THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE PB1523

Forest Practice Guidelines for Tennessee

1 Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 2

Purpose 3

Forests of Tennessee 4

Forest Values 6

Forest Practices and Silviculture 6 Silviculture 6 Silvicultural System 6 Harvest and Regeneration Methods 6 Thinning versus Regeneration 6 Even-age Systems 9 Uneven-age Systems 10 Importance of Forest Site 12

Timber Harvesting Guidelines 12 Forest Health & Protection 14 Acknowledgements BMPs for Forestry Activities in Tennessee 15 The Forest Practice Guide- lines for Tennessee publication is a col- Silvicultural Practices for Major Forest Types in Tennessee 16 laborative effort of The University of Ten- Oak-Hickory 16 nessee Agricultural Extension Service, Type Description 16 the Tennessee Forestry Association, the Harvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods 16 Tennessee Division of Forestry and the Oak-Pine 19 Tennessee Valley Authority. This docu- Type Description 19 ment is a revision of the 1976 edition Harvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods 19 edited by Gary Schneider and Jack Barrett of The University of Tennessee 21 Bottomland Hardwoods Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fish- Type Description 21 eries. Harvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods 21 The authors appreciate the Cove Hardwoods 24 helpful reviews of Jim Hill (Bowater), Ray Type Description 24 Rozier (private consultant), Tom Jewell Harvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods 25 (Westvaco), Kerry Schell (The University Pine 27 of Tennessee-retired), Gene McGee Type Establishment 27 (U.S. Forest Service -retired), Tim Young Harvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods 28 (Georgia Pacific), George Weaver (The University of Tennessee-deceased), 30 Stand Conversion John Wood (Westvaco) and Tim McCall (J.M. Huber). Additionally, final manu- Marketing of Forest Resources 30 script reviewers were John Gregory Sources of Assistance for Landowners 31 (TWRA), Allan Houston (UT), Larry Hamner (TVA), Dennis Miles (TDF) and Appendix 31 Wanda Richart (UT). Agencies Assisting Landowners 32 Tennessee has been blessed Glossary 32 with a beautiful bounty of forest resources. We trust these “Guidelines” will improve forest practices in Tennessee and enhance the quality of life for all Tennesseans.

George M. Hopper Professor & Head Editor Cover photo by George M. Hopper

2 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Forest Practice Guidelines for Tennessee

George M. Hopper, Editor Professor & Head Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries The University of Tennessee

Hart Applegate Assistant State Forester Tennessee Division of Forestry

Greg Dale Area Superintendent Westvaco Corporation

Richard Winslow Lands Manager Tennessee Consolidated Coal Purpose Those involved in managing Tennessee forests have felt the need Forest Types in Tennessee for a concise statement about forest practices in Tennessee. Although several sources provide information about Tennessee’s forests and appropriate forest practices, search- ing for information takes considerable Oak Hickory time, and in some instances the 73% sources are not readily available. 9,593,600 These guidelines provide a ready, authoritative reference. This publica- tion identifies appropriate forest management practices and informs Pine 10% the Tennessee forest landowner 1,333,800 acres about making wise policy decisions and establishing long-range goals. Oak-pine However, many land man- 12% agement decisions are complex and 1,591,500 acres can not be explained here. In most cases, forest management requires Bottomland Hwd. the services of a professional for- 5% ester. A professional forester has 682,300 acres received at a minimum a four-year college degree in forest management from an accredited forestry program, and keeps current about the latest forest management practices. 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Forests of Tennessee Forests are an integral part of the Tennessee environment. When the first European settlers reached the territory that was to become Tennessee, forests covered more than 85 percent of the land area. With these settlers came logging, land clearing and frequent fires. Historical records indicate native American people burned the forests routinely to create improved grazing for wildlife. Some accounts suggest that there were savannah-like conditions in many areas of the state. The most recent statistics from 1989 Tennessee forest survey show 13,265,000 acres, or 50 percent of the total land area, is still in forest cover. Private forest landowners, the vast majority non-industrial, decide the fate and management on 11,756,400 acres of the state’s forest land. This represents 88 percent of the total forest resource (Table 1). Differences in climate, soils and physiography make the forests of Tennessee as complex as any found in the temperate regions of the world. More than 200 species of trees grow in Tennessee, 60 of which have commercial value.

Table 1. Distribution of Forest Ownership in Tennessee (from Forest Statistics for Tennessee Counties-1989 USDA-FS SD-148)

FOREST LAND

Owner Acre % of Total

Private

Industrial 1,143,900 8.62

Non-industrial 10,612,500 80.00

Public

Federal 1,027,400 7.74

State 422,200 3.18

City/County 59,400 0.44

Total forest land 13,265,400 —

4 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Non-Industry 80%

Industry 8.6%

Federal 7.7%

State 3.1%

5 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Unlike most of its neighbors from 16.2 to 53.6 million board feet. from soil erosion and reduction of to the south, Tennessee’s forests are Moreover, desirable commercial noise and air pollution are among the mostly hardwoods, with oaks domi- species now cover a higher propor- many environmental benefits forests nating significant portions of the tion of our forest land, but there is still provide. forest landscape. This publication will much to be done to improve and discuss five major forest types in protect the forest. The Tennessee Forest Tennessee: oak-hickory, oak-pine, Division of Forestry, The University of Practices bottomland hardwoods, cove hard- Tennessee Agricultural Extension woods and pine. Service, the Tennessee Valley and Forest stands composed of Authority, the U.S. Forest Service, the Silviculture various oaks and hickories cover 73 Tennessee Forestry Association, percent of the commercial forest concerned individual landowners and Silviculture areas (9.6 million acres). The oak- forest industries are contributing to Silviculture is the art and hickory forest type includes a mixture this improvement. science of tending a forest. Silvicul- of species, ranging from very valu- ture includes the establishment, able black walnut, yellow-poplar and Forest Values improvement and harvest of a forest high-grade red and white oaks, to the to meet the owner’s objectives. Tennessee’s forests are one economically low-value post and Silviculture is based on an under- of our state’s most valuable natural blackjack oaks. Pine and oak-pine standing of natural resource pro- resources. Forests furnish a variety of types occur on 22 percent of the cesses, such as disturbance, succes- products and benefits to the state’s commercial forest area, and typically sion, competition, nutrient cycles, economy and its citizens. The timber develop on relatively dry upland sites. hydrology, tree biology, soils and industry probably predates the state The east and plateau regions associated ecological phenomena. itself, yielding raw materials for of Tennessee contain pine, oak-pine Manipulation and control of the construction of homes and buildings and oak-hickory forest types. Upland natural processes using scientifically and many other basic products such hardwood sites generally are concen- based silvicultural techniques can as furniture, crossties and paper. trated in the central and west-central create forests suited to the goal of Additionally, trees yield chemicals regions. Bottomland hardwood sites ownership in less time than would used in hundreds of products pro- are primarily located in the west occur naturally. region. duced in plastics and chemical manufacturing. Mismanagement and uncon- Partial Harvests Versus trolled fires have caused serious Wood-using industries in damage to forest resources of Tennessee manufactured products Regeneration Harvests Tennessee. For many years, logging which had a shipment value of $4 Forest management gener- operations that cut only the best billion in 1992. Forest-related indus- ally includes harvesting trees. Trees trees, a practice referred to as “high- tries in Tennessee employ more than that are harvested and processed into grading,” has reduced forest produc- 50,000 workers and pay $1 of every products continue to benefit people tivity. High-grading results in a forest $8 of manufacturing-based wages. by providing useful wood products. of defective and commercially unde- Tennessee is the nation’s leading sirable trees left to occupy and producer of log homes and hardwood regenerate the forest. Although the flooring, and annually ranks among Silviculture practice of high-grading continues, the top three states in hardwood is the art and significant improvements have been lumber production. made in forest protection, e.g., Tennessee’s forest lands also science of wildfire suppression. Also, reforesta- create habitat for forest wildlife, tion programs have established more providing food and shelter for many tending than a million acres of trees on game and non-game species. Hunt- eroded fields. ing, fishing and other outdoor activi- a forest. Although analyses of forest ties contribute greatly to the quality of conditions in Tennessee show that life in Tennessee. The success of the quality of our hardwoods is Tennessee’s outdoor recreation and declining, timber growth is increasing. tourism industry is due in no small Statistics from 1950 to 1989 show part to the beauty of the state’s that the sawtimber volumes increased forest-covered landscape. Protection 6 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE When a forest owner decides end of rotation, should produce a than the selection of trees to cut for to harvest trees, the decision is often new, young, healthy forest. immediate use.” based on personal economics. Partial cuts Silvicultural Systems and However, a timber harvest results in a Cultural treatments that occur Regeneration Methods long-term impact on the forest during the rotation affect yield, rate of In the life of every timber environment. Because of this, the growth and quality of timber. Silvicul- stand the time eventually arrives landowner should have a plan before tural partial cuts during stand devel- when it is mature. Once mature, the harvest that addresses long-term opment are generally referred to as some or all the trees can be har- goals. thinning. Some people see a thinning vested and the stand regenerated What does it mean to regen- as a selection for regeneration. through artificial or natural regenera- erate? To a forester, regeneration However, in a managed forest, tion. The method chosen for harvest means to produce a new, vigorous, thinning reduces stand density to and regeneration depends on forest healthy, well-stocked stand of trees; it benefit the crop trees left. Crop trees conditions and landowner’s goals. refers to starting the stand of trees are chosen, released and grown to There are two types of silvicultural over (as opposed to converting forest the end of the rotation. By thinning systems a forest landowner may land to some other land use). How- the stand, the crop trees grow faster develop with various harvesting ever, not every stand is in need of a and reach a larger size sooner. plans: 1) even-age systems (see regeneration cut; rather, some require In his text on Silvicultural page 9) or 2) uneven-age systems only a partial cut. Practices, D.M. Smith had this to say (see page 10). Foresters use both Forest rotation is the time about thinning: “The essential gener- management systems successfully in required to grow a timber crop to alities about thinning have been Tennessee. Remember, each system economic or natural maturity. One buried in the flood of qualifications attempts to carry out a specific way to think about rotation is “the that must inevitably enter into any purpose and is based on tree biology beginning and the end.” A corn crop discussion. The most important fact (silvics). The manager of the forest begins with a clearcut, followed by to be noted is that the total cubic must consider the unique silvicultural planting, weed control and final volume of wood, which can be characteristics of each species. harvest. For corn, rotation may be six produced by a stand in a given length An important biological months. For oak, rotation may be 30 of time, tends to be fixed and immu- principle of tree growth is that of years or 150 years depending on the table. However, by skillful control of “tolerance.” Tolerance in forest trees site, desired product and landowner the growing stock the forester can refers to a species’ ability to compete. objectives. A forest manager can marshal production to capture the The ability to perform in competition shorten the rotation length by control- highest net return possible under the with other trees and to tolerate shade ling stand density and matching economic circumstances.” determines a species’ tolerance level. species with appropriate sites. “The trees that are cut For example, beech regenerates very Whatever the time period, the final represent a salvageable surplus not well in shade and is considered a harvest completes the rotation. needed to ensure full utilization of the shade-tolerant species. On the other At the end of rotation, trees growing space; they are, therefore, hand, black cherry needs full sun to are harvested and the forest is available for harvest. In the act of regenerate and to grow. Therefore, regenerated. Forest regeneration removing them, it becomes possible cherry is an intolerant species. Table systems are effective when properly to build more crown surface on 2 gives shade tolerance levels for applied. Artificial regeneration in- selected individuals so they will attain several important species. volves planting seeds or seedlings. larger diameter, become more Advantages of this method are better valuable and be less vulnerable to control of species composition and damage.” olerance in forest genetic improvement. Natural regen- “The positive action of Ttrees refers to a eration methods include seed tree, choosing the kind and number of species ability to com- shelterwood, clearcut, group selection trees to remain for future growth pete. The ability to per and single tree selection. Each of should be emphasized much more these methods produces a new forest form in competition with and is designed for use in specific other trees and to toler- forest types. ate shade determines a Whatever regeneration species tolerance level. method used, the final harvest, at the

7 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE TABLE 2: Tolerance of trees to shade is important in choosing a silviculture system for natural regeneration. The listing below shows the relative shade tolerance for several

commercial species.

INTOLERANT OF SHADE INTERMEDIATE IN TOLERANT OF SHADE TOLERANCE TO SHADE

Northern Red Oak White oak spp. Red Maple Black Walnut Persimmon Sugar Maple Black Cherry Baldcypress Hornbeam Sassafras Black Gum Beech Ash Hickory Magnolia Locust Mulberry Yellow-Poplar Dogwood Sweetgum Eastern White Pine Cherrybark Oak Hemlock Hackberry Cottonwood Willow Birch Loblolly Pine Virginia Pine Shortleaf Pine

8 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Silvicultural systems are fields. However, research continues method is useful to regenerate based on age, either even-age (less on how to plant hardwoods for timber intolerant species (Table 2). Regen- than two distinct age classes) or and wildlife, especially in wetland eration from clearcuts normally uneven-age (three or more distinct reclamation. Of particular importance depends on stump sprouts, seeds in age classes). Tree diameters and in planting hardwoods are site place or planted seedlings. Regen- heights in a stand can selection, seedling quality, improved eration harvest provides specifically characterize the age genetic sources for the production of new trees, either distribution. and competition through natural regeneration, from The five major Caution: The popular control, during the sprouts or germination of seeds or methods to regulate the practice of selecting early years. planting seedlings. Sprouts (called age structure of the forest trees based solely on coppice) grow faster than seedlings. for even-age systems: 1) diameter or quality is Even-Age The existing root systems of sprouts the clearcut method, 2) “high-grading,” a Systems use the site better than seedlings by providing more water and nutrients to the shelterwood method, practice that leaves a A stand is the plant. Although sprout origin or 3) the seed tree high proportion of even-age if the method; and for uneven- stands grow faster, they generally culls and less desir- age difference age systems: 4) the single decline after several successive able species to between the tree selection method, youngest and harvests. This decline in a coppice occupy the forest. and 5) the group selection oldest trees is forest is due to decreasing vigor of method. Diameter-limit cutting less than 20 the aged root system. Estimates Caution: The is not a recom- percent of the show 60-70 percent of Tennessee’s popular practice of mended silvicultural length of the current hardwood forests are of selecting trees based practice. The harvest- rotation. For sprout or coppice origin. Regenera- solely on diameter or ing of only the best example, an tion densities as high as 30,000 seedlings per acre have been pro- quality is “high-grading,” a trees continues to even-age stand duced in hardwood clearcuts de- practice that leaves a high cause considerable managed on a proportion of culls and signed for natural hardwood regen- damage to 50-year rotation less desirable species to eration. Tennessee’s forests. can have no trees occupy the forest. Diam- more than 10 Clearcuts may range greatly eter-limit cutting is not a years younger in size. Preferably, clearcuts should recommended silvicultural than the oldest trees. The upper be no larger than 50 acres, and of practice. The harvesting of only the canopy of the forest is continuous in irregular shape, depending on terrain, best trees continues to cause consid- even-age stands, since trees are age of adjacent stands and nearness erable damage to Tennessee’s mostly of similar heights. Tree to streams. forests. diameters will differ within the stand, Tree planting has been used since competition among trees affects to restore a forest and to improve diameter. However, diameter distribu- egeneration competition, stocking and desired tion of these stands has a normal bell R densities as high genetics. shape curve (Figure 1), with many as 30,000 seedlings A common mistake in forest trees close to average diameter, and per acre have been regeneration is to plant trees on poor, few trees of larger or smaller diam- cut-over sites, with inappropriate eters. Existing forest stands may produced in hardwood species and without control of com- exhibit even-age conditions from their clearcuts designed for peting brush and weeds. Selecting diameter distribution and pattern of natural hardwood suitable sites, getting good planting the forest canopy. regeneration. stock of improved genetic quality and Methods used to produce controlling competition are critical even-age forest stands include factors that determine plantation clearcuts, shelterwood cuts and seed success. tree cuts. Hardwoods have not been Clearcuts — All trees 1-inch planted as widely as pine. Hardwoods diameter at breast height (DBH) and usually demand better sites and are greater are cut or deadened. This not well-suited for many marginal old

9 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Shelterwood cuts — are forests have been cut on a diameter bution make the method difficult to designed to provide shelter for the or “size-selection” limit where only the administer and practice. regeneration. In the shelterwood largest and best trees are removed, There are two uneven-age method, all but 20 to 50 trees per diameter-limit cuts are not an ap- silviculture methods used to regulate acre in the initial harvest are re- proved forest management practices. a forest, 1) single tree selection and moved. The number of trees left Diameter-limit cuts usually are 2) group selection. depends on advance regeneration destructive, and should be avoided in Single tree selection removes already present, species desired and hardwood forests. “High-graded” trees from all diameter classes. size of trees left as the shelter. stands must be either brought back Single tree selection silviculture A shelterwood cut requires a into the manageable units slowly with produces a stand with many small second harvest after the new stand uneven-age silviculture, or completely trees and a decreasing number of has been established. The second regenerated with even-age silvicul- trees in each larger diameter class. harvest removes shelter trees and ture. This process requires periodic releases the newly established stand, An uneven-age forest is a harvests and requires detailed creating an even-age stand. Species forest of high diversity. An uneven- recordkeeping and patience. Most that regenerate well in a shelterwood age forest managed under selection hardwood species can be managed generally are intermediate in shade silviculture will eventually have trees under this method, but those trees tolerance (Table 2). of many ages, species and sizes. An tolerant to shade will tend to be Seed tree cuts — Regenera- uneven-age forest is relatively stable, regenerated in the understory (Table tion with a seed tree cut requires the with small likelihood of forest stress 2). manager to leave six to 15 evenly- and disease eliminating the entire Group selection produces a spaced trees per acre. These “seed stand. Uneven-age forests produce forest of many small stands. Group trees” produce seed and regenerate an upper canopy that is irregular, with selection develops a matrix of even- the new stand. After establishment of trees of significant height differences age groups scattered throughout the the new stand, the seed trees must (Figure 1). Tree diameters also will forest. In group selection, harvested be removed or deadened. This differ greatly, so the stand will contain areas of groups of trees create 0.1- to method is useful to regenerate light- many trees of very small diameters 1.5-acre openings. The diameters of seeded species that are intolerant to and fewer trees of the larger diam- individual openings should not be shade, such as yellow poplar and eters. The diameter distribution for more than two to three times the pine. uneven-age stands illustrated in heights of adjoining trees. These Figure 1 is a guideline for creating openings, or groups, regenerate to Uneven-Age Systems and maintaining a forest of all age intolerant species, producing a forest Uneven-age silvicultural classes. of many different-age stands. Group systems, sometimes referred to as Conceptually, uneven-age selection relies on maintaining an selection systems, originally devel- silviculture is a highly desirable uneven-age forest by creating many oped in Switzerland as a way to method of forest management, as it small even-age stands. rehabilitate hardwood stands that had could provide a sustained yield of There are pros and cons to been harvested too heavily. Similarly, wood from a small forest tract. uneven-age selection silviculture. many hardwood forests in the East- However, the intense recordkeeping Table 3 lists the advantages and ern United States have been heavily and periodic harvests required to disadvantages of producing an cut. Although many of Tennessee’s maintain the desired diameter distri- uneven-age forest.

10 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE TABLE 3: Selection silviculture for uneven-age management has advantages and disadvantages. Listed below are a few items to consider. Item Advantages Disadvantages

Structure Crowns of all sized trees, Shade prevents regeneration of intolerant species of many ages produce a such as oak, ash, cherry, walnut, and poplar. layered canopy good for wildlife.

Regeneration Maintains high level of young Prevents growth and regeneration of hardwoods trees at all times. that are more valuable for lumber.

Volume Spreads wood production Must be regulated on a volume basis alone. to trees of all sizes.

Size of tract Suited for small hardwood Difficult to regulate on hardwood tracts greater woodlot management less than 50 acres. than 50 acres.

Quality of timber Produces greater variety Reduces annual production of high quality saw- timber, increases volume of small trees that may not be salable.

Sustained harvest Allows owners to select Requires detailed inventory of all trees more trees for harvest more than 2 inches in diameter. frequently.

Record keeping Accurate records for Requires detailed inventory of all trees more than appraisal and future decision 2 inches in diameter. making always available.

Composition Produces communities Leads to eventual change in forest composition desirable for a wide variety to tolerant trees that are less commercially of wildlife species. valuable in terms of timber.

Age distribution Develops stands with trees Difficult to judge annual growth rates and of many ages. production of many ages.

Diversity Selection produces stands Produces stands that are more complex, and with more species, ages, so more difficult to harvest and maintain. tree sizes and canopy levels.

Economics Spreads cash income on a Not considered economical for hardwood man- more continuous cycle. agement because of difficulty in record keeping and significant losses in high value sawtimber volumes.

11 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Importance of Forest Site result in different mixtures of hard- be helpful for forestry. For example, A forest site includes the soil and the woods occurring on a ridge versus terraces, cover crops, fertilizer and landscape it occupies, the vegetation those found in bottomlands. liming residues improve a poor soil, it supports and the atmosphere. The However, soil is only one ingredi- increasing site capability for growing success of any forestry activity is ent of a forest site. When making high-quality trees. heavily dependent on site conditions. management decisions such as Forest soils of Tennessee range from choice of species, method of regen- Timber very productive to problem soils eration, use of herbicides or site incapable of producing commercial preparation, each characteristic of the Harvesting timber. Consequently, every forest site should be considered. Some activity planned for a given area must other important characteristics are: Guidelines be geared to the capability of the site. Aspect - The direction a slope Careful planning of timber This is essential in making wise faces affects soil moisture and harvesting operations can help management decisions. temperature. Aspect plays a key role assure timber regeneration and Forest soils provide trees with in site productivity. growth, enhance wildlife habitat, nutrients, oxygen (for root growth), Slope position - Slope position protect the soil from erosion, preserve water and physical support. The affects the degree of exposure to the visual values and reduce manage- capability of a soil to produce a sun and the quality of the soil. ment costs. When possible, enlist the commercially valuable forest dimin- Steeper slopes are more prone to help of a professional forester who is ishes when one or more of these erode and require special care during experienced in forest management items becomes limiting. Soil series road building and harvesting. Soil and conducting timber sales. Con- refers to various types of soils. It is moisture concentrates at lower slope sider the following factors before helpful to know in which series a soil positions. conducting a timber sale: belongs. However, forest productivity Elevation - Tree species some- Assure timber regeneration by tree species often varies within a times grow within a range of eleva- and growth: When regeneration of series. Your local Soil Conservation tions. Some species will not grow timber is necessary, choose a har- Service officer or your county Exten- above certain elevations, while other vesting system that will create sion agent can help identify the species may thrive there. conditions necessary for regenerating particular soil series for a given area. Climate - This is the result of desired species. A preharvest assess- An “ideal” soil for growing trees in geographic location and helps to ment is necessary to design a Tennessee might be: determine the natural range of a regeneration method that will ad- Deep - At least 4 feet to bedrock species. It is usually not wise to plant equately reforest the site and meet Fertile - Contains ample quanti- a species too far out of its natural landowner management objectives. ties of organic matter, nitrogen, range. With proper planning, timber phosphorus, potassium, calcium and In addition to the soil and the harvests can create excellent “new” other essential elements above-ground environment, a study wildlife habitat. Distribution of cuts Well-drained - Not having a of the past land use plays an impor- may also reduce the visual impact of water table within the root zone at tant part in forest site evaluations. If harvesting operations. Trees can be any time during the growing season the area was once in agriculture, then harvested and regenerated from and never for more than a few days one might consider the effects of some areas, while leaving some of during the dormant season. farming on the site. The erosion of the forest land area undisturbed. Friable - Nearly equal portions of many abandoned old fields may have Enhance wildlife habitat: sand, silt and clay in loose aggrega- partially depleted the nutrients in the Manipulation of forest vegetation is a tions with good tilth. soil. Planted trees, especially most key to regulating and enhancing Most soils in Tennessee have hardwoods, often grow poorly under forest wildlife habitat. The basic some qualities of an “ideal” soil. such conditions. Recently abandoned components of wildlife habitat - food, There are many tree species that fields may support a heavy sod cover cover, water and space - must be thrive in Tennessee soils, with each that can prevent the rapid develop- made available if favored species are species having its own special soil ment of planted trees. to flourish, and must be provided requirements. Variable soil types also Yet, past land use also can

12 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE during every season. Habitat diversity still achieve landowners’ timber, can be achieved by creating stands of BMPs wildlife and other forest management several age classes, ranging from Prevent soil erosion and objectives. seedlings and sprouts to mature water pollution: If improperly con- Tennessee’s predominantly trees. Therefore, unproductive ducted, logging operations may hardwood forests have a surprisingly woodlands can be transformed into degrade forest sites through erosion natural ability to regenerate them- productive wildlife habitat by conduct- and cause sedimentation of streams selves rapidly. Areas completely ing timber harvesting at regular and lakes. However, just cutting trees cleared of trees in spring will be intervals. does not cause erosion in the forest. covered with green plants by fall. In Openings created by regen- Most erosion is caused by activities five years, the same area will be eration cuttings furnish browse, associated with removing timber from blanketed with trees 10-20 feet tall. forage and breeding areas for deer, the woods. These include such Therefore, although recently-har- while nesting areas, seed-producing activities as construction and use of vested, wooded areas are changed in plants, soft mast and insects are access roads, skid trails and log appearance, rapid regrowth begins provided for turkey, quail, small landings. Such activities remove the softening and improving the visual mammals, many songbirds and other protective organic litter layer from the quality of such areas almost immedi- non-game species. surface and loosen soil, making it ately. Such areas will produce a Small groups of trees may be vulnerable to erosion. beautiful and vigorous new forest left uncut in opened areas to provide Best management practices within the space of a few years. cover and food for wildlife which use (BMPs) were developed to reduce or Preservation of visual values, the area. Snags and live trees may prevent erosion caused by forestry like every other aspect of forest also be left standing as perches for operations. Conscientious use of management, requires careful hawks and for use by cavity-nesting forestry BMPs can prevent most planning. The following examples of birds. Leaving large woody debris at erosion and nonpoint source pollution visual management can be employed some locations provides additional of streams and lakes caused by to ensure that landowners preserve habitat for both large and small fauna. forestry activities in the woods. the beauty of their wooded acres, Pole-size timber affords escape and BMPs, for protection of water quality, while practicing sound timber and protective cover, as well as nesting should be incorporated in timber sale wildlife management. habitat for many bird species. contracts and implemented during Examples inclide: Mature timber not only and after harvest operations. • limit and vary the size of timber provides cover for forest wildlife and Preserve visual values: Many harvest areas, songbirds, but also produces most of landowners avoid managing their • shape harvest areas to conform to the high-energy foods found in the forest land because they fear the natural landform, forest. These include acorns, hickory results will “look bad.” In many cases, • disperse harvest areas throughout nuts, walnuts and other hard mast forestry operations sometimes do the forest area, that feed deer, turkey, squirrels and look bad due to poor planning or • leave a 1/10 to one-acre patch of many other animals during the winter. thoughtless timber harvesting. trees in open areas for wildlife Water holes or ponds should Although cutting even one tree looks cover and food and to soften the be provided every one-quarter mile “bad” to some people, there are many appearance of harvest areas, for use by wildlife if water is not actions that can be taken to reduce • establish visual buffer zones already available in streams, ponds the visual impact of cutting trees and 50-100 feet wide between harvest or lakes.

13 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE areas and roads or field edges, cies. selectively harvest mature indi- As do all organisms, trees vidual trees within visual buffer grow to maturity and then decline in zones, growth and vigor before dying. Some • when thinning stands visible from species, such as black locust and roads or field edges, fell trees Virginia pine, reach maturity at a away from visible areas, or cut up relatively early age, usually less than visible logging debris to reduce 100 years. White oak, bald cypress visibility and speed-up and beech, on the other hand, are decomposition. relatively long-lived species and may live for up to three or four centuries. Forest Health and Protection The death of older trees usually Overall forest health is largely occurs as a result of increased dependent upon the type of manage- vulnerability to such factors as ment and protection applied. Forest competition from other trees, insect or vigor can be maintained by good disease attack, or ice and wind hus, to maintain planning and timely application of storms. Therefore, when income from T vigor and prevent management practices. Overall forest timber production is the goal, trees stagnation and de- protection is most economically should be harvested when they reach cline, overstocked financial maturity, but before they achieved through prevention of poor stands should be forest practices. begin to decline and die from natural Forest health: When consid- causes. thinned. Thinning will ering which trees to grow, select Growing trees on suitable remove slow-growing, species which are well suited for sites, maintaining the growth and poorly-formed trees growth on available sites. Otherwise, vigor of stands and harvesting timber to provide adequate when it matures are the basic man- the lack or abundance of water, growing space for nutrients and other factors may result agement principles that contribute to in unacceptable growth and develop- overall forest health. These principles well-formed trees of ment, premature decline and in- are always implied in recommenda- desirable species. creased vulnerability to insect and tions contained in a forest manage- disease attack. ment plan. In addition, periodic As trees grow, their crowns inspections of woodlands should be expand and additional food is manu- conducted to detect pest infestations, factured. Thus, to maintain vigor and storm and fire damage and any prevent stagnation and decline, abnormal condition of stands, as well overstocked stands should be as instances of boundary and timber thinned. Thinning will remove trespass. slow-growing, poorly-formed trees to Forest protection: Managed provide adequate growing space for forests require protection from well-formed trees of desirable spe- uncontrolled fire, destructive insects,

14 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE diseases, animal pests and the potential effects of the weather. Best Management Practices (BMPs) When managing southern for Forestry Activities in Tennessee pines, fire may be used as an effec- tive and economical tool for reducing Practice: Forest Access Roads the hazard of dangerous wildfires, 1. Locate roads as high above and away from streams and lakes as possible. When clearing land for reforestation and possible, locate roads near the crests of ridges on the side slopes to assure proper improving wildlife habitat. When drainage. managing hardwoods and white pine, 2. Establish streamside management zones at least 25 feet wide between roads and however, fire cannot be used as a water courses, to protect stream banks and to trap sediment and other materials management tool. Due to the thin that may enter streams. 3. Avoid stream crossings. When necessary, cross at right angles to minimize bark of these species, fire causes disturbance to stream banks and channels. damage and degrade to standing 4. Construct roads on gradients ranging from 3-10 percent. trees through stains, rots and insect 5. Drain water off roads as soon as possible, using outsloping, crowning, ditching, pests. water bars, rolling dips and culverts as may be appropriate and practical. The Tennessee Division of 6. Avoid or minimize use of roads during wet weather. Forestry furnishes effective wildfire 7. Revegetate cuts, fills and road surfaces as soon as practical to stabilize disturbed detection and control throughout the areas. state. However, forest landowners 8. When logging activity has ceased, retire roads by reshaping and restoring all should assess the potential hazards drainage structures. Revegetate disturbed areas. Close roads to traffic, especially during wet weather. for wildfire on their property and take steps to prevent them. Such mea- Practice: Forest Products Harvesting sures may include building fire lanes 1. Locate log landings on level ground well away from streams or major drains. next to roads and railroads, maintain- 2. Skid trail gradients should not exceed 10 percent except for short distances. ing favorable relations with neighbors 3. Never use drains or stream courses as skid trails. and exercising care when burning 4. Establish streamside management zones at least 25 feet wide next to streams and trash and brush. major drains. Do not allow skidders and other equipment to operate inside stream- Other measures landowners side management zones. should take to protect woodlands 5. Construct water bars on skid trails, and revegetate disturbed areas as soon as from damage and prevent timