the roadmap for the renewable energy sector in Zimbabwe and will address gaps such as legislation and incentives for increased uptake and investment in renewable energy, among other issues. The Renewable Energy Policy is meant to create a more conducive environment for investment in the renewable energy sector.

The biofuels and climate policies are also being developed and will complement the Renewable Energy Policy. Zimbabwe has recently launched its National Climate Change Response Strategy which has, among many others, actions to mitigate climate change through adopting cleaner and renewable energy (Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate, 2015).

The country has joined the global eﬀort to eliminate energy poverty by committing to the UN goal of universal energy access (SE4ALL) by 2030. SE4ALL is a response to resolution 65/151 of the United Nations General Assembly that declared 2012 as the International Year of Sustainable Energy for all. In that resolution the General Assembly recognized that access to modern and aﬀordable energy services in developing countries was essential for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and for sustainable development, which would help reduce poverty and improve the conditions and standard of living for the majority of the world’s population. The initiative is meant to mobilize action from all sectors of society to realize sustainable energy for all by 2030.

In 2012 the UN General Assembly declared 2014-2024 as the Decade for Sustainable Energy for all through resolution 67/215. The resolution stresses the need to improve access to reliable, aﬀordable, economically-viable, socially acceptable and environmentally-sound energy services and resources for sustainable development. The Zimbabwe National Energy Policy has adopted this resolution in its objectives. However, sector stakeholders do not think that it will be possible to have universal energy access by 2030 because of the current state of the economic environment in Zimbabwe which is stiﬂing energy generation expansion. It is hoped that all these policies will lead to increases in the share of renewable energy in the energy mix of the country, one of the key objectives of SE4ALL.

The key question is to what extent are these policies sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the children in Zimbabwe and in what ways are they enabling the transition to clean energy and mitigation of climate change that is negatively impacting on the children in urban and rural areas? The renewable energy and climate change mitigation nexus is a double edged sword as addressing one developmental challenge has a direct impact on the other, leading to multiple beneﬁts.

22 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe 2

23 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

A review of previous eﬀorts to provide modern energy to rural areas of Zimbabwe was made to help inform the design and choice of study districts of the situational analysis of the energy status of institutions that support children. These eﬀorts are being made by governmental institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector.

3.1 Public Sector Service Providers

As noted earlier, the Ministry of Energy and Power Development supervises and oversees the performance of state-owned enterprises; the ZESA; NOIC; Petrotrade and the REA as well as Independent Power Producers (See 2.2.1).

3.1.1 The Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) Holdings

The Electricity Act of 1988 [Chapter 13:05] and the Zambezi River Authority Act of 1987 [Chapter 20:23] provided for the amalgamation of all existing power utilities into one integrated parastatal called ZESA. These were the, reforms through the Electricity Act of 2002 [Chapter 13:19] and the Electricity Amendment Acts of 2003 and 2007 that restructured ZESA into a state-owned holding company consisting of four subsidiary companies; the Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC) (power generation); the Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and Distribution Company (ZETDC) (transmission, bulk supply, distribution and retail of electricity); ZESA Enterprises (ZENT) (manufacturing and support services, mainly for ZETDC and to a lesser extent, the general public); and Powertel (telecommunications support mainly to ZETDC and the general public).

Of special interest to the Sustainable Energy for Children Project is ZETDC which is responsible for connecting electricity once it has been delivered to rural institutions by the Rural Electriﬁcation Agency.

3.1.2 The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

ZESA’s rural electrification functions were unbundled by the Rural Electrification Fund Act [Chapter 13:20] of 2002.This resulted in the establishment of the Rural Electrification Agency (REA) whose main focus is to spearhead rapid and equitable electrification of rural areas in Zimbabwe. The mandate of REA is to provide energy to rural areas especially through the main electricity grid. The provision of electricity to rural areas was initially the responsibility of ZESA from 1987 to 2002. Initial expansion of the grid to rural areas was haphazard until 1995 when a Master Plan Study was carried out. Implementation of the Plan started in 1997. The initial target from the Master Plan was to electrify 415 rural centres, and did not include schools, clinics or any other public institutions except those within one kilometre radius of the business centre. Business centres were provided with access to electricity and all they had to do was internal wiring of their properties.

When REA was established as a stand-alone entity in 2002 its objective was to provide electricity to all public institutions including all government extension oﬃces, schools, clinics and chiefs’ homes through two main programmes, the Expanded Rural Electriﬁcation 25 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3 Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

Programme and the Electricity End-Use Infrastructure Development. Since its establishment REA has installed electricity at 7,703 public institutions in the rural areas and has a backlog of 5,327 primary schools; 2,188 secondary schools; 1,338 health centres and 266 chiefs’ homes.

All the rural public institutions qualify for 100 per cent capital subsidy through the Expanded Rural Electriﬁcation Programme. Entities other than public institutions such as Community Group Schemes (business centres and villages), qualify for 50 per cent subsidy while individual households qualify for a 40 per cent capital subsidy. This has meant that although households have potential access to electricity as electric cables “pass-over their homesteads” ,they still are not connected to electricity since they cannot aﬀord the 60 per cent of the cost they have to pay to get connected to the grid. In some communities, villagers have formed cooperatives to enable them to raise the funds to enable their homesteads to be connected to the grid because they then pay 50 per cent instead of 60 per cent of the cost. In some instances the cooperatives have negotiated payment plans. However, when connected, end-users have reported long periods without electricity when their transformers get faulty as REA was reportedly taking long to repair faults. This was mentioned by many end-users similar to a school headmaster who said:

“There was an accident in which a car got hooked to the electricity line and since then we have called ZESA and it has not responded…” (P34:21; 138:138), KII; High school headmaster).

In some cases REA has not been able to catch up with the waiting list because of the pertaining economic situation in the country as expressed by a village head in Hurungwe:

“We actually joined REA in 2002 but it is now 2015 and still we have not yet been connected to the main grid.” (P36:71 197:197), village head Hurungwe.

The Rural Electrification Fund Act provides for the funding of the programme through levies, loans, fiscal allocations, customer contributions (50:50 scheme, 40:60 scheme), income generating activities grants and donations. Currently the rural electrification programmes are primarily funded by the 6 per cent levy collected from all electricity consumers in the country as well as fiscal allocations. However, these funds are not adequate and external support is needed.

The Electricity End Use Infrastructure Development component endeavours to empower rural communities socio-economically by promoting productive use of electricity in irrigation and cottage industries etc. In spite of these eﬀorts electriﬁcation remains low in Zimbabwe with access rates currently estimated at 20 per cent.

The major challenge to extension of the grid in order to achieve total electriﬁcation of the country is the sparse distribution of the rural population. Furthermore, some areas have a topography that is not favourable to main grid with some having haphazard, dispersed and isolated settlement patterns.

These challenges can however be overcome by promoting use of alternative technologies such as micro-hydro, solar, biogas and biomass as enounced in the National Energy Policy. To this end, REA’s expanded mandate is to facilitate rapid and equitable provision of modern energy which includes renewable energy. As a result REA installed 415 donated solar systems in rural schools and clinics between 2006 and 2013. This was in addition to the ﬁve systems which were installed prior the 2006 intervention. However, the equipment was old and the design capacity of the equipment was too small for the institutions. Some of the major challenges faced included lack of clear 26 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions 3

ownership of the equipment by the community as well as maintenance of the solar kits. As a result the majority of the installed systems are not functioning. The installations made by the Biomass Users’ Network Programme that was supported by the Global Environmental Fund in the 1980s and 1990s were more successful and sustainable. Thus lessons should be learnt from this programme. ZERA has further distributed 437 mobile solar units to public institutions.

REA has been installing bio-digesters at public institutions. Table 3.1 shows the status of biogas digester plants installed by REA whereby it commissioned 24 bio-digesters between 2013 and 31 March 2015.

Table 3.1 Status of biogas digester plant installations as at 31 March 2015 Date Province District Name of Institution Commissioned 2013 Harare Harare Roosevelt High School 2013 Harare Central Hospital 2013 Chikurubi Prison 2013 Harare Central Prison 2013 Mashonaland East Goromonzi Domboshava homestead 2013 Pig Industry Board 2013 2014 Midlands Gweru Fletcher High School 24/04/14 St Annes Brunapeg Matabeleland South Mangwe 27/06/14 Mission Hospital Mashonaland East Seke Ruz Farm 03/07/14 Matabelaland North Lupane St Lukes Hospital 21/08/14 Matabeleland South Gwanda Mtshabezi High School 01/10/14 Midlands Gweru Lower Gwelo Mission 30/10/14 Mashonaland West Chegutu Sandringham High School 10/11/14 Matabeleland South Insiza Empandeni High School 21/11/14 Matabelaland North Nkayi Mbuma Mission Hospital 03/12/14 Midlands Kwekwe Shungu High School 10/12/14 Mt Selinda Mission Manicaland Chipinge 11/12/14 High School Matabeleland South Umzingwane Mzinyathini High School 18/12/14 2015 Matabelaland North Tsholotsho Tsholotsho High School 21/01/15 Matabeleland South Insiza J Z Moyo High School 21/01/15 Midlands Gweru Nkululeko High School 14/02/15 Mashonaland West Zvimba Kutama High School 27/02/15 Mashonaland Central Mt Darwin Mt Darwin Hospital 06/03/15 Muzarabani St Albert’s Hospital 06/03/15 Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

REA availed data bases of all its renewable and non-renewable interventions to this consultancy. This information was supplemented by information from key informants and focus group discussions during this study. 27 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3 Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

As an executing Agency of the Ministry responsible for Energy, REA is responsible for implementing the National Energy Policy and for meeting targets in the Zim-Asset; hence its new strategy is that of a shift from grid extension to promotion of oﬀ-grid supply of renewable energy. Thus REA is supposed to be transformed from a Rural Electriﬁcation Agency into a Rural Energy Agency so that they can take on board this new and expanded mandate (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012).

REA has commissioned a study to develop a new Energy Master Plan that will guide the expansion of energy access to rural areas. The Plan will be informed by an assessment of the current grid, available resources and demand for energy. It will provide recommendations for best technologies for speciﬁc areas. The Master Plan will provide scope for expansion of partnerships of players in the energy sector as some of the ventures could be taken up commercially. Currently REA has partnerships with NGOs with interest in renewable energy such as Practical Action, the Humanist Institute Cooperation (HIVOs) and Netherlands Development Organization (SNV) on some renewable energy projects.

3.2 Non-Governmental Organizations

There have been several eﬀorts by NGOs to introduce cleaner and renewable energy in Zimbabwe. For example the GTZ/GIZ introduced fuel wood saving technologies and systems ProBEC supported Biomass Energy Conservation demonstration projects during 1999-2004. This was a joint programme between SADC, the European Commission and the German Government that was implemented by GTZ/GIZ in six countries that included Zimbabwe.

Demonstration projects were piloted in Hurungwe District in Mashonaland West; Chimanimani District in Manicaland; and Epworth in the Greater HThe Institute of Environmental Studies carried out an economic analysis of fuel wood saving technologies and systems of the ProBEC demonstration projects in 2002 (Institute of Environmental Studies, 2002). The aim of the economic assessment was to identify; attach value; and compare the costs and beneﬁts of adopting biomass energy stoves (mud stoves) to both households and producers of the stoves in Hurungwe District.

Figure 3.1 Examples of improved mud stoves

28 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions 3

Results from the economic analysis using seven economic ratios (pay-back period; total net benefit; rate of return; ratio of net benefit of improved stove to expenditure on food and groceries; total annual cost; net present value and dynamic rate of return) suggested very high incentives for the households to adopt the improved mudstoves. The net benefits that accrued to the households were high and compared favourably with other household budget items. The fuel wood saving stoves reduced the time spent collecting fuel wood and conserved the resource base as they used very small amounts of fuel wood and shortened the time spent preparing food.

Despite the economic and time-saving advantages of the cookstoves adaptation was poor because of critical social and cultural challenges in the adoption of the stoves. As a result there were about 500 improved stoves in Hurungwe and less than 50 in Chimanimani District not long after the end of implementation of the PROBEC programme (Mangwandi, 2002). However, the trained women in Manicaland are still active in production and distribution of the portable clay stoves. They are supplying them as far as Harare, but are limited by the volume of production and the level of awareness which is low.

GOAL Zimbabwe and other development partners have also tried to promote the use of improved cook-stoves such as jengetahuni (Figure 3.2) and tsotso stoves (Figure 3.3), which consume less fuel wood in Hurungwe. The stoves were introduced in Hurungwe because of the looming scarcity of fuel wood in the district as a result of massive deforestation for fuel wood for curing tobacco.

arare Metropolitan Area. The project was aimed at introducing and promoting fuel wood saving stoves and improved methods of cooking and managing fuel wood. In Hurungwe, the programme promoted the use of improved ﬁxed mud-stoves (3 sticks) (Figure 3.1) that reduced fuel wood consumption at household level by over 50 per cent. The focus of the programmes was on saving fuel wood and trees but did not also highlight the health beneﬁts accrued from using the stoves.

Figure 3.2 Examples of Jengetahuni stove

29 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3 Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

Figure 3.3 Examples of tsotso stoves

GOAL carried out a Community Centred Prevention of Malnutrition Project in three districts that included a pilot study to improve the design of improved cook-stoves with support from UNICEF during October 2014 to January 2015. Project beneﬁciaries included a total of 480 households and six health facilities. The main aim of the project was to promote improved cookstoves by raising awareness on the beneﬁts of using the technology.

The project’s main objective was to test the performance of four cook stove types (three stone/open ﬁre (Figure 3.4), Tsotso (Figure 3.3), Mbare (Figure 3.5) and jengetahuni stove (Figure 3.2) and the intervention focused on cook-stoves’ performance and their adoption.

Figure 3.4 Three stone/open ﬁre stove

30 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions 3

Figure 3.5 Mbare stove

Controlled cooking tests, (water boiling and kitchen performance) were conducted as a measure of efficiency. The tests also included measuring the efficiencies and effectiveness of each stove considering their different attributes.

At baseline 43 per cent of the households were using the Mbare stove; 40 per cent were using both the Mbare and tsotso stoves 1 because the tsotso stove could not accommodate bigger pots; 6 per cent of the households were using the jengetahuni stove and 11 per cent of the households were using the traditional three-stone-stove.

By the end of the project, the use of the Mbare stove was reduced to 26 per cent of the baseline while use of the tsotso and jengetahuni stoves had increased by 74 per cent and 99 per cent of the baseline, respectively. The results from the tests in the study showed that the improved cook-stoves reduced cooking time and fuel consumption and that the jengetahuni consumed less fuel than the tsotso stove and its fuel reduction was within the minimum range set by the Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves (Mehta and Chiang). Feedback from communities during the review meetings indicated that adoption of the tsotso stove is low because it can only accommodate one pot at a time and can also only accommodate smaller pots. GOAL notes that adoption of a stove depends on the design, whether it meets the needs of the user as well as on its eﬃciency.

The results indicated that the jengetahuni cook stoves could be used to scale-up theuse of cook stoves. It was evident that the adoption of improved cookstoves could bring a halt to the environmental impacts of traditional cookstoves by improving the eﬃciency of cook-stoves in the use of fuel wood. This means that food could be prepared faster, using less fuel wood which translates to less time spent by women and children cooking and searching for fuel wood. This saved time could be used for productive economic activities and children could use the time for educative activities.

1 The Tsotso stove was only being used for cooking smaller portions with the Mbare stove being used for bigger household meals. The tsotso stove is the model being promoted under the nutrition project since August 2013 so this may be why there was greater number of people using tsotso stove than Jengetahuni before the intervention. 31 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3 Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

The project included training volunteers who in turn could train other community members on the construction of the stove. Participants were taught the advantages of improved stoves before learning to construct the stoves. Local resources were used in the construction of the stoves which means that there were no costs incurred by those who participated in the programme. This is what a trainer said regarding the advantages of improved stoves in a training session:

“The open fire has so many disadvantages; it consumes a lot of fuel wood causing forests to be destroyed. The open fire requires more labour as one has to cut big logs which can last in the fire but now people just require small branches (Tsotso). Nowadays, husbands are now able to sit in the kitchen and interact with their family unlike during the time when they used the open fire which produced a lot of smoke which was very irritating because it caused teary eyes. The Tsotso stove is very safe when it comes to children, they often have a lot of burns from the open fire. Generally, if we focus on women, the Tsotso stove lessens the burden; they are now able to do other tasks rather than spend most of the time looking for fuel wood. One can go for at least one and a half weeks without fetching fuel wood”. (P43:23,147:147), KII; Organization trainer, Hurungwe.

The Sustainable Energy for Children Study included some of the participants in the GOAL project.

However, despite the focus on reduction of fuel wood used eﬀorts should be made to educate communities on the health and environmental beneﬁts of using improved stoves, and future studies should include indoor air pollution measurements. Projects should include health issues instead of only focusing on biomass savings.Other studies such as the Situational Analysis of Solid Waste Management in Zimbabwe’s Urban Centres carried out by the Institute of Environmental Studies in 2011 have shown that new technologies are better adopted through using the public health route.

GOAL has spread the promotion of improved cookstoves to other districts such as Nyanga. There are Churches in Gutu who are training communities on how to build these stoves. ORAP is also promoting the tsotso and jengetahuni improved stoves in Tsholotsho. In Nyanga the tsotso stove was introduced mainly targeting Nyangombe refugee camp where refugees were involved in massive deforestation of surrounding areas. In Chipinge the United Nations Commission on Refugees conducted training on improved stoves to refugees at Tongogara Camp in Chibuwe. This was a response to the shortage of commercial fuelwood and budgetary constraints. GTZ, PROBEC and Zim-Ahead have discontinued their assistance in building these stoves.

The Chitsanza Development Association with support from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) Small Grants Programme (SGP) has been promoting the use of cleaner cookstoves by introducing the chingwa stove (Figure 3.6) in Nyanga District. The Chingwa stove is a multi-purpose stove which can be used to bake bread, dry and store meat and its “warmer” keeps the food warm. The construction of the chingwa stove costs ten dollars.

32 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions 3

Figure 3.6 Chingwa stoves in Sedze, Nyanga

Energy-eﬀecient cook stoves Chingwa stoves in Sedze Nyanga district

REA has also trained people to construct the chingwa stoves in Nyanga. Builders were trained who later would get contracts from households to build the stoves.

Practical Action Southern Africa undertook a study focusing on understanding the energy supply and demand for meeting cooking energy needs in Seke District. Randomly selected households from four rural wards of Seke district took part in the survey which sought to understand the current cooking technologies and sources of fuels used; the cost and the impacts on the socio-economic situation of women and children; and to quantify the potential market demand for alternative energy for cooking technologies and fuel sources.

The aims included the assessment of the socio-economic impacts, particularly on women and children, of the current energy mix for meeting the households’ cooking needs, and to get the community’s views of potential solutions to the challenges they are facing. The research gathered information on common practices used in implementing cook-stove and fuels projects which could inform decision making in project development and to assist in the design of a project intervention that could address the cooking problems. The study was funded by UNICEF.

GIZ tried to introduce solar-powered cookstoves and ethanol gel fuel powered stoves in Epworth. The solar technology had serious shortcomings related to the time and availability of the sunshine that does not match the user's time and requirements for cooking. On some days the sun is low and fails to power the stove. Also it is suited to those meals that do not need continuous attention to the pot like sadza the staple meal. The ethanol gel fuel is too slow and time consuming, taking 45 minutes for a meal which would take less than 30 minutes when fuel wood is used. It is also diﬃcult to extinguish the ﬁre from the gel fuel. 33 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3 Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

Renewable energy such as micro and mini-hydro, solar PV and biogas is still in its infancy with both the NGOs and private sector supporting the eﬀorts of REA. The energy has been used mostly for lighting and occasionally included cooking.

OXFAM and Practical Action have been promoting the use of renewable energy in rural institutions and households. Practical Action in Zimbabwe facilitated the establishment of seven micro hydro-electricity schemes in the Eastern Highlands area. The project came into effect with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding with REA specifying that Practical Action would provide technical support to REA on hydro-power designs and on the other hand REA would contribute material (mainly transmission lines to schools and business centres) and technical support for the electrical input. The partnership also created platforms to influence policy and has seen the changing of the mandate of the Rural Electrification Agency to consider other renewable energy options such as renewable sources besides electricity.

The focus of the Practical Action micro-hydro schemes was on institutions such as schools and rural health centres and provision of energy to households. Below are brief descriptions on the projects from literature review and Practical Action reports. l Nyamwanga (30 kW) micro-hydro scheme, in Mutasa District, is run by the Towe Community Cooperative, and has 3,800 beneficiaries. l Ngarura (20 kW) micro-hydro scheme is in Mutasa District, and is run by the Ngarura Community. It has 5,500 beneficiaries. l Hlabiso (30 kW) micro-hydro scheme in Chimanimani District, is run by the Hlabiso Community, and has benefitted 3,800 beneficiaries. l Chipendeke (25 kW) micro-hydro scheme is in Mutare District, and is run by the Chipendeke Community. It has 4,000 beneficiaries. The scheme has connected 35 households, 5 businesses, a clinic, a school and health centre. l Himalaya (75 kW) micro-hydro scheme is in Mutare District, and is run by Himalaya Micro-Hydro Association. It is benefiting entities that include a cooperative involved in pole treatment and another involved in an irrigation scheme. There is a saw mill that is running using the electricity that is being generated at the micro-hydro scheme. The other beneficiaries catered for in the scheme include a business centre which has existing businesses and it is planned to include energy kiosks that will provide services such as charging of cellphones and batteries. It has so far benefited more than 30 households.

Of interest were the Nyafaru and Dazi micro-hydro schemes whose operation and impacts on children were assessed in this Sustainable Energy for Children Study. We noted that Practical Action in collaboration with the communities in Dazi and Nyafaru initiated micro-hydro projects that were aimed at providing energy to the local schools and the community at large. The capital injection from the European Commission covered the purchase of transformers, construction of the weirs and power houses. Labour was provided by the communities.

From literature we had ascertained that l Nyafaru (20 kW) micro-hydro scheme was in Nyanga District and was being run by the Community through the Nyafaru School Development Association. It is over 20 years old and has 6,000 beneﬁciaries. It was rehabilitated in June 2013. l Dazi (20 kW) micro-hydro scheme was also in Nyanga District and was being run by the Dazi Community. It had 1,000 beneﬁciaries. It was supplying electricity to Dazi school including teacher’s cottages. Connection of additional households was in progress using resources from other funders, such as the German Embassy. 34 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions 3

However, according to the informants this study the capacity of the projects was expected to meet the needs of Dazi Primary School, Nyafaru Secondary School and the communities. However, the projects seemed to have technical faults and were not performing as had been expected. The micro-hydro in Dazi area had a very low capacity which was overburdened by high demand leading to the malfunctioning of the transformers. The project was reported to have functioned for three weeks and was never commissioned. The design of the project had to be looked into so as to improve the capacity of electricity being generated by the hydro-scheme.

The Nyafaru hydro scheme was functional but its capacity was only enough to provide lighting for the primary and secondary schools. It also had ownership wrangles between the school and the community. The Community Secretary for the micro-hydro projects in Nyanga noted:

“That is where the whole problem sprung from, instead of everyone getting electricity from the school, some influential residents who now work in Harare decided to buy their own electricity cables, instead of taking electricity from the school. They stole the electricity from the teacher's cottages and connected it to businesses. Even if you were to go to the business centre, you will be shocked by what you would see, they are using what we call a 2.5 mm cable, a cable that is supposed to be used by a general household. They are putting their lives at risk because they can be electrocuted or can even burn down the whole business centre. As that is not enough, they diverted the electricity to feed village 4 of which only two households are benefitting and also village 5 is also benefitting from the project. So, I think these households are the ones who are benefitting alone because one has an electric kettle and a deep freezer” (P13:18; 143:143), KII; Community secretary for micro-hydro project; Nyanga.

Despite the high potential of the micro hydro schemes in the Dazi and Nyafaru, the children were still deprived of the communication dimension as the Dazi micro-hydro scheme was not working and the capacity of the Nyafaru Scheme could not power communication gadgets such as computers.

HIVOS and SNV have entered into a partnership with the Zimbabwe Ministry of Energy and Power Development, the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development, and the REA to implement the Zimbabwe Domestic Biogas Programme in order to promote and market biogas digesters. The target of the programme is to install 7,400 biodigesters fed by animal manure in 5 years. The programme is targeting districts with high populations of cattle at household level as well as boarding schools. The districts include, among others, Tsholotsho, Insiza, Goromonzi etc. The programme is promoting the uptake of biogas technology through training of masons to site, size and construct domestic biogas digestors.

Capernaum Trust is involved in the provision of the lighting dimension to orphans and vulnerable children in Nyanga by donating solar lamps. Malilangwe Trust in Chiredzi also provides solar lamps so as to increase the access to lighting for community households.

The Centre for Renewable Energy and Environmental Technology (CREET) was involved with installation of solar PV systems and biogas digesters in rural homes, schools, clinics and business centres. It installed a biogas digester for the Kakore Cooperative which was rearing pigs in Chikwaka District (Goromonzi) and four biogas digesters for secondary schools in the Chimanimani area which provided power for cooking in domestic science classes and for lightning.

35 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 3 Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

HIVOS and InWent started a jatropha project in Mudzi where jatropha was grown as a live fence and the seeds were collected and crushed to produce oil which communities used in simple lamps for lighting among other uses. The lamps were produced by local entrepreneurs.

Environment Africa has projects focussed on production of Jatropha biofuel for lightning and is also promoting a saw dust stove mainly meant for urban areas in close proximity to timber milling companies.

3.3 The Private Sector

The renewable energy market is still in its infancy and slowly growing led by the solar PV market mainly because of the decrease in prices of the solar panels on the international market and the availability of low cost Chinese products. Mobile telephone companies, among them ECONET and NETone, have started to roll out pico solar PV systems. These programmes have complimented other formal and informal distribution channels of solar systems. Such programmes can be tailor-made to target children in schools. Arrangements can be made through “every child a lamp” where all school children receive a solar lamp which is then bought as part of school fees. Such possibilities were investigated during the study to come up with a feasible innovative proposition.

ECONET has been installing solar fridges at its base stations close to rural clinics. This is a countrywide programme. However, there is need to assess the performance of the project in order to determine its uptake and any barriers and challenges it might be facing.

At the time of the study, Zimbabwe did not have a policy on promotion of solar geysers in public institutions. Most of the solar heaters previously installed at some rural hospitals were no longer functional because of lack of service backup.

Generally, marked growth of the solar market is in sharp contrast to other sub-sector markets such as biogas, improved cook-stoves and wind energy. Lack of innovation, awareness and sensitization about these technologies has been cited as a major barrier to their uptake.

The review shows that there are a number of uncoordinated and doted renewable energy interventions across the country. Lessons can be learnt from these interventions to come up with comprehensive options for nationwide adoption of renewable energy utilization for both institutions and individual households’ multiple energy needs.

3.4 Enablers to Adoption of Renewable Energy

The uptake of renewable energy technologies has remained poor despite the abundance of these resources in Zimbabwe. This is because the transition to renewable energy technologies including cleaner cooking fuels and appliances is not straight forward. People continue to use traditional energy sources as opposed to modern fuels, for cultural or aﬀordability reasons. The transition to cleaner cooking using improved stoves has failed to garner momentum due to a myriad of issues key among them being traditional and cultural barriers. This is the same fate suﬀered by the biogas projects.

A recently completed study that was carried out by the Institute of Environmental Studies and UNICEF Zimbabwe entitled “Children and Climate Change in Zimbabwe” produced ﬁndings which highlight children’s poor knowledge of renewable energy. Only less than one quarter of the children consulted believed the sun was a source of 36 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions 3

renewable energy while 22 per cent of the children perceived wood as a source of renewable energy. This identiﬁes a critical need for more understanding and awareness on renewable energy among the children in Zimbabwe.

Teaching climate change and renewable energy technology in schools would expose the children to understanding these technologies and issues early in life and they would act as the change agents to some of the traditional and cultural challenges. It is important to understand the role of children in communicating and innovating around technologies and techniques that will help to adapt to climate change and also to improve their well-being by having greater access to renewable energy technologies. Given the opportunity through learning and awareness, children can play a role in changing cultural perceptions and inﬂuencing the adoption of these new technologies. Education on renewable energy in formal and informal education were considered in the situational analysis on the energy status of institutions that support children.

Some of the barriers encountered in the shift to renewable energy are mainly because energy planning remains highly centralized without grassroots participation unlike other sectors such as agriculture, health and education. This has meant that the needs of the rural communities have remained marginalized and policies and strategies that are produced for these people rarely ﬁlter to them. Because of this lack of involvement at the planning and development stage the few pilot projects and programmes that have been introduced have not been integrated or scaled-up and have remained isolated interventions that have failed to grow beyond the project participants and project lifespan.

Energy still remains a very abstract concept to explain and plan for at the lower levels such as the village, ward and the district levels. This lack of awareness has led to a disconnection between general development planning and energy planning. The participation and contribution of communities, including children, in how government supports and delivers essential services needs to be expanded. The energy sector has up to now remained a distant and alien area for poor communities. The proposal is to have a programme that will enhance participation of poor communities, in particular children, in the delivery of essential energy services. One of the major constraints to children’s participation is lack of conﬁdence and the absence of suitable platforms for them to express their needs. This study involved communities, including children, in the survey to ascertain their level of energy poverty, knowledge and needs.

37 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

4.1 Introduction

The overall impacts of low access to modern energy are normally generalized and aggregated at the household and institutional level. However, underlying these general impacts are critical and often ignored micro-impacts on children. This study aimed to understand the level of access to modern energy at the household level where the children live; access for public services that support the basic needs of the children such as education, health, and information as these have a direct impact on the well-being of the child. It also mapped the root causes and barriers to enhancing energy access.

4.2 Desk Study

A desk study was conducted to determine the policy framework for energy at national level. It covered all sectors whose energy usage affects children and their wellbeing. The desk study included a review of the current status of energy available and planned for in Zimbabwe, and the role of renewable energy and cleaner fuels planned for the future. It also included a review of previous and current efforts to introduce renewable energy and identified where such projects had been previously carried out. The desk study was critical for the final design of the study.

4.3 Study Sites

Five districts were purposively selected for conducting the study based on ethnicity and participation in previous energy provision interventions. The districts were selected through a consultative process with stakeholders including participants of the Project’s Multi- stakeholder Inception Workshop which included energy experts from government, academia and civil society. Insights for site selection were also obtained from literature and previous studies conducted by the Institute of Environmental Studies: “Children and Climate Change in Zimbabwe” study; and the “Understanding Poverty, Promoting Wellbeing and Sustainable Development: A Sample Survey of 16 Districts of Zimbabwe”.

The selected districts were Chiredzi, Gutu, Hurungwe, Nyanga and Tsholotsho. Figure 4.1 shows the distribution of these districts in Zimbabwe.

39 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

Figure 4.1 Map of Zimbabwe showing districts sampled for the sustainable energy for children study Sampled Districts

Hurungwe

Nyanga

Tsholotsho Gutu

Legend Chiredzi Sampled Districts

Selected Districts

200 0 200 400 600 Kilometers

Generally ﬁve wards were purposively selected in each district for the study with the assistance of the relevant District Council personnel responsible for development. For Nyanga and Hurungwe which had known interventions, hydro-electricity and cookstoves, respectively; three of the wards sampled had known previous energy interventions while two did not have any interventions. In Gutu, Chiredzi and Tsholotsho districts where the research team was not aware of recent interventions the wards were randomly selected. The next Section describes the selected districts and wards.

4.3.1 Description of Study Sites

Chiredzi District

Chiredzi District is located at 18° 55 0 S, 29° 49 0 E in south-east Zimbabwe in ′ ″ ′ ″ Masvingo Province (Figure 4.1). It is one of the largest districts in Zimbabwe with a sparse population distribution (Figure 4.2).

40 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

Figure 4.2 Map of Chiredzi District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study N

## Dikiti ## Samba ### ##### 1##### 17 ## #

## # # ## # ##

## ### ###########Tshovani 3####

Legend Chikombezi # Sampled Household 11 # # Sampled Ward ###### ## ##### Chiredzi District

### ## # Maose ## ### ## # 15 #

40 0 40 80 Kilometers

A large portion of the district is found in region V, although there are some parts that lie in region IV. The climate is warm and temperate with the district experiencing more rainfall in winter than in summer. The temperature averages 22.5°C and the average annual rainfall is 566 mm. Many parts of the district are unﬁt for agriculture; hence there is need for irrigation development particularly in the South East of the District. With the arid climate, most people grow sorghum which is drought tolerant and requires minimal rains to grow to maturity. The red soils found in the district are also suitable for growing sugarcane under irrigation. The majority of the District is, however, taken up by Gonarenzou National Park and other conservancies.

In terms of vegetation, the District is characterized by the Mopane woodlands which are often associated with low altitude and hot areas with sodic or alluvial soils. Vegetation is varied depending on soil type. Large areas of sodic soils are covered by Colophospermum mopane (mopane) whilst the deeper sandy soils have very diverse woodland and good grasslands. Riparian woodland along the major rivers (Runde, Save and Mwenezi) is dense and is characterized by closed canopy woodland consisting of Cordyla africana (wild mango), Kigelia africana (sausage tree), Xanthocercis zambeziaca and various Combretum spp). These trees are becoming less available for the provision of fuel wood for use by the people in the district.

The areas that are remaining with substantial amounts of trees are in the conservancies and in the Gonarezhou National Park. This means that people walk long distances to areas where the trees are still available and risk being attacked by wild animals or being arrested for trespassing onto private land. In an eﬀort to ensure continuous availability of fuel wood, communities in Chiredzi have put in place some tree harvesting measures that ensure that people harvest some parts of the trees, leaving the tree to coppice and

41 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

provide more fuel wood. People in some areas of the district use the green hedge called ‘Mutovoti’ as a fuel although the tree produces a lot of smoke making it unsuitable for cooking.

The district’s population was estimated to be 275,759 in the 2012 national census comprising of 142,880 females and 132,879 males (ZIMSTAT, 2013). The Shanganis form the majority of the population, with everybody in the district speaking Shangani, a dialect that is related to both Zulu and Ndebele. In terms of social development, Chiredzi District has one town and a large rural area. The urban area is administered by the Town Council while the rural area is administered by the Rural District Council. Chiredzi has 70 primary schools 21 secondary schools and 35 health Institutions.

The wards selected for the study were Ward 1, Dikiti, Ward 3, Tshovani; Ward 15, Maose; Ward 11, Chikombedzi and Ward 17, Samba (Figure 4.2).

Gutu District

Gutu District is located at 19° 39 0 S, 31° 10 0 E in southern Zimbabwe, Masvingo ′ ″ ′ ″ Province (Figure 4.1). It is in the northern-most district in the province and is the third largest District in the Province (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3 Map of Gutu District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study

###### ## # ### ### #### Magombedze#### # ###5 ##### ### # # ## Matizha ####### 12##### # #### #####

# ### Munyaradzi### ### # #### ####### # ####### 21 ### Munyikwa## #### ### # # ###### # ## #### # ### 15 Chikwanda# # ## ##### ### ##### ###### ###### ### 26#

Legend 27 N # Sampled Households Selected Wards

Gutu District

50 0 50 100 Kilometers

Gutu falls under Natural Region III. Soils in Gutu are predominantly coarse-grained sandy loams ranging in depth from shallow to deep with low organic and mineral nutrients as well as negligible proportions of clay and silt. They have poor water retention capacity and friable characteristics that make them susceptible to erosion. The area’s climate is mainly driven by unreliable and extremely variable rainfall with a mean annual rainfall of 768 mm. Rainfall distribution is very erratic, with pronounced inter-annual variations, prolonged mid-season dry spells and erratic distribution that often leads to severe drought and total crop failures. Despite these conditions that are unfavourable for dryland agriculture, the main economic activity of the district is subsistence farming. 42 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

With regards to vegetation, the district used to be characterized by the Miombo type of vegetation that included the mutondo and musasa trees. There were also occurrences of mushumha , muchakata and mutohwe trees with some areas having the baobab trees. The district now has sparse woody vegetation with most of the indigenous trees replaced by thorny Acacia species. People have resorted to using any tree that can burn and produce heat for example they now use the muzeze tree for fuel wood which produces a lot of smoke

The district’s population was estimated to be 203,083 in the 2012 national census comprising of 108,603 females and 94,480 males (ZIMSTAT, 2013). It is one of the districts in the country that suﬀers from over-population. Its population density of 22.08 per square kilometre is among the highest in the country. The majority of the people are Karangas.

In terms of social development, the district is mainly rural with Gutu-Mupandawana which was designated as a "growth point" during the early years of independence graduating to town status in 2014. The district has 83 primary schools, 6 mission high schools and 42 government secondary schools. Gutu has 29 health service centres mostly clinics. There are 2 tertiary institutions namely; Gutu Mission School of Nursing and Hubvumwe Training institute.

The wards selected for the study were Ward 5, Matizha; Ward 12, Magombedze; Ward 15, Munyikwa; Ward 21, Munyaradzi and Ward 26, Chikwanda (Figure 4.3).

Hurungwe District

Hurungwe is located 16°30'0" S 29°30'0"E in north western Zimbabwe, Mashonaland West Province (Figure 4.1). It is located approximately 200 km from the capital city Harare.

Figure 4.4 Map of Hurungwe District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study

Doro ### 26#################

Magunje## # # #### ####### # ####### #### 10 ### Hesketh# #### 21# # # #### Legend Kapfunde#### #### #### ####12 ##### ## ## 2 ##### Tengwe # Sampled Households Sampled Wards

Hurungwe District

60 0 60 Kilometers

43 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

Hurungwe district covers an area of 19,200 square kilometres which lies in Natural Regions II, III and IV (Figure 4.4). The District produces cash and food crops combined with livestock. The area has potential for successful cotton and tobacco production which are grown as cash crops.

The vegetation of Hurungwe is typical of the Zambezi ecoregion and is diverse with Colophospermum mopane (mopane) being predominant on sodic soils, with pockets of ecologically important dry forests consisting of Commiphera spp., Acacia spp., Sterculia spp, and baobab. On the higher ground Brachestegia spiciformis, B. Boehmii and Julbernardia globiﬂora occur. These trees are under a lot of pressure from the tobacco farming operations that are wide spread in the district. More and more of the trees are being cut down for fuel for tobacco curing. The tobacco companies have tried to put in place programmes that ensure that there is alternative fuel available and in some instances the local authorities have tried to introduce the use of coal for tobacco curing.

The district’s population was estimated to be 329,197 in the 2012 national census comprising of 164,711 males and 164,486 females (ZIMSTAT, 2013). The Hurungwe population is predominantly comprised of the Kore-Kore ethnic group with some Karanga and Zezuru groups having migrated into the area.

Hurungwe district is administered through the Rural District Council. In terms of social development, there are 37 primary schools and 21 secondary schools. All 21 secondary schools are day schools. The Rural District Council owns 20 of the schools, the remaining schools are farm owned. There are 28 health centers in Hurungwe.

The wards selected for study were Ward 2, Tengwe; Ward 10, Magunje; Ward 12, Kapfunde; Ward 21, Hesketh; and Ward 26, Doro (Figure 4.4).

Nyanga District

Nyanga District is located 18° 13 0 S, 32° 45 0 E in the Eastern Highlands of the ′ ″ ′ ″ Manicaland Province, northeast of Zimbabwe, close to the International border with Mozambique (Figure 4.1). The district lies about 115 kilometres north of Mutare.

Figure 4.5 Map of Nyanga District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study

Nyamutowera Nyadowa ##### # ###### 7 ### ##### ## # 10#### ######### ## ##### #

#### ### ## Sedze Nyafaru ######### ### 19## #### ######21 ##### ### ## ### ## #### ## ###### #

Legend

# Sampled Households Sampled Wards

Nyanga District

20 0 20 Kilometers

44 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

Nyanga District together with the Chimanimani Mountains and Chirinda Forest form part of the Afromontane region and has the largest level of speciesendemism. They are characterized by high altitude between 1,500 – 1,900 m above sea level. The forest is referred to as the moist montane forest. The characteristic tree species are yellowwood and African cedar, which occur on drainage lines of rain shadow areas and on eastern windward slopes. Other plant species occurring on these mountains show a close similarity with eastern and southern African ﬂora. Examples of some of these include some species of Helichrysum, heather, sugar bush and aloe. A number of these forests are being threatened by plantation forest development, agricultural expansion and invasion by alien species such as jacaranda and wattle.

About 71 per cent of the plantation area is under softwoods (pines), 13 per cent under hardwoods (eucalyptus) and 16 per cent under wattle. Parts of Dazi and Nyafaru wards are under forest plantation. The wattle tree is invading some of the areas hence the reluctance by people in these areas to change from using fuel wood for cooking as it is in abundance and they can use it as part of controlling the growth of wattle trees. Some areas of the district such as Nyadowa are characterized by the Brachestegia spiciformis, B. Boehmii and Julbernardia globiﬂora species that are showing signs of re-establishment. In the Nyamutowera area the vegetation is characteristic of the dryer Combretum spp as well as the baobab tree species.

The south of Nyanga district falls within Agro-Ecological Region I which is a region of relatively high rainfall with an average annual rainfall of 1,237 mm. Thus south Nyanga has a high agriculture potential. The north of Nyanga District however falls in Region IV, which is dry. The greater part of the district is mountainous and generally has cool temperatures except for wards in Nyanga north. The climatic conditions in parts of the district are conducive to agricultural production which is the predominant source of livelihoods for communities in the district.

The district’s population was estimated to be 126,599 in the 2012 national census comprising of 60,461 females and 66,138 males (ZIMSTAT, 2013). The majority of the people are from the Manyika ethnic group. In terms of social development, Nyanga has 25 primary schools and 26 secondary schools. Infrastructure is generally good since the district is a major tourist attraction in the country. There are 27 health facilities in Nyanga.

The wards selected for the study were Ward 7, Nyamutowera; Ward 10, Nyadowa; Ward 19, Sedze; Ward 21, Nyafaru; which also includes Dadzi (Figure 4.5).

Tsholotsho District

Tsholotsho District is located 19° 45 59.77 S, 27° 45 0 E in Matabeleland North ′ ″ ′ ″ Province (Figure 4.1). Its administrative centre is the Tsholotsho business centre which is located about 65 km north-west of Nyamandlovu, and 98 km north-west of Bulawayo.

The district falls under the Kalahari ecoregion. It is covered by dry dense forest characterized by indigenous forests. Tree species include the Baikiaea plurijuga (Zambezi teak), Ricinodendron rautanenii (umgoma), Guibourtia coleosperma (false mopane) and the shrubs Paropsia brazzeana (umdlampofu) and Combretum molle (umbhondo). Among these are a number of other trees of the Highveld such as Brachystegia spiciformis (msasa), Pterocarpus angolensis (mukwa) and Strychnos mellodora (monkey oranges). The rivers are ﬂanked by a strip of riverine woodland that verges into forests in some areas, with species such as Acacia albida (apple–ring Acacia), Ficus species (ﬁg tree), Garcinia and Diospyros mespiliformis (ebony). 45 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

Figure 4.6 Map of Tsholotsho District showing selected wards and location of households sampled in the study

# #### # ### ### ## # Mlevu 3## # ## Sipepa 5 ##

Manqe ### ## # ### # 12 # #### ### #

# Dinyane ## ## Legend 15# Nkunzi # Sampled Household ## ## # Sampled Ward 18## ### ## Tsholotsho District

50 0 50 100 Kilometers

People in the district mainly use mopane tree as fuel wood as it is abundant in most of the district. However, as one moves due north toward the border with Lupane there is an increase in the occurrence of the Pterocarpus angolensis (mukwa) and the Baikiaea plurijuga (Zambezi teak). These are of high commercial value and are controlled by the Forestry Commission as well as private timber companies. In these areas there is need for the villagers to ﬁnd alternative wood for cooking purposes and they are using trees such as the Paropsia brazzeana (umdlampofu) and Combretum molle (umbhondo). There is a problem with access and quality of fuel wood in the district especially during the rainy season. So people have resorted to harvesting, drying and storing fuel wood during the dry season, hence there are heaps of fuel wood at most homesteads during the dry season.

The district’s population was estimated to be 115,119 in the 2012 national census comprising of 52,930 males and 66,189 females (ZIMSTAT, 2013). Tsholotsho is home to three ethnic groups, these being the Ndebele, Kalanga and San. The district has 59 primary schools and 15 secondary schools as well as 17 health facilities. Health centres? The main economic activity in Tsholotsho is agriculture (crop and livestock). The soils are not suitable for cultivation except the black clay soils along Gwayi river. The Kalahari sands are good for cattle rearing though there is need for massive investment in terms of reliable water provision and disease prevention.

The wards selected for the study were Ward 3, Mlevu; Ward 5, Sipepa; Ward 12, Mange; Ward 15, Dinyane; and Ward 16, Nkunzi (Figure 4.6). A summary of the characteristics of the ﬁve districts is given in Table 4.1.

46 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

Table 4.1 A summary of the characteristics of the 5 chosen districts

Agro- Main District Province Population Ecological Economic Schools Zone Activity

83 Primary Subsistence Schools Gutu Masvingo 203,083 III Agriculture 48 Secondary Schools

Subsistence 70 Primary Agriculture Schools Chiredzi Masvingo 275,759 IV & V Contract 21 Secondary Farming Schools

Smallholder 37 Primary Mashonaland Agriculture Schools Hurungwe 120,055 II West Small-scale 21 Secondary Mining Schools

25 Primary Smallholder Schools Nyanga Manicaland 126,599 I & II Agriculture 26 Secondary Schools

59 Primary Matebeleland Livestock Schools Tshlotsho 115,119 IV North Production 15 Secondary Schools

4.4 Data Collection

The survey was carried out during June and July 2015. It consisted of quantitative methods using household and children questionnaires; qualitative methods such as focused group discussions and key informant interviews and energy audits of households, schools and clinics.

The various elements of the study were aimed at understanding the linkages between energy access in households and public institutions that support children and how it impacts on provision of basic services to the children. The use of several methods, triangulation, helps in validating collected data.

4.4.1 Questionnaire Survey

The questionnaire survey recognized that the child lives in a household and is therefore aﬀected by the availability of energy at the household level. The children also spend a lot of their time at school. Therefore questionnaires were administered to household heads at their homes and to children in a school setting. This enabled children to participate and to input into the possible solutions to their energy problems. The children’s questionnaire also aimed to ascertain their knowledge of the diﬀerent types of energy.

The ﬁrst stage was to determine the minimum sample size of questionnaires to administer to households and children in each district. The Dobson Formula (Formula 1) was used to determine the minimum statistically signiﬁcant sample size 47 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

that could be used to make generalizations about the population from which the sample would have been drawn.

The sample size was calculated as follows:

n z²pq Formula 1 ≥ (d²×Responserate)

Where n= the minimum required sample size

p= proportion of households who are energy poor q= 1-p (proportion of households who are not energy poor) d= desired precision or error margin z= desired level of conﬁdence

n 1.75²(0.5)(0.5) ≥ (0.05 ²)(0.8)

n 0.96 ≥ 0.002

n 383 ≥ Therefore at 92 per cent conﬁdence level, 0.5 prevalence, an error margin of 0.05 (5 per cent) and response rate of 0.8 (80 per cent) the calculated minimum sample size for each district was 383 which was adjusted to 450 questionnaires per district. The 450 questionnaires were further allocated as follows: 300 for households and 150 questionnaires for school children. For the ﬁve districts this would translate to 1,500 household questionnaires and 750 children questionnaires and a grand total of 2,250 questionnaires. A summary of the target survey sample size is given in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Target survey sample size Parameter District (n) Total sample size (n) Calculated minimum sample size 383 Adjusted sample size 450 2,250

Children Primary (grades 5 & 6) 2 schools 50 250 Primary children 500 Secondary Secondary (non-exam) 3 schools 100 children Households (heads and spouses) 300 1,500 Households

5 (3 energy intervention Wards 25 wards and 2 without)

4.4.1.1 Household Questionnaires

In wards where energy interventions had taken place, the villages were stratified into beneficiary and non-beneficiary villages with the assistance of the ward councillor. Three villages with interventions and one village with no energy intervention were selected to give a total of four villages. Four villages were randomly selected in wards where the research team had assumed that there were no interventions. 48 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

A minimum of 15 households were randomly selected in each selected village from the village register with assistance from the village head. Overall there was equal random selection of households with modern energy/interventions and traditional energy users for each ward wherever possible. However, in many cases there were a few modern energy users and the sample size was made up by randomly selected traditional energy users.

In Nyanga the 300 households targeted for the district could not be met because of the rugged terrain and sparse household spread. The yield for Nyanga district was 282 households, while in other districts the yield was above the minimum target of 300 households. The household questionnaire is presented in Annex 1.

The questionnaire was designed to collect data on the energy status of the household, including demographic characteristics of the sample, their assets, economic and social activities as well as their level of access to energy for lighting, cooking, space heating and cooling food and space, for information and communication and for use in economic activities (See Table 1.1, Chapter 1).

The questionnaire also gathered information on the barriers to accessing renewable or modern energy and the willingness to pay to change to cleaner energy.

4.4.1.2 Children Questionnaires

A target of 150 questionnaires was to be administered to children in each district, 100 to secondary school pupils and 50 to primary school children. In order to achieve five schools, three secondary and two primary schools which fall within or closest to the selected wards were included in the study. Convenience sampling was sometimes employed where sister primary and secondary schools were included in the study. The fifth school in each district was a secondary boarding school and where there was no boarding school in the district a day secondary school was selected. Equal numbers of boys and girls were randomly selected from the sample schools to either fill in the child questionnaire or participate in a focussed group discussion.

Two types of questionnaires were designed, one for day school pupils and the other for boarding school pupils. The questionnaire for the day schools children was similar to the household questionnaire while that for boarding scholars only concentrated on their access to energy at the school. The questionnaires assessed the children’s access to energy, their role in the provision of energy; knowledge and their perceptions on barriers to renewable energy. The questionnaires for boarding and day scholars are presented as Annexes 2 and 3, respectively.

4.4.1.3 Questionnaire Survey Yield

In Chiredzi a total of 307 households were sampled in the ﬁve selected wards (see Section 4.3.1). There were no previous energy interventions in the area so wards were selected on the basis of potential use of wind as an energy source. Children questionnaires were administered to two primary schools (Chikombedzi and Zungudza) and three secondary schools (Malipati High, Crown Ranch Secondary and Chiyambiro Secondary). The locations of the sampled wards and households are shown in Figure 4.2.

In Gutu, a total of 332 households were sampled from the ﬁve selected wards (see Section 4.3.1). Only Ward 12 (Magombedze) was involved in an energy intervention with some households using grid electricity/generator/solar use and Magombedze Schools and Clinic in a solar intervention. 49 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

Children questionnaires were administered at two primary schools (Hunduza and Matizha); at two day secondary schools (Muchekayaora Secondary and Magombeze High) and at a boarding secondary high school (Dewure). The locations of the sampled wards and households are shown in Figure 4.3.

In Hurungwe, a total of 298 households were sampled from the ﬁve selected wards (see Section 4.3.1). Wards 2, 10 and 26 were selected on the basis of having been previously involved in an improved cookstove project.

Children questionnaires were administered to two primary schools (Nyamupfukudza and Kapfunde) and three day secondary schools (Nyamupfukudza High, Kapfunde High and Mushowe High) as there were no boarding schools in the sampled wards. The location of the sampled wards and households are shown in Figure 4.4.

In Nyanga only four wards instead of ﬁve wards were studied as Ward 21 had two micro- hydro power interventions at Nyafaru and Dadzi. Assessment of the two power stations and surrounding communities needed a day each as the terrain was mountainous which made travelling of both the vehicles and enumerators diﬃcult and slow. Thus 282 households were sampled from the selected four wards (see Section 4.3.1). The children questionnaires were administered to three primary schools (Nyamutowera, Dazi and Mtetwa) and one secondary school (Nyafaru High). The location of the sampled wards and households are shown in Figure 4.5.

In Tsholotsho 282 households were sampled from the ﬁve selected wards (see Section 4.3.1). The children questionnaires were administered to two primary schools (Dinyane and Kapane); two day secondary schools (Kapane Secondary and Sipepa High) and a higher secondary boarding school (Tsholotsho High). The location of the sampled wards and households are shown in Figure 4.6.

An overall summary of the questionnaire yield is shown in Table 4.3; with a detailed summary by district in Table 4.4.

Table 4.3 Questionnaire survey yield

Administered Questionnaires Number Total

Household Questionnaires 1,547 1,547

Child Day Primary School Questionnaires 287 -

Child Day Secondary School Questionnaires 327 -

Child Boarder Secondary School Questionnaires 137 751

Total - 2,298

50 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

Table 4.4 Distribution of respondents to the household and children questionnaires by district and type of school

District Numbers

Secondary Primary Secondary Total sample boarding Households school day school size per school children children district children

Chiredzi 307 54 69 32 462

Gutu 332 51 61 41 485

Hurungwe 298 50 99 0 447

Tsholotsho 328 50 64 34 476

Nyanga 282 82 34 30 428

Total 1,547 287 327 137 2,298

4.4.2 Qualitative methods

Qualitative methods were used to compliment quantitative methods. These included focussed group discussions and key informant interviews.

4.4.2.1 Focus group discussion

Focus group discussions and general observations were conducted for both triangulation purposes and to get in-depth information about the multi-dimensional nature of energy poverty and associated risks to children. Views from communities in a non-structured way are valued as structured interviews often miss critical issues aﬀecting communities. About six adult focus group discussions were held in each district, about four with community people and approximately two with mothers at health institutions in or near the sample wards. In addition two focus groups were held in each district with school children where possiblle.

a. Focus group discussions with community people Focus group participants in sample villages were organized with the assistance of village heads. One half of focus group participants were selected from households using modern energy sources or technologies and the other half using traditional sources of energy. In non-beneﬁciary villages participants were selected simply on availability. The village chosen for a focus group discussion was dependent on the availability of household members in the village, and the ease to mobilize the participants. Each focus group had a minimum of six and maximum of ten participants, with equal sex distribution. The focus group discussion guide is given as Annex 4.

b. Focus group discussions with mothers at health institutions Health is critical to the well-being of children and therefore a survey of health facilities was conducted in all ﬁve selected districts. The two sampled clinics where possible for focus group discussions in each district depended on the availability of mothers at the health centre. A total of 9 focus group discussions were conducted with mothers at clinics.

51 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

c. Focus group discussions with children Two focus group discussions, one with secondary and one with primary school children were held in each district except in Chiredzi where one focus group discussion was held. The targeted day for the focus group discussion in Chiredzi was a Friday and children in the target ward had gone for a sporting tournament. Each focus group discussion had ten child participants with equal sex distribution. Primary school participants were drawn from Grades 6 and 7, while in secondary schools participants were drawn from Forms 3 to 6. A yield of 9 focus group discussions was realized. The focus group discussion guide is given in Annex 5.

d. Focus group discussions with teachers, school development committee members and development agents promoting renewable energy Only one focus group discussion was held with teachers. This helped to determine the respondents’ knowledge on renewable energy sources and barriers to energy access and its adoption (see Guide – Annex 6).

4.4.2.2 Key informant interviews

Key informant interviews were conducted with individuals in authority or possessing valuable information Target key informants included village heads, village health workers, ward councillors, district level officers, school headmasters, nurses in charge of clinics, energy intervention organizations, general dealers and any other individuals that were relevant. Some of the respondents were specific to a district, for example an energy kiosk attendant in Gutu. A target of a minimum of 12 key informant interviews was set for each district. Ward councillors and Rural District Council personnel were sometimes too busy and only a few of them were interviewed. It was also difficult to make appointments with District Council personnel as the team would be working in a ward far away from the District Council offices.

People in the private sector providing energy related services to visited districts or communities were interviewed to understand constraints from the supply side (Appendix 9). These included hardware and general dealers and individuals supplying diﬀerent appliances or energy sources. Table 4.5 presents the qualitative data collection yield.

Table 4.5 Qualitative data collection yield Method and type of participant Number FGD Community/parents 17 FGD teachers 1 FGD Primary Schools 4 FGD Secondary Schools 5 FGD Clinics 9 KII village heads/Community Leaders 44 KII Community Workers 15 KII Clinic personnel 10 Business people 23 Public Institutions 3 School authorities 13 Trainers and beneﬁciaries of previous projects 8 Total 152 52 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4

4.4.3 Energy audits

Technical audits were carried out at 16 primary schools, 15 secondary schools, 18 clinics and 93 households as shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.5 Energy audit yield

Type of institution Total number audited

Household 93

Primary Schools 16

Secondary Schools 15

Health facilities 18

Total 142

The audits were used to determine the current energy utilization of the institution or household; determine the appropriate energy requirements and to propose sustainable energy options. The focus of institutional audits was on key services provided by the institution; operation schedule to give energy use intensity; service consumption ﬁgures; to check whether an energy management system was in place. The audits involved a physical assessment of energy infrastructures such as installed metres and heat consumption systems.

A checklist of lighting and time series energy consumption over a year, key functions of the institution and size of the institution, were used to determine the amount of energy consumed by diﬀerent energy units. Energy needs were assessed through interviews with key informants on what the institution or household needed energy for, what resources they had and the domestic, human and other waste they had (see Annex 8).

The audits identiﬁed and quantiﬁed the energy mixes being used by the institutions, shortfalls of the energy demanded or required by the institution or household; resources available for alternative energy, cost of the alternatives, and ability of the institutions to invest in the alternative energy. The technical evaluations were conducted at institutions where renewable energy had been introduced as well as where they had not been introduced. The technical audits were important in quantifying the energy requirements of institutions, identifying the barriers to adoption of sustainable energy in these institutions and recommending the best energy options.

4.4.4 Pretesting of study tools

The study tools (questionnaires and guides for key informant interviews and focus group discussions) were pre-tested using households and a school at Erin Farm in Bindura to ensure that the data collection tools were appropriate and the questions understandable. The pre-test experience also enabled clariﬁcation and improvement of the instruments.

4.4.5 Field team organization

The survey team was divided into two main groups. One group was meant for community and household survey while the other group was meant for institutional assessment and interviews. The group for the household survey consisted largely of 53 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 4 Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis

enumerators. Enumerators were divided into two teams of four enumerators each to administer household questionnaires and each enumeration team was under a supervisor. Each team was allocated two villages in each selected ward where the supervisor further allocated two enumerators per village.

The supervisor liaised with the village heads to organize either key informant interviews or mobilize participants for focus group discussions. The supervisor had an assistant to record and transcribe key informant interviews and focus group discussions. The supervisors monitored the completeness of household surveys and adherence to the sample frame by enumerators. They also monitored transcriptions by their assistants to ensure that all proceedings were captured correctly.

The team for the institutions had six members and was divided into three pairs, each with a supervisor and an assistant. One pair carried out energy audits of the schools, clinics, some shops and a sample of ten randomly selected households in each of the ﬁve survey districts. The second pair administered child questionnaires and conducted focus group discussions with children and key informant interviews with school authorities at selected day and boarding schools in the sample wards. The last pair conducted key informant interviews with health personnel and focus group discussions with mothers at clinics as well as key informant interviews with the business community, energy intervention organizations, Rural District Council personnel and ward councillors wherever they were available. Each supervisor monitored interview transcriptions to see if what transpired during interviews and group discussions was captured properly.

4.4.6 Data capture and analysis

The household questionnaire survey data was collected using the real-time Open Data Kit (ODK) collect software loaded on android devices. It was then transferred into Microsoft excel and cleaned. Consistency checks were conducted before the data was analyzed using STATA version II and SPSS for multiple response variables.

Apart from capturing the interview responses, the android devices also automatically captured the GPS location of each respondent and was, where necessary used to capture pictures of sample households, homesteads and stoves.

The children questionnaire was printed and completed individually by the school children. The data was then captured using the Census Survey Programme (CSPro version 4.0). This was followed by cleaning and consistency checks before the data was analysed using STATA version 11.

Descriptive statistics were generated for the household and children questionnaires for each variable to establish the prevalence or proportion of the different response units. Cross tabulations were run to determine district variations. In addition cross tabulations were also run for different variable units of energy access with potential explanatory variables of interest for example gender, ethnicity, education, and livelihoods, among others. The potential explanatory variables were also tested for correlation with the different energy access variables using the chi-square procedure. Variables which were found to be significantly correlated with target energy access variables were then tested for co-linearity. A logistic regression was run to determine explanations of variation in access to different energy dimensions by the sample households.

The key informant interviews and focus group discussions were recorded using voice recorders and then transcribed. The transcriptions were then analyzed thermatically using CAQDAS-ATALS.t. V7.1 software that helped to organize participants’ responses into themes through the memo procedure. Transcriptions were disaggregated into families and coded to see the frequency of responses from the diﬀerent groups of 54 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Study Sites, Methods and Data Analysis 4 respondents. Quotations from the diﬀerent transcriptions were then extracted and used to support or explain results from quantitative analysis. Some of the transcriptions were used to write case studies especially for interventions encountered during the survey.

A summary of the analysis framework is given in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 A summary of analysis outputs answering research questions Parameter Analysis Procedure Proportion without access to adequate Household energy Lighting poverty lighting at night Cooking Proportion without adewuate fuel for cooking Proportion without fuel for heating water Heating Proportion without space heating appliances/fuel Proportion without cooling appliances Cooling information and communication Proportion without information and communication devices charged at home Children energy poverty Proportion of children in households experiencing energy deprivation in the diﬀerent dimensions Proportion of children without access to Education Impact of energy >4 hours of light at night source/carrier choice Proportion of children exposed to on children Health hazardous fuels Ration of tradition to modern energy Household energy mixes/portfolios sources Barriers and bottlenecks Multiple regression Proportion demanding modern energy Modern energy demand and feasibility and technical feasibility Socio-cultural acceptability, Sustainability (household and business) environmentally friendly, economic viability matrix

Ethical Considerations

This study did not expose any risks to the participants. The only costs to the participants was their time. Prior Informed Consent by adults and Prior Informed Ascent for children was sought from all participants in the study. Permission was oﬃcially obtained from all the relevant authorities.

Although the individuals participating in the research will not beneﬁt directly, the knowledge from this research will be useful for promoting evidence-based policies and interventions for cleaner energy for children in Zimbabwe.

55 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5Households and Children Energy Status Households and Children Energy Status

5.1 Introduction

This Chapter presents the energy status of households and children that was obtained through the survey. It starts by describing the sample characteristics including demographics, culture, religion, education level of household head, economic activities, incomes and their sources, as well as ownership of assets including those related to renewable energy. It also describes disease prevalence in sampled household, especially among children.

The Chapter then addresses the energy poverty status of sample households and children and describes the households energy mix for lighting in households, cooking and cooling and for information and communication. It also presents the sample’s barriers to modern energy including knowledge barriers; perceived costs; aﬀordability; socio-cultural barriers as well as supply-side barriers and proposes solutions to the energy poverty crisis in the country.

5.2 Sample Characteristics

One thousand ﬁve hundred and forty seven (1,547) household heads were interviewed and the households consisted of 7, 844 individuals. Approximately 89 per cent of households had children with an average of 2.8 children per household and a total of 4,319 children (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1 Sample size and households composition

Number Percentage

Total number of households 1,547 100

Households with children 1,379 89.1

Households without children 168 10.9

Total individuals in sample 7,844 100 households

Total number of children 4,319 100

Children under 5 1,265 29.3

Boys 5-17 1,607 37.2

Girls 5-17 1,447 33.5

Mean children per household 2.8 -

57 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

The mean household size was 5 and ranged from 1 to 18 members (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2 Households’ size by district District Parameter Household size Chiredzi Mean 5.7 Min 1 Max 18 Gutu Mean 4.3 Min 1 Max 14 Hurungwe Mean 5.4 Min 1 Max 12 Nyanga Mean 4.5 Min 1 Max 14 Tsholotsho Mean 5.5 Min 1 Max 14 Total Mean 5.1 Min 1 Max 18

The majority of the households had between 1 and 5 children with 1,265 of the children aged below 5 (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Number of children per household

1200 Number of households Number of children 1000

r 800 e b m u

n 600

l a t o

T 400

200

0 012345678910111214 Number of children per household 58 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

The largest proportion of respondents were females (71 per cent) as most of the household heads (deﬁned as husbands) were reportedly in urban areas or had gone for some productive work locally. Table 5.3 shows that 28 per cent of the surveyed households were in reality female headed. Gutu district had the highest number of female headed households followed by Tsholotsho, while Hurungwe had the least proportion.

Table 5.3 Household heads by gender Female Household Male household heads Total District heads Households Per cent Households Per cent Households Per cent

Chiredzi 69 22.48 238 77.52 307 100

Gutu 125 37.65 207 62.35 332 100

Hurungwe 56 18.79 242 81.21 298 100

Tsholotsho 112 34.15 216 65.85 328 100

Nyanga 75 26.6 207 73.40 282 100

Total 437 28.25 1,110 71.75 1,547 100

The mean age for the household heads was 52 and ranged from 15 to 99 years (Table 5.4)

Table 5.4 Household heads age by district District Parameter Household head age (years) Chiredzi Mean 47.52 Min 15 Max 97 Gutu Mean 55.24 Min 20 Max 97 Hurungwe Mean 49.29 Min 19 Max 99 Nyanga Mean 49.72 Min 15 Max 95 Tsholotsho Mean 55.17 Min 24 Max 95 Total Mean 51.54 Min 15 Max 99 59 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Culture and religion influence people’s knowledge and practices which impacts on people’s choice and use of the different types of available energy resources. The ethnic groups found in each of the sample districts are shown in Table 5.5. Gutu, Nyanga and Tsholotsho were predominantly Karanga, Manyika and Ndebele, respectively while Chiredzi and Hurungwe had more mixed populations. Hurungwe had a significant proportion of immigrants largely from Zambia and Mozambique.

Table 5.5 Dominant ethnic groups by district

Chiredzi Gutu Hurungwe Tsholotsho Nyanga

Dominant Per cent Dominant Per cent Dominant Per cent Dominant Per cent Dominant Per cent

Shangani 41.83 Karanga 96.39 Korekore 46.46 Ndebele 71.04 Manyika 89.01

Ndau 24.51 Manyika 0.9 Zezuru 18.86 Kalanga 21.04 Buja 2.13

Karanga 22.22 Zezuru 0.6 Immigrants 17.51 Suthu 2.13 Zezuru 1.77

Most households in the sample belonged to the Apostolic Religion, which was the dominant religion in Tsholotsho, Nyanga and Gutu (Figure 5.2). The largest proportions of households in Chiredzi and Hurungwe were not aﬃliated to any religion (Figure 20). Protestant churches had less followers than Apostolic churches in all districts.

Figure 5.2 Religious aﬃliation of household heads by district

Total

Nyanga

Tsholotsho Protestant Hurungwe None Apostolic Gutu

Chiredzi

0510 15 20 25 30 35 40 Proporon (%)

Apart from religion, education inﬂuences people’s practices and their adoption of technologies. Thus knowledge and understanding of cleaner energy sources is likely to be inﬂuenced by the level of education that household members, especially household heads have.

Figure 5.3 depicts the level of education of sampled household heads.

60 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Figure 5.3 Household head education level s

d 30 l

o 25 h e

s 20 u

o 15 h

o 10

o 5 r 0 o p o r P

Houseold head educaon level

The majority of the sample had not completed their secondary education with some respondents not having any formal education.

Knowledge of new technologies and better income has historically been brought to remote areas by household members who either work in urban areas or neighbouring countries. Figure 5.4 shows that the sample rural households’ heads largely resided locally (85 per cent) with a small proportion reported to be in urban areas and South Africa. Hurungwe had the largest proportion, over 90 per cent of the sample household heads resident in the district. Tsholotsho had the largest proportion of household heads in South Africa, while Chiredzi also had a sizeable number of household heads in South Africa. Nyanga had the largest proportion of household heads in urban areas.

Figure 5.4 Usual residence of household heads

100 s d

a 90 e h 80 Local d l

o 70 h

e Urban area s 60 u

o 50 h South africa f o

40 n

o 30 r

o 20 p o

r 10 P 0

District 61 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Households in urban areas and in the diaspora have been known to support their households through remittances and by sending new technologies to their families.

Livelihood activities pursued by households influence disposable income that they have and their likelihood of accessing cleaner, efficient and renewable energy sources. Livelihood activities and income levels among the sampled households were ascertained to determine whether households would afford to pay for improved energy sources and to compare with the amounts they would be willing to pay for the improvement. The survey results showed multiple livelihood activities, however, crop production is the common livelihood activity among all respondents (49 per cent) in all the five districts (Table 5.6) followed by casual work and remittances. Very few households were engaged in permanent or temporary employment.

Table 5.6 Household livelihoods and income generating activities by district Livelihoods/Income activities Chiredzi Gutu Hurungwe Tsholotsho Nyanga Total Crop production Households 115 162 235 69 172 753 Per cent 37.95 49.39 79.66 21.1 62.32 49.25 Casual work Households 94 81 68 101 64 408 Per cent 31.02 24.7 23.05 30.89 23.19 26.68 Remittances Households 40 66 22 87 47 262 Per cent 13.2 20.12 7.46 26.61 17.03 17.14 Petty trade Households 41 40 30 46 18 175 Per cent 13.53 12.2 10.17 14.07 6.52 11.45 Other (gardening, Households 38 41 10 31 24 144 brick moulding) Per cent 12.54 12.5 3.39 9.48 8.7 9.42 Permanent Households 30 25 15 17 48 135 employment Per cent 9.9 7.62 5.08 5.2 17.39 8.83 Poultry Households 11 15 19 10 22 77 Per cent 3.63 4.57 6.44 3.06 7.97 5.04 Temporary Households 18 8 10 16 9 61 employment Per cent 5.94 2.44 3.39 4.89 3.26 3.99 Livestock keeping Households 12 11 18 7 10 58 Per cent 3.96 3.35 6.1 2.14 3.62 3.79 Seasonal Households 18 6 12 6 5 47 employment Per cent 5.94 1.83 4.07 1.83 1.81 3.07 Pension Households 9 13 5 13 4 44 Per cent 2.97 3.96 1.69 3.98 1.45 2.88 Cross boarder Households 4 2 1 5 0 12 Per cent 1.32 0.61 0.34 1.53 0 0.78 Forest produce Households 5 1 1 2 3 12 Per cent 1.65 0.3 0.34 0.61 1.09 0.78 Domestic Households 0 6 1 2 1 10 Per cent 0 1.83 0.34 0.61 0.36 0.65 Total Households 303 328 295 327 276 1,529 62 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

The livelihoods mixes that households engaged in generated a wide range of income levels which in turn were likely to determine the energy sources households could afford. In the event that households were not accessing some cleaner energy sources, the income diversity might reflect the potential market for different energy technologies. Table 5.7 shows incomes that households in each of the surveyed districts earned. Normal monthly income is the income households earn per month while adjusted income takes into account income sources generated in periods beyond a month such as income from crops which is obtained once a year. Such income was adjusted by dividing it by 12 months then added to the normal monthly income reported. The gross annual income is the adjusted monthly income multiplied by 12 months. From Table 5.7, the mean adjusted monthly income for the sample households was USD95.

Table 5.7 Sample households’ mean incomes by district

Normal Monthly Gross District Parameter monthly income USD annual income (USD) (adjusted) income USD

Hurungwe Mean 42 122 1,470

Min 0 0 0

Max 1,500 2,733 32,800

Nyanga Mean 86 107 1,282

Min 0 0 0

Max 6,250 6,250 75,000

Tsholotsho Mean 83 100 1,203

Min 0 0 0

Max 3,000 3,000 36,000

Chiredzi Mean 81 90 1,075

Min 0 0 0

Max 2,000 2,000 24,000

Gutu Mean 53 60 724

Min 0 0 0

Max 1,400 1,400 16,800

Total Mean 69 95 1,141

Min 0 0 0

Max 6,250 6,250 75,000

However, a further analysis of the income shows that the majority of the households earnedincomes below USD20.00 per month (Figure 5.5). Therefore the market for modern energy technology is poor in terms of real income ﬂow.

63 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Figure 5.5 Monthly income categories (real) for the sample households

e l

p 60 m a s s 50 f d l o

o ) 40 h % e (

s n

u 30 o o h r 20 o p o

r 10 P 0 ------0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 8 2 6 0 4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 6 7 4 5 8 0 Income categories 1

Table 5.8 shows livestock ownership across the ﬁve districts. Goats and sheep were the most owned, followed by cattle, donkeys and poultry. Tsholotsho had the highest livestock population with an average of 4.4, 3.6 and 1.8 livestock units for goat/sheep, cattle and donkeys respectively. Hurungwe had the least livestock unit ownership. Livestock is a source of income and the number owned is important in considering introduction of renewable energy technologies such as biogas and also as an indication of ability to pay for using the technology.

Table 5.8 Mean livestock ownership by district Number District Parameter Goats/sheep Cattle Donkeys Poultry Chiredzi Mean 3.85 2.70 0.38 0.03 Min 0 0 0 0 Max 57 30 9 4 Gutu Mean 3.20 3.53 0.12 0.35 Min 0 0 0 0 Max 22 25 6 23 Hurungwe Mean 1.54 2.53 0.07 0.03 Min 0 0 0 0 Max 30 17 6 4 Tsholotsho Mean 4.40 3.60 1.78 0.00 Min 0 0 0 0 Max 30 35 13 0 Nyanga Mean 2.82 2.99 0.02 0.00 Min 0 0 0 0 Max 35 28 2 0 Total Mean 3.20 3.09 0.50 0.09 Min 0 0 0 0 Max 57 35 13 23 64 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

A minimum ownership of three livestock units is required for some of the biogas interventions making it feasible to introduce the technology to most districts if all the livestock is combined.

Figure 5.6 shows that most households owned hoes which is reﬂective of the subsistence agricultural activities that households were engaged in. Hurungwe had the highest mean number of hoes, while Tsholotsho had the highest mean of numbers of axes, shovels and picks. The practice of felling trees tends to be prevalent in Tsholotsho where each homestead is fenced by tightly knit poles hence the high ownership of axes.

Figure 5.6 Agricultural equipment ownership d l 5.00 o Hoes h

e 4.50 s

u Axes

o 4.00 h

r 3.50 Shovel/pick e p 3.00 d Ploughs e

n 2.50

w Wheelbarrow

o 2.00

s t 1.50

e Scotchcart s

s 1.00 a Culvator n 0.50 a e 0.00 M

District

Energy generating assets included generator and solar panels. More than 50 per cent of the sample households owned at least a functional solar panel although they varied in size. However, a large proportion of the respondents were not using them as their main sources of energy for lighting. Generator ownership was low with less than 10 per cent of households in the districts owning generators. Tsholotsho was an exception with 17 per cent generator ownership. It also had the highest proportion of households with solar panels and had more households who reported owning more than one solar panel and a generator (Table 5.9). Ownership of renewable energy assets by the Tsholotsho communities may be linked to their having more household heads working in the diaspora.

65 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Table 5.9 Solar panel and generator ownership by district Solar panels Generator

Number House- Total Households Total District of households Per number Per with number of holds with cent of solar cent generators generators panels panels

Chiredzi 306 156 51 187 23 8 24

Gutu 332 219 66 251 12 4 13

Hurungwe 294 190 65 239 24 8 24

Tsholotsho 295 208 71 240 49 17 54

Nyanga 282 154 55 174 13 5 15

A large proportion of households owned information and communication gadgets such as mobile phones, televisions and radios.

5.3 Results of the Assessment of the Energy Dimensions

As noted in Chapter 1 Section 1.4.1 the study used a conceptual framework that examined ﬁve dimensions (lighting; cooking; space heating; space and food cooling; and information and communication) to assess the energy status of households. This Chapter will consider the responses by households and children relating to access to energy at household level. The energy poverty status for households was calculated from the household and children surveys as a way of triangulating the data.

5.3.1 Access to Energy for Lighting

The lighting dimension is critical for children at home and school. The provision of light to read or do homework at night at home prepares the child for the next day’s school work improving performance. Performance will remain low even when textbooks are issued to children who do not have access to adequate lighting at home. Proper light for not less than 4 hours at night is considered appropriate. The choice of energy for lighting has a bearing on the vulnerability of children to respiratory related diseases; eye diseases as well as risks to burns. Dirty energy sources are also likely to trigger asthmatic conditions among children. The main sources of energy for household lighting were homemade paraﬃn lamps, solar, candles, ordinary torches, cellphone torches and fuel wood (Figure 5.7a and 5.7b).

66 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Figure 5.7a Main sources of energy for lighting based on responces to adult household questionnaire

Coon with oil Lp_gas_lamp Generator Other Broken slippers Radio light Car baery Grass None/daylight Solar lamp Electricity_zesa

Firewood Torch Phone torch Candles

Solar Paraﬃn_lamp

0510 15 20 25 Proporon of sample households (%)

Figure 5.7b Main energy sources of energy for lighting based on responses to children day scholars’ questionnaire

Other Generator LP Gas Lamp Inverter Baery

Solar Electricity (ZESA) Firewood

Candles Paraﬃn/Diesel lamp

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Proporon (%)

There was some variation in the proportion of responses from adults and children about the main sorces of energy but generally the most common sources of energy were similar.

67 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

5.3.1.1 Access to Modern Energy

a) Grid energy

Approximately 20 per cent of the sample households had access to electricity from main grid electricity, solar and generators (Table 5.10).

Table 5.10 Access to clean energy source for lighting (electricity from solar, main grid and generator powered)

Electricity Chiredzi Gutu Hurungwe Tsholotsho Nyanga Total as main source of House Per House Per House Per House Per House Per House Per lighting holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent

Solar 61 20 68 21 54 18 46 14 43 15 272 18

Main grid 0 0 8 2 6 2 1 0.3 19 7 34 2 electricity

Generator 1 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.07

Total 62 21 76 23 60 20 47 14 62 22 307 20

Gutu had the highest proportion of households with access to the clean energy mix for lighting, at 23 per cent. Generally grid usage was very low at an average of only 2 per cent largely driven by limited accessibility. There were grid lines from which households could access electricity where the grid was available, however, the initial cost of connection inhibited household access. Nyanga had the highest proportion, approximately 7 per cent, of households connected to the grid. The households which were connected to the main grid electricity reported that they had electricity for ﬁve days a week on average. Using connectivity to main grid as a measure of energy deprivation, only 2 per cent of the households in the sample were not deprived of electricity for lighting.

The households that had access to main grid electricity reported having an average of 3 hours of light in the main sitting room at night. The mean time that light was reported to be available in other rooms where children slept or studied was approximately 4 and 3 hours, respectively.

b) Solar panels and solar lanterns

The common solar home system type noticed during the survey was the 75 Watt solar panel connected to 12 volt, 12 amp batteries and powering a radio, lights and a cell phone charger.

Most households stated they had purchased their solar products from general dealers. Open ﬂea markets were found in every business centre visited during the survey and showed a strong and vibrant trading system for solar related items including solar panels, (10 – 75 Watt solar, mono and polycrystalline), inverters, dry cell 12 volt batteries and charge controllers. The quality of solar panels sold was the poorest found on the solar market, of monocrystalline type coupled with wrong type batteries. Interviewed general dealers had no technical skills required to eﬀectively install and repair solar home systems. Most small businesses reported that they did not trade in solar panels because they would risk losing money if the panels malfunctioned. 68 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

There were some energy kiosks in Gutu District initiated by OXFAM which sold solar systems and lanterns. The intervention also trained local people in general maintenance of solar systems and repair of some of the solar lanterns. However, the pricing of the systems and lanterns was higher than in urban areas making uptake low.

Households that were using solar for lighting had wide variations in the amount of time they had access to light. Of the 270 households that had access to solar home systems for lighting, 36 per cent indicated that they had light in the main sitting room at night for 4 or more hours (Table 5.11).

Table 5.11 Number of hours when light was available from solar home system by district

Number Number Number Number of of of of Total hours hours hours hours District 1 2 3 4

House Per House Per House Per House Per House Per holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent

Chiredzi 12 20 12 20 15 25 22 36 61 100

Gutu 14 21 20 29 11 16 23 34 68 100

Hurungwe 7 13 9 17 15 28 23 43 54 100

Tsholotsho 12 27 8 18 10 23 14 32 44 100

Nyanga 5 12 14 33 8 19 16 37 43 100

Total 50 19 63 23 59 22 98 36 270 100

In some cases the light was available throughout the night especially for households using large solar panels, 75W and above. This is evidence that if large and good quality panels and solar bulbs are made available to households they would make a diﬀerence in children’s lives. If a business approach is used then very low cost options should be used to avail the solar technology to households as they have low incomes, and can only aﬀord very cheap options. c) Generators

Focus group discussion results indicated that the use of generators was limited in rural households because they were expensive to run, and therefore they were rarely used for lighting in homes. Thus most of the sample households could not aﬀord generators given their limited incomes. The few households who had generators indicated that they used them during special holidays, such as Christmas.

The suppliers of generators were generally hardware shops normally found in towns. Generators were not being sold at most shopping centres in districts where the survey was conducted. The shop owners indicated that they needed a huge cash outlay to procure generators which most rural general dealers did not have. Therefore, inspite of being a better option for lighting and other uses, there were diﬃculties in generators penetrating the rural market as they were less economically sustainable at both the household and supply or business levels. 69 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

5.3.1.2 Access to Traditional and Other Energy Sources for Lighting

A high proportion of households used either home-made paraﬃn lamps, candles, ordinary torches and cellphone torches as the main sources of energy for lighting.

a) Lamps

The majority of households in all districts used home-made lamps as the main source of energy for lighting. The fuel used for the lamps were diesel and paraffin. Diesel was, however, preferred because it was cheaper and lasted longer than paraffin but it produced a lot of fumes and smoke when compared to paraffin.

In the qualitative assessment users of home-made lamps pointed out that the lamps produced a lot of air pollution. A key informant ward councillor noted that:

“The quality (of paraﬃn) is poor because it produces toxic fumes.” (P4:58 110:112), KII, Nyanga.

Another councillor in the same district also conﬁrmed that:

“Its (light from paraﬃn lamp) is average and it can produce toxic smoke which chokes and burns the eyes.” (P6:79 115:117), KII, Nyanga.

The distribution network of paraffin was well established in all areas through petroleum fuels networks. There were fuel filling stations at the main business centres in all the five districts where 47 per cent of rural households bought the paraffin. The price of paraffin averaged US$1.50 per litre. Rural consumers were paying a higher premium, due to higher costs incurred during the transportation of fuel to remote areas.

General dealers in rural areas were an alternative supplier of paraffin because of the convenience they offered as one-stop shops to their client-base. It was common for general dealers to stock a variety of items including groceries and handy fuels such as paraffin.

Some respondents had innovated by using cooking oil as a fuel for their home-made lamps. However such lamps produced poor lighting that the children could not use them for reading. One woman among several similar comments said:

“Cooking oil lamps have poor light” (P33:115 164:167), FGD, woman in Hurungwe.

b) Candles

Candle use was relatively high, 18 per cent, as they were reportedly easier to use. The business sector reported candles as fast moving energy products. However, households reported that the candles were more expensive at their business centres compared to urban areas.

The distribution networks for candles were well established through formal general dealer shops as well as informal systems of tuck shops. About 41 per cent of households bought candles from suppliers who were located at distances over a kilometre away with 29 per cent of rural households travelling distances well over 5 kilometres to get to the suppliers. Purchases of either single units or multiple packaged units could be made.

70 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5 c) Ordinary torches

About 15 per cent of the sample households were using low-cost ordinary torches as the main source of lighting. The torches were considered a clean source of lighting as they did not produce smoke or fumes. However, their light was perceived to be poor making it diﬃcult for children to eﬀectively use them for reading. A respondent had this to say in focus group discussions:

“The quality of light (from torches) is very poor because its not that bright and we do not have many alternatives.” (P8:58 199:121) FGD, Chiredzi.

In addition, a women participant in another focus group discussion at a clinic commented:

“Mine (children) do not even read at home as it is diﬃcult for a child to read using a torch because it will damage their eyesight” (P12:66 257:257), FGD, Gutu.

Ordinary torches were not common in shops at most surveyed shopping centres. They were common in Hurungwe where they were bought by tobacco farmers for use during tobacco curing. Torches were said to be slow moving goods by general dealers in most districts. Respondents also indicated that torches were risky items to sell because if they malfunctioned they usually did not have a warranty from the suppliers. The majority of households with torches were getting them from relatives in urban areas or the diaspora. d) Mobile Phone torches

Mobile phone torches were popular as the main sources of lighting because of the multiple uses of the phones. Approximately 17 per cent of the surveyed households were using phone torches as their main source of lighting. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews conﬁrmed the increased use of mobile phones as the main sources of lighting in rural areas. Several village heads interviewed reported that their subjects were increasingly using mobile phones as their main sources for lighting citing the high cost of other options. One village head said:

“For lighting people mainly use torches and cell phones because paraﬃn is very scarce to ﬁnd.” (P3:59 112:112), KII, Nyanga.

However, mobile phones were rare in shops except at growth points as they are more expensive and less lucrative for the rural market. The majority of mobile phone owners got them as gifts from relatives in urban areas or the diaspora. e) Fuel wood

Approximately 7 per cent of households were using fuel wood as the main source of energy for lighting. This shows high levels of poverty whereby households could not aﬀord other sources of energy. Fuel wood could be obtained free of charge and with multiple use options as it was also used for cooking. Households which were using fuel wood for lighting had monthly incomes below USD20.00 with some actually reporting no income at all. f) Miscellaneous fuels

In some cases household heads and children reported burning tyres and old slippers for lighting which are known to produce cancer causing toxic gases. 71 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

5.3.1.3 Energy Mixes for Lighting

There were 31 diﬀerent energy mixes for lighting that households in the sample used. This high level of energy mixes among households indicates that households switch to energy sources they can aﬀord at a particular time.

The most popular mix was the use of the ordinary torch and mobile phone light, with approximately 24 per cent of the households using this combination (Figure 5.8). There were a number of combinations that included clean energy sources such as solar and generator.

Figure 5.8 Energy mix for lighting

lp_gas_lamp candles

generator paraﬃn_la

candles solar torch mobile_phones

ﬁrewood candles sola

electricity_zesa sola

electricity_zesa ﬁre

electricity_zesa gene

ﬁrewood solar

ﬁrewood candles

paraﬃn_lamp solar

candles solar

solar torch mobile_phones

candles torch

candles

paraﬃn_lamp candles

torch mobile_phones 0510 15 20 25 30 Proporon of households (%)

5.3.1.4 Perceptions of Household Heads and Children on Energy Used for Lighting

Perceptions of users of energy sources have a bearing on their choice and willingness to adopt the energy sources and technologies. Table 5.12 shows that grid, generator and solar electricity were viewed as giving adequate lighting.

72 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Table 5.12 Quality rating of the diﬀerent types of lighting energy by respondents

Rating Per cent Type of energy Number Very Very Poor Average Good Total poor good

Grid electricity 34 0 2.9 9.8 11.8 76.5 100

Solar 320 1.3 4.7 12.8 40.3 40.9 100

Generator 6 0 0 0 33.3 66.7 100

Paraﬃn 487 4.7 18.1 36.8 13.0 9.5 100

Candle 131 1.5 11.5 37.4 39.7 9.9 100

Ordinary Torch 190 2.6 15.8 30 38.4 13.2 100

Phone torch 253 10.3 26.5 35.6 20.2 7.5 100

Fuel wood 169 14.8 26.0 26.0 30.2 3.0 100

These results indicate that poor people may regard poor light sources such as candles, and mobile phone torches and fuel wood as average or good sources of energy because they have not been exposed to better energy sources.

5.3.2 Energy for Lighting Deprivation

As noted earlier, households that were connected to main grid electricity, or had access to at least four hours of lighting from clean/modern/alternative energy sources such as solar or generator were considered to have no lighting energy deprivation. Children living in these households were therefore regarded as having access to enough energy lighting to engage in reading. On the other hand households who were not connected to the main grid electricity and who had no access to at least four hours of light from solar or generator powered lighting were considered to be deprived of energy for lighting. Households using other sources of lighting such as candles, torches, paraﬃn lamps were deprived of energy as the lighting systems did not provide enough lumens (300) considered the threshold light for a normal room. In addition the use of paraﬃn was a health risk because of the fumes produced by the lamp that may cause respiratory infections. Children in such households were consequently considered to be deprived of energy for lighting.

Availability of light in the main sitting room was used as the indicator of the household’s access to energy to lighting. Table 5.13 shows that the perceptions from the household and day scholar children questionnaire survey on their light deprivation status was similar at 91 and 95 per cent, respectively.

73 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Table 5.13 Status of household deprivation to energy for lighting

Energy for lighting Number of households Percent deprivation status

Household

Deprived 1,401 91

Not deprived 132 9

Total 1,533 100

Children (day scholars)

Deprived 581 95

Not deprived 33 5

Total 614 100

Tables 5.14 shows that Tsholotsho had the highest proportion, 95 per cent, while Nyanga had the least, 88 per cent, of households which were deprived of energy for lighting.

Table 5.14 Status of household deprivation to energy for lighting by district

District Not deprived Deprived Total

Households Per cent Households Per cent Households Per cent

Chiredzi 22 7 279 93 301 100

Gutu 31 9 299 91 330 100

Hurungwe 29 10 267 90 296 100

Tsholotsho 15 5 311 95 326 100

Nyanga 35 13 245 88 280 100

Total 132 9 1,401 91 1,533 100

Thus results from both adult and children surveys showed that the majority of children were not getting adequate lighting at home. The majority of children who had access to clean energy sources of light, including main grid electricity, had access to less than four hours of light during the night (Figure 5.9).

74 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Figure 5.9 Duration of light from clean energy sources

40 Main grid 36.3

s 35 d

l Solar 32.35 o

h 29.41

e 30 s u

o 23.53 h 25 23.33

f 21.85 o

) 20 18.52 % ( 14.7 n

o 15 r

o 10 p o r P 5

0 1234 Hours of light available from clean energy sources

This observation was supported by focus group discussions where some typical quotes were:

“Children generally have light for a short period of time in the evening, only to be able to see where to sleep” (P5:84 133:135), FGD, Nyanga from a parent.

“In my household light is only available for the children to make their beds before they sleep.” (P37:75 129:129) FGD, community, Hurungwe.

“We just look for where we sleep and go to bed since we cannot aﬀord to buy candles.” (P26:17 228:228), Hurungwe.

“If the (phone) battery is low or ﬂat they do not read.” (P146:61 108:108) FGD, community, Chiredzi.

“… at the times of the full moon I use moonlight to read to help myself…” (P33:123 299:299) FGD student at high school, Hurungwe.

“Children read normally in the afternoon when they are at school”.

However, most children indicated that they did their homework at home (Figure 5.10).

75 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Figure 5.10 Time of day when children do their homework

90 78.45

n 80 e r d

l 70 i h c

e 60 l p

m 50 a s

f 40 o

o 30

r 21.03 o

p 20 o r

P 10 0.52 0 A ernoon Evening Both Time when children do their homework

In extreme cases some children reported that at times they had to use fuel wood light to read or do their homework.

This implies that children are forced to do their homework under unhealthy lighting conditions that may constrain their eyes leading to eye problems as well as to respiratory infections. One teacher at a day school indicated that sometimes when he gave children homework, only a quarter would do it and from this he could determine which children came from households without proper lighting.

5.3.3 Willingness to Change, Pay More for Preferred Energy Sources for Lighting

This study reviewed the willingness of energy users to change from current sources, willingness to pay, how much they were willing to pay, the reasons they were willing to change from their current energy sources as well as their preferred energy sources for lighting. The analysis was done by disaggregating the end users into main sources of energy used for lighting. Table 5.15 shows that over 40 per cent of sample households were willing to change from the energy source they were currently using for lighting.

Table 5.15 Willingness to change current energy source for lighting

Current Total Willingness to change source of energy for lighting household number of source of lighting households Households Per cent

Solar 322 138 42.9

Paraﬃn 489 293 59.7

Candles 487 225 46.2

Fuel wood 171 72 42.1 76 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

The highest proportion was for paraﬃn users at approximately 60 per cent. The main reason given for wanting to change was because they viewed paraﬃn as not producing bright light and felt that it produced a lot of smoke; was expensive; and was risky especially for children.

Current candle end users had the second largest proportion of households which wanted to change their energy source for lighting. They wanted to change to solar energy because candle light was not bright enough.

Approximately a ﬁfth of solar light end users were willing to pay more to change to grid electricity. The majority of the respondents who wanted to change were using small solar panels or solar lanterns. With regards to households that wanted to change from fuel wood, their preferred choice for lighting was candles.

From a market perspective there is demand for cleaner energy sources with the end users willing to pay more to upgrade their current energy sources for lighting. This implies that a market based approach to dissemination of cleaner energy technology could be initiated and could gain momentum if the technologies were readily available at an aﬀordable price and able to mimic grid electricity in terms of end use applications. There is the likelihood to improve children’s access to energy for lighting, improving reading and consequently performance with a well targeted supply of cleaner and eﬃcient energy sources for lighting.

5.3.2 Access to Energy for Cooking

The cooking dimension is important for children’s nutrition and disease prevention and the choice of energy for cooking also determines the frequency and adequacy of meal preparation of households. Most rural households usually use fuel wood in kitchens without proper ventilation and/or improved stoves and are considered deprived of energy for cooking. Children may spend long hours in the rooms where meals are prepared making them vulnerable to indoor air pollution and its impacts. a) Fuel wood

Almost all sampled households (98 per cent) used fuel wood as the main energy source for cooking and heating of water with less than two per cent using grid electricity and 0.13 per cent using crop residues. Biomass is likely to remain the predominant fuel for cooking for rural households for the foreseeable future as even households with access to the main grid electricity were also using fuel wood as the main source of energy for cooking.

Fuel wood used for cooking by the sample households was mainly fetched by households members (89 per cent), with 11 per cent buying and less than 1 per cent either barter trading or getting it as a gift. Children were tasked with fetching fuel wood in more than 50 per cent of the surveyed households. The most aﬀected were children of ages 5 to 17 years who were reported to fetch fuel wood for the family, especially if the parents were old. Children below the age of ﬁve accompanied their parents on fuel wood collection excursions.

Children and their parents in all districts walked an average of 2 kilometres spending an average of 2 hours 20 minutes to fetch fuel wood. At times children had to walk close to 9 kilometres at weekends, spending the whole day to get the fuel wood and would not be able to do their homework during the day when daylight is available. Usually the amounts carried would be heavy for the children. 77 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Key informant interviews and focus group discussion results conﬁrmed the long distances that children had to walk to collect fuel wood. A participant in one focus group discussion noted:

“P1: They have to travel to the forests which are about 4 km away.” (P5:86 147:149), FGD, Nyanga.

Table 5.16 shows the energy mix for the sample households by district. The majority of the households (96 per cent) were using fuel wood only for cooking, three per cent had other sources of energy for cooking which, in addition to fuel wood included paraﬃn, LPG and main grid electricity. No household reported using biogas for cooking across all the surveyed districts.

Table 5.16 Household energy mix for cooking

Household Chiredzi Gutu Hurungwe Tsholotsho Nyanga Total energy mix for cooking House Per House Per House Per House Per House Per House Per holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent holds cent

Fuel wood 301 98.69 321 96.98 276 92.62 324 99.08 266 94.33 1,488 96.44

Fuel wood Other_(crop 0 0 3 0.91 12 4.03 0 0 3 1.06 18 1.17 residue)

Electricity_ zesa Fuel 0 0 3 0.91 2 0.67 0 0 9 3.19 14 0.91 wood

Fuel wood 4 1.31 1 0.3 4 1.34 0 0 3 1.06 12 0.78 Paraﬃn

Fuel wood 0 0 2 0.6 3 1.01 1 0.31 0 0 6 0.39 Lpg_gas Electricity_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.61 0 0 2 0.13 zesa Electricity_ zesa Fuel 0 0 1 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.06 wood LP gas

Electricity_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.35 1 0.06 zesa Lpg_gas

Paraﬃn 0 0 0 0 1 0.34 0 0 0 0 1 0.06

Total 305 100 331 100 298 100 327 100 282 100 1,543 100

i) Improved cook stoves

Improved cookstoves may use less fuel wood thus abating deforestation and may also reduce air pollution. The majority of sample households were using either a three stone (see Figure 3.4 Chapter 3) or the Mbare stove (see Figure 3.5 Chapter 3) which both use open ﬁre and are ineﬃcient systems.

A small proportion of sampled households were using improved fuel wood stoves for cooking. The stoves included tsotso (see Figure 3.3 Chapter 3), jengetahuni (see Figure 3.2 Chapter 3) and the chingwa stoves (Figure 3.6, Chapter 3). 78 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Figure 5.11 depicts the usage of these for cooking in the ﬁve sample districts. Hurungwe had a diverse range of stoves as a result of intervention programmes that have been piloted in the district over the years.

Figure 5.11 Types of stoves used for cooking by district

100 Three stone stove Mbare stove

Tsotso stove Improved mud stove

e 80 l

p Jengetahuni Tradional mud stove m a s

t s c i

d 60 r l t o s i h d e

s f u o

o n

h 40 o r o p o r

P 20

0 Chiredzi Gutu Hurungwe Tsholotsho Nyanga Total

Tsholotsho had 99 per cent of the households using three stone stoves while Gutu had 60 per cent using the mbare stove. The jengetahuni and chingwa stoves do not emit too much smoke as they are constructed with a chimney or some ventilation, reducing the likelihood of health risks for the users. Energy eﬃcient stoves are an alternative appliance that could be used by households that use fuel wood and could help in reducing the negative eﬀects of using fuel wood for cooking. ii) Impacts of fuel wood use on children

A high proportion of children were reported to be in the kitchen when meals were prepared increasing children’s vulnerability to respiratory related illnesses (Figure 5.12).

Figure 5.12 Proportion of households with children in the kitchen when preparing meals

80 n

h Under 5 Girls 5-17 Boys 5-17 h t i c 70 t i n w

k o

s e d

l 60 a h r o t

a h n p e i 50

s e e r u b p o

l l l h 40

i a f e w o

o 30 n

h g o n w i

r r 20 n o u e p d r o d r

l 10 i P h c 0

Districts 79 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

According to a 1999 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey Report; there is an 18 per centchance of children under ﬁve years contracting acute respiratory illness in households who use fuel wood or dung as a cooking fuel. Table 5.17 shows the proportion of children with ailments that could be contributed to by poor energy sources for lighting and cooking. There was a high proportion of children with chest problems (1,429) that include acute respiratory infections, asthma and tuberculosis.

Table 5.17 Health impacts on children by gender and age possibly contributed to by poor energy sources for lighting and cooking

Household light deprivation status Total Diseases Children Not deprived Deprived Number Pro- Number Pro- Number of children portion of children portion of children

ARI Boys 24 9.16 238 90.84 262 Girls 24 9.09 240 90.91 264 Under 5 24 9.20 237 90.80 261 Asthma Boys 11 8.80 114 91.20 125 Girls 11 8.94 112 91.06 123 Under 5 11 8.94 112 91.06 123 TB Boys 2 2.20 89 97.80 91 Girls 2 2.22 88 97.78 90 Under 5 2 2.22 88 97.78 90 Eye diseases Boys 34 9.91 309 90.09 343 Girls 33 9.71 307 90.29 340 Under 5 33 9.65 309 90.35 342 Burns Boys 8 8.08 91 91.92 99 Girls 8 8.08 91 91.92 99 Under 5 8 8.00 92 92.00 100

Respiratory related illnesses were reported at most health centres visited and were attributed to the use of fuel wood. A senior nurse had this to say about fuel wood:

“P. Yes, the number of children complaining of chest problems and children who come with burns increases during the cold weather”.

I. “What do you think contributes to such a trend?” P. “During winter, it will be very cold hence most children spend most of their time in the kitchen where they will inhale smoke causing a lot of respiratory complications” (P27:39 177:183), KII, nurse, Hurungwe.

b) Liquid Petroleum Gas

Only eight households, 0.5 per cent of the sampled households in the ﬁve districts reported using LPG as an alternative energy source for cooking, no household used it as the main source of energy. The reason for this low uptake is the cost of LPG which is 80 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5 quite high, especially for lower income households. The initial costs of the gas stove and gas tank which ranged from USD60.00 to USD120.00 depending on the size of the gas tank and stove, were beyond the reach of many as the majority of the respondents earned less than USD20.00 per month. The average cost of a single plate stove was $20.00 and depended on the make. The operating costs of using LPG varied depending on volumes of LPG purchased and frequency of use.

Suppliers of gas in the rural areas were the filling stations at growth points and in some cases the nearest town. Most rural shopping centres visited had no gas filling stations and those using gas would have to travel long distances to get it. There were safety concerns of handling the inflammable fuel outside the filling stations with only a few vendors found at busy shopping centres. The unavailability of LPG thus reduced its demand.

However, general dealers preferred LPG for refrigerators as they viewed it as more eﬀective in cooling in the absence of main grid electricity. A few general dealers reported that they once used solar for cooling but the solar refrigerators did not function for long. Some however preferred paraﬃn for cooling refrigerators because of its availability and perceived less risk compared to LPG. c) Biogas

Biogas production technology is considered as an alternative to fuel wood and is suitable for decentralized or oﬀ grid energy provision. It is based on the biological decomposition of organic material in the absence of air (oxygen). The most suitable organic material recommended is animal waste, human waste and agricultural residues. Under suitable conditions for anaerobic decomposition the organic material produces a cheaper and better fuel for cooking, lighting and for running engines as well as a good quality manure to supplement the use of fertilizers.

Sixteen per cent of households indicated some knowledge and awareness of the biogas technology. Hurungwe had the highest proportion that were aware as a result of some biogas intervention in the past. Knowledge of biogas by district is shown in (Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13 Households with knowledge of biogas

21.68 h t i 19.22

w 20

s 18.04 s a d g l 16.14 o o i h b

f 15 s o

u 12.38 e o g h

d f 9.97 e o l

10 n w o o n r k o

p 5 r P

0 Hurungwe Nyanga Gutu Tsholotsho Chiredzi Total Districts 81 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

In view of the crucial role cooking plays in people’s lives and its impact on the local environment, biogas, where technically feasible, seems a logical solution in order to solve the energy supply problems at household level. Using locally produced biogas would substitute and also save the time and labour required for collecting fuel wood. Studies carried out in diﬀerent parts of the world indicate that 1 m3 of biogas can produce an equivalent of 5.8 KWh of energy.

5.3.2.2 Energy for Cooking Deprivation

As noted in Chapter 1 energy for cooking deprivation is deﬁned as using any kind of energy other than electricity, LPG, paraﬃn, natural gas or biogas. However, if the household cooks using fuel wood with an improved stove that has a chimney then it is not deprived, as there is less risk of indoor air pollution exposure to household members. Table 5.18 shows that 98 per cent of the sampled households were deprived of energy for cooking. Approximately 2 per cent of the households were using either electricity or fuel wood with improved stoves with ventilation/chimney (jengetahuni and improved/chingwa stoves) as their main energy sources for cooking.

Table 5.18 Sample household energy for cooking deprivation status

Energy for cooking deprivation status Households Percent

Deprived 1,518 98.13

Not deprived 29 1.87

Total 1,547 100

5.3.2.3 Willingness to change from using fuel wood for cooking

A large proportion of sample households in all the 5 districts wanted to change from using fuel wood as a source of cooking. Approximately 65 per cent of the fuel wood users were willing to change to using cleaner fuels (Table 5.19). This presents a huge market for potential uptake of alternative cleaner and more eﬃcient sources of energy or technology for cooking.

Table 5.19 Proportion of households wanting to change from using fuel wood Did not want to Want to change change from using Total from using fuel wood District fuel wood House House House Per cent Per cent Per cent holds holds holds

Chiredzi 112 37.7 185 62.3 297 100

Gutu 129 39.3 199 60.7 328 100

Hurungwe 50 17.2 240 82.8 290 100

Tsholotsho 129 40.4 190 59.6 319 100

Nyanga 109 39.4 168 60.7 277 100

Total 529 35.1 982 65.0 1,511 100 82 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Most households wanted to change from using fuel wood because of the distance that they had to travel to collect it. A potential market intervention would be one that limits the frequency of visits to collect fuel wood such as more eﬃcient cook stoves, or readily available and cheap options. Other reasons included that fuel wood produced smoke, caused environmental degradation; was hazardous and costly.

More encouraging was that a large proportion of the sample (79 per cent) were willing to pay more to change from using fuel wood as a source of energy for cooking which presents a huge market (Table 5.20). Hurungwe had the highest percentage of households (93 per cent) willing to pay more while Tsholotsho had the least percentage. This is possibly because of the scarcity of fuel wood now pertaining in Hurungwe because of using fuel wood for tobacco curing; their exposure to improved stove interventions as well as their having income from tobacco. For Tsholotsho this is probably because fuel wood is readily available. A change from fuel wood use would have a signiﬁcant impact on reducing the exposure of children to pollution and their involvement in fetching fuel wood.

Table 5.20 Willingness to pay to change from using fuel wood for cooking by district Not willing to pay Willing to pay more Total more District House House House Per cent Per cent Per cent holds holds holds

Chiredzi 23 12.5 161 87.5 184 100

Gutu 52 26.1 147 73.9 199 100

Hurungwe 16 6.7 224 93.3 240 100

Tsholotsho 93 49.0 97 51.1 190 100

Nyanga 24 14.2 144 85.7 168 100

Total 208 21.2 773 78.8 981 100

Households were prepared to part with signiﬁcant amounts of money in order to change from the use of fuel wood for cooking. On average respondents were prepared to part with USD36.00 with some prepared to pay as much as USD1,500.00 to change from using fuel wood as a source of energy for cooking (Table 5.21).

Table 5.21 Amount of money households are willing to pay to change from ﬁrewood energy source for cooking

District Mean (USD) Median (USD) Min (USD) Max (USD)

Chiredzi 20.66 10 0 200.00

Gutu 36.43 10 0 1,000.00

Hurungwe 59.46 15 0 1,500.00

Tsholotsho 21.32 10 0 300.00

Nyanga 32.36 15 0 500.00

Total 36.31 10 0 1,500.00 83 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

The most preferred energy source for cooking among households in all areas was grid electricity. After grid electricity, the next two choices were LPG and paraﬃn, which can be promoted in view of the limited capacity in electricity generation in the country.

5.3.3 Access to Energy for Space Heating

Access to clean energy for heating was also assessed in this study. Not owning and using a modern heater or using a traditional heater such as an open ﬁre for space heating was considered a deprivation. Approximately 99 per cent households in Gutu, Nyanga and Tsholotsho and all households in Chiredzi and Hurungwe were deprived of energy for space heating.

5.3.4 Access to Energy for Cooling

The access to energy for cooling of food and space was less critical in rural household settings. The deprivation status for a household was determined by considering whether a household owned or used cooling appliances such as a refrigerator for storing perishable food and a fan for space cooling. Approximately 96 per cent of households were deprived of energy for cooling (Table 5.22). The results indicated that the sampled households’ lack of access to grid electricity also aﬀected their ability to use cooling appliances.

Table 5.22 Cooling dimension by district (ownership of refrigerator and fan)

Deprived Not deprived Total District House House House Per cent Per cent Per cent holds holds holds

Chiredzi 302 98.4 5 1.6 307 100

Gutu 319 96.1 13 3.9 332 100

Hurungwe 288 96.6 10 3.4 298 100

Tsholotsho 320 97.6 8 2.4 328 100

Nyanga 263 93.3 19 6.7 282 100

Total 1,492 96.4 55 3.6 1,547 100

5.3.5 Access to Energy for Receiving Information and for Communication

Deprivation to energy for receiving information was measured through ownership of radio, TV or computer while that to communication was through lack of landline or mobile phone. Table 5.23 shows that about 48 per cent of households were deprived of energy for information with households in Chiredzi being most deprived (61 per cent) and Hurungwe least deprived (35 per cent). Overall 739 households with 1,944 children were deprived of information. On average only one per cent of the sampled households owned a computer; with 19 per cent owning a television while 49 per cent owned radios. Hurungwe and Tsholotsho had the highest per cent of television and radio owners.

84 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Table 5.23 Deprivation of energy for information and communication

District Deprived

Information Communication

Chiredzi 60.9 16.3

Gutu 53.3 13.3

Hurungwe 35.2 15.1

Tsholotsho 37.8 8.8

Nyanga 51.7 9.9

Total 47.7 12.7

Deprivation to energy for communication, measured by proxy ownership of landline and mobile phone was only 13 per cent with Chiredzi again showing the highest deprivation (16 per cent) compared with Tsholotsho with the least deprivation (9 per cent). As noted earlier Tsholotsho had more household heads in South Africa providing the households with technologies such as cell phones. Most households (87 per cent) owned mobile telephones.

The majority of the households used solar generated energy to power the information and communication media (Figure 5.15). Very few households used main grid electricity, battery or generators as sources for energy for powering their information and communication media.

Figure 5.14 Energy source for communication and information 80 g

n 70 i s u

s 60 d l o

h 50 e s u

o 40 h

f o

n 30 o r 20 o p o r

P 10

0 Solar Electricty Baery Generator Energy source for communicaon and informaon

The information or entertainment dimension needed a boost to improve children’s access to information through the broadcast media. The main challenge that was highlighted was the lack of reliable energy to power the broadcast media. Focus group discussions with both children and parents, and key informants at schools indicated that the energy that they had access to was not reliable. The solar home systems that households owned were mostly the small panels which were not sustainable. 85 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

5.4 Barriers to Access to Cleaner Energy

Failure by households to use cleaner and sustainable energy sources was driven by the knowledge people had of alternative sources, their experience with diﬀerent sources, educational levels of household heads and their disposable income. The study therefore explored the knowledge barriers, perceived costs of cleaner technologies, their aﬀordability, socio-cultural barriers and supply side barriers.

5.4.1 Demand Side Barriers

5.4.1.1 Knowledge Barriers

The knowledge of household heads and children about types of cleaner energies and technologies available in Zimbabwe and whether they had used them in the past was determined. The questions focussed on solar PV, LPG, biogas and small-hydro energy. In addition respondents were interrogated on the use of cleaner energy technologies such as improved stoves (tsotso and jengetahuni stoves); pressurized paraffin stoves and gel stoves. The questionnaire also sought to find out from those using the different technologies whether or not they were still using the technology and if they had stopped the reason for stopping to use them.

The main barriers were:

l Lack of knowledge of cleaner energy technologies.

l Technology development not adequately participatory.

l Limited knowledge of impacts of using traditional sources of energy on health, environment and well-being.

l Lack of decision support information for use in choice of appropriate technology.

l Lack of ﬁnancing for cleaner energy and technologies.

Figure 5.15 shows the proportion of respondents of sample households with knowledge about the cleaner sources of energy and technologies by district.

Figure 5.15 Knowledge of clean energy sources and technologies

a e e l 120 l s p c e

i f m g o a 100 o Solar pv s l e

t o g c n d i Pressurised paraﬃn stove r h

e 80 t l c s i e w Tsotso stove t d

o 60 f n &

o k Jengetahuni

e ) c h r t % 40 i (

u Lp gas

w o n

s s

o Gel stove

d 20 y l g r o r o h

e Biogas p e

n 0 o s e r

u Small hydro P o h

Districts

86 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

People tended to have less knowledge about cleaner energy technologies that were less prevalent in the sample population, such as biogas, gel and micro-hydro electricity and this acted as a barrier to technology uptake. For example in one key informant interview, a teacher noted:

“If people had more knowledge about the technologies and if the technologies came to people at prices that suit their pockets they would adopt them.” (P18:49 181:181).

The view was also supported by a general dealer in Hurungwe who said:

“Our community lacks people who can really teach them about these technologies. There is noone to explain to us the beneﬁts of these technologies. We also have no access to these technologies.” (P28:55 208:208), KII, general dealer, Hurungwe.

An analysis of past experience with the use of clean energy sources helped in understanding why a small proportion of the households was using clean energy sources. The largest proportion of the sample (71 per cent) had previously used solar energy while a small proportion (11 per cent)had used LPG and about 1 per cent biogas.

Barriers to solar energy were that the solar panel sizes were small 10 W and had limited utilities that they could power. Approximately 63 per cent of the households had stopped using solar power for the following reasons:

l In 18 per cent of the cases the solar panel had broken. Breaking of the panels was common as most panels were not mounted and were put out on a daily basis and moved from time to time in order to capture the sunlight.

l The solar system had stopped functioning for 21 per cent of the households.

l In 14 per cent of the cases the panel had been borrowed and had now been returned.

l Some households had sold the panel to meet other immediate family needs.

l Only 5 per cent of the households indicated they had stopped using solar systems because they had installed electricity.

Results of the study showed that 52 per cent of households who were not using solar home systems either had other commitments; did not have the gadgets which needed solar power or had no money to buy the solar home systems. The majority felt that the risk factors were that solar damaged radios, televisions and mobile phones as the output from solar system was not regulated in most cases. Households indicated that when the battery malfunctions they were forced to connect the solar power directly to the gadgets. Some indicated that the batteries they used with solar panels were likely to be damaged. Such perceived risks prevented households from fully embracing the solar technology. This was mainly driven by lack of knowledge of the proper connections when using solar panels as sources of energy.

Another major reason for stopping using solar panels was because of the poor quality of the panels used or lack of knowledge on how to operate them especially how to match the panel size and the size of battery for storing the energy with the type and number of gadgets used by the household. There is therefore need to educate the communities about how to use solar power.

With regards to biogas lack of local resources necessary for its production was highlighted as the main constraint. In Nyanga most of the councillors and the 87 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

community felt that the low ownership of cattle made biogas a less attractive option. In one focus group discussion the concern was put across thus:

“P5: There are no cattle in the area for people to get cow dung to feed biogas digesters” (P5:60 308:310)

However the major challenge was how people perceived biogas and therefore the need for raising awareness for households to appreciate its use. There were mixed feelings on the use of biogas with about 60 and 29 per cent of sample households willing to use biogas from agricultural waste and human waste, respectively.

Some respondents associated biogas with bad odour and would not want to use it. They also associate biogas with health risks as it came from rotten waste or human waste. The use of human waste was viewed with a lot of scepticism.

Asked the question – would you be willing to use human waste for energy generation? Responses were:

l P3 “It spreads diseases”.

l P2 “Cooking with human waste???????”

l P4 “My heart will not be free if I were to cook using biogas from human waste”

P1: Nyanga FGD “No never that sounds too unhygienic to use human waste for cooking”.

P5: “I think it is diﬃcult to use such a fuel because I cannot imagine using human waste for cooking some food”. (P5:61 304:306), FGD, parents, Hurungwe.

P5. “I would rather use cow dung than using human waste, cow dung can cook properly just in case there is nothing to use”. (P2:84 318:318), FGD, Chiredzi.

Thus there was a general feeling that using waste to generate energy for cooking was unhygienic worse using human waste. Lack of knowledge about how biogas is produced and how it works was the major constraint in the likely adoption of the technology even among households who had the capacity in terms of cattle ownership and access to ﬁnance.

Hurungwe and Nyanga households were more aware of the cleaner energy sources because there were civil society organizations working on energy issues in their districts (Figure 5.16).

88 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Figure 5.16 Participation of energy organizations in surveyed districts

o 35

e c n

e 29.63 s 30 e r p

g d n e t 25 s r i o s s p a e

r 19.86 s

s n 20 d o l o a h s e i s n 15 u a o

g 12.33 r h

o f

o y

) 10 r % e

( 6.54

n n e 5.14 o 5

r 2.77 o p o r 0 P Hurungwe Nyanga Chiredzi Gutu Tsholotsho Total District

However the energy intervention beneﬁciaries reported that they usually were not consulted but were incorporated in training programmes. Figure 5.17 shows the proportion of households that reported that they had not been consulted before an intervention.

Figure 5.17 Proportion of households who report that they were not consulted before intervention

o 34.36 e t h 35 l w u

s s

n 28.88 d n 30 l o o o c

h e n e r 25 s e 22.72 a

v u y r 20.62 o e e h t

h 20 17.54 ) t n

t % ( e a

h 15 n o

t 12.33

f o e d e r b

t 10 o a p c i o r d 5 P n i 0 Chiredzi Tsholotsho Nyanga Hurungwe Gutu Total Districts

89 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

Lack of consultation usually leaves a gap between the aspirations of the community and that of the development organization leading to low uptake of technologies. Beneﬁciaries were usually active during the presence of the organization but did not continue with the initiative once the project came to an end because of lack of commitment. Some respondents had perceptions that some development organizations came to communities to make their own money using them to access funding. They felt that they were short-changed and were very sceptical about organizations who came pretending to help communities. This might lead in communities being unwilling to pilot interventions in future.

5.4.1.2 Perceived Costs of Cleaner Energy and Technologies

Perception is a key component in the adoption of clean energy sources by households. It determines the acceptability of technologies from both a financial and social perspective. If perceived costs of technologies are high then potential customers shun from demanding them. Perception therefore acts as a barrier for technology uptake, because even when costs are very low people will not put an effort to find out their real cost.

Figure 5.18 shows that the mean perceived costs are within reasonable ranges for all the clean energy sources. However there was great variation within the sample as some respondents perceived the initial cost of the solar home system to be as high as USD5,000 and a maintenance cost of USD500 because of lack of information and knowledge of solar energy systems.

Figure 5.18 Perceived mean cost of clean energy sources

600

500 ) D

S 400 Perceived inial cost U (

t s

o 300 Perceived running costs c

n a e 200 Perceived maintenance M costs 100

0 Biogas Biogas LP gas Solar (Agric (Human home waste) waste) system

The perceived costs of LPG and biogas were similar to the actual cost. Wind energy technology was perceived to be the most expensive. Therefore, there is need for provision of information on the types of energy technologies available and their prices to communities so that they can have a choice to meet their demands. Currently people have perceptions on, for example, provision of solar technologies as follows: 90 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

“Solar is expensive and most households do not have it.” (P33:126 345:347), FGD, children, Hurungwe.

“Solar... Not all people can aﬀord the panels and the lights.” (P145:73 203:203), KII, village health worker, Chiredzi.

“The problem with getting solar lanterns is that we have to go all the way to Gutu to get them which is about 15 km away. Another problem is that we do not have money to buy these lanterns.” (P141:63 159:159), KII, councillor, Gutu.

5.4.1.3 Aﬀordability

The study explored the nature of the market for cleaner energy sources by asking households the range of products they could afford. Over 70 per cent of the households indicated they could afford most solar gadgets (Table 5.24). Only 32 per cent indicated they could afford the water heater while 22 per cent could afford biogas.

Table 5.24 Aﬀordability of cleaner energy technologies and price ranges

Products Price range (USD) Per cent could aﬀord Valid responses

Solar lighting 5-60 93 1,282

Phone charger 10-15 83 1,281

Solar kit 35-50 80 1,282

Solar bulbs 1-6 95 1,283

Batteries 15-300 73 1,280

Solar regulator 10-60 79 1,281

Inverter 10-350 76 1,280

Water heater 200-2,000 32 1,283

Biogas 700 22 1,283

5.4.1.3 Socio-cultural Barriers

The majority of households who did not want to own a biogas system expressed fear that gas could burn the homestead and people if not properly used and because they had children in their households, the likelihood of misusing biogas by children was high. Such fears were expressed in most focus group discussions whenever reference to the use of LPG and biogas was made.

In Hurungwe for example, there was mention of a village head who was burnt by biogas which was installed at his homestead as a demonstration. Therefore using biogas was viewed as risky.

Other barriers had to do with the lack of capacity to manage the energy resource. A number of conflicts were reported in Dazi where there was a micro-hydro scheme which were affecting the use of the electricity. A teacher at the beneficiary school commented about why the school was not using the micro-hydro:

“…there are complicated issues among the community members…” (P1:36 138:140). 91 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

In addition the conﬂicts extended to the water course where upstream water users were diverting water into their ﬁelds leading to less water reaching the hydro power generators.

Conﬂicts also aﬀected the Nyafaru micro-hydro scheme. The Rural District Council personnel responsible for projects had this to say about why people were not accessing electricity from the micro-hydro scheme:

“The one in Nyafaru started in 2013 but the conflicts there are actually making everyone's head go round. There was no proper communication between the community and the school and this caused them to frequently fight between themselves. The community just decided to disconnect the micro-hydro without communicating with the school. There were food stuffs in the cold room and the school ended up ferrying some of them to a school 50 km away. Some food stuffs perished”. (P14:39 141:141), RDC, Nyanga.

Some of the respondents would not want to change their energy source because they were used to it and it was cultural. A shop owner in Nyanga noted that:

“The challenge is that these people are very comfortable with using fuel wood. They say that the wattle tree is very reliable and it is abundant. They have put their trust on this tree. Even if you plough somewhere for ﬁve consecutive years the trees will sprout any time”. (P21:71 239:239), KII, Nyanga.

5.4.1.4 Supply Side Barriers

There was general lack of knowledge among most general dealers to separate good from poor quality products. Interviewed general dealers dotted in the study districts indicated that they did not have any knowledge and technical expertise to judge the quality of energy technologies such as solar home systems. As a result they avoided trading in the products for fear of incurring losses.

In addition lack of technical skills made it impossible for general dealers to trade in a technology that may fail to perform when they cannot ﬁx it. Over 50 per cent of the dealers said they could not risk having gadgets returned and incurring losses especially of solar technologies as they could not ﬁx them.

Access to ﬁnance was also highlighted as a major reason why some general dealers do not trade especially in energy products that require huge capital outlay. Nearly all general dealers interviewed highlighted the issue of having diﬃculties in accessing working capital, even credit lines from suppliers. A general dealer noted:

“We have no access to loans and people are always on our case every time they buy a product and it is not working properly or has expired. Also there is a challenge of getting faulty products from suppliers as they do not refund us so the loss will be on our hands.” (P35:62 176:176), KII, general dealer, Hurungwe.

The same sentiments were expressed by almost all of the 23 general dealers interviewed during the survey in the 5 districts.

Other retailers indicated that they were shunning away from trading in some solar products because the turnover period was long. The products took long to be bought. Thus when the energy products are not on the market their penetration rate or uptake and use is low. In a number of cases respondents indicated that they were not using some energy sources and technologies because they were not available on the market. 92 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

The use of paraﬃn and LPG for example were reported to be low because of their scarcity at local shopping centres. A village head in Nyamutowera ward had this to say about energy for cooking:

“The main issue when fetching fuel wood is the distance we have to travel to get to the forests. The problem with getting paraﬃn is that its not always available at the shops.” P10:54 149:149), KII, village head, Nyanga.

Children conﬁrmed the view:

“P5: Yes in shops candles and torches are readily available. Paraﬃn is not readily available so people have turned to torches.” (P33:110 149:151), FGD, children, Hurungwe.

“We can only get the paraﬃn that we use in Karoi which is about 40 km away.” (P40: 20 139:139), KII, village head, Hurungwe.

With regards to the supply side of cookstoves, the current types of improved cook stoves have had a number of challenges cited by end users. Tsotso stoves were reported to be fragile, with one respondent in Hurungwe reporting having bought up to seven stoves within four months because of breakages. In addition the tsotso stoves require a special type of clay which is usually difficult to find in most areas. The tsotso stove was also viewed by potential beneficiaries at one training session attended by the research team as not being able to perform a number of essential services such as roasting green mealies, drying meat and space heating. When the trainers from GOAL tried to explain that it could do all these services the beneficiaries were adamant that it could not.

The programmes are characterized by gender imbalance with low participation from men due to the cultural norm that the kitchen utensils belong to the women. A key informant noted:

“First, these stoves have a problem of cracking; it is difficult for one to go for a week without cooking so people will go back to using the open fire. The other challenge is that the grading machines pull down trees and fuelwood from those logs will be big logs that do not fit into the tsotso stove. One will have to hire someone to cut those logs into smaller pieces which is costly. The moulding frame which has a specific measurement for the pot stand has to be bought from someone who has it”. (P46:14; 134:134), KII; AGRIREXofficer, Hurungwe.

The construction of the tsotso and the jengetahuni stoves has implications on the uptake of the technology. The use of clay is viewed as child’s play by would be beneﬁciaries. Innovation around the challenges pointed out by beneﬁciaries would improve the uptake of the technologies.

5.5 Solutions to the Energy Crisis

Interviewees felt that the energy crisis could be solved in a number of ways, which would improve the lives of children. Key informants, children and parents were asked what could be done to improve access to energy for institutions, households and children.

The majority of respondents in all categories highlighted the need for continued interventions by both the public and the private sector. They made reference to past interventions and how that had made a diﬀerence. One teacher for example noted that 93 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

the work that REA has been doing was the right course of action if the energy challenges were to be solved.

P. “I think (REA) Rural Electriﬁcation Agency is doing a very good job, if they extend their services even more, the community will beneﬁt a lot”. P1:42 230:236), KII, teacher, Nyanga.

Thus continued rural electriﬁcation should be a long-term on-going process. In addition to the on-going electriﬁcation process some discussants felt that training of communities especially in clean energy sources and technologies would go a long way in solving the energy problem. For example the majority of participants in focus group discussions felt that with training they would use the clean energy sources and technologies. One councillor in Gutu had this to say:

“If I am trained on how to use it I would be willing to use it...” P4:67 233:235), KII, Councillor, Gutu.

“People just need to be educated, they are not aware”. P10:67 200:201), KII, Councillor, Nyanga.

Another option highlighted was the provision of energy for income generation. The business community was particularly interested in energy for income generation.

“Yes everyone wants to have electricity to be able to start businesses like grinding mills and sewing clubs .” (P7:78 276:280), FGD, Nyanga.

Availing energy technologies is also a powerful option as people are eager to invest in these technologies that would make their children have access to cleaner energy, however, the products are not on their local markets. In a number of focus group discussions people expressed their willingness to pay, as noted by one focus group participant:

“People will be willing to pay because we already pay for torches and batteries.” (P34:65 102:102), FGP, Chiredzi.

This is supported by a village head in Nyanga who said:

“People want it but in the village there are a lot of money problems. Some people would be able to pay and others would not ,ﬁrst people have to be told how to pay because we cannot make the decision by ourselves.” (P9:57 231:237), KII, village head, Nyanga.

People were willing to pay even if they faced ﬁnancial challenges, and in some districts such as Nyanga people were involved in horticulture and therefore could aﬀord some of the technologies if made available and if they areaware. The council representative responsible for development in Nyanga district said the following in response to whether people were able to sustain energy sources:

“Yes, people from here will be able to cater for their expenses because they grow potatoes to earn a living. They have good soils and the rains can sustain their livelihoods.” (P14:40 155:157), KII, Nyanga RDC.

He further gave the option of approaching diﬀerent areas in the same district diﬀerently. For example for Nyanga here is what he said he would do: 94 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

“I would ﬁrst divide my district into 2 parts,, the major part, Ward 1- 19 is very hot. So, I think solar panels will be appropriate but Wards 20-21 are very cold, the sunshine is poor such that the solar panels would not work because it is always cloudy…” (P14:43 181:181), KII, Nyanga RDC.

The business model approach to the provision of solar lighting to communities is a well thought intervention. The major barrier for most communities to access solar systems is the high cost of the gadgets and unavailability on local markets. OXFAM has taken a diﬀerent approach to providing low cost and ﬂexible payment credit facility plans for communities in Gutu. Communities were provided with solar lanterns which they were to pay for within 12 months whilst already using the lanterns and also being able to charge these at an Energy kiosk for free for the duration of the period which they were paying the instalments for the solar lanterns. These energy kiosks were being run by local people who had been trained to repair malfunctioning lanterns to ensure the sustainability of the project.

One of the kiosk attendants said:

“Personally I was trained on how to ﬁx the lights at a workshop done by OXFAM”. (137:17; 129:129), KII, Energy Kiosk Caretaker, Gutu.

OXFAM also provided solar water pumps such as that installed at Magombedze to supply water to Magombedze Secondary School and to the clinic. The School Development Committee Vice Chairman said:

“OXFAM had a project for solar that powers the clinic and also the water pump that serves the clinic and both this school and the primary school.” (91:35; 173:173)KII; SDC vice chairman; Magombedze High School.

5.6 Conclusions

There are high energy poverty levels among rural households that invariably aﬀect children in terms of:

l Inadequate light to read at night leading to education deprivation.

l Inadequate energy for cooking leading to inadequate food preparation and limited choice of what to cook resulting in nutrition deprivation.

l Limited access to information thus leading to child deprivation for information, communication and education.

l Impacts on health from air pollution from the dirty fuels used contributing to chest and eye diseases and posing a risk to burns.

l Child labour from fetching fuel wood.

There was opportunity for business as most households were willing to change (and pay) from using fuel wood because of the distance that they have to travel to collect fuel wood. A potential market intervention would be one that limits the frequency of visits to collect fuel wood such as more eﬃcient cookstoves, or readily available and cheap options. There were opportunities for low to no cost options because of the level of poverty and low income of households found in rural areas.

The ﬁndings from this study show that there is a high potential market on the low income end of the population. The energy market is characterized by diﬀerent needs, which will require an energy mix that suits the needs of all. An intervention for example 95 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 5 Households and Children Energy Status

targeting one technology or energy source will not suffice as the market is complex and has different needs, tastes and financial capabilities.

Main grid electricity was the preferred type of energy in the 5 districts. The most used energy sources were fuel wood for cooking and paraﬃn, torches, solar and cell phones for lighting. Reasons for the choices were easy access and perceived eﬃciency. Thus accessibility is a critical factor that can drive use among potential households and their children.

The pricing regime is also important as the households’ income was low. Affordability is a reflection of disposable income and the ability to pay. Lessons can be learnt from the OXFAM energy kiosk intervention in terms of providing financial resources to enable payment schemes to meet the needs of the rural households. The kiosks are run by the community and payment of solar lanterns is over a period of a year at a premium of USD3.00 a month. Such kinds of schemes are likely to improve the use of clean energy sources and technologies as they are tailored for the needs of the poor.

Bartering presents another opportunity for those households that have livestock and other assets of value to exchange in place of money in order to secure cleaner energy technologies.

Generally households lacked suﬃcient information needed to make value judgments on the quality of energy products they bought. Ways should be found to help low- income consumers understand the beneﬁts of new clean energy technologies versus traditional fuel and technologies.

Many of the poorest consumers may still require financial support. Access to consumer finance such as micro-finance options and alternative financing schemes may be needed to enable consumers to obtain modern clean energy products.

Solar: Solar home systems have different sizes and prices. An analysis of whether households would afford the system show that almost every household in the sample found an option that it is able to buy. This is encouraging and reflects the presence of a huge market/demand for the solar home systems of different ranges. This has a great potential on access to energy for lighting and the hours children have access to lighting for their homework.

Energy- eﬃcient stoves: Lessons from current interventions in cook stoves show that the uptake is low with households complaining of the fragility of the stoves, their inability to carry more pots, and in some cases not aware of the technologies. Innovation should be directed towards improving the current stock of stoves at low cost but meeting the social needs of the end user population. The chingwa stove for example tends to be a better option as it has more plates to cook from, it therefore needs to be promoted vigorously.

Biogas Technology: The feasibility for implementation of the biogas technology is dependent on the availability of organic waste, adequate water and technical skills to construct the bio-digester units. End users are eager to learn and adopt the technology if it passes their test. There is need for awareness campaigns or learning centres where potential end users can learn and be able to compare eﬃciency with their traditional cooking technologies. This may take the form of REA‘s approach in Tsholotsho where they installed biogas and a pilot centre from which others can learn. Biogas technology needs to be demonstrated at the household level so that would-be beneﬁciaries could learn. In the interest of children such intervention at the school level would make quick impact especially at boarding schools where huge amounts of fuelwood are used to meet cooking energy needs. 96 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe Households and Children Energy Status 5

Torches and cell phones: Torches and cell phones are becoming major sources of energy for lighting. As an immediate short term option suppliers need to stock LED torches which have better illumination. LED torches with better pricing would be a short term option for children’s reading.

Wind technology: Wind technology seems to have limited application at household level in Zimbabwe. At the institutional level it can be used for pumping water. A windmill was pumping water for a clinic in Gutu, at very low cost. While initial capital may be high, payoﬀs are likely to be better than for solar energy. The wind technology needs to be promoted especially for water pumping.

The results show that most low-income earners across Zimbabwe can currently aﬀord to purchase any of the lowly priced clean technologies. However they would need to be provided with ﬂexible payment mechanisms. The mechanisms should take into account the local context with respect to sources and patterns of income; attitudes to borrowing; availability of micro-credit agencies; and ability to repay over long and short periods. These mechanisms should be for both end users and suppliers and should be informed by past experiences.

The study proposes an energy business model presented as Figure 5.19 where there is demand from customers who are willing to change to cleaner energy and to pay more. On the supply side the technologies should be affordable, efficient and culturally acceptable. Further the suppliers should be willing to participate and they should have technical know-how while business in energy technology should be profitable.

Figure 5.19 Proposed energy business model

Support [Gvt-legislaon •Legislaon •Infrastructure & infrastructure, •Knowledge civic/NGO] •Monitoring & evaluaon •Financial

Supply/suppliers [private •Availability of clean energy •Proﬁtability & public/community •Technical knowhow Enterprises] •Willingness to parcipate

Demand /customers •Willingness to change to cleaner energy •Cultural acceptability [Households/children, •Willingness to pay more schools & clinics] •Aﬀordability [price regime] •Eﬃciency

With regards to support to introduction of cleaner energy, government should introduce legislation that promotes cleaner energy technologies and together with civil organizations provide infrastructure, ﬁnances and knowledge for the process. There should be monitoring and evaluation to determine progress towards cleaner and renewable energy.

97 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

In Zimbabwe there exists a gap in understanding the level of access to modern energy in the institutions that serve children and in households in which they live. However, these institutions support the basic needs of children such as access to health, education and information which have a direct impact on the well-being of the child.

This section of the survey involved undertaking energy audits at schools, health facilities and the households in order to benchmark or reference their energy consumption. This enabled comparisons with local, regional and international benchmarks. An audit identifies energy gaps, barriers and the potential for implementing modern energy to improve access. The energy model for the schools, health facilities and households was analyzed at district level and aggregated nationally. Opportunities for addressing the energy barriers were identified. These were then taken through a cost benefit assessment and categorized into low and high energy initiatives. A water audit was also undertaken in addition to the energy audit.

The chapter structure includes a Section on the scope of the audit which is followed by a Section that analyzes the historical data of energy mixes used at institutions and households mainly, electrical and non-electrical energy as well as energy used to pump water. The report recommends energy saving priorities that can be turned into projects for implementation.

6.1 Deﬁnitions Used for the Energy Audit

The minimum international requirements for electricity are given in Chapter 1 (Section 1.4.1) and will be repeated here for convenience in reference.

The minimum international requirements for electricity, cooking and lighting are as follows:

Electricity - Provision of 1 unit of electricity per day per household is considered a basic energy requirement. In many developing countries the 30 units of electricity per month category is provided at a very concessionary rate to enable access to electricity.

Cooking - Minimum standard for cooking -1 kilogramme fuel wood or 0.3 kilogrammes charcoal or 0.04 kilogrammes LPG or 0.2 litres of paraﬃn per person per day, taking less than 30 minutes to obtain per household per day.

Lighting – Eﬀective or standard lighting requires a minimum of 300 lumens, an equivalent of 30 W incandescent bulb. This is suﬃcient for reading and doing other household tasks. It has been proven that lighting below 300 lumens is associated with an increase in work related accidents in a workplace. According to Practical Action 300 lumens should be available for at least four hours per night.

99 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

6.2 Scope of Energy Audit

The speciﬁc objectives of the energy audit were to:

1) Review type or sources of energy, energy consumption, constraints in its use, strategy and operational plans.

2) Conduct site visits and assessments.

3) Provide expert data analysis and commentary.

4) Model cost and environmental impact of the existing systems.

5) Outline cost-beneﬁt analysis for recommendations.

The energy audit involved analysis of historical energy data extracted from the monthly utility bills, students attending the schools, and records of patients attended to at health centres. Historical data was used for the purpose of establishing the baseline situation. Primary data was collected using data-logging instruments and spot measurements. This information was used for generating the sources of energy, energy use and the share of energy consumption. Further observations were also made on clean energy interventions, practices and state of the equipment at the institutions. Photographs of interesting energy use and interventions were taken.

6.3 Characteristics of Energy Use in Institutions

The energy audits covered primary and secondary schools, clinics as well as selected households. The institutions were further categorized in terms of services oﬀered and whether they were connected to the grid or not during dat analysis foreasier comparison. The secondary schools were further disaggregated into boarding and non- boarding schools and analyzed separately. The analysis further split the boarding schools to those connected and those not connected to the grid. The analysis also looked at day primary schools connected to the grid and those not connected, since there were no primary schools with boarding facilities. Health institutions were classiﬁed into two groups made up of hospitals and smaller clinics. Analysis was made of clinics connected to the grid versus those not connected to the grid.

6.3.1 Energy Audit in Secondary Schools

A total of 15 secondary schools were audited across the ﬁve districts. For the purposes of analysis of the energy audits across the schools, they were further categorized into:

l Boarding schools (with and without electricity).

l Day schools with limited boarding facilities.

l Day schools (with and without electricity).

A summary of the schools, districts, their highest form, whether they were boarding or not boarding as well as their student and staﬀ populations are given in Table 6.1.

100 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6

Table 6.1 Characteristics for audited secondary schools

Level of Boarding Female Male Total Male Female Total Name of School Ward District highest or Day Employees Employees Employees Students Students Students class School

Dewure 21 Gutu 23 43 66 735 Form 6 Boarding

Tsholotsho 12 Tsholotsho 25 55 80 309 421 730 Form 6 Boarding

Malipati 15 Chiredzi 9 19 28 167 182 349 Form 6 Boarding

Nyafaru 21 Nyanga 8 20 28 250 258 508 Form 6 Day Semi Chikwanda 27 Gutu 11 16 27 220 182 402 Form 6 Boarding Semi Sipepa 5 Tsholotsho 12 17 29 208 237 445 Form 6 Boarding J . Landa Semi 12 Tsholotsho 7 18 25 144 193 337 Form 6 Nkomo Boarding Mushowe 2 Hurungwe 6 18 24 357 320 677 Form 6 Day

Kapfunde 12 Hurungwe 7 18 25 254 185 439 Form 6 Day

Alpha Mpapa 15 Chiredzi 6 21 27 267 325 592 Form 4 Day

Nyajezi 19 Nyanga 11 15 26 275 225 500 Form 6 Day Nyamupfu- 26 Hurungwe 9 10 19 227 252 479 Form 6 Day kudza Crowne Range 17 Chiredzi 5 7 12 92 107 199 Form 4 Day Muchekayaora 15 Gutu 7 8 15 127 125 252 Form 4 Day Secondary Semi Kapane 3 Tsholotsho 12 3 15 135 124 259 Form 4 Boarding

6.3.1.1 Boarding Schools with Electricity

Only two boarding schools were connected to the main grid Dewure High School and Tsholotsho High School.

a) Dewure High School

The school is connected to the main grid and it shares the transformer with Dewure clinic. A bulk metre supplies electricity to three blocks of classrooms, girls’ and boys’ hostels, 16 teachers’ households as well as a 20 hp submersible pump, 30 hp mono pump, 15 hp mono pump, 50 hp mono pump. In 2014 the school consumed408,900 Kw of electricity at a cost of USD36,000. The school had a 5 hp and a 35 kVA generator for back up services. The two generators used 741 litres of diesel in 2014 at a cost of USD1,192.

Cooking

Cooking was mainly done on four jengetahuni stoves. However, the kitchen had very poor ventilation. A total of 72,000 kg of fuel wood was used for cooking in 2014. Fuel wood is scarce around Dewure High School. Two electrical stoves were used as back up.

101 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

Lighting

The boys and girls hostels did not have enough light to read in the evening as the measure for lighting was 35 lux compared to the 300 lux recommended for reading. The library also had inadequate lighting.

Renewable energy options

The school had 15 cattle and 300 chickens which they slaughtered for the meals of the school boarders. Kitchen waste per day was estimated at 200 kg and this was mostly from organic waste (sadza). The waste was adequate to generate biogas for cooking.

b) Tsholotsho High School

In 2014 the school used 211,500 kWh of electricity at a cost of USD22,500. A transformer supplied electricity to the school as well as 15 staﬀ houses.

Cooking and heating

The school used fuel wood for cooking in addition to biogas and conventional electricity. There were 2×14.4 kW electricity cooking pots each 200 litres. It is estimated that the school used 129,600 kg of fuel wood during the year 2014 at a cost of USD2,160. Fuel wood is abundant in the Tsholotsho area. The fuel wood was burnt in a well-constructed and ventilated kitchen with institutional tsotso stoves. A biogas digester was currently being used for cooking mainly for staﬀ at the school. It was connected to four cooking plates. The biodigester pit was 50 m3 in volume but it was not being fed well with cow dung.

The school has 27 cattle and 50 kg of waste was being generated daily from the kitchen. The daily estimate of biogas generation was 18 m3 per day from the animals and waste. The amount of biogas produced (18 m3) was suﬃcient to run one commercial pot for 18 hours. Hence with two pots cooking for 2 hours per meal the school should be able to generate own power for cooking from biogas resources.

Lighting

A generator was being used as a back-up to assist children with their studies and was a 4.5 hp petrol size generator that was using 600 litres of petrol worth USD1,080.00 per year. The science laboratories had fewer light bulbs than required; boy’s hostels had no lights in most rooms; the girls hostel’s rooms had no lights. The school had procured twenty solar lanterns at a cost of USD700.00 for backup, to boost inadequate lighting and for emergencies.

Other energy needs

In 2014 Tsholotsho High School bought 120 kg of LPG at a cost of USD300.00 for the Science Laboratory. Water was being pumped using electricity with the generator as alternative.

The energy mixes for Dewure and Tsholotsho High Schools are given in Table 6.2.

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Table 6.2 The energy mixes for Dewure and Tsholotsho High Schools

Total Paraﬃn Petrol Diesel LPG Firewood Electricity Solar Energy in (litres/ (litres/ (litres/ (kg/yr) (kg/yr) (kWh/yr) kWh/yr MJ heat yr) yr) yr) Units (MJ)

Dewure 15 20 741 48 72,000 408,900 - 1,325,997

Tsholots - 600 300 120 129,600 211,500 365 2,368,661 ho

In 2014 Dewure’s total energy consumption in terms of heat units was equivalent to 1,325,997 MJ of energy whilst that of Tsholotsho was 2,368,661 MJ.

The schools used fuel wood as their main source of energy for cooking. However Tsholotsho High School used more fuel wood compared to Dewure High School. In addition to fuel wood, both schools would also had electric stoves that they used for cooking meals. There was a demonstration biogas digester at Tsholotsho High School and this was mainly used to prepare meals for staﬀ and not studentsbut it had enough capacity to be used for school children meals.

Dewure High School relied on diesel for backup whereas Tsholotsho High School relied on petrol. Tsholotsho High School complimented its lighting with solar lanterns while Dewure High School did not. Thus it could be argued that Tsholotsho High School was more advanced in using renewable energy than Dewure High School.

6.3.1.2 Boarding Schools Not Connected to Grid

The audit included two boarding schools which were not connected to the main grid and these were Nyafarul and Malipati High Schools. The enrolment ﬁgure and staﬀ numbers of the schools are presented in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3 Student and staﬀ statistics for Malipati and Nyafaru High Schools

Male Female Total Female Male Total Students Students Students Employees Employees Employees

Malipati 167 182 349 9 19 28

Nyafaru 250 258 508 8 20 28

Nyafaru High School had more students compared to Malipati Secondary School but the total number of staﬀ members was the same. a) Nyafaru High School

Nyafaru High School had its own power generation station in the form of a micro-hydro power station that was installed by Practical Action more than 15 years ago.

This is a model school where renewable energy has been used to provide aﬀordable power to the school. The power is used for lighting the classrooms, the school dormitories and teachers’ houses. In addition they use the electricity to power their 103 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

computers, charging mobile phones and for photocopying machines. However, the school experiences power challenges during the dry season. The school used a generator for back up purposes that consumed 420 litres of petrol in 2014. It was reported that there were times when students improvised by using the bark of the wattle tree that is abundantly available in the area for lighting.

The school used fuel wood as a source of energy for cooking and heating. Eh fuel wood was freely available and was collected from timber plantations next to the school.

b) Malipati High School

Malipati High School relied on a diesel powered generator for its electricity supply. It consumed 5,400 litres of diesel in 2014.

The school used 27,000 kg of fuel wood as a source for cooking and heating.

A summary of the energy mixes used at Malipati and Nyafaru high schools are shown in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4 The energy mix for Malipati and Nyafaru High Schools

Heat value Petrol Diesel Fuelwood Electricity equivalent (litres/yr) (litres/yr) (kg/yr) (kWh/yr) MJ

Malipati - 5,400 27,000 - 675,000

Nyafaru 420 - 6,000 144,000 123,218

Using heat value equivalents, in terms of energy consumption, Malipati High School consumed ﬁve 5 times more energy than Nyafaru High School despite it having less students. In 2014, Malipati Secondary School consumed 675,000 MJ of energy compared to 123,218 MJ of energy by Nyafaru High.

Renewable energy potential

There is potential for biogas utilization at both schools with Malipati High School having potential for using human waste as a source. Nyafaru High School is in a much better situation as the school has 17 cattle, 22 pigs and 42 sheep which they slaughtered for boarders’ meal in addition to human waste.

6.3.1.3 Semi Boarding Secondary Schools

Semi boarding schools are day schools but oﬀer accommodation facilities for students who come from far-away places. Four such schools Chikwanda, Sipepa, Kapene and John Landa were encountered during the audit. The student and staﬀ statistics for are shown in Table 6.5.

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Table 6.5 Student and Staﬀ statistics for Chikwanda, Sipepa and John Landa High Schools and Kapene Secondary School

Male Female Total Female Male Total Students Students Students Employees Employees Employees

Chikwanda 220 182 402 11 16 27

Sipepa 208 237 445 12 17 29

John Landa 144 193 337 7 18 25 Nkomo

Kapene 135 124 259 12 3 15

Two of the schools, Chikwanda and Sipepa were connected to the electricity grid while two John Landa High School and Kapene Secondary School were not connected to the grid a) Chikwanda High School

The school is connected to the main grid but the 200 kVA transformer was struck by lightning on 22 December 2014 and it was yet to be repaired by REA. In 2014 they consumed a total of 4,230 kWh. Electricity was mainly used to provide power for lighting and for typing machines. The school had procured a 5Hp diesel generator as a backup. The deputy headmaster’s, the seniors master’s, senior lady’s and the clerk’s offices were using inefficient 100 watt incandescent light bulbs. The headmaster’s office was using an 11 watt energy saver with 43 lux. The staff room was not properly tubed and wired as the fittings were not tight and the wires were hanging loosely.

Lighting

Most of the classrooms had natural light with 50 lux which could deteriorate with cloud cover. They used to have advanced level night studies but had stopped because of poor lighting. Science laboratories had less light bulbs than required. The school used twenty solar lanterns at a cost of USD700.00 for backup, to boost lighting and in cases of emergencies.

Cooking

Fuel wood was mainly used during special occasions and it was estimated that the school consumed 400 kg in 2014.

Water pumping

Water was pumped using grid electricity with the generator as an alternative. The school hadtwo electric pumps. b) Sipepa Nkomo High School

Sipepa Nkomo Secondary School had among its total enrolment, 88 boarders, 56 who were girls and 32 boys. The school was electriﬁed with grid electricity and had only two blocks out of ﬁve having been wired. The school had converted two 4-roomed houses into children’s dormitories which were without lighting. A petrol generator was used for lighting and had consumed 115 litres of petrol costing the school USD240 in 2014.

105 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

Lighting

The administration corridor had no adequate lighting. The deputy headmaster’s oﬃce had no lights. A 4-foot ﬂuorescent light was working in the reception instead of two. The boarders used 156 packets of candles per term which converted to 468 packets at a cost USD1,076. These school boarders also used six solar lamps as an alternative source of energy that they shared amongst themselves.

Cooking and heating

It was estimated that fuel wood amounting to 2,700 kg was used to cook meals on three stone stoves in 2014.

c) John Landa Nkomo HighSchool

The school had a total enrolment of 337 pupils whereby 144 were boys and 193 were girls. There were 45 boarders of whom 21 were boys and 24 were girls. Although connected to the main grid, the school had been without access to electricity since 2013 when the 100 kVA transformer was struck by lightning.

A solar system was installed by REA in 2012. This is a 4.48 kW Solar System comprising of 64 crystalline panels and 16 batteries. The system had not been working owing to a fuse that had been blown out towards the end of 2013. A petrol generator was being used as backup for lighting. It was estimated that it consumed 240 litres of petrol in 2014.

Cooking and heating

A total of 5,400 kg of fuel wood had been used for cooking on special occasions like the prize giving day, sporting events and for the 45 quasi boarders in 2014. They cooked using three stone stoves under a shade.

Water pumping

Water for John Landa Nkomo school was being pumped from two boreholes. One was powered by the mains grid and this was supposed to supply a 500 litre tank that supplies the whole school and teacher’s cottages.

Opportunities for renewable energy

The school had a total of 14 cattle whose dung could be considered for use in a biogas digester. The dung when supplemented with the student’s sewage waste could provide sustainable energy for cooking using biogas.

d) Kapane Secondary School

Kapane Secondary School was in Phakamani Village Ward 3, Tsholotsho District. The school had a total enrolment of 259 children with 135 boys and 124 girls. There were 56 boarders comprising of 27 boys and 29 girls. There were 15 teachers of whom 12 were females and 3 males.

The school had a 5.5 hp petrol generator which they used for lighting and printing school examinations papers. They used 120 litres of petrol worth $180 in 2014. There were nine computers in the computer room but only four could be used at the same time to accommodate the required output provided by the solar system. The solar system was not working at the time of the visit because the solar charge controller was 106 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6 struck by lightning. Hence there was no electricity in the headmaster’s oﬃce and computer room. The school had a solar system which was connected to the administration and computer blocks. Two blocks of classrooms had the solar system and the other two had no power. The boarders’ hostels used solar lanterns for lighting since the solar system funded by REA could not provide enough energy for the hostels. The school consumed 8,700 kg of fuel wood which was used on special occasions and for heating and cooking for boarders. Fuel wood was found in abundance in this area. Cooking was done on three stone stoves.

The school consumed 2,211 m3 of water per year. Water for gardening and washing used to be supplied using a solar powered submersible borehole. However, the system had broken down.

A summary of the energy mixes used by Chikwanda, Sipepa Nkomo and John Landa High Schools and Kapene Secondary School is given in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6 Energy mixes for Chikwanda, Sipepa and John Landa High Schools and Kapene Secondary School Electricity Candles-Units Petrol l/yr Fuel wood kg/yr kWh/yr

Chikwanda - - 400 4,230

Sipepa Nkomo 156 115 2,700 4,700

John Landa - 120 5,400 - Nkomo

Kapene - 120 8,700 -

The three schools (Sipepa Nkomo, Kapene and John Landa Nkomo) in Matebeland North where fuel wood is abundant used more fuel wood than Chikwanda High School in Gutu where fuel wood is scarce.

6.3.1.4 Day Secondary Schools connected to grid electricity

Day schools do not use much electricity as it is mainly used to power classroom blocks during the day and teachers’ houses. Cooking is mostly done on special occasions. There were standby generators that were used to provide backup power in the event of failure of main grid. There were ﬁve day secondary schools (Mushowe, Kapfunde, Alpha Mpapa, Nyajezi and Nyamupfukudza) included in the study. a) Mushowe High School

Mushowe High School is in Hurungwe district drew most of its children from farming communities which are sparsely populated. Some of children travelled 10-15 km to get to the school. Those who lived nearby came to study at the school at night since the school installed electricity in one of the study rooms. There was an administration block which accommodated the computer laboratory. This block was separately built and electrified by a 100 kVA transformer. There were 4 blocks of classrooms that were not electrified. All classrooms facing east did not have sufficient natural light.

There was no water at the school hence the school children were travelling 9 to 10 km to fetch some water, yet there was a nearby dam 500 metres away from the school. 107 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

b) Kapfunde High School

The administration block and the computer laboratory were supplied with electricity from the mains grid using a 50 kVA transformer. Water to supply the school was being pumped by electrical pumps. However, the electrical installations at the pump house were loose and needed attention of a qualiﬁed technician.

Renewable energy opportunities at Kapfunde Secondary School

The school once had a piggery project with a peak of 45 pigs. However, this project was facing challenges as there were only three animals left. A biogas digester could have been installed at the school to provide energy for cooking for teachers if the project was to be revived.

c) Alpha Mpapa Secondary School

The institution mainly used electricity from the grid. The school had a prepaid metre since 2014 when it used 6,100 kWh electricity at a cost of USD648.00. There was a petrol generator used in case there was no electricity.

Lighting

There were eight blocks of classrooms and the computer room, one classroom and the fashion fabrics classroom had lights. The school used incandescent light bulbs for lighting which were ineﬃcient.

Water pumping

The school used a hand dug well which was in the school yard from which they directly drew water. The well catered for the referral Mission Hospital, the community, the primary school as well as the secondary school.

d) Nyajezi High School

Nyajezi High School was connected to the national grid in 2000. In 2014 it used 5,640 kWh of electricity. There were buildings which had electricity and these were the administration block; the headmaster’s, deputy headmaster’s, senior teacher’s, clerk’s and the typist oﬃces; the staﬀ room, computer room, fashion fabrics classroom and the library. The school used a diesel generator for emergency cases when there was no grid electricity at a cost of USD268 per annum.

Renewable energy opportunities at Nyajezi Secondary School

The institution normally reared pigs but there was only one left at the time of the study. At the peak of the project they bred up to 10 pigs. They had a project on keeping rabbits and there were six rabbits. The school also grew vegetables and was involved in aquaculture in three ponds. They grew carrots, tomatoes, orchard trees and cabbages. The school produced 600 kg of solid waste per year. However, this was not adequate to generate biogas.

e) Nyamupfukudza Secondary School

Nyamupfukudza is a rural day school in Hurungwe west with a total number of 479 pupils of which 252 were female and 227 males. The school had a staﬀ complement of 19, of which 10 were males and 9 females.

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There were five blocks of classes with two classes. The classrooms were not adequate as some students attended school in the morning while the others attended in the afternoon. The institution had 6 houses for 19 teachers; all the houses are electrified from the mains through a 100 kVA transformer. All the teachers’ houses were using 100 watt incandescent light bulbs. TThe main block of classrooms was electrified with others using natural light. f) Energy mixes at the day Secondary Schools connected to grid electricity

The energy mixes of the day secondary schools that were connected to grid electricity are given in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7 Energy mixes of Secondary day schools connected to grid electricity

Petrol_ Diesel_l Fuelwood_ Electricity_ l/yr /yr kg/yr kWh/yr

Mushowe 100 180 600 2,867

Kapfunde 100 - 600 3,760

Alpha Mpapa - - 300 6,100

Nyajezi High 15 400 60 5,640

Nyamupfukudza - -480 960 Not collected

6.3.1.5 Day Secondary Schools without grid electricity

The situation at Secondary day schools without grid electricity (Crown Range, and Muchekayaora) was similar to those connected to the grid with the diﬀerence that the teachers’ had no access to electricity. Backup generators were used mainly for powering a few electrical devices like photocopying machines. a) Crown Range Secondary School

The secondary school was located in Ward 17 Chiredzi North in the Range Resettlement. It was built in 2010. It has an enrolment of 269 children and employed 12 teachers, 5 ladies and 7 males. The school had two shifts one in the morning and another shift in the afternoon.

The school used fuel wood as their source of energy for cooking. They needed 2,750 kg of fuel wood which they bought for $300. It was estimated that the school consumed 230.76 m3 of water per year. b) Muchekayaora Secondary School

Muchekayaora Secondary school is located in Ward 12 of Gutu district. It has an enrolment of 252 pupils made up of 127 girls and 125 boys. The school had a staﬀ compliment of 15 employees of which 7 werefemales and 8 were males.

It was not connected to the national grid and had to rely on a 5 hp generator that was used to power computers, printers and photocopiers. They used 105 litres of diesel on thegenerator at a cost of $153.The school used to have a working solar system that was

109 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

vandalized. During the night the school teachers used paraﬃn lamps. Fuel wood is used on special occasions like sports day and prize giving day. It is estimated that annually the school used 300 kg of fuel wood and cooked on three stone stoves.

Annually the school consumed 1027 m3 of water. There was a community borehole from which the school drew its water which was 200 metres away. The borehole was being used by the secondary school, the primary school and the community.

In the past they had a windmill pumping the water but it had long been broken and was replaced by a manual borehole. The water tank they once used for storage was still intact.

A summary of the energy mix for the two secondary day schools without electricity is given in Table 6.8.

Table 6.8 The energy mix of secondary day schools without grid electricity

Paraﬃn_ Petrol_ Diesel_ Fuelwood_ l/yr l/yr l/yr kg/yr

Crown Range - - - 2,250

Muchekayaora 2 - 120 300

6.3.2 Energy Audit in Primary Schools

All primary schools audited were day schools. Out of the 15 primary schools audited:

l 6 schools were connected to the national grid.

l 1 had REA solar systems installed.

l 2 were connected to micro-hydro power systems.

l 6 had no electricity installed.

In addition, an audit was carried out as a pre-test of the Survey Instruments at a farm school in Bindura. The main use of energy at such primary day schools was for lighting, cooking and powering electrical appliances.

6.3.2.1 Schools Connected to Grid Electricity

Six out of the 16 primary schools were connected partially or fully to the electricity grid. These were Kapfunde, Chikombedzi, Nyajezi, Dinyane and Mtetwa Primary schools.

a) Kapfunde Primary School

The majority of Kapfunde Primary School was not connected to electricity with the exception of the teachers’ quarters which used 564 kWh in 2014. There were six blocks of classrooms which relied on natural light and these were poorly oriented giving insuﬃcient light. The school was in the process of constructing a new administration block to replace the one that was poorly lit.

110 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6 b) Chikombedzi Primary School

The school was connected to the main grid and used 4,512 kWh of electricity worth USD480 in 2014. The computer room, Grade 6, Home Economics, Grade 1B and Early Childhood Development Hall were connected to the electricity. The computer room had 16 computers. There was a television and a server in the computer room. A 5kVA standby generator was used at the school for electrical backup

The school had a woodlot of gum trees and the gum poles were sold to the community. It used 900 kg of fuel wood worth USD42 in 2014. In addition the school had three electrical stoves rated at 9,250 watts each. c) Nyajezi Primary School

Nyajezi Primary School was connected to the national grid through a 30 kVA transformer. In 2014 it consumed 2,256 kWh of electricity at a cost of USD240. The classes with electricity were the oﬃce block, Grade 4, computer and Grade 7 classes. The other four blocks including the reading room had no electricity. There were 18 computers which were functional and these were the main users of electricity. A standby 5hp petrol generator was used in the absence of electricity and in 2014 the fuel used cost them USD180.

In 2014 the school used 600 kg of fuel wood for cooking at a cost of USD40. Water was gravitated from a mountain 7.5 km away and stored in a 5,000 litre tank. d) Dinyane Primary School

Dinyane Primary School was electrified in 2004 and electricity was only used in the headmaster’s office for the light and computer. The office was using a 60 watt incandescent light bulb. The school paid USD60.00 for 564 kwh in 2014. A petrol generator was used for photocopying of examination papers. In 2014 they used 15 litres of petrol worth USD28.

Fuel wood was used during special events such as athletics, camping and prize giving days. They used 400 kg of fuel wood for the games which cost $10 in 2014. Cooking was on a three stone stove. The school drew its water from a manual borehole. In addition there was an electrical pump close to the school premises that fed into a tankwhich also supplied the community. e) Mtetwa Primary School

Mtetwa Primary School was supplied electricity by a 50 kVA transformer. They used 470 kWh worth USD50 in 2014. Fuel wood was used for cooking and heating when there were school functions. In 2014 the school used 300 kg of fuel wood that cost USD23.

They drew their water from an unprotected well by the river bed side which was 2 km away. There had been ﬁve cases of typhoid at the school in 2014. f) Energy mixes at the schools

A summary of the energy mixes at the ﬁve primary schools is given in Table 6.9.

111 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

Table 6.9 The energy mix of primary schools connected to grid electricity Name of Petrol_ Diesel_ Fuelwood_ Electricity_ Primary School l/yr l/yr kg/yr kWh/yr Kapfunde 0 0 2,160 564

Chikombedzi - 300 900 4,512

Nyajezi 50 - 450 2,256

Dinyane 15 - 400 564

Mtetwa - - 300 470

6.3.2.2 Primary Schools on Solar

There were only two primary schools audited that had REA solar systems. These were Magadzire and Matizha Primary Schools. The solar system used by the two schools were provided by REA.

a) Magadzire Primary School

The system at Magadzire School was connected to the administration block and three teachers’ houses. The administration block comprised of the headmaster oﬃce and Grade 6, Grade 4, Grade 5 classes and a computer classroom. The solar system only worked during the day as the batteries were worn out.

b) Matizha Primary school

Matizha Primary School is in Ward 5 in Gutu. Thr school catchment population is 600. The solar energy system is only connected to the headmaster’s oﬃce, reception and bursar’s oﬃce. Most of the classroom blocks use natural light. Lighting in the classrooms is poor due to the orientation of the classroom blocks. The school used 600 kg of fuel wood in 2014 that cost them USD25.

The energy mix for Magadzire and Matizha primary schools are given in Table 6.10.

Table 6.10 Energy mix at primary schools with solar energy

Candles- Paraﬃn_ Petrol_ Diesel_ LPG_ Firewood_ Electricity_ Solar_ Units l/yr l/yr l/yr kg/yr kg/yr kWh/yr kWh/yr Magadzire - - 120 - - 900 0 613 Primary Matizha - - - - - 600 - 109.5 Primary

6.3.2.3 Primary Schools connected to micro-hydro power systems

Dazi and Nyafaru Primary Schools were connected to micro-hydro schemes.

a) Dazi Primary School

There was a 20 kVA micro-hydro scheme at Dazi Primary School which was not functioning because of ownership wrangles with the local community and lack of 112 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6 technical backup. The project was completed in December 2010 and only worked for 3 weeks. Most teachers had moved from the school because of lack of electricity. This had aﬀected the pass rate which was 62 per cent in 2013 and which had dropped down to 49 per cent in 2014.

A diesel generator rated at 3.1 kVA was being used for printing and photocopying examination papers. The school used 50 litres of diesel for the generator and 600 kg of fuel wood for cooking at some special events in 2014 which was freely available. They used piped water which ﬂows down to the school using gravity. b) Nyafaru Primary School

The school was connected to a micro-hydro power plant with a capacity of 20 kVA. The power station was however producing 13 kVA at the time of the study visit which was not enough for what it was designed for. Key informants indicated that the output of station was quite low between September and November because of low water ﬂow. They used a generator as a back up when the power failed. It consumed 420 litres of petrol in 2014. The school shared fuel wood with the secondary school and the two schools used 6,000 kg in 2014.

The energy mix for Dazi and Nyafaru Primary schools is given in Table 6.11.

Table 6.11 The energy mixes for primary schools connected to micro-hydro electricity Diesel Petrol Fuel wood Electricity Name of School l/yr l/yr kg/yr kWh/yr Currently not Dazi 50 - 600 working

Nyafaru - 420 6,000

6.3.2.4 Schools not connected to grid electricity and without or with limited solar

Six primary schools (Nyamupfukudza, Malipati, Zunguza, Pimento Park, Nyamutowera and Kapane) were not connected to any form of electricity. a) Nyamupfukudza Primary School

Nyamupfukudza Primary School was generally not connected to electricity with the exception of teacher’s houses which were connected to a 50 kVA mains transformer. This was because of ﬁnancial constrains. The school has 6 blocks of classrooms, one of which has three classrooms while the rest had two classrooms each.

Natural light provided lighting in the classrooms, but it was not adequate for afternoon learning. The headmaster’s oﬃce did not have adequate lighting and had small windows and poor ventilation.

The school used an estimated 240 kg fuel wood for cooking on special school functions in 2014.

113 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

b) Malipati Primary School

A generator was used to power the computer used to set examinations. The school used 100 litres of petrol in 2014. They also used 900 kg of fuel wood to cook meals on special occasions. Fuel wood was collected free of charge since it is abundantly available. The classrooms were well built and oriented and made use of natural light.

c) Zungudza Primary School

Zungudza Primary school was made up of 5 blocks each with 2 classrooms and an administration block was still under construction. The school used 1,350 kg of fuel wood at a cost of USD100 in 2014. There was a biogas digestor that was built in 2007 which was never completed.

d) Pimento Primary School

Pimento Primary School in Bindura was the only farm school that was included in the study and used for pretesting of the research instruments. The school used former farm infrastructure as classes. It was not connected to electricity which made it diﬃcult to print or photocopy examinations and other papers.

Lighting was poor in all the school buildings presenting a challenge to the students during learning as they could hardly see the board. In 2014 they used 725 kg of fuel wood for cooking on special occasions which was provided by the farm owner.

e) Nyamutowera Primary School

Nyamutowera Primary School used a generator as their source of energy for printing examination papers. The generator used 23 litres of diesel which cost USD30 in 2014. Their Grade 7 pass rate in 2013 was 46 per cent and it went down to 23 per cent in 2014 because teachers left citing lack of electricity at the school staﬀ cottages as the reason for leaving.

Firewood was used for cooking on special occasions and in 2014 they used 75 kg of fuel wood which was collected from the forests free of charge. They drew water from a manual borehole which was 1.5 km away.

f) Kapane Primary School

There were ﬁve blocks of classrooms at Kapane Primary School with adequate natural light during the day. The headmaster was travelling to Bulawayo to carry out printing and photocopying. The school used 1,200 kg of fuel wood for cooking and heating on prize giving and sports occasions at a cost of USD30. They used three stone stoves for cooking. The school had a solar system powered borehole that fed into the school water tanks which was funded by an organization known as Wilderness.

Table 6.12 is a summary of the energy mix for the six primary schools that were not connected to grid electricity and which were without or with limited solar and hydro- electricity.

114 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6

Table 6.12 The energy mix of primary schools not connected to grid electricity and without or with limited solar and hydro electricity Name of School Petrol_l/yr Diesel_l/yr Fuelwood_kg/yr

Nyamupfukudza - - 240

Malipati 50 - 900

Zungudza - - 1350

Pimento Park - - 725

Nyamutowera - 23 40

Kapane - - 600

6.3.3 Summary and Recommendations on Energy in Primary and Secondary Schools

Lighting was observed to be poor in most of the schools. Natural light provided lighting in the classrooms in schools which were not connected to the national grid, but it was not adequate for afternoon learning. The quality of electric bulbs used in those schools on grid electricity or solar was poor. Improvements are recommended for better quality light design that includes use of more eﬃcient energy saving LEDS and in the orientation of new buildings at schools to maximize natural lighting so that children are provided with adequate light that does not aﬀect their eyes.

Most of schools that were oﬀ grid and used petrol or diesel to power a few electrical appliances such as typewriters and photocopying machines where they incurred monthly running costs that included fuel and maintenance. Those that were on main grid experience frequent load shedding and spend large amounts of money on generators and diesel and petrol to supplement energy for lighting and powering appliances. It is proposed to substitute diesel and petrol generators with solar mini grids. The economic savings would be on petrol/diesel. It is estimated that schools spend on average USD450 per year. The estimated that the cost of the mini grid 1kW is USD5,000 and the payback period per school would be 11 years for the installation of the solar mini grid. With the solar mini grid, each school would be able to build a dedicated reading room where day scholars could study at night.

Teachers were the most aﬀected in schools which were not connected to the national grid and had to rely on poor quality of energy to meet their household needs. It is recommended that they be provided with soft loans, to purchase solar lanterns that they can use at their houses. UNICEF could partner with Econet Energy and facilitate the procurement of these solar lanterns.

In cases where REA solar installations were not functioning it is recommended that these be rehabilitated and the policy issues around ownership and technical shortcomings be resolved between the schools, the community and REA. Indeed REA has plans to engage in this activity according to the presentation made by the Chief Executive Oﬃcer of REA at the Validation Workshop of this study.

Most boarding schools such as Tsholotsho, Dewure and Nyafaru had potential for biogas that is underutilised or not utilized. The main source of cooking was fuel wood and electricity which were major cost factors to the schools. Promotion of biogas would save on the utilities bill for the boarding schools.

115 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

The day schools used fuel wood for cooking mainly during special functions. Use of improved cookstoves would save on fuel wood and present an opportunity for showcasing improved cookstoves at the schools.

The option for hydro-electricity exists in Manicaland. It is recommended that this be considered for electriﬁcation of schools. Potential exists in Honde, Chipinge and Nyanga Districts.

Water can be supplied to schools using gravity in some areas. This option saves on pumping water costs.

Energy management and energy eﬃciency in all schools was poor resulting in high energy bills. Awareness of energy saving techniques could help the schools to save on their energy bills

6.3.4 Energy Audit in Health Institutions

Three types of health institutions were audited:

l Rural Health Hospitals.

l Rural Health Clinics on grid electricity.

l Rural Health Clinics without grid electricity.

6.3.4.1 Energy mix of hospitals

Chikombedzi and Sipepa were the two rural hospitals audited out of the health facilities.

a) Chikombedzi

Chikombedzi Rural Hospital was connected to the grid by a 200 kVA transformer. Electricity was needed all times in the theatre, maternity ward, other critical wards, the mother’s shelter, kitchen and laundry. Lighting in the corridor was very poor at 3 lux and in the maternity ward at 17 lux.. All passages to the wards were not properly lit or there was no lighting at all. They were using 100 watt bulbs in the examination room which were not giving enough lux. The doctors’ consultation room had 31 lux of light which is not enough for patients’ examination. The neo-natal room where babies are observed had 8 lux and injection rooms had 13 lux which were not good enough.

There were no lights in observation room. The hospital laboratory did not have enough light. The opportunistic infection wards had 15 lux, the paediatric ward had 33 lux and the male ward had 80 lux all of which were not good enough. The surgical ward had enough light while the kitchen had only 2 lux of light. The rehabilitation department had no lights. The theatre had 315 lux which is quite low.

There was a 100 kVA backup generator that catered for staﬀ houses. The hospital consumed 24,000 litres of diesel in 2014. Fuel wood was used as the main source of energy for cooking. The boiler was used for heating but was not working.

b) Sipepa Rural Hospital

Sipepa Rural Hospital had no electricity. The 100 kVa transformer which used to supply electricity was struck by lightning in December 2014.

There was a solar mini grid installed at the hospital. Lights in the administration block were powered by both solar and grid electricity and were not working. The same 116 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6 situation was in the laboratory, family child health room, bathroom and toilets. There was a solar light in the treatment room. The corridors leading to the wards had 6× 100 watts incandescent bulbs which had been burnt because they did not have water tight covers. Water from the pipes was dripping into the bulbs. There was a 5-foot fluorescent tube in the duty room which was working and another 5-foot fluorescent tube which was not working. A 5-foot fluorescent light was working in sister in charges office (with the second one not working). There was a solar light in the labour ward and treatment room. Solar lanterns were bought through the Health Trust Fund. A solar refrigerator was working. It was powered by 2×250 watts panels and was used to store vaccines

The hospital also used to have a 40 kVA generator for lighting at night and for emergencies like maternity deliveries. The generator ceased operating in May 2015 hence there was no power back-up for critical areas. The hospital used 1,000 litres of diesel at a cost of USD1,380 in 2014.

LPG was also used for refrigeration with 228 kg of LPG worth USD456 used in 2014. Sipepa hospital use fuel wood for autoclaving and for cooking in the mother’s shelter. They used 3,600 kg of fuel wood at a cost of USD84 in 2014. The hospital had a mother’s shelter built by a donor. The mothers use Jengetahuni stoves. The hospital also used a Jengetahuni stove which was funded by the Hospital Trust Fund. Water for the hospital was drawn from Sipepa business centre and was paid for by Tsholotsho District Council. c) The energy mixes for Chikombedzi and Sipepa Rural Hospitals

A summary of the energy mixes for Chikombedzi and Sipepa Rural hospitals are summarized in Table 6.13.

Table 6.13 The energy mix at Chikombedzi and Sipepa Rural Hospitals

Diesel_ LPG_ Firewood_ Electricity_ Solar Rural Hospital l/yr kg/yr kg/yr kWh/yr KWh/yr

Chikombedzi 24,000 144 720 31,020

Sipepa Rural Hopital 1,000 228 3,600 - 931

6.3.4.2 Clinics Connected to Grid Electricity

Nine of the audited clinics were connected to grid electricity. These were Tengwe, Doro, St Joseph, Rupangwana, Hesketh Park, Dewure, Matizha, Nkunzi and Nyadowa clinics. a) Tengwe Clinic

Tengwe clinic is located in Hurungwe Ward 2. It has a catchment of population of 12,027 people. It employs 10 people, 5 females and 5 males. The institution is connected to the grid. It used 2,820 kWh of electricity at a cost of USD 300 in 2014.

The clinic building comprises of the following rooms: a consultation room had a 100 watt incandescent bulb as well as a ﬂuorescent ﬁtting by the side which was not working.

The dispensary rooms had no lights because a 5-foot ﬁtting had burnt its ballast. The injection room has a burnt bulb, pharmacy lights were also not working requiring a new 117 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

ballast. The counselling room, labour ward, passage corridor and toilets had no lights. The clinic used candle light for delivery. The lights in the senior sister’s oﬃce were not working.

The lights in the post-natal care room were not working. The 100 watt incandescent bulb in the ante-natal room was reported to not last 2 days. The drug room had a burnt light and there was no adequate lighting in the recovery area. The outside security lights were not working and so were the lights in the laundry room. The clinic used 38 kg of LPG gas for refrigeration.

The clinic used 720 m3 of water at no cost.

b) Doro Clinic

Doro clinic was connected to a 100 kVA transformer. They used 1,280 kWh in 2014. Lighting was very poor with the labour ward having 33 lux of light against a minimum requirement of 500 lux; the duty room had 9 lux and the consultation room 20 lux of light. They supplemented grid light with candles in critical areas of operations. LPG was used for refrigeration of vaccines and the clinic used 150 kg of gas in 2014. A 1.5 hp diesel generator was used for pumping water into a 5,000 litre tank.

c) St. Joseph Clinic

St Joseph clinic was connected to the national grid and it had consumed 2,256 kWh of electricity in 2014. The lighting in the consultation room was poor. A biogas system was installed in 2007 but was not completed.

The clinic used 1,800 kg of fuel wood at a cost of USD180; for sterilization, and cooking. Three stone stoves were used for cooking. A pump installed in Save River for pumping waterwas destroyed during Cyclone Eline in 2000 and was never replaced.

d) Rupangwana Clinic

Rupangwana Rural Clinic is in Chiredzi District under Chief Tshovani in Ward 4. The clinic has a catchment area of 6,825 people. The clinic serves an average of 1,400 people per month. It has 6 employees, 5 are female and 1 male.

The clinic was on main grid. It consumed 6,762 kWh at a cost of $720 in 2014. Electricity was being paid for by Council until the beginning of 2015. They use candles for lighting to attend to patients in the labour wards and critically ill patients when there was no power. The clinic used 480 kg of fuel wood for sterilization in 2014.

It used a diesel generatorfor water pumping. The water was being pumped into storage tanks. They used 990m3 of water for free, but 480 litres of diesel at a cost of USD624 in 2014.

e) Hesketh Park Clinic

Hesketh Park clinic was connected to the grid and used 1,879 kWh at a cost of USD1,880 in 2014. There was no lighting in the consultation room, and they relied on natural light. The post natal care room had no ceiling and the electric wires were exposed posing a danger to the patients. The security lights were not working. Candles were used for lighting when there was no electricity.

The clinic used 80 kg of LPG worth USD160 for refrigerating vaccines in 2014. They used 3,600 kg of fuel wood worth USD120 for cooking in 2014 on three stone stoves. 118 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6 f) Dewure Clinic

Dewure Clinic was connected to the grid. It used 3,760 kWh units of electricity at a cost of USD400 in 2014. They were using ineﬃcient 100 watt incandescent light bulbs in the consulting room, labour ward and post-natal ward. The drug room, dressing room, sluice room, female ward and family planning room had no light bulbs. Candles were used as a backup for lighting and they used 12 packets of candles at a cost of USD14 in 2014.

They used 460 kg of LPG at a cost of USD422 for refrigerating vaccines in 2014. A diesel engine was used for pumping water into a 3,000 litre tank. The diesel pump consumed 1,080 litres of diesel at a cost USD1,468. Expecting mothers used three stone stoves for cooking and used 1,220 kg fuel wood and there was no mothers’ shelter. g) Matizha Clinic

The clinic was connected to one bulk conventional metre which also connected staﬀ cottages. They used 2,856 kWh of electricity worth USD2,658 in 2014. There were no lights In the labour and post-natal ward. They used candles and the expecting mothers brought the candles in case of power failure. The candles had poor light output of 13 lux.

The clinic used 230 kg of LPG for autoclaving at a cost of USD576 in 2014. They used fuel wood for autoclaving, cooking and heating. The clinic used 7,200 kg of fuel wood at a cost of USD360 in 2014. h) Nkunzi Clinic

Nkunzi clinic is connected to the grid. The clinic used 6,168 kWh of electricity worth USD679 in 2014. Lighting was poor with the labour ward getting 33 lux against a minimum of 500 lux; the duty room 9 lux and the consultation room 20 lux. Electricity was also used to provide power to staﬀ cottages and to pump water. They supplemented the grid electricity with candles for critical delivery operations. LPG was used for refrigeration of vaccines and they used 150 kg in 2014. i) Nyadowa Clinic

Nyadowa clinic was partially electriﬁed by the grid. Only one ward was connected to electricity. Electricity was also supplied the nurses’ households. There was a refrigerator that used LPG for cooling vaccineswhich had used 114 kg of LPG in 2014 at a cost of USD228. Fuel wood was used for sterilization and they had consumed 600 kg in 2014 at a cost of USD90. The clinic had the potential to have its own piped water from the stream which was 300 metres away from the clinic. They had already installed the pump and just needed a diesel or petrol generator. They were currently drawing water manually from the borehole.

A summary of the energy mixes for clinics connected to the grid is given in Table 6.14.

119 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

Table 6.14 The energy mix used by clinics connected to grid electricity

Candles- Paraﬃn_ Petrol_ Diesel_ LPG_ Fuel wood_ Electricity_ Name of Clinic Units l/yr l/yr l/yr kg/yr kg/yr kWh/yr

Tengwe - - - - 38 - 2,820 Doro - - - - 150 - 1,280 St. Joseph - - - - 230 1,800 2,256 Rupangwana - - - 480 600 480 6,762 Hesketh Park -- - - - 80 3,600 1,879 Dewure 12 - - 1,080 460 1,220 3,760 Matizha 48 - - - 230 7,200 2,856 Nkunzi - - 30 - 19 1,920 6,168 Nyadowa - - - - 114 600 Not recorded

6.3.4.3 Clinics not connected to Grid Electricity

Seven clinics (Malipati, Nyajezi, Nyafaru, Nyadowa, Nyangombe, Chin’ai and Kapene) were audited.

j) Malipati Rural Clinic

Malipati rural clinic was not connected to the grid but had a mini solar system installed. The solar system was for lighting. There were ﬂuorescent lights in all the rooms. The solar system was poorly managed as the panels were dirty and the system was no longer giving adequate power. They used 600 kg of fuel wood for sterilizing equipment at a cost of USD40. The clinic used LPG for refrigeration of vaccines and had used 228 kg in 2014.

k) Nyajezi Clinic

Nyajezi clinic was waiting for connection to the national grid as there was a 30 kVa transformer installed and electricity pole connections. At the time of the study visit the clinic did not have power for lighting during the night and patients, especially pregnant mothers, had to bring their own sources of energy for lighting. LPG was used for refrigeration of vaccines and they used 570 kg of LPG in 2014.

Fuel wood was mainly used for sterilization and they had used 3,000 kg of fuel wood in 2014 which they collected for no charge. Water was drawn from the mountain using gravity. It was stored in 2×500 litre tanks.

l) Nyafaru Clinic

The clinic was connected to a 20 kVA micro-hydro power system that was also connected to the high school. The power from the micro-hydro was used mainly for lighting the 16 rooms at the clinic. However they had challenges during the dry season when the ﬂow in the river was low as there was no adequate power. They utilized ineﬃcient 100 watt light bulbs. Backup power included candles and solar lanterns for lighting. The clinic used LPG for refrigeration of vaccines because of the inadequacy of the hydro power. They had used 285 kg of LPG at a cost of USD713 in 2014. Fuel wood was used for sterilization. They had used 760 kg in 2014 which they collected at no cost.

120 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6 m) Nyan’gombe Clinic

Nyan’gombe clinic was sponsored by the United Methodist Church. It had a 12 panel solar system each with 70 watts rating. The solar system was adequately catering for the whole clinic’s energy needs. LPG was used for refrigeration and storing of vaccines. In 2014 they had used 152 kg of gas worth USD152. Fuel wood was used for autoclaving of instruments and annually they needed 240 kg which they collected for free. The United Methodist Church was funding the electriﬁcation of the clinic. The clinic used a diesel generator rated 5.5 hp for pumping water into 1,000 litre tanks.

There was a well-built kitchen with 12 chimneys which was well designed for Jengetahuni stoves for the waiting mother’s shelter. n) Chin’ai Clinic

The clinic was 6 km away from the electricity main grid. There was a solar system installed by REA which was not working. It did not have an inverter and control box. The batteries that were installed were no longer working. The clinic used candles in the labour ward which were brought by expecting mothers. The clinic was supplied with LPG for autoclaving from the district hospital so they did not know how much they had used in 2014. They used 400 kg of fuel wood for autoclaving and at the mothers’ shelter in 2014. Expecting mothers cooked on three stone stoves in the open. There was no mother’s shelter and they were crammed in one of the rooms that was converted to cater for their needs. Water was pumped from a borehole into water storage tanks using a generator. They used 120 litres of diesel in 2014 worth USD176 for pumping water. o) Kapane

There was no grid electricity and the solar system that was installed at the clinic by REA was not providing adequate power. They used 220 kg of LPG for refrigeration in 2014. Econet had donated a solar fridge which was yet to be installed and commissioned. The clinic used 36 packets of candles worth USD108 for lighting in 2014. The clinic used fuel wood for cooking and had used 7,200 kg in 2014. The clinic also used the fuel wood for autoclaving. Three stone stoves were used for cooking. Water was drawn from a borehole using a solar pump. The borehole and the tank were within the clinic fence. Water was pumped into a 5,000 litre tank.

The energy mixes for the seven clinics not connected to grid electricity are given in Table 6.15.

Table 6.15 Energy mix of clinics not connected to the grid

Candles- Diesel_ LPG_ Fuelwood_ Solar Name of Clinic Units l/yr kg/yr kg/yr kWh/yr

Malipati - - 288 600 -

Nyajezi - - 570 3,000 -

Nyafaru - - 285 760 -

Nyan'gombe - - 152 240 1530

Chin’ai - 120 - 400 -

Kapane 36 - 220 7,200 1,460

121 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

6.3.5 Summary and Recommendations at Health Institutions

Poor quality of lighting remains a critical issue in all rural health institutions. This compromises service delivery as the institutions are unable to provide quality service especially to delivering mothers in the maternity wards during the night. In addition these mothers are required to bring own source of lighting which is a pre-condition to being served at the health centre. Thus poor women have opted to give birth at home.

An ideal rural health centre that is oﬀ grid should have its own standalone energy supply system that is reliable and aﬀordable. Renewable energy options are the ideal energy resources that can be used to provide power for the health centres. The proposed intervention is to install solar mini grids to provide lighting and energy for refrigeration and pumping water.

The solar mini grid will have to be 5 kW so that it can be able to meet the lighting, pumping, refrigeration and powering of other power devices such as electric weighing scales, charging communication equipment, etc. In addition improvements are needed on better quality lighting design, more eﬃcient energy saving for example by using LEDs bulbs.

Solar systems installed by REA were non-functional. There is need to re-engage REA to clarify policy issues related to ownership, technical shortcomings and rehabilitation of systems. The option of hydro-power for clinics in the Eastern Highlands needs to be seriously considered.

The rural hospitals such as Chikombedzi and Sipepa that serve big populations relied heavily on diesel power with Sipepa Rural Health Centre having inadequate and no reliable energy source. The grid installations were in a state of disrepair. ZETDC needs to urgently address the repairs at the two institutions. Investment in backup renewable energy such as solar can oﬀset the cost of diesel.

Fuel wood is the dominant source of energy for cooking and heating and is used in most rural health centres by expecting mothers for cooking. It is recommended that cooking by expecting mothers should be in improved shelters using cleaner cookstoves. The use of improved stoves such as the jengetahuni is limited and needs to be evaluated for eﬀectiveness in clinics where they have been installed so that if found eﬀective they can be up-scaled at clinics through out the country.

Fuel wood is also used by clinics for sterilizing equipment. It is recommended to substitute fuel wood use with solar water systems or use of biogas. These systems should be able to provide steam at 1000C.

LPG was the dominant energy source for refrigeration. At times the clinics had to store vaccines at district hospitals that were far, aﬀecting the child vaccination programmes. There is need to increase the use of solar powered refrigerators. This should be considered when installing the mini solar grids.

Water supply is critical to clinics. Options include installing solar powered systems and using gravity in areas such as the Eastern Highlands.

6.3.6 Energy Audit of Households

A total of 93 households were audited and they were split by district as shown in Table 6.16. 122 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6

Table 6.16 Number of households that were audited by district

District Name Households Audited

Chiredzi 10

Gutu 29

Hurungwe 18

Nyanga 10

Tsholotsho 26

Total 93

The energy mix of rural households in particular those that are off grid is simple with fuel wood being the dominant source of energy. Results of this study showed that 96 per cent of the households were using fuel wood as the main energy source for cooking and heating. The fuel wood was being burnt on open fires further compromising the efficiency of burning the fuel wood. Table 6.17 shows the fuel wood consumption of the households that were audited by district.

Table 6.17 Fuel wood consumption in households that were audited by district

Hurungwe Nyanga Chiredzi Gutu Tsholotsho

Average per capita ﬁrewood 1.04 1.50 0.73 1.19 1.35 consumption (Kg/person/day)

Minimum consumption 0.008 0.347 0.123 0.31 0.04

Maximum consumption 0.250 3.288 1.644 1.88 4.38

The average per capita firewood consumption was high in Nyanga as the households had access to wattle found in plantations. It was followed by Tsholotsho which also has access to indigenous forests where the households could access the fuel. The low level of consumption in Chiredzi is a reflection of the scarcity of fuel wood in some parts of the district. The households in Hurungwe did not include the fuel wood they use for tobacco curing and were asked to report figures for cooking only.

In general, kitchens were poorly ventilated, with small openings used as air vents. This constricted the free movement of the smoke outside the house. The three stone stoves were the dominant cookstoves in the households.

Twenty per cent of the sampled households were using cleaner energy sources or carriers leaving a potential market of 80 per cent. Solar energy was the most common renewable energy used for purposes other than cooking, with 71 per cent of respondents having once used or currently using solar.

Eleven per cent of respondents had used LPG. The proposed intervention is targeted at those vulnerable households that include women and child headed households. These constituted 28 and 3 per cent, respectively of the sample survey.

123 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 6 The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children

Poor lighting to the levels of 20 lux against a minimum of 300 lux was reported in most households not connected to the grid. The households used fuel wood for cooking and some children used its light for reading in the evening. In households with better incomes they used paraﬃn lamps and fuel powered generators for lighting while households connected to the grid used ineﬃcient 100 watt incandescent bulbs.

The proposal is to give or to facilitate that each child has a lamp and each household an improved cookstove. UNICEF could partner with the private sector to provide solar lanterns to each identiﬁed vulnerable household. A scheme could be introduced for those children whose parents have the ability to pay where every child could be provided with a lamp and parents could pay the cost in instalments as part of school fees. The concept of energy kiosks where solar technologies can be bought and charged and purchasing schemes introduced can be designed to encourage adoption of renewable energies. Households could be trained to construct jengatahuni stoves so that each household would have an improved stove.

6.3.7 General Recommendations

a) All institutions audited had no energy management policy or strategy. An institutional energy policy is a clear management statement which shows the direction an organization wishes to take in order to address energy issues some of which have a bearing on cost cutting, social responsibility or security of supply. The policy if put in place should help in the implementation of the proposed energy efficient options identified. Therefore, it is recommended to implement an energy management system based on ISO50001 in al institutions. Once implemented this should result in a monthly update of energy performance indicators to management. Training and development of a monitoring framework can be carried out for the staff.

All institutions need to come up with an energy policy, form a team, give it the tools to use and implement an energy management programme. Energy use must be regularly processed and analysed. Performance must be measured and appraised on a continuous basis.

b) Energy for lighting is poor in households, schools and health institutions. Poor quality light aﬀects the studying period for children especially during the evening contributing to poor academic performance. It has been reported that some children have been forced to burn old rubber slippers to get lighting.

c) A few households have solar home systems to charge their phones and for entertainment. However, the quality of the systems is poor and they do not last long. Others queue in order to charge their phones at a cost, often 5 Rands at business centres. The aﬀordable candles cost South African Rands 3, but these give poor light and a strong unpleasant smell. Better quality candles cost South African Rands 5 but people cannot aﬀord them as each candle can last only one day.

d) The recommendations to improve energy for lighting include:

l “Every child a solar lantern”, a concept meant to provide improved lighting for children.

l Green School Concept, meant to provide new standards for designing classrooms so that they consume as low energy as they can and also utilize natural light as much as possible.

124 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe The Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children 6

l REA has already made great strides towards energizing schools and clinics in rural areas. However these systems have serious challenges that are technically and socially related. Technical shortcomings include inadequate energy required for purpose, expired batteries and faulty inverter charger systems while social issues are related to ownership and responsibility for maintenance of the systems. This has remained a grey area between REA and the institutions. This is a potential area of intervention where UNICEF can help rehabilitate and facilitate the resolution of policy issues on ownership to allow for school development committees to be owners of the systems.

l Energy for cooking remains dominated by traditional sources. The three stone stove is the main cook stove, which has created a high demand and shortage of fuel wood. Few households are connected to the national grid and even these rely mostly on biomass for cooking. Those responsible for the collection are women with children assisting. The use of modern forms of energy such as paraﬃn and LPG is low.

The recommended transition towards sustainable energy for cooking for the communities will involve a multi-pronged strategy that will include:

l Introduction of alternative modern forms of energy that include LPG, biogas, saw dust to address the cooking needs

l Raising of awareness and building of the capacity of communities to enable them to make informed choices about energy resources and technologies.

125 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe 7References

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