Fire today ManagementVolume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007
Aviation – Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Dear Reader… As you may have noticed, we did not publish a spring issue of Fire Management Today this year. Due to budget constraints and to correct our publication schedule, we have decided to omit the Spring issue. Please accept our apologies.If you have an annual subscription, another issue of Fire Management Today will be added beyond your current expiration date.
Coming Next… The fall issue will feature an insightful discussion around a simple question with a difficult answer: How much fuel is acceptable? Other articles will explore how we are identifying high-atmospheric ozone potential days to better plan our prescribed burning ignitions, and how our researchers are now inviting architects, insurance underwriters, and other professionals to help reduce wildfire property losses.
Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Mike Johanns, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager and Issue Coordinator
Abigail R. Kimbell, Chief Paul Keller Forest Service Managing Editor
Tom Harbour, Director Madelyn Dillon Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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Fire Management Today Fire Management today Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point – Our Challenge: Being a True High-Reliability Organization...... 4 Tom Harbour The Humble Beginnings of Aircraft in the Forest Service . . . . 6 Melissa Frey Meet the ‘Other’ Airborne Wildland Firefighters ...... 10 Tim Lynch Rappelling With Helmet-Cam – Photo Feature...... 16 Ben Croft On the Cover: Monument Helitack rap- The Man Who Gave Smokejumping Its Name ...... 18 pellers let down into their typical incident terrain on a training mission in the Ken Frederick and Doug Frederick Pike-San Isabel National Forests near Monument, CO. This photo earned second Cobra Attack Helicopters Retooled To Fight Fire...... 21 place honors in the “aerial resources” Stan Kubota category in Fire Management Today’s 2006 photo contest. It was taken by Kari Greer, National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, The Latest on the Evolution of Chemical Fire Suppression – . . . 24 ID, 2005. The exterior border photo is of Water Enhancers Eyed for the Future a running crown fire in the Okanogan Lester Holsapple and Tory Henderson National Forest’s Pasayten Wilderness. Photo: Eli Lehmann, Mount Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest, 2003. 747 Jet ‘Supertanker’ Hopes To See Suppression Action. . . . 27
For more information and insights on the Tribute to a Family Member: Mike Ward, various aspects of aviation and wildland Helicopter Pilot, 1949–2004...... 29 fire, see the articles beginning on page 6. Riva Duncan
The Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Understanding, Validating, and Implementing Doctrine...... 32 Management Staff has adopted a logo Tom Harbour reflecting three central principles of wildland fire management: Linking Intense Western Wildfires With Weather Patterns • Innovation: We will respect and value and Conditions ...... 35 thinking minds, voices, and thoughts David Prevedel of those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. We Need a New Age of Forestry ...... 39 • Execution: We will do what we say we Jack Ward Thomas will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing Two Receive Golden Smokey Bear Awards for Exceptional targets are essential to our credibility. Contributions ...... 41 • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Lewis F. Southard Fiscal, managerial, and operational dis- cipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. Short Features Clyde Nilles: From Jelly Roller to Controlled Burn Crewman. . . . 44 Tristan Scott Web Sites on Fire...... 45 Looking Back ...... 46 Firefighter and public safety is our first priority. 2007 Photo Contest Announcement...... Inside Back Cover
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 Anchor by Tom Harbor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service
(Editor’s Note: With this issue of Fire Management Today, we introduce a new column, “Anchor Point,” penned by Tom Harbour, Director of Fire and Aviation Management, Forest Service.)
Our Challenge: Being a True High-Reliability Organization
In our efforts to use fire to deal (Editor’s Note: The following is excerpted from Tom Harbour’s keynote with the latter, we must manage address to the Third Workshop on High-Reliability Organizing – the risk of the weather and the Managing the Unexpected in Wildland Fire Operations, held in Missoula, smoke and inconvenience to those MT, May 22–25, 2006, sponsored by the Wildland Fire Lessons Learned living in the WUI. We must increase Center and the Northern Rockies Coordinating Group. This column was our commitment to being a true written prior to southern California’s Esperanza Fire that claimed the HRO through these challenges with lives of five more Forest Service firefighters: Mark Loutzenhiser, Jess respectful interaction, feedback, full McLean, Jason McKay, Daniel Hoover-Najera, and Pablo Cerda.) disclosure, and a desire to learn.
igh Reliability Organizations If we don’t, we will fail. It is imper- (HROs) are built on integ- These three trends— ative that we do this to ensure that rity, nurtured by culture, and WUI, Weather, and Wood don’t H along with our desire cripple our fire organization. refined in the fire of performance. HROs are also clear on the value of to light more fire, to public trust. allow more fire use Focus on Doctrine events, and to suppress Life in fire and aviation manage- As we in fire and aviation manage- ment these days is life in a fish ment strive to be an HRO, we carry fires—intersect in our bowl. You’re going to be poked and the knowledge of how our past profession. prodded and asked questions about has shaped us, how our present your successes and your failures. situation impacts us, and how our It’s manifested by our focus on doc- future will challenge us. Visible Results trine, on principles, on After Action Reviews, and on Lessons Learned. Are we mindful of the trends that These three trends—WUI, Weather, describe our future as an agency and Wood—along with our desire We learn about becoming an HRO and in our performance as fire and to light more fire, to allow more and incorporate foundational doc- aviation management professionals? fire use events, and to suppress trine because our failures threaten fires—intersect in our profession. who we are. We are about protec- We must all recognize a new tion and management. When our trend—a new “fire triangle”—that Periodically, these influences of wildfires, prescribed fires, or our is confronting us today. We have fire and WUI, Weather, and Wood fire use events fail, they threaten increasing people and development collide—with very visible results. our friends, our work, the public in the wildland/urban interface We see that clearly in our fire man- trust, and the very goals that we (WUI), we have climate changes agement and suppression work as espouse. that indicate warmer temperatures we spend more time and money (a weather trend), and we have protecting structures in the WUI, What could be more compelling continuing growth of wood fiber, endure lasting bouts of hot weather than mitigating that threat? or biomass. Thus, our new fire tri- with low humidity, and see long- angle is WUI, Weather, and Wood. duration fires in heavy fuels on the (More information on this land. “Managing the Unexpected” work- shop series is available on the
Fire Management Today Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Zajanc, told me, personally, that I told him we were already plan- Center’s Web site
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 The Humble Beginnings of Aircraft in the Forest Service Melissa Frey
ust 16 years after Wilbur and Orville Wright’s historic first “Foresters, in their effort to administer wild lands more efficiently, flight at Kitty Hawk, the Forest have been continually envious of and wishful for the ability of the J bird: to travel swiftly, to see rough terrain at close range, but in per- Service pioneered the use of aircraft in forestry. At this time, shortly spective; to hover and to alight in small spaces. after World War I, firefighting took to the air when the Forest Service Who wouldn’t want to make more useful use of time, avoid leg wea- initiated the use of aircraft to patrol riness, and bypass the discomfort of an ill-fitting saddle and a bum for wildfires. horse? In none of the activities of a forester does this need assume greater significance than in the field of fire control.”
1919 to 1927 – Frank J. Jefferson Fire Detection Assistant Regional Forester In 1919, the Forest Service rec- Region 5 (Pacific Southwest Region) ognized the important role that From his article “The Helicopter – A New Factor in Fire Control” aircraft could perform in protecting in the January 1948 (9-1) Fire Control Notes, and managing forested areas. The forerunner of Fire Management Today. U.S. Army provided airplanes (DH- 4Bs) and pilots for initial detection of fires and monitoring the spread private individuals for fire detec- of ongoing fires. “Airplanes will become tion—and for dropping cargo. a permanent feature In June of that year, the Forest of the ceaseless battle 1929 – Personnel Transport Service alerted the Nation to the against fires in the fact that Army airplanes and “cap- As Montana’s Half Moon Fire tive” (hot air) balloons would soon national forests.” burned through the Flathead be flying over portions of the coun- – 1919 Forest Service National Forest and Glacier try’s national forests in the West. news release National Park in 1929, the value of aircraft increased. To answer the The agency’s widely circulated news call for help on this large—and battle against fires in the national release informed: “This will be the moving—fire, it was decided forests. Warnings of fires will be beginning of experimental work in that four firefighters would be transmitted by means of parachute which the adaptability of aircraft flown from Albuquerque, NM, to messages dropped over a town, the to forest patrol work is to be thor- Missoula, MT. While heavy smoke finder to telephone or convey them oughly tried out. If the tests should forced the flight to land in Butte, to the Forest Service.” prove successful, it is expected that MT, the firefighters continued to the airplane patrols will be extend- their assignment by train. ed and that airplanes will become a 1927 – Parachutes permanent feature of the ceaseless Drop Supplies A few days later, the Half Moon Fire Due to budget restraints—8 years blew up and Missoula wired for help after this introduction of aircraft Melissa Frey, coordinator for this special again. A second planeload of fire- “aviation” issue of Fire Management Today, above the national forests—the fighters took off from Albuquerque. is the Federal Excess Personal Property Army could no longer provide Once again, due to heavy, smoke- Program Officer and the General Manager aircraft and pilots for these assign- filled skies, they had to land in Salt of Fire Management Today for the Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, ments. Aircraft were then con- Lake City, UT—where the firefight- Washington, DC. tracted by the Forest Service with
Fire Management Today “The handful of foresters who, over the long years of its developmental infancy, daringly envisioned and voiced their belief in the successful adaptation of the helicopter to forest fire control, steadfastly faced the skepticism of their coworkers.” Frank J. Jefferson Assistant Regional Forester Region 5 (Pacific Southwest Region) 1948
looking at using parachutes to Yesterday—This plane was used by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, deliver firefighters into remote and mainly for fire detection flights over northern Wisconsin. The plane was also intended inaccessible fires. to enable initial attack on fires by the pilot and co-pilot. They would land the plane on a nearby lake, taxi to shore, and then utilize “backcans” and hand tools to suppress the fire. Photo: courtesy Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. On July 12, 1940, Rufus Robinson and Earl Cooley successfully para- ers boarded a train for the last leg 1938 – Forest Service chuted onto the Nez Perce National Forest in Idaho. They are the of their fire dispatch journey. Purchases First Aircraft country’s first smokejumpers. (For The first Forest Service-owned air- Three days later, a third flight of more on the history of smokejump- craft, a Stinson Reliant SF–10 FM, ing, see article on page 18, The firefighters departed Albuquerque was equipped with an adjustable for Missoula yet again. This time, Man Who Gave Smokejumping Its pitch propeller for low flying and Name.) at the Half Moon Fire base camp, had special bomb sights for accura- a ground crew dumped a barrel cy in dumping food and firefighting 1946 – First of gasoline along the edge of the equipment by parachute. runway and lit it. This maneuver Helicopter Use successfully marked the landing The bottom of this airplane’s In 1946, the first helicopter was spot for the pilot and the load of fuselage contained a special floor used—in a limited way—by the firefighters was delivered directly to with trap doors and a hatch open- Forest Service on the Castiac Fire the fire. ing through which containers of on the Angeles National Forest. The water—or “fire-quenching” chemi- next year, the helicopter became a 1930 – First Attempt cals—could be released. major working tool on five Forest to Drop Water From an Service wildfires in California Airplane 1940 – First Professional (Jefferson 1948). Smokejumpers Hired In 1948, T.A. Bigelow, forest engi- 1937 – First Extensive In 1939, the Forest Service’s neer and fire control officer on the Chemical Bomb Dropping Assistant Chief for Fire Control, Klamath National Forest, heralded Tests Held David Godwin, wanted to explore the merits of the helicopter in an article for Fire Control Notes (Vol. 3; No. 2 and 3) (predecessor of Fire “Warnings of fires will be transmitted by Management Today): means of parachute messages dropped over a town, the finder to telephone or “After more than 25 years of fight- ing fire, I feel that I have, this sum- convey them to the Forest Service.” mer, witnessed a machine that is – 1919 Forest Service news release destined to play a more important
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 role in fire suppression than any The first Forest Service airplane was equipped other piece of fire equipment that with an adjustable pitch propeller for low flying and we have at our command. This equipment is the helicopter . . . had special bomb sights for accuracy in dumping I had the opportunity of riding in food and firefighting equipment by parachute. this machine on a reconnaissance flight and of observing some of its actions and performances under actual fire conditions . . . I actu- ally saw more fire and fireline con- ditions in 16 minutes of flight time than I could have seen on ground travel (foot and auto) in a full day- light day. I knew after this short flight exactly what I was up against as night fire boss. This situation was not secondhand when I got it; it was my own observation. I had a clear picture of the entire fire.”
These early visionaries also realized that aviation could assist far more than the Forest Service’s firefight- ing efforts. In the January 1948 issue of Fire Control Notes, Frank J. Jefferson, assistant regional for- ester of Region 5 (Pacific Southwest Region) concluded:
“Foresters cannot afford to over- look the helicopter in any plans for forest management involving reconnaissance, transportation of personnel, equipment or supply, or special project service—whether they be concerned with fire sup- pression, timber survey, snow surveys, range reseeding, tussock moth control, or road and trail studies.”
1947 – Forest Service Purchases 17 Aircraft In 1947, a fleet of 17 aircraft were purchased by the Forest Service. All were equipped with two-way radios. The larger aircraft were equipped for parachuting people and cargo. Today—A Sikorsky Sky Crane, equipped with 2,000 gallon tank and special snorkel to With this new fleet of aircraft at its make it a helitanker, drops a water and retardant mix on the Mount Hood National disposal, the Forest Service, once Forest’s Bluegrass Fire last August. A nearby “helliwell” was set up to provide the water/ again, contracted with the U.S. retardant. The elaborate pump on this Sikorsky helicopter can fill its 2,000 gallon tank— via the snorkel—in 30 seconds. Photo: Doug Jones, permit specialist, Mt. Hood National Army Air Corps to test various types Forest, 2006.
Fire Management Today Wildland Fire Aviation Uses 1972 – Beginning of the Rappelling Program • Fire command and control; Other incidental Forest Service • Fire suppression; aviation use includes: In 1972, the Pacific Northwest • Fire detection and surveillance; • Intelligence gathering, Region’s Redmond Smokejumpers • Fire training; • Supply delivery, launch the first study for exploring • Fire administration; • Personnel movement, and the feasibility of firefighters rappel- • Prescribed burning projects; • Search and rescue. ling from helicopters. (For more on and the history of the Forest Service’s • Fire hazard, photo, and map- rappelling program, see article on ping projects. page 10, Meet the “Other” Airborne Wildland Firefighters.)
Today, of course, a gamut of aerial On July 12, 1940, Rufus Robinson and Earl resources continue to serve as an essential component of wildland Cooley, on Idaho’s Nez Perce National Forest, fire suppression. We are forever become the country’s first smokejumpers. indebted to the pioneering individ- uals in the last century who had the vision and wherewithal to encour- of aircraft with water and retardant dants could be air-dropped onto age and advance the evolution of bombs for dropping on wildfires. wildfire and be effective in slow- this vital suppression tool. ing fire spread. (For more on the It was determined that—with slight history of the use and develop- References modification of the bomb racks—a ment of chemical retardants, see Bates, Robert W. 1978. Historical firsts in Boeing B-29 could carry 165-gallon article on page 24, The Latest on the Forest Service. Cultural resources tanks to be used as water bombs, the Evolution of Chemical Fire report no. 26: USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region. Albuquerque, NM. and that a Republic P-47 could Suppression – Water Enhancers Bigelow, T.A. 1948. A helicopter in fire con- carry one of these tanks under each Eyed For the Future.) trol. Fire Control Notes. 9(1): 30. wing for glide bombing. The tests, Hartigan, A.F. A chronology of air tanker carried out on the Lolo National use on fires by the USDA Forest Service. 1964 – The Development U.S. Forest Service Historical Library, Forest in Montana, were successful. of Infrared Boise Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID. Jefferson, F.J. 1948. The helicopter – A new 1954 – Dropping of factor in fire control. Fire Control Notes. 1971 – Modular Airborne 9(2 and 3): 1–9. Chemical Retardants Fire Fighting Systems Pennsylvania Forestry Association. 1919. Begins Army aircraft to fight forest fires. U.S. (MAFFS) Techniques Forest Service Historical Library. “Forest The 1954 “Operation Firestop” Developed Leaves” Vol. XVII – No.3. demonstrated conclusively that By now, aircraft have become an water and certain chemical retar- essential part of fighting fire.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 Meet the “Other” Airborne Wildland Firefighters Tim Lynch
icture airborne—aerial-deliv- ered—firefighters. Seeing As a method for delivering firefighters P smokejumpers? Think again. into otherwise difficult-to-access backcountry fires, rappelling provided a Certainly, the Forest Service smokejumpers have been an effec- practical alternative to parachuting. tive and high-profile wildland firefighting force for more than 60 years. For upwards of 40 years, the These rappellers are typically Smokejumpers vs U.S. Department of the Interior deployed into areas in which ter- Rappellers? rain or vegetation precludes land- Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Comparisons between smokejump- ing a helicopter. Rappellers—and has also conducted smokejumper ers and rappellers are perhaps inev- cargo—can be precisely deployed operations in the Great Basin and itable. Certainly, many of the tasks into small spaces between trees. Alaska. these two firefighting resources In a series of well-choreographed perform, and the environments in steps, it takes about 30 seconds for But did you know that the Forest which they work, are the same. Service also sponsors another a Forest Service rappeller to exit a helicopter, rappel 250 feet (76 group of airborne firefighters whose The bread and butter of both these m) (maximum rope length) to the numbers roughly equal all of the organizations is providing rapid ground and disconnect. smokejumpers in both the Forest initial attack on backcountry fires. Service and BLM combined? However, for a multitude of rea- Needless to say, it is an exhilarating sons, trying to compare these two experience to successfully complete Picture the helicopter rappellers. aerial-delivered firefighter groups a long rappel from a hovering heli- is a classic “apples and oranges” copter into tall timber! While this “other” airborne wild- impractical measurement scenario. land firefighter organization might be less well known, its burgeoning ranks are definitely keeping busy suppressing wildfire. Today, in an What Is Rappelling? average year, more than 450 active Rappelling—or abseiling, as it is the years, rappelling is still widely Forest Service rappellers perform sometimes known (derived from practiced by climbers today. over 1,000 rappels on more than the German word for “descending 300 fires across the Western United at the end of a rope”)—refers to Several professions utilize this States. Each year, overall, Forest wearing a harness attached to a unique capability. The special fric- Service rappellers conduct 9,000 friction device and sliding down tion device and ropes used by the live helicopter rappels for training, a rope. Forest Service rappel program proficiency, and fire. since its inception were originally Early in the 20th century, designed to be used by window Tim Lynch is the project leader for heli- European mountain climbers washers to descend from tall copter rappel equipment and procedures, devised rappelling techniques buildings. Today, bridge inspec- Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT. An to increase the speed of their tors, law enforcement, military, advisor to the National Rappel Equipment descents. Although the equipment and others also utilize rappelling and Procedures Committee and the and methods have evolved over to accomplish special tasks. National Rappel Working Group, he is a former Forest Service smokejumper and rappeller.
Fire Management Today 10 study the feasibility of rappelling. They soon determined that not only was rappelling feasible, but, as a method for delivering firefighters into otherwise difficult-to-access backcountry fires, it provided a practical alternative to parachuting.
From 1973 to 1982, the Pacific Northwest Region conducted rap- pel operations using Bell 205 and 202 helicopters. Within a few years of receiving operational approval, additional helitack bases within the region also became rappel capable.
Ken Ross, today’s helicopter pro- The late Mike Lewis spots two Krassel Helitack rookies on the Payette National Forest during their first rappels prior to the 2005 fire season. In August 2006, Lewis and three gram manager for the Pacific others were killed in a helicopter crash during a transport—not a rappel—mission. Northwest Region, is one of the (For more information, see Tom Harbour’s Anchor Point column on page 5.) only rappellers still on board the Photo: Gary Brian Munson, Payette National Forest, 2005. rappel program who started back in the pioneering 1970s rappel Unlike the smokejumpers, a shared era. “I first got involved in 1977,” national resource, rappellers are “The jumpers took what Ross recalls. “A lot of rappelling classified as a “regional resource.” they did and adapted it was a direct offshoot of the jump Decisions to make a helitack base program—the internal cargo, the rappel capable—and how these rap- to the helicopter.” – Ken Ross cargo boxes, part of the train- pel resources are to be used—are ing program, the ability to boost made at the regional and forest Helicopter Program Manager Pacific Northwest Region between bases. They used the same levels. Approximately half of the platform, the same anchors. The exclusive use Forest Service helit- jumpers took what they did and ack bases in the United States are adapted it to the helicopter. They presently rappel capable. ties that rappel helicopters provide, such as the ability to land nearly even experimented with dropping paracargo from helicopters.” The type of aircraft that is used— anywhere, to transport personnel helicopter or fixed wing—affects to and from fires, to drop water and to longline cargo, make this a Although rappelling was judged the range and number of fire- to be an operational success, fighters that can be delivered. somewhat unfair comparison. Like I said, apples and oranges. after 9 years, in 1983, the Pacific Smokejumper fixed-wing aircraft Northwest Region was forced to have a much greater distance Ironic Historical Fact halt its rappel program—mainly capability on a single fuel cycle, because of reduced budgets and the enabling them to initial attack fires There’s an interesting twist to the rising costs associated with con- over a range of several hundred rappellers’ story. Guess who was tracting medium helicopters. miles. The rappellers’ helicopters, responsible for developing this on the other hand, have an effective country’s first sanctioned wildland Three years later, in 1986, the 50- to 70-mile (80- to 113-km) ini- fire helicopter rappel program? Southwest Region started experi- tial attack range. Answer: The Forest Service smoke- menting with rappelling from Bell jumpers. 206 L3 helicopters. This region’s Dollar for dollar, therefore, fixed- initial light helicopter rappel tri- wing smokejumper aircraft can In 1972, the Pacific Northwest als were pronounced a success and deliver more firefighters and cargo Region’s Redmond Smokejumpers operational approval was granted over greater distances than rappel were granted permission from the later that year. helicopters. But the extra capabili- Forest Service Washington Office to
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 11 Soon afterward, both the Intermountain Region and Pacific Southwest Region began conduct- ing rappel operations. At the same time, the Pacific Northwest Region revived its dormant rappel pro- gram. Since 2001, the Northern Region and Rocky Mountain Region have also joined the ranks of these rappel-using regions.
Throughout the 1990s, a major, national expansion of new rappel bases and even more rappellers occurred. Today, the Forest Service operates more than 45 rappel-capa- ble helitack bases.
According to Kevin Brown, the Shenango Helibase base manager The Arroyo Grande Flight Crew of the Los Padres National Forest conducts rappel for the Northern Region’s Gallatin training on the “big gun” of rappel helicopters. Their Sikorsky S-61 is the only type 1 National Forest, in the 1980s rappel helicopter currently in use by the Forest Service. This ship can deploy up to 18 “there wasn’t a lot of communica- rappellers at one time, plus all of the cargo needed to fight fire. Photo: Tom Plymale, Forest Service. tion between different regions or programs… There was a lot of independent action going on in the different rappel programs—with Needless to say, it is an exhilarating experience different types of equipment being to successfully complete a long rappel from a used and different procedures. hovering helicopter into tall timber. Right now, I feel really good about
Rappel Aircraft: Light and Medium Helicopters The current rappel platforms variations in specific models one engine fail, has the capability (aircraft) are shared by light and regarding weight, seating configu- of maintaining flight. medium helicopters, with one rations, doors, skids, flight steps, heavy (type 1) rappel helicopter. engines, rotor blades, and other Veteran rappeller Ted Mathiesen, These helicopter platforms in use areas that affect rappel equipment Arroyo Grande base manager, today include: and helicopter performance. reports that working with the S-61 “gives us a feeling of confi- • The Bell 206 L4, The “big gun” of rappel platforms dence. With 10 people and cargo • The Bell 205, is the Sikorsky S-61, based at on board, that’s a pretty good • The Bell 212, Arroyo Grande Helibase on the payload, but we’re certainly not • The Aerospatiale/Eurocopter Pacific Southwest Region’s Los at max gross. The S-61 is such A-Star B-2 and B-3, Padres National Forest. This ship is a proven performer; things just • The Sikorsky S-58T, and capable of deploying up to 18 rap- don’t go wrong with it. But even • The Sikorsky S-61. pellers at one time, plus all of the so, it’s nice to have that in your cargo needed to fight fire. The S-61 back pocket, to know that—if Within these currently used air- is the only Forest Service rappel one engine failed—you could fly craft types, there are accepted platform in use today that, should away.”
Fire Management Today 12 where we are standardization wise. We’ve come a long way since the Other Wildland Fire Rappel Users early 1990s.” Although on a much smaller only DOI wildland fire users with scale than the Forest Service, the rappel capability. Remarkable Department of the Interior (DOI) Safety Record also has a history of helicopter Other countries have also adopted rappel capability in wildland fire rappelling from helicopters as a After nearly three decades of spon- operations. Both the Bureau of method of delivering firefighters. soring wildland fire helicopter rap- Land Management and National Australia, Canada, and Russia all pel operations, the Forest Service Park Service have sponsored rap- sponsor rappel programs today. rappel program possesses a remark- pel-capable crews. At present, The Russians, with more than able safety record. Rappelling from Grand Canyon National Park and 4,000 rappellers, manage the helicopters has proven to be an Yosemite National Park are the largest rappelling program in the effective method of deploying fire- world. fighters to otherwise hard-to-access areas. The rappel-related accident rate has been very infrequent— pelling missions varies—based on injuries have never been serious in After nearly three mission circumstances—on most nature. decades of sponsoring fires staffed by rappellers, they opt to land near the fire rather than Unfortunately, rappel-capable crews wildland fire helicopter rappel. have not been immune to (nonrap- rappel operations, the pelling) fire-related injuries and Forest Service rappel In addition to suppressing fires, accidents. program possesses crewmembers from Forest Service rappel bases also manage: In 1994, Grand Junction BLM rap- a remarkable safety pellers Richard Tyler and Robert record. • Aerial ignition operations on pre- Browning were killed when the scribed burns, South Canyon Fire blew up. (Tyler • Helicopters for forest project and Browning had landed in a heli- Helitack or Rappel? work, copter on the ridge above the fire to Strictly speaking, the only real dif- • Call-when-needed helicopters and facilitate the crew shuttle and did ference between standard helitack crews on wildfires, not rappel on this occasion.) crews and rappel-capable helitack • Permanent and temporary heli- crews is that the rappel crews also bases, and In 2002, rappellers Jeff Allen and rappel. • The creation and operation of Shane Heath—from the Salmon- helispots. Challis National Forest, North Fork Rappel crewpersons do all of the Ranger District’s Indianola Helitack same helicopter-related tasks as These rappellers also package and Base—died when fire overran the helitack crewpersons, they just move cargo, transport firefight- helispot they were constructing on have that additional method for ers, perform medivacs, and provide the Cramer Fire. disembarking from the helicopter. a myriad of other services to the This rappelling capability, of course, wildland fire and aviation commu- The Payette National Forest’s increases the number of locations nity. Krassel Heli-Rappellers Monica into which these helitack firefight- Zajanc and Mike Lewis were killed ers can be deployed. When it comes to sizing-up in August 2006 (along with the fires and assessing risk, Dallas pilot and another passenger) when The risk management process used Vangorden, longtime rappeller and their helicopter crashed while on by Forest Service rappellers dictates Tucson Helibase manager in the a “point-to-point” transport (non- that—if all other safety factors Southwestern Region, has some rappel) mission on the Payette are equal—landing near the fire long-honed insights. “I do like to National Forest. is preferable to rappelling. While have the rappellers, especially the the percentage of landing or rap- rappeller-in-charge, involved in that
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 13 fire size-up process,” Vangorden Rappelling from helicopters has proven to be explains. “To get their feedback an effective method of deploying firefighters to right before we do actually put them (the rappellers) out on the otherwise hard-to-access areas. ground . . . We always say that it’s just trees burning—no sense get- ting somebody hurt over burning By the end of a week of rappel ager.” Taking on this “spotter” role trees.” training, rappellers are expected adds noteworthy additional respon- to consistently execute procedur- sibilities to a helicopter manager’s Rappel Training ally correct rappels at increasing duties. These rappel spotters are heights—up to 250 feet (76 m) the individuals responsible for: For most helitack crewmembers, from a hovering helicopter into the act of rappelling from a tower typical wildland fire terrain and • Rigging and checking the rappel or hovering helicopter poses a new vegetation. Each rappel requires equipment on board the aircraft, and daunting experience. During numerous specific steps performed • Performing equipment checks on that first initiation to rappel train- in the correct order and manner. the rappellers prior to boarding, ing, many new rappellers experi- • Sizing-up and determining risk ence a significant degree of fear. Before becoming certified as a rap- factors associated with an indi- Fear of heights is a constant chal- pel spotter, a rappeller must be a vidual mission, lenge—sometimes, even for experi- fully qualified “helicopter man- • Communicating with the pilot to enced rappellers. position the aircraft before and during the rappel, • Directing the actions of the rap- “I feel really good about where we are pellers until they are on the standardization-wise. We’ve come a long ground, way since the early 1990s.” • Disconnecting the ropes, and – Kevin Brown • Delivering cargo to the rappel- Shenango Helibase Base Manager, lers. Gallatin National Forest Rappel spotters use a cargo let- down system to deploy tools, food, water, and other essentials. After establishing a stable hover over the deployment site, spotters use a 250-foot (76-m) length of nylon webbing—routed through a fric- tion device attached to the rappel anchor—to lower an internal or external cargo package onto the ground. Once the load has landed, the spotter disconnects the remain- ing letdown line and container and drops it to the ground.
Many rappel crews attempt to mini- mize postdeployment helicopter support and frequently perform packouts with 80 to 110 pounds of gear. Crews who frequently pack out from fires often require Rappellers must demonstrate correct rappel techniques through training mockups in crewmembers to prove that they helicopter prior to performing actual rappels. Photo: Tim Lynch, Missoula Technology are capable of a 3–5 mile packout and Development Center, Forest Service.
Fire Management Today 14 carrying a minimum of 85 pounds. Out of necessity, • Taking care of many other inci- Thus, out of necessity, some rappel some rappel crews dental rappel-related duties. crews have adopted physical train- ing standards similar to smoke- have adopted physical For pilots, rappelling also provides jumper standards. training standards challenges beyond those of regular similar to smokejumper helitack missions. Not all helicopter Extra Responsibilities standards. pilots have the skill to hold a steady Compared to standard helitack two hundred fifty foot hover for operations, the extra responsibili- minutes at a time at high elevations in mountainous terrain—often in ties of being rappel capable create a nel proficient at all of the standard high temperatures with a heavy significant extra workload for rap- firefighting and helitack skills, in loads. pel base managers. For instance, addition to: they are expected to stay current Rappelling also differs from stan- on changes in rappel equipment • Providing annual rappel training, dard helitack missions because and policy and to share vital rappel- • Conducting proficiency rappels the pilot must share control of the related information with both rap- throughout fire season, helicopter and take directions from pel spotters and rappellers. • Maintaining rappel equipment, the spotter during rappel/cargo • Keeping detailed rappel records, letdown missions. Rappel pilots In addition, rappel base supervisors and are required to keep their person- must therefore possess a high level of trust with spotters, maintain excellent communication skills, and understand the mission terminol- ogy unique to rappelling. The Future of Rappelling As it stands today, wildland fire rap- pelling in the United States is likely to be around for the foreseeable future. Most fire and aviation man- agers who have a good feel for the program predict that the numbers of bases and rappellers will most likely stabilize near current levels.
Technology and development spe- cialists continue to investigate new rappelling deployment systems, anchors, helicopters, and other critical aspects of the program. All in all, this “other” airborne fire- Scott Valley Helitack members rappel into typical terrain and vegetation on the fighter organization appears to be Klamath National Forest. Photo: Joshua Faulkner, Forest Service. on track for a bright future.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 15 Rappelling With Helmet-Cam – Photo Feature Ben Croft
Self Portrait—Ben Croft rapels with a camera attached to his helmet. Photo: Ben Croft.
Ben Croft Provides Us a Rare Rappeller’s-Eye View ith his camera attached to The pilot is Len Paur, operating his communicating with the pilot to his helmet, rappeller and Era Aviation A-Star Helicopter, No. position the aircraft prior to and W photographer Ben Croft N166EH. during the rappel. completes a training rappel on the Salmon Challis National Forest in The rappel spotter is Heath Hand. The rappeller on the other side Idaho. He is responsible for sizing-up and of the ship performing this train- determining all risk factors associ- ing rappel with Croft is Russian ated with the mission—as well as exchange firefighter Leonid Zharkikh.
Ben Croft is currently an engine crew boss for Patrick Corporation, based in Redmond, OR. This photo sequence was taken when he was a rappeller with Moyer Helitack on the Salmon-Challis National Forest in 1999. For this training jump at the Moyer Helibase, Croft rigged his Nikon N90 with a 16mm fisheye lens to his flight helmet. Croft then took the photos by biting down on a remote cord in his mouth—to ensure he had both hands free to rappel.
Fire Management Today 16 1. Rappeller prepares to exit helicopter and move into ready 2. Spotter rechecks aircraft position over rappel site while position on left skid. rappellers are moving into prerappel position on skid.
3. Spotter signals rappellers to begin rappel. 4. Rappeller unlocks friction device on rappel rope, leans back, and “rotates” off skid until completely inverted.
5. To ensure a smooth transition off the skid, the rappeller 6. Mid rappel, rappellers look for knots in rope and safe landing continues to let rope out and turn completely upside down before site as they descend to ground. Heavy leather “heater gloves” feet lose contact with skid. Once contact with skid is terminated, protect the rappeller’s hands and provide friction for braking. rappeller will naturally “fall” into the head up/feet down rappel position and begin rappelling.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 17 The Man Who Gave Smokejumping Its Name Ken Frederick and Doug Frederick
alter E. Anderson—one of smokejumping’s lesser Walt was responsible for ensuring that W known pioneers—was born the aerial fire control study would meet in 1896 on his family’s homestead three primary objectives. in the Cascade Mountains near Easton, WA. After serving in the U.S. Navy during World War I and earned the respect of his Forest of the North Cascade Mountains. completing a 2-year college course Service peers—and supervisors. For several years, its managers had in business administration, he been tinkering with various tech- joined the Forest Service. In no time, Walt worked his way niques for parachuting supplies up to a district ranger post on the into firefighters in remote locales. It was the early 1920s and Walt Wenatchee National Forest. At 34, The Chelan National Forest also signed on as a Forest Service casual after a mere 6 years with the Forest owned an airport that was sur- firefighter. In 1924 he launched his Service, he was named that forest’s rounded by forest lands known to formal Forest Service career as fire fire control officer. In 6 more be diverse in both vegetation and guard at an isolated guard station years, in 1936, Walt became chief topography. in the Washington Cascades. of fire control for the Chelan (now Okanogan) National Forest. Because of its location and its Walt had grown up on the family already established “aerial-minded” farm taking care of stock, hunting, mindset, this forest became the fishing, trapping, and hiking the Using Parachutes new research site for the Aerial woods. In the winter, he backcoun- In the summer of 1939 the Forest Fire Control Experimental Project try skied on his homemade skis (see Service announced it was relocating (Moody 2003). sidebar). He was strong, “woods’ its Aerial Fire Control Experimental wise,” and savvy about everything Project from California up to Shortly before these aerial firefight- outdoors. This hard worker quickly today’s Pacific Northwest Region. While this special project’s focus ing experiments were to begin, had been performing fire con- Brothers Doug and Ken Frederick are trol experiments with water and both wildland fire management veterans, following in the footsteps of their great- chemical bombs, David Godwin, uncle Walt Anderson—their article’s the Forest Service’s assistant chief subject. Ken started his career on the for fire control, now wanted a Wenatchee National Forest and worked brand new program focus (National in a variety of fire jobs before moving into public affairs. He has worked on the Smokejumper Association 2005). Coconino and Flathead National Forests and is currently a public affairs specialist He envisioned using parachutes to with the U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management, National deliver firefighters into remote and Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID. Doug inaccessible fires.* also started his Forest Service career on the Wenatchee National Forest, serving on the Entiat Hotshot Crew as well as Walt Anderson’s Chelan National engine and hand crews. He also worked Forest encompassed miles and on the Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National miles of rugged, isolated portions Forest in fire and fuels. He is currently the assistant fire management officer at the * In 1934 the Forest Service’s Intermountain Region U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and had studied the idea of dropping firefighters into fires by Walt Anderson, chief of fire control for the Wildlife Service’s Turnbull National Wildlife parachute—even hiring a professional parachutist to do Chelan National Forest in the early 1940s. a few demonstration jumps. At that time, however, the Refuge, Cheney, WA. agency concluded that this new concept was too risky. Photo: courtesy of Hal Anderson.
Fire Management Today 18 however, Lage Wernstedt, the vet- planes by parachute into rough personnel equipment (Moody eran Forest Service official assigned terrain at high altitudes and in 2003). to oversee the project, was inca- timbered areas; pacitated by a medical condition. 2. Develop and test protective Among his various duties, Walt The region suddenly needed an clothing suitable for safe land- helped evaluate the parachutes experienced fire manager to assume ings in timbered and rocky areas, and other equipment proposed for these important duties. steep slopes, and other hazard- smokejumping. He also helped ous jumping sites; and determine the final configurations Guess who got the nod for this 3. Make preliminary investigations of equipment and procedures to be important supervisory position? into the devices, procedures, and used in this experimental fire sup- actual application of this new pression program. Walt Anderson. approach to firefighting, includ- ing communication, reaching During these pioneering experi- What To Name Them? the ground after being lodged in ments to basically invent a new Walt was responsible for ensuring trees, retrieving parachutes, and airborne firefighter, Walt is also that the aerial fire control study would meet three primary objec- tives: During these pioneering experiments to basically invent a new airborne firefighter, Walt is the guy 1. Determine the feasibility of land- credited for coining the term “smokejumper.” ing “smokechasers” from air-
Ski Jumping Leads to Smokejumping What would entice a middle-aged, As a dyed-in-the-wool Swede, Walt smokejump program’s feasibil- career Forest Service manager Anderson (whose Swedish parents ity study, Walt made three jumps to try the relatively little-known had immigrated to the United himself. practice of parachuting? States) had practically grown up with skis on his feet. He was an Walt most likely applied his inno- After all, parachuting in the extraordinary ski jumper. vative thinking abilities to his United States in 1939 was barely Aerial Fire Control Experimental removed from aviation’s precari- In his 20s, Walt won several ski Project’s smokejumping experi- ous barnstorming era. Back in jumping tournaments. During the ments. He was known for taking those days, to jump from an 1920s and 1930s, he helped start— multiday, midwinter backcountry airplane was still considered a and then led—three ski clubs in ski trips carrying only a 25-pound daredevil, crackpot maneuver. Washington State. Starting in 1928, pack—he was well-versed in (This, however, was not true in this Forest Service employee was knowing how to get the most use Europe. By the late 1930s, both the driving force behind the con- from the most basic set of gear. Germany and Russia’s armies struction of the large ski jump in already claimed highly orga- Leavenworth, WA (where ski jump- Through the 1930s, Walt also nized paratroop units. According er Torger Tokle would set a U.S. ski tinkered with skiing equipment to the Forest Service’s pioneer jumping record in 1941). and wrote newspaper articles on smokejumper Francis Lufkin, the subject. In addition, he wrote the agency’s Aerial Fire Control Perhaps the allure of floating a fire equipment article that Experimental project even used through the air and executing a appeared in Fire Control Notes a translated Russian paratrooper perfect landing on skis suggested (forerunner of Fire Management manual as a guide.) to Walt that parachuting might Today) in 1941 (Anderson 1941). offer a similar thrill. He certainly But maybe if a guy grew up had enough grit to give it a try. So, ski jumping, airplane jumping at age 43, during the experimental wouldn’t seem so outlandish?
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 19 credited for coining the term “smokejumper.”
Pioneer smokejumper Francis Lufkin recalled how several of the project’s men were huddled around a campfire waiting for coffee to boil (University of Washington 1974). As they mulled over what to call this new brand of firefighters, Walt spoke up. Because the term “smoke chaser” was used for ground fire- fighters, he proposed calling these new aerial-delivered firefighters “smokejumpers.” Smokejumping Pioneers—The Aerial Fire Control Experimental Project, held in the North We all know the rest of that story. Cascades on the Okanogan National Forest (then the Chelan National Forest) beginning Walt’s new word stuck. in 1939, became the Forest Service’s first concerted trial and testing campaign for using parachutes to deliver firefighters into remote and inaccessible fires. Walt Anderson (fourth from right), the forest’s chief of fire control, was selected to be the project’s supervisor. Tremendous Utility Photo: taken October 1939, provided by the authors. Walt Anderson wasn’t the kind of manager who became a one-dimen- Walt and the rest of the original Today, the Forest Service and sional desk jockey. No sir. smokejumping program advocates Bureau of Land Management and experimenters succeeded in smokejumper programs con- During the program’s feasibil- proving that this new airborne tinue to be effective and heralded ity study—at age 43—he made delivery system was a feasible wildland firefighting forces. Walt three parachute jumps himself. method for rapidly getting firefight- Anderson—firefighter, district According to his son, Hal Anderson, ers into remote and isolated fires. ranger, fire manager, and ski on Walt’s third jump he tried to jumper—helped to get them off the land on his feet (Anderson 2005). The next summer, in 1940, smoke- ground. But that landing didn’t quite turn jumper programs were started at out as he’d hoped. Walt hit the Winthrop, WA, and Missoula, MT. References ground—hard. He suffered a con- The first operational fire jump Anderson, H. 2005. Personal communica- cussion for his trouble. But that occurred July 12, 1940, on a fire on tion. Son of Walter E. Anderson. Anderson, W. E. 1941. Simple pickup bar- knock on the head never dimin- the Nez Perce National Forest. rel and pump outfit. Fire Control Notes ished this man’s vision for the tre- 05(2):109. mendous utility of smokejumping Walt Anderson died in 1990 at the Moody, W. 2003. In press. History of North in wildland fire suppression. age of 94 in Missoula, MT. He fell a Cascades Smokejumper Base. Mountainglow, 2005. Retrieved in little short of his goal to live to the November 2005 from the Alpenglow ski age of 101. mountaineering project Web site:
Fire Management Today 20 Cobra Attack Helicopters Retooled To Fight Fire Stan Kubota
he wildland fire community has a brand new, high-tech T work mate. It’s an innovative, specially designed helicopter that boasts everything from sophisticated lasers to real-time video and state-of-the- art remote sensing programs.
Called “Firewatch,” two of these former U.S. Army Bell 209 AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters have been equipped for experimental use on fires in the Pacific Southwest Region. All of the helicopter’s weap- ons systems have been removed and it has been rebuilt and rewired to support wildland fire incident management with: “The technology is amazing,” said former Forest Service Chief Dale Bosworth, who watched a demonstration of Firewatch’s capabilities last summer. Photo: courtesy Dan • The ability to provide critical Megna. real-time video to fire managers on the ground; • Powerful, high-resolution color Two of these former Army Cobra attack cameras—capable of reading a helicopters have been equipped for experimental license plate at more than half a use on fires in the Pacific Southwest Region. mile; • Specialized low-light cameras; • Sophisticated lasers that, during bility to points on the ground. mation. Most of the time, you get flight, have georeferencing capa- The turret can hold the sensors somebody describing to you what’s on a specific geographic location out there. But the only way you Stan Kubota is the Firewatch Program and presents the location coor- can see what’s going on—especially Manager for the Forest Service, North Zone Air Unit, Redding, CA. dinates at the top of the video with the smoke—is with something screen; and like this.” (Editor’s Note: Many actual product • Special infrared capability that names are noted in this article. As can see through smoke. Bottom line: these enhanced capa- always, the use of trade, firm, or cor- bilities are also simultaneously pro- poration names in Fire Management Today is for the information and con- “The technology is amazing,” said viding more cost-effective decision- venience of the reader. Such use does former Forest Service Chief Dale making on wildland fire incidents. not constitute an official endorsement Bosworth, who watched a demon- of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual stration of Firewatch’s capabilities Assist ATGS authors are responsible for the technical last summer. “I wish we would have These Firewatch helicopter systems accuracy of the material presented in had this when I was fighting fires. Fire Management Today.) assist the air tactical group super- The big deal is the real-time infor- visor (ATGS) in directing aircraft
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 21 over an incident as they gather and • Long range spotter scope, producing ESRI (geographic infor- transmit real-time information to • Laser illuminator, and mation system [GIS] and mapping enhance operational efficiency and • A geographically referencing software company) files by record- tactical decisionmaking for incident inertial navigation system. (This ing the aircraft flight path, or by management. system allows the turret to know tracing a perimeter with the FLIR its location in space at all times. Systems turret. This multifunctional platform (air- It also instantly adjusts for the craft) is equipped with six aviation- aircraft’s pitch rolls and yaws— Map files are delivered from this rated radios (3 VHF FM and 3 VHF ensuring that the georeferencing helicopter to GIS personnel at AM) that help support the ATGS laser always maintains split-sec- the incident base—by removable mission of aerial supervision over ond accuracy.) drive—for incident action plan incidents. maps and geographic area com- Instant Referencing mand center intelligence. The pilot To enhance ATGS and pilot vis- Infrared sensors on the FLIR turret has a Garmin 530 GPS as a flight ibility, the Firewatch ship’s cockpit allow the system operator to see planning and navigation system. windows have been “bubbled out” heat images as video displayed on (see photo). The ATGS sits in the A specially equipped data recovery front seat with both horizontal— van/vehicle is the disseminator and and vertical—views. This helicopter’s projector of the aircraft’s informa- tion. Video and cockpit audio can This Firewatch-transformed Cobra enhanced capabilities be transmitted to an incident base helicopter also provides enhanced provide more cost- camp via a broadcast microwave performance due to the removal of effective decisionmaking downlink system. The transmission about 1,000 lbs of weaponry and on wildland fire range to the data van is—line-of- capstan wiring. Thus, because of its sight—up to 25 miles (40 km). unique windows—not to mention incidents. video capabilities—and agility and A portable microwave receiver— maneuverability, this new helicop- with a 3-mile (5-km) range—is also ter platform is extremely proficient the 15-inch (38-cm) monitor in the carried on board the helicopter for for the detailed viewing of fires. front seat. The pilot has a 9-inch delivery to people on the fireline. (23-cm) display in the rear seat. To An Avalex DVD recorder can be A forward looking infrared (FLIR) enhance pilot situational awareness used to record the FLIR images and Systems Star Safire 3 turret serves over fires, a Max-Viz 3–5 micron cockpit audio. The DVD can then be as the heart of this helicopter’s wavelength sensor is also mounted delivered to the incident for analy- remote sensing equipment. (This above the pilot. sis. special infrared capability allows the image of a fire’s perimeter to be An Avalex moving map system This helicopter’s ability to operate viewed regardless of smoke.) This allows the ATGS instant referenc- locally and land in remote areas exceptional system includes: ing to identify aircraft location. At near an incident also provides the the same time, other aviation traf- opportunity for aerial supervisors • Infrared sensors, fic can be displayed on the map or to meet directly with incident staff. • Sony digital low-light color cam- GPS through information being fed Eye-to-eye discussion and delivery era, through a Ryan Traffic Collision of intelligence can be an invaluable • Georeferencing laser range finder, Avoidance Display (TCAD). The strategic asset. Avalex map system is capable of More Cost Savings One Bell Model 209 Cobra Infrared sensors on the turret allow the Firewatch helicopter gives the system operator to see heat images as services normally provided to inci- video displayed on the front seat monitor, dents by two or more aircraft—for regardless of smoke or haze. the cost of one. Normally, an aerial supervisory aircraft is ordered for
Fire Management Today 22 Map files are delivered from the Firewatch The Cobra helicopter is also helicopter to GIS personnel at the incident equipped with a factory “envi- ronmental control unit” for crew base by removable drive. comfort and temperature regula- tion. The aircraft’s typical fuel cycle flight time is 3 hours. an incident and then more aircraft between intelligence gathering mis- are ordered to provide remote sens- sions—consequently reducing the Maintenance, pilot, fuel support ing information—aircraft equipped requirement for a relief ATGS. and data van operation services are with infrared sensor and mapping primarily provided by Dallas, TX- capability. Smoke inversion can limit fixed- based DynCorp International L.L.C. wing aircraft operations on wild- Even though intelligence gathering land fire while helicopter opera- After former Forest Service Chief missions do not normally require tions usually continue. Firewatch Boswell viewed Firewatch’s demon- the commitment of an aircraft for a can further reduce incident costs stration, he said he could envision full day, often times, full day costs by also fulfilling helicopter coor- other potential uses for this heli- are nonetheless incurred. Firewatch dinator duties—with no aircraft copter, including search and rescue is staffed and operated by a fully availability costs charged to the operations, work on other disasters, qualified ATGS who can provide incident. (Operational cost of the and homeland security. aerial supervisory relief coverage Firewatch aircraft to the incident is $1,350 per flight hour.)
This former U.S. Army Bell 209 AH-1 helicopter—now known as “Firewatch”—has been specially equipped for experimental use on Pacific Southwest Region fires. This ship boasts everything from sophisticated lasers to real-time video and state-of-the-art remote sensing programs. Photo: courtesy Dan Megna.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 23 The Latest on the Evolution of Chemical Fire Suppression – Water Enhancers Eyed for the Future Lester Holsapple and Tory Henderson
he evolution of chemical fire suppression started with prod- The water enhancer group has recently received T ucts that were added to water— the greatest interest from fire managers. beginning with Bentonite and Borate—and transitioned to today’s long-term retardant products, class ly simple, this basic enhancement The original intent of qualify- A foams, and water enhancers. allows water to be used as a “bar- ing these products for use by the rier” and serves as a protective Federal wildland agencies was to Of today’s three main chemical coating on fuels. provide a tool for structure pro- suppression/application product tection that would be applied by groups—long-term retardants, Because this thickening capability ground-based equipment. foam fire suppressants, and water can be considerable, a thin layer enhancers (see sidebar)—the of the highest approved mix ratios Use Is Expanding water enhancer group has recently for these materials will even adhere The development and use of all received the greatest interest from to vertical surfaces. This attribute fire managers. of the wildland fire chemicals has enables and serves as an excellent been a cooperative effort among use for structure protection in this country’s Federal wildland Although many people within wildland/urban interface areas. the wildland fire community are familiar with long-term retardant and foams, water enhancers do not seem to be as familiar to all poten- tial users.
These water enhancers are often referred to as “gel” products. Not all water enhancers, however, actu- ally have this “gel” consistency. The most common physical enhance- ment that these products produce is a “thickened” water. This more viscous substance readily flows and disperses when outside of a con- tainer, hence the “gel” reference. Although this might seem extreme-
Les Holsapple is the Fire Program Leader, Wildland Fire Chemical Systems, Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT; and Tory Henderson is the Fire Program Specialist, Equipment and Chemicals, Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Helicopter drops retardant on the Florida Fire, Coronado National Forest, Tucson, AZ. Management, National Interagency Fire Photo: Jayson Coil, Sedona Fire District, Sedona, AZ. This photo earned first place honors Center in Boise, ID. in the “Aerial Resources” category in Fire Management Today’s 2006 photo contest.
Fire Management Today 24 Today’s Three Chemical Water enhancers do Product Groups not seem to be as familiar to all potential Three chemical product groups agent adheres to fuel surfaces. aid and enhance fire suppression The wetting agent component users. efforts today. increases the ability of the drained water to penetrate fuels. Drop Tests 1. Long-Term Retardants: This 3. Water Enhancers: Water enhanc- chemical group contains spe- ers contain ingredients designed In the fall of 2005, the Forest cial retardant “salts”—typically to alter the physical character- Service, in cooperation with CDF, fertilizers—that decrease fire istics of water to increase its did some controlled testing— intensity and help slow its suppression effectiveness, assist known as “drop tests”—of several advance. This can occur even the accuracy of the aerial drop, water enhancer products onto a after the retardant’s water and enhance the product’s abil- test grid. The results indicated component has evaporated. ity to adhere to fuels. These that these “thickened” type water The water in these long-term enhancers also increase water’s enhancer products provide accept- retardants functions to primar- ability to adhere to vertical and able aerial drop characteristics. ily aid in the chemical’s uni- smooth surfaces. form dispersal over the target Because the water enhancers are area. (Editor’s Note: Specific products only effective as long as they retain 2. Foam Fire Suppressants: This under all of these groups must go water, fire managers realize that fire suppression chemical through a qualification process to the use of these products should group contains both foaming be listed on the “qualified products be limited to direct attack applica- and wetting agents. The foam- list” [QPL]. The QPL for each of tions. ing agents affect the accuracy these product groups can be found of the aerial drop, help deter- at the Wildland Fire Chemical The potential expansion of using mine how the water most Systems Program Web site
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 25 Because these products have tra- The California Department of Forestry and Fire ditionally been used from ground Protection used these water enhancer products— operations, applying them through fixed-wing aircraft leads to differ- with good results—for structure protection during ent tactics and the ground forces’ the 2003 southern California fire siege. ability to manage a fire. Without a visible colorant in these products, training and understanding where the product will be dropped—as FIRESTOP Program Introduces well as its influence on a fire—is essential. Chemicals to Fire Suppression The FIRESTOP Program was one Wildland Fire Chemicals System The specification for water enhanc- of the first research and develop- (WFCS)—in Missoula, MT. ers and their qualification process ment projects aimed at provid- will provide all entities with one ing aerial attack resources and Research into air tankers—known more important tool for assist- chemical products to aid in fire as “aerial application tools”—and ing the protection of property suppression. It was formed in chemical products to enhance and and enhancing wildland fire sup- the 1950s at the Forest Service aid in both ground and air fire pression. The ones listed on the Riverside Laboratory in Riverside, suppression occurred at this labo- “Qualified Products List” are all CA. ratory under the National Wildfire qualified for use from ground oper- Suppression Technology Program. ations or helicopter bucket. During the 1960s, a portion The field evaluation from the fixed- of the FIRESTOP Program In the late 1990s, the WFCS moved wing aircraft will then make them moved to what was then known from its fire laboratory location fully qualified for delivery from as the Northern Forest Fire to the Missoula Technology and that method as well. In the future, Laboratory—forerunner of today’s Development Center. the specification—that is currently being worked on—will also have an option for a colorant.
Helicopter drops retardant on the Florida Fire, Coronado National Forest, Tucson, AZ. Photo: Jayson Coil, Sedona Fire District, Sedona, AZ, 2005. (This photo earned first place honors in the “Aerial Resources” category in Fire Management Today’s 2006 Photo Contest.)
Fire Management Today 26 747 Jet ‘Supertanker’ Hopes To See Suppression Action
vergreen International Aviation, Inc., headquartered The system can disperse water, foam, retardant, E in McMinnville, OR, has com- and gels under high pressure—or at the speed of bined its 40 years of aerial firefight- ing with more than 500,000 flight falling rain—depending on mission requirements. hours of experience as owner and operator of 747 aircraft to develop lored into a “super” large airtanker At this time, the Forest Service its new “Supertanker” program. designed to suppress wildland fire. does not have Evergreen’s 747 It can cruise at mach .86—or close “Supertanker” under contract. The Supertanker is a 747 jet that to 600 miles-per-hour and deliver has been transitioned and retai- up to 17,000 gallons of product.
The new Evergreen 747 “Supertanker”— shown here in a demonstration flight and retardant drop—can cruise at 600 miles- per-hour and deliver up to 17,000 gallons of product. At this time, the Forest Service does not have this company’s 747 under contract. Photo: courtesy Evergreen International Aviation, Inc.
(Editor’s Note: Sam White, a senior vice The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and president for Evergreen International convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any Aviation in Washington, DC, provided Fire product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are respon- Management Today with the original infor- sible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Today. mation for this article.)
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 27 Committed to Working With All Potential Vendors Larry Brosnan
The Forest Service appreciates aircraft, to more strenuous loads We also encourage competi- the many new ideas and prod- and stresses than commercial tion when offering contracts ucts that we receive from private passenger/transport category air- and award them based on the individuals and firms such as craft are designed to withstand. best value to the government. Evergreen International Aviation, Reducing this risk of structural At this time, the Forest Service Inc. We are always interested in failure is one of the many issues does not have Evergreen’s 747 new aircraft and technology. that we work with owners, manu- “Supertanker” under contract. facturers, and the Federal Aviation Firefighting subjects all aircraft, Administration to resolve. We hope that Evergreen—as well including the 747 and DC-10 as the many other potential air- We are committed to working craft operators—will compete for Larry Brosnan is the Assistant Director, together with all potential vendors future airtanker contracts and Aviation Management, Fire and Aviation so as not to endanger the public or remain successful partners in the Management, Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC. our firefighters. wildland firefighting community.
Application System (41-c) nozzles protrude from the controlled by varying nozzle valve bottom of the fuselage just aft of and pressure settings. The 747 Supertanker’s applica- the main wing box. tion system consists of a series of Evergreen is currently in the pro- pressurized tanks installed on the The system can disperse water, cess of receiving Federal Aviation aircraft’s passenger deck. foam, retardant, and gels under Administration certification and high pressure—or at the speed of Interagency Air Tanker Board The tanking system is mounted on falling rain—depending on mission approval to use this new 747 cargo pallets that can be rolled on requirements. Drop intensity is Supertanker for firefighting. and off the aircraft. Four 16-inch
Managing the Unexpected
How can we better manage—and be prepared for— unexpected events in the wildland fire arena?
“Managing the Unexpected—The Second Workshop on High Reliability Organizing” was part of a continu- ing organized effort to help improve this country’s prescribed fire, fire use, and wildland fire suppression programs. Coordinated by the Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center, the workshop’s special focus was a field study of the Okefenokee Ecosystem Fire Management Program.
The complete DVD of this learning event that includes discussions of High Reliability Organizing principles and how they can be incorporated back on home units is now available. To order this unique organizational One of the unexpected surprises on the field study of the Okefenokee Ecosystem Fire Management Program. Photo by learning tool, contact the Lessons Learned Center at Tom Iraci, Pacific Northwest Region.
Fire Management Today 28 Tribute to a Family Member: Mike Ward, Helicopter Pilot, 1949–2004 Riva Duncan
itting in the back seat of the helicopter, I vomit into the I trust him with my life, S empty blue canvas bag used to but not always with my hold the Ping-Pong balls. Mike Ward, the pilot, comes over the radio. “You stomach. okay back there, Riva?” ATVs with torches mounted on the I wipe my mouth with the back of back to light from the roads. The my glove and pull my flight helmet Asheville Hotshots are scattered microphone back down over my along the roads looking for spot mouth. I push the button to trans- fires. mit. The job of running this machine “Yeah, I feel a little better,” I say, as can be fun; but I also seem to find a big bead of sweat slides down the it stressful. You have to keep emp- side of my face. “I’ll get you up into tying balls from the big canvas some fresh air for bit,” Mike says as bags into the hopper while stirring he pivots the helicopter up and away them to avoid a jam. And you have from the smoke. to keep looking down at the chute that hangs outside the helicopter to We are on the Long Bay Fire. It make sure the balls are clearing the is May 2000. I’m working on the machine. Apalachicola National Forest in Florida. Lightning started this fire The combination of flying in in a large, roadless area. Already a smoke, the helicopter’s tight turns, few thousand acres and growing, we having to constantly look down, and decide to do a massive burnout oper- the blast of noxious jet fumes, some- ation by using the helicopter to drop The late Mike Ward fills his bucket while times does me in. Like today. these small, plastic spheres—that working on Georgia’s Chattahoochee- look just like Ping-Pong balls. Oconee National Forest. Photo: Thomas H. Anderson, Chattahoochee-Oconee National Best Pilot Around Forest. Burst Into Flame Everyone knows that Mike Ward is one of the best pilots around. He’s A machine inside the helicopter ment officer, directs the operation been flying on our forest for years, injects the balls with anti-freeze, from up in the front seat next to both for wildfires and prescribed causing a chemical reaction with the Mike Ward. burns. I trust him with my life, but powder inside. When the balls hit the not always with my stomach. ground, they burst into flame, ignit- We are dropping balls into the fire’s ing the unburned vegetation. I run interior to intentionally burn the “How you feelin’ now, Riva?” Mike the machine, Mike Ward is the pilot, green vegetation—depriving the Duiett asks on the radio. “You ready and Mike Dueitt, our fire manage- main fire of anything left to burn. As we do the burn-out, we can to get back at it?” see the firefighters below us. Matt Riva Duncan is the Deputy Forest Fire We still have quite a few balls to Management Officer for the Forest Service, Keyes and Buddy Kelley are driving Klamath National Forest, Yreka, CA. drop to get this fire successfully
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 29 burned out. Although there is no I would fly many times with Mike Ward, hint of impatience in his voice, I on many thousands of acres of prescribed understand the importance of fin- ishing the job—soon. Surprisingly, burns as well as several recon flights. I do feel better.
“I’m ready.” I slide over to the open We eagerly awaited that observa- Mike always kept a 60-pound dumb- door and hang my right leg out of tion on nearly every wildfire that bell with him. During down time, the ship. he flew. As we heard Mike’s three sitting at the work center, he would familiar words—once again—come do curls with it. Mike explained Vietnam War Vet over our radios, we would always that—in case things went bad—he look at each other and smile. needed a strong arm to work the That day wouldn’t be the last time ’ helicopter’s “collective” pitch stick that I vomit in Mike Wards helicop- “Walkin’ the Doggie” control. ter. Once, on a wildfire that was cook- Mike had gusto for everything in I would fly many times with him, ing pretty well, we had Mike take his helicopter up for a size-up. When life. Like all good Southerners, he on many thousands of acres of loved to eat and was constantly prescribed burns as well as several the incident commander got him on the radio and asked him how the fretting over his weight. Every recon flights. Mike was a great winter and spring when he showed pilot and a lot of fun. A U.S. Army fire looked, Mike—with pure glee in his voice—answered, “It’s walkin’ up with his helicopter, we never Vietnam War veteran, he could fly a knew what size he would be. But helicopter like no one else. And his the doggie! Want me to go get my bucket?” we always knew there’d be a hug or joy of flying—and fighting fire— a handshake along with that per- was contagious. We had countless fires in which petual, broad smile. Mike—working his bucket—cooled We always knew that when Mike If we were lucky, we’d even get to flew for us, the job would be done the flames for us to allow everyone to safely get firelines around them. work with Mike on fires out West. extremely well. He knew the coun- During the summer, he and his try and he knew fire behavior. On We all knew that Mike Ward often made the difference between us helicopter went wherever they were prescribed burns, whoever rode needed. up front with Mike was supposed catching the fire or losing it. to determine the firing location Helicopter Crash and pattern. But Mike had done Though he actually worked for the so many burns with us, he needed contractor who owned the helicop- In 2003, I moved from Florida to little direction. ters, Mike Ward truly became a part work in fuels management for the of our Forest Service family. When Uinta and Wasatch-Cache National When you asked Mike to go size- he wasn’t fighting fires in Florida, Forests in Utah. In the summer of up a wildfire, you could count on he lived in Georgia. During some 2004, I got a call from my friend an accurate assessment. But, of of the more active fire seasons, we Karen Brent, an assistant fire man- course, he did have a tendency to actually saw Mike more than our agement officer in Georgia. I could sometimes exaggerate. His famous own spouses. tell by the tone of her voice that line was: “It’s got potential!” something is wrong.
“Riva,” Karen said, “I have some We all knew that Mike Ward often bad news. We just heard from one of our guys on the fires out West. made the difference between us catching Mike’s helicopter crashed.” Karen the fire or losing it. pauses for a second or two. “He’s dead.”
Fire Management Today 30 I could barely get out any words. I I started to cry. I wanted—and into the opening, crashing through told myself it might be a mistake. needed—more details. Mike said he branches and trees. Mike might be injured. Or it could was sorry, but he doesn’t have any be some other pilot. details. I know this had to be very I never read the official report. I difficult for him, too. Mike Ward don’t want to know if the helicopter I called Mike Dueitt, my fire man- was now the second good friend caught on fire after it fell. I don’t agement officer back in Florida. He that this man had lost to wildfires. want to think—cannot think— would know, or could find out for about Mike still alive as his ship confirmation. I got his voicemail burned. The smokejumpers tried to and left a message, trying to keep save him, but Mike was dead. the tears out of the sound of my His joy of flying—and voice—as if, somehow, my false fighting fire—was I still tell myself that he must confidence could change the out- have had a heart attack—or some- come. contagious. thing—to make him lose his con- centration. I’ll never fully believe After I left that message, I didn’t that it was entirely Mike’s fault. If know what to do with myself. I Never Read the Report I did that, I feel I would be disre- couldn’t stop thinking about Mike Mike was using a long line to drop specting him. Ward. I couldn’t concentrate on my supplies into a small clearing. He’d work. I kept wondering what could already made several trips. The A Georgia native, Mike was a prom- have possibly gone wrong. I decided smokejumpers on the ground said inent resident of the small com- that it had to be mechanical; Mike he was aware of the tight fit. They’d munity of Nicholson, GA. He leaves was just too good of a pilot. communicated with him many behind three children. times about his tail rotor clearance. He’s Gone I always keep a picture of Mike A couple of hours later, my phone On that last trip, they could see Ward by my desk at work. He’s finally rang. It was Mike Dueitt in that his head was turned, looking got that great, broad grin and the Florida. “Oh, Mike, please don’t tell toward the back, when his helicop- ever-present cap on his head. When me that it’s true.” ter suddenly lurched slightly and people ask me who he is, I just tell the tail rotor hit a large, dead tree. them that he’s a really good friend. “It is, Riva. He’s gone.” The helicopter fell, roaring down Then I’ll smile and say: “Did I ever tell you about the time I threw up three times on one heli- The helicopter fell, roaring down into the opening, copter flight?” crashing through branches and trees.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 31 Understanding, Validating, and Implementing Doctrine Tom Harbour
First Step: Understanding Doctrine ver the past several months, vigorous discussions have O surrounded our newly intro- duced operating philosophy called “doctrine.”* In late January 2006, the Fire Suppression Foundational Doctrine was accepted by the Chief of the Forest Service and intro- duced to employees and the public. As with any proposal for sweeping change, apprehension surfaces and questions abound. Members of the first Pulaski Conference in 2005 helped generate the first draft iteration of fire suppression foundational doctrine. The conference’s attendees included wildland Understanding this doctrine is fire professionals from every Forest Service region—technicians, program managers, line officers, two regional foresters, research station employees—as well as safety and occupa- therefore the first step to suc- tional health professionals. Photo: Gary C. Chancey, Forest Service, Black Hills National cessfully implementing this new Forest, Custer, SD, 2005. approach to action. Doctrine is multifaceted and provides a collec- tion of principles that touch every As with any proposal for sweeping change, level of the agency. apprehension surfaces and questions abound. These principles range from defining the operational environ- Lighting the Path all be teachers and students as we ment—in this case, the aggressive share the personal and professional Our Fire Suppression Doctrine is management of risk in a wildland understanding of a “principles- rooted in common sense and intu- fire situation—to how we engage based” environment—an environ- itiveness gained through job expe- our partners in fire management ment that successfully aligns our rience. Also meshed with Forest and suppression activities. actions with our mission in a more Service manuals and handbooks, creative and decisive way. Also included in these principles this doctrine lights the path to how we think and act in: are tenets that guide our everyday Starting the Journey decisions, conduct, and perfor- mance as Forest Service employees. • Wildland fire situations, An array of information—written • All-hazard assignments, and by both scholars and practitio- • Our every-day work routines. ners—is available that speaks to Tom Harbour is the Director of Fire and this concept of doctrine. Employees Aviation Management, Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC. Turning doctrine into practice can start the journey of under- requires three distinct phases: 1) standing doctrine by reading these *For more information on the concept and creation of understanding, 2) validating, and materials and—even more impor- fire and aviation Forest Service doctrine, see the pack- age of articles on the First Pulaski Conference (Fire 3) implementing. During this ini- tantly—by discussing the doctrinal Management Today 66(2): 6–16). tial understanding phase, we will concepts with others.
Fire Management Today 32 I think the best way to begin this Our Fire Suppression Doctrine is rooted education process is to visit our in common sense and intuitiveness doctrine Web site at
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 33 from initial decision to after-action The best way to begin the doctrine education consideration, is expected to occur process is to visit our doctrine Web site at by spring 2008.
Fire Management Today 34 Linking Intense Western Wildfires With Weather Patterns and Conditions David A. Prevedel
he history and lore of the Federal land management Our observations show that many large T agencies is embossed with wildfire occurrences seem to follow specific— the names and legends of large wildfires. The Big Burn (Montana often predictable—weather patterns. 1910), Tillamook (Oregon 1933), Sleeping Child (Montana 1961), attempted to correlate weather orbits at an altitude of approxi- Sundance (Montana 1966), and patterns and events that were pres- mately 517 miles (833 km). Pixel Yellowstone (Wyoming 1988) are ent during extreme fire behavior. resolution with these satellites is among these historic events. Images were obtained from the approximately 1,000 meters (3,281 visual spectrum of the Advanced feet). For many years, the occurrence of Very High Resolution Radiometer these large western wildfires has (AVHRR) Tyros satellite series that During the last 3 years of our study, been associated with conjecture is operated by the National Oceanic Web-based NOAA Geostationary regarding fuels, terrain, weather, and Atmospheric Administration Operational Environmental and ignition types. Historically, we (NOAA). Satellites (“GOES”) water vapor know that most western vegetation images were also used as an ancil- communities developed under the During our study period, the lary source to the polar-orbiting influence of wildfire. But today, satellite receiving station was satellites. (See
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 35 upper-level cooling while allowing the lower levels to remain hot. This phenomenon increases fire inten- sity (see fig. 1).
These westward flows can be observed on the GOES water vapor images as a “tongue” of very dry air that results in low relative humidity at the ground surface (see fig. 2).
Much more active fire behavior
During times of extreme fire behavior, this predictability is significant to firefighter and public safety.
Figure 1 is an illustration of the weather phenomenon observed over northwestern Wyoming on August 16, 2000. occurs with the thermal trough overhead. Fires located outside the trough to the north and west might be active, but this activity is more diminished. In addition, smoke from these fires appears “lazy” and unconsolidated—in contrast to the consolidated, intense, and linear smoke from fires associated with the trough.
The summer high pressure systems over the Great Basin and Four Corners areas are generally domi- nated by clouds and even summer thunderstorms. These observa- tions of high pressures systems are critical because they could move Figure 2 shows a water vapor image from August 8, 2002. Note the dry air “tongue.” or shift several hundred miles in a single day. the upper level ridge” as described weather surface troughs appear by Chris Maier of the National as voids in the atmosphere when We also found that with the NOAA Weather Service in Salt Lake City, viewed on the satellite image. AVHRR satellites, the high pressure UT. 2. Strong winds that develop from systems and accompanying surface the southwest or west within the thermal troughs could be observed What To Watch For late afternoon, generally from and monitored several times daily. Typical ground weather conditions 1500 to 1800 hours. over “fire blowups” associated with 3. Rapidly falling relative humidity. In meteorological terms, this fre- the upper level breakdown include: 4. Smoke plumes and fire progres- quently observed fire weather pat- sion that travel in a northeastern tern is known as the “breakdown of 1. Very clear weather. These clear or eastern direction. 5. A large high pressure system
Fire Management Today 36 How Weather Patterns Affect Fire An example of some of the satellite images from our study that illustrate how the weather patterns and conditions affect wildland fire.
Note fire activity and direction of smoke with this large weather This image reveals fire activity in two troughs over Idaho; trough over Nevada and southern California; July 22, 2002. August 12, 2003.
On July 16, 2002, high pressure has moved into the Pacific Note location of the high pressure system as fires burn in Northwest. Note the activity of the Oregon fires. northwest Montana; August 4, 2000.
Visual satellite images of smoke and high pressure systems can be augmented with water vapor images to form a clearer picture for understanding the implications of weather and fire.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 37 (often associated with clouds) These observations of high pressure systems are immediately to the south or east. critical because they could move or shift several Ancillary meteorological data and hundred miles in a single day. patterns that trigger five “watch outs” for fire blow-up conditions: distort and form a “dimple” in the future of wildfire suppression 1. A short wave in the isobars (pref- the high pressure system. and management. erably weak) indicating a drop in 4. Moderate to high Haines Index barometric pressure is approach- (5–6). Visual satellite images of smoke ing—followed by the breakdown, 5. On the NOAA “GOES” water and high pressure systems can or eastward shift, of the upper vapor images a “tongue” of very be augmented with water vapor ridge. dry air will wrap around the images to form a clearer picture for 2. Often, a subtropical jet stream. leading edge of the high pres- understanding the implications of 3. A clear air trough on the north- sure ridge and flow into the clear weather and fire. west edge of the subtropical weather trough. This results in high pressure system. This high low relative humidity at the sur- Acknowledgment pressure will have a clockwise face. These dry air patterns on The author thanks Dave rotation and will contain clouds the water vapor image appear as Thomas, recently retired as the of subtropical moisture. Puffy dark areas. Intermountain Region’s fuels spe- cumulous clouds will often cialist, for his support in reviewing develop around the edge of the Conclusions and helping prepare this article for trough. The clear air trough The observations summarized in publication. will often be 40 to 60 miles (64 this article provide insight into the to 97 km) or more across at the complexities of fire activity and References narrowest point, and 100 to 300 weather. With further study and Prevedel, D.A. 1994. Project sparkey—pho- miles (161 to 483 km) in length. documentation, this analysis could tographic engineering and remote sens- The clear air trough will often be applied as an important tool in ing. Vol. 60, No 1: 271–278.
Colorado fires exhibit extreme fire behavior on June 9, 2002. The large Arizona and New Mexico fires are active on the afternoon of June 23, 2003. Note the clear air in the trough.
Fire Management Today 38 We Need a New Age of Forestry Jack Ward Thomas
new age of forestry is needed in the United States. Recent The key to overall biodiversity will be creating A dramatic declines in forest and maintaining both younger early successional management have brought some undesirable consequences for forest and late-successional forest stands. health and wildlife. in a plethora of Federal and State wood. Places with far less resources Public concerns over retention of laws and regulations that set for- and knowledge for how to man- biodiversity (such as compliance est management on course toward age forests responsibly. When we with the intent of the Endangered sustainability. Unfortunately, the import wood products, we export Species Act) have thrust concerns pendulum of attitudes toward forest not only environmental conse- for wildlife front and center in for- management has swung too far to quences but jobs and dollars. est management debates. Where the side of constraint. those debates lead remains to be Currently, the creation of younger- seen. Wood Consumption forest conditions is increasingly dependent upon stand-replacing A total preservationist approach to Today, most old-growth stands on fire, insects and disease, and blow- management—standing back and public lands are protected and pro- down. letting nature take its course—has visions exist for recruiting addition- become increasingly prevalent. al old growth over the next decades Timber harvesting could play a While appealing on the surface, and centuries. Many stands are in, similar role. The choice, to a large this is not tenable in the long term or are moving into, mid-succes- degree, is up to us. because it will not protect forests, sional forest conditions—the least retain biodiversity, and provide productive stage for enhancing The idea of “letting nature take its some wood products over time. biodiversity. The key to overall bio- diversity, therefore, will be creat- course” is seductive in its simplic- ity. But it has significant down- A return to a totally economic-driv- ing and maintaining both younger sides. First, the timing, extent, and en forestry is also not viable. Public early-successional and late-succes- results of stand-replacing events reaction to past forest manage- sional forest stands. are only marginally under human ment practices—such as the visual control. With human populations impacts of clear-cutting—precludes increasingly ensconced in for- harvesting at “economic maturity” A return to a totally ested areas, forest health already from being the dominant factor in economic-driven forestry degraded, and the ability to use forest management decisions. is also not viable. controlled burns limited, “hands off” management—even for public Public backlash to forestry prac- lands—seems untenable in the long tices of 1950 through 1975 resulted Adding to the challenge of estab- run. lishing the full spectrum of forest Jack Ward Thomas was Chief of the Forest Service from 1993 to 1996. He is cur- conditions essential to supporting Additionally, increasingly depend- rently the Boone and Crockett Professor the full spectrum of biodiversity is ing on “elsewhere” for our wood of Wildlife Conservation in the School of unprecedented wood consumption is morally bankrupt, economically Forestry at the University of Montana, Missoula, MT. in the United States. Our per-capita unfeasible, and wasteful. wood consumption rate is the high- Thomas originally wrote this article for the est in the world—and rising. Clearly, there is work to be done in California Forest Products Commission. It appeared in the Sacramento Bee newspa- our forests. However, using taxpay- per on July 11, 2006, and is reprinted here Increasingly, we depend on places er dollars for habitat alterations to with permission from the author. beyond our borders to provide our provide for biodiversity associated
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 39 with early-succession forests and to Our per-capita wood consumption rate is protect structures in the wildland/ the highest in the world—and rising. urban interface against large-scale fires will prove cost prohibitive. And, once such actions are begun, they must be maintained with ever- This new forestry must focus on relieved on less productive lands. mounting costs and not offsetting the landscape and accept the need Those lands then could be managed returns. to provide myriad values from our with more emphasis on such things forests, including biodiversity, as biodiversity, scenic values, and A Truly New Forestry wood products, clean air and water, watershed integrity. and recreation. By doing so, and It seems the perfect time for a new harvesting more trees from its The answer to what some consider forestry. Not a simple reinstitu- private forestlands, our Nation can past management sins is not pro- tion of what has gone before, but enhance biodiversity and lessen the hibition. Rather, it is a change in a new approach—one in which impact of our consumption on for- approach to forest management—a the environmental benefits are as ests around the world. new forestry. The old forestry is significant as the wood produced. largely dead. But, we have learned We have the know-how, technology, If the most fertile lands (usually much—enough to institute new and trained professionals to do the in private ownership) were intelli- approaches that will be more job. Certainly the need is ever more gently managed more intensely for acceptable and more sustainable. apparent. wood production, pressure could be Like all species, humans must exploit the environment in order to When we import wood products, we live. There is no question of that. export not only environmental consequences The question is how such will be acc le, and socially acceptable, fash- but jobs and dollars. ion.
FACES: The Story of the Victims of Southern California’s 2003 Fire Siege.
What Can They Tell Us? Why Have We Forgotten Them?
For more information on this new, comprehensive “lessons learned” report authored by Bob Mutch, visit the Wildland Fire Lessons Learned The 2003 Cedar Fire claimed the lives of 13 wildland/urban interface residents and 1 firefighter. This photo was taken from a San Diego County Sheriff’s Department Center Web site:
Fire Management Today 40 Two Receive Golden Smokey Bear Awards for Exceptional Contributions Lewis F. Southard
n the world of wildfire prevention Absolutely Shocked there is no greater honor than In the world of wildfire Peter Martin was presented with to receive the Golden Smokey I prevention there is his award during the 2005 Pacific Bear Award. This special award is Northwest Coordination Group and reserved for people or organizations no bigger honor than Oregon Fire Marshals Association who provide sustained outstanding to receive the Golden Fire Prevention Workshop in national service—with significant Smokey Award. Gleneden Beach, OR. Dewey Tate, national program impact—in the fire prevention specialist for the fire prevention arena. • Peter Martin, who recently Pacific Northwest Region, present- ed Martin with his coveted Golden Honorees must exceed the expecta- retired from the U.S. Department Smokey Award. tions of their jobs and demonstrate of the Interior, Bureau of Land innovation, creativity, commitment, Management’s Prineville District “I was absolutely shocked to receive and passion for fire prevention. A in Oregon, and the Golden Smokey,” said Martin, maximum of three Golden Smokey • Joan O’Hara Wehner, busi- who retired from the Bureau of Awards are presented each year. ness manager for the National Association of State Foresters. Land Management’s Prineville District in 2004. The Golden Smokey nomination process is rigorous. The selec- Both Martin and O’Hara Wehner He spent most of his career in tion committee is comprised by were recognized by their peers with fire prevention, beginning on the members of the Cooperative Forest top honors when they received Mount Hood National Forest’s Fire Prevention Program with their Golden Smokey statues. Both Bear Springs Ranger District in representatives from the National were also caught by surprise when the early 1970s. Peter made many Association of State Foresters, the they were presented their awards— stops along the way, including Forest Service, and the national in separate ceremonies. working at the Forest Service’s Advertising Council. The com- mittee critically studies all of the nominations. This achievement— with its golden statue—has been referred to as the “Oscar” of fire prevention.
In 2005, the National Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention Committee honored two people with the presti- gious Golden Smokey Bear Awards for their sustained, outstanding contributions to wildland fire pre- vention:
Lewis Southard is the Assistant Director Golden Smokey Bear Award winner Peter Martin (far right) is joined by his wife of Fire and Aviation Management Kathleen Martin during the presentation ceremony in which Dewey Tate (far left), the Partnerships, Forest Service, Washington Pacific Northwest Region’s fire prevention specialist, presented Martin with his award. Office, Washington, DC. Photo: Forest Service.
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 41 2005 Silver and Bronze Smokey Bear Award Winners Silver Award Winners Dave Schuller Brandon Davidson (regionwide) Minnesota Department of Natural Martin County Gwen Beavans Resources Forest Ranger Forest Service Southern Region Firewise Communities Specialist Regional Fire Education Specialist Joe deBree Adele Smith Highlands County Cathy Scofield Minnesota Department of Natural Fire Prevention Chair Forest Service Northern Rockies Resources Region Information and Education John Deleon Assistant Director for Cooperative Supervisor Martin County Fire and Prevention Forest Ranger Mike Warnke Great Lakes Fire Compact Wisconsin Department of Natural Robert Doer Prevention Committee Resources Indian River County Forest Ranger Forest Ranger Norma Griffin Ministry of Natural Resources Bronze Award Winners Mike Mohorek Fire Prevention and Education (statewide) St. Lucie County Program Officer Kelly Cardoza Forest Ranger Jim Martinuk Boise National Forest Fire Prevention Specialist John Phillips Manitoba Conservation Okeechobee County Fire Control Officer Eliseo “Chito” Garcia Forest Ranger George Meadows U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fire Prevention Officer Jim Rath Minnesota Department of Natural Okeechobee District Resources District Manager Fire Prevention Specialist (retired) Gerry J. LaCavera Florida Division of Forestry Mitigation Specialist Ed Ward Tom Proulx Martin/Okeechobee Counties Michigan Department of Natural Forest Area Supervisor Resources Teresa Mizuhara Forest Fire Officer California Department of Forestry and Fire Prevention Melissa Yunas Fire Prevention Specialist Florida Division of Forestry Catherine Regan Mitigation Specialist Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Okeechobee Fire Prevention Wildfire Prevention Specialist Committee Louis Aguilar Glades County Forest Ranger
Pacific Northwest Regional Office, before finishing his noteworthy This achievement—with its golden statue—has career with the Bureau of Land been referred to as the “Oscar” of fire prevention. Management.
During the decades that spanned • Was instrumental in the develop- • Received two Silver Smokey his career, Martin: ment of National Fire Prevention Awards in 1994 and 2000. (These and Education Teams; tributes go to people or organi- • Played a key role in the regional • Served as chair of the Pacific zations who have provided out- and national effort to celebrate Northwest Fire Prevention standing regional service in fire Smokey’s 50th birthday; Workshop for nearly 20 years; and prevention.)
Fire Management Today 42 Despite retiring, Peter continues Honorees must exceed the expectations of their to support fire prevention efforts jobs and demonstrate innovation, creativity, locally, regionally, and nationally by serving as a lead instructor in commitment, and passion for fire prevention. fire prevention training courses and through his recent work creating an interagency fire prevention sign guide. Smokey Bear Award Nominations Great Protector Nominations for the Smokey Bear Each nominee must meet three Awards are due each year by the minimum selection criteria: Joan O’Hara Wehner received end of January. Anyone wishing 1. At least 2 years of activities her Golden Smokey Award at to submit a nomination should must be complete and not in the National Association of State complete a nomination form and the planning stage; Foresters’ meeting in Madison, attach supporting materials (such 2. Activities must demonstrate WI, in October 2005. Joan was as news clippings and photo- success in the geographi- specifically honored for her lead- graphs). cal area for which nominated ership and determination to hold (nationwide for Golden Smokey, Smokey’s message to the highest Additional information and the regionwide for Silver Smokey, standards. nomination form are available at or statewide for Bronze
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 43 Clyde Nilles: From Jelly Roller to Controlled Burn Crewman Tristan Scott
lyde J. Nilles worked out of the Powell Ranger Station much of Clyde was a jelly roller C his life, doing jobs as varied as and a bull cook, a a jelly roller, bull cook, and bunk- house keeper. bunkhouse keeper, and a controlled burn No job description in the world crewman. could have pigeonholed Clyde J. Nilles. knew him,” Thomas said. “Every Working out of the Powell Ranger year, there were at least 50 people Station on Clearwater National on the crew. He just was naturally Forest much of his life, Clyde was kind and warm. He was just the a jelly roller and a bull cook, a Birthday Boy—Clyde Nilles, at a spry 92, bunkhouse keeper, and yet every- bunkhouse keeper, and a controlled gets a birthday hug from one of his many one gravitated to him to talk.” admirers, Donna Bonzagni, GIS/database burn crewman. He planted trees, coordinator, Powell Ranger District, cut trail, herded sheep and baked Clearwater National Forest, Lolo, MT. Thomas lives in Utah now, and only countless batches of his famous Forest Service photo, 2005. recently retired from the Forest cinnamon rolls. His secret ingre- Service. He came to Missoula in the dient—sour cream. (Incidentally, When Clyde died January 11, 2006, early 1970s to attend college and Clyde’s special seasoning in scram- he was 92 years old—a feat he took a job at the ranger station. bled eggs was, rather infamously, accomplished by working hard his Clyde practically adopted him as a cigarette ash in the place of pep- entire life and never marrying, he son. Throughout the years, the two per.) explained to friends and family. men stayed in close contact.
And while he never married or had Of course, the trees he planted “At the time, Powell (Ranger a brood of his own, Clyde saw to will outlast the man for genera- Station) had two or three bunk- the future while skirting the steep tions, and his painted portrait on houses,” Thomas said. “That’s hillsides of the Selway–Bitterroot the backside of the Oxford Bar will where the men stayed, and Clyde Wilderness. With a 60-pound pack loom over downtown Missoula for kept them clean. But he also went of saplings slung around his waist, years to come. on trail crews, cut trail, planted Clyde was three paces ahead of trees, cooked and jelly-rolled.” A crewmates 30 years his junior. Clyde’s Goodwill “jelly roller” is someone who wraps But most steadfast of all are the the roots of saplings in burlap “I was always impressed with him,” friends who will remember Clyde’s so the trees don’t dry out before said Dave Thomas, Clyde’s sur- goodwill. they’re planted. rogate son and lifelong friend. “He was always a hard worker. When I “I can’t imagine the hundreds, even “I’ve never met a kinder person, met him, he was already in his late thousands of young people who and the people who knew him 50s, but he’d still go out on those steep hillsides to plant trees.” Tristan Scott is a reporter for the Clyde’s special seasoning in scrambled eggs was, Missoulian newspaper in Missoula, MT., rather infamously, cigarette ash in the place of where this article first appeared. It is reprinted here with the newspaper’s per- pepper. mission.
Fire Management Today 44 would say that too,” Thomas said. With a 60-pound pack of saplings slung around “He would do anything for people.” his waist, Clyde was three paces ahead of Clyde only went to school through crewmates 30 years his junior. the sixth grade, Thomas said, but he never missed a political conven- tion on television or radio. After almost dying, and then he’d bounce Clyde died of Alzheimer’s disease, Clyde retired from the Forest back,” Noell said. “That maybe emphysema, and congestive heart Service in 1984, he moved to Lolo happened 20 times in the last four failure. where he gardened, drank beer at years, but he had such a strong will the Lolo Tavern, talked politics and to live.” Bonzagni, who still works at the danced. Powell Ranger Station, remembers Close friend and longtime Powell Clyde as her first boss. “I used to go But after a car accident in 1997, Ranger District employee Donna to work a half-hour early every day Clyde moved back to Missoula, Bonzagni recalls Clyde facing a just to talk to Clyde,” she said. “He where he lived independently until particularly risky surgery years had a coffee pot on 24 hours a day 2004. “He drove around a little cart ago. The doctor asked whether and you could always talk to him.” and would cruise down the streets he wanted to be on life support if over to the Oxford Bar to see his something went wrong. Even (former) Forest Service Chief friends,” said Cheryl Noell, Clyde’s Dale Bosworth knew Clyde, and great-niece. “He said, ‘Oh yeah, I’ve got my gar- when visiting the Powell Ranger den to plant,’ ” she said. “He always Station—just over the Idaho bor- “I think he had nine lives, because bounced back. He had an amazing der on the Clearwater National he kept getting really bad and desire and will to live.” Forest—years ago, the Chief heard someone mention his name.
The trees he planted will outlast the man for “He knew Clyde from way back and couldn’t believe that he was still generations. alive,” Thomas said. “Clyde claimed to have taught Dale Bosworth everything he knew.”
Web Sites on Fire* Wildland Fire management programs—as well as been evaluated and meet Forest Chemical Systems information for firefighters and the Service requirements. public. If you ever had a question regard- Among its other resources, the ing wildland fire chemicals, the These fire chemical products Web site also provides technical Forest Service has a helpful, infor- discussed at the “Wildland Fire product information for firefight- mative Web site that is intended Chemical Systems” Web site ers and the public on wildland to provide technical support include long-term retardants, class fire chemical products, including relating to fire chemical products A foam fire suppressants, and water supplier contacts and updates, for the agency’s fire and aviation enhancers. airtanker base information and updates, environmental guide- * Occasionally, Fire Management Today briefly describes Web sites brought to our attention by the Information spans from how to lines, and human health risk wildland fire community. Readers should not construe determine what type of chemical assessments. the description of these sites as in any way exhaustive or as an official endorsement by the Forest Service. product you have to whether or not To have a Web site described, contact the manag- ing editor, Cindy White at 360-436-1155, ext. 231, it is on the “qualified products list” Found at
Volume 67 • No. 2 • Summer 2007 45 Looking Back… On Doing a Dirty Job
he following bit of advice for Forest Service fire employees The occasion may arise when you will be forced to T was part of an article by C. talk with persons or strangers immediately after H. Coulter, State Forester, Florida Forest Service, that appeared fighting a bad fire or doing a dirty job. in the January 1940 (4[1]) Fire Control Notes (forerunner of Fire upon your personal appear- bad fire or doing a dirty job. Your Management Today). The article ance. It is not necessary that you appearance on this occasion may was entitled “Making Contacts and be a ‘white collar dude’ or that be explained, and the person you Establishing Goodwill.” you appear in formal dress. Just are talking with will understand remember to do the best with what the circumstances and make allow- (Editor’s Note: This excerpt you have. No one likes to hold a ances for it. from the 1940 article has been conversation with a ragged and reprinted verbatim and there- unclean person. It has often been He will not, however, overlook your fore reflects the style and usage said that ‘Cleanliness is next to dirty appearance if you are in that of the time.) Godliness.’ state every time he meets you.” Personal Appearance The occasion may arise when out Reference “Much of the success obtained in of necessity you will be forced Coulter, C.H.1948. Making contacts and meeting the public will depend to talk with persons or strang- establishing goodwill. Fire Control Notes. ers immediately after fighting a 4(1): 32–37.
Fire Management Today 46 2007 Photo Contest Announcement
Fire Management Today (FMT) invites you • You must have the right to grant the Disclaimer to submit your best fire-related images Forest Service unlimited use of the • A panel of judges—with significant pho- to be judged in our photo competition. image, and you must agree that the tography and publishing experience— Entries must be received by close of busi- image will go into the public domain. determines the winners. The judges’ ness on Friday, October 5, 2007. Moreover, the image must not have been decision is final. previously published in any publication. • Photos depicting safety violations—as Awards • We prefer original slides or negatives; determined by the panel of judges—will All contestants will receive a CD with the however, we will accept duplicate slides be disqualified. images and captions (as submitted) remain- or high-quality prints (for example, those • Life or property cannot be jeopardized to ing after technical and safety reviews. with good focus, contrast level, and obtain photos. Winning images will appear in a future depth of field). Note: Slides, negatives, • The Forest Service does not encourage issue of Fire Management Today and may and prints will not be returned. or support deviation from firefighting be publicly displayed at the Forest Service’s • We will also accept digital images if the responsibilities to capture photos. national office in Washington, DC. image was shot at the highest resolution • Photos will be eliminated from the com- using a setting with at least 3.2 mega petition if they are obtained by illegal or Winners in each category will receive: pixels. If a print or slide is scanned, use a unauthorized access to restricted areas, • 1st place – A 20- by 24-inch framed copy setting of at least 300 lines per inch with show unsafe firefighting practices (unless of your image. a minimum output size of 5 x 7 inches. that is their expressed purpose), or are of • 2nd place – A 16- by 20-inch framed copy Digital image files should be TIFFs or low technical quality. (For example, have of your image. highest quality JPGs. Note: Photos that soft focus or camera movement.) • 3rd place – A 11- by 14-inch framed copy are date stamped will be eliminated from • You must complete and sign the Release of your image. the competition. Statement form (below) that grants the • Honorable Mention – A 8- by 10- inch • You must indicate only one competition Forest Service the rights to use your framed copy of your image. category per image. To ensure fair evalu- image(s). ation, we reserve the right to change the Categories competition category for your image. Mail your completed release with your • You must provide a detailed caption for • Wildland fire entry or fax it to 970-295-6799 at the same each image. Example: A Sikorsky S-64 time you e-mail your digital image files. • Prescribed fire Skycrane delivers retardant on the 1996 • Wildland/urban interface fire Clark Peak Fire, Coronado National Mail entries to: • Aerial resources Forest, AZ. • Ground resources • You must include the following informa- Forest Service • Miscellaneous (fire effects, fire weather, tion with your photo: your name, profes- Fire Management Today Photo Contest fire-dependent communities or species, sional affiliation, town, State, and year Karen Mora etc.) that image was captured. 2150 Centre Avenue • You must complete and sign the Release Building E, Suite 008 Rules Statement form (below) granting Fort Collins, CO 80526 • The contest is open to everyone. You may the Forest Service rights to use your or submit an unlimited number of entries image(s). e-mail images and captions to: taken at any time. No photos judged in
2007 Fire Management Today Photo Contest Release Statement and Contact Information
Enclosed is/are (number) slide(s)/print(s)/digital image(s) for publication by the Forest Service. For each image submitted, the contest category is indicated and a detailed caption is enclosed. I have the authority to give permission to the Forest Service to publish the enclosed image(s) and am aware that, if used, it/they will be in the public domain and appear on the World Wide Web.
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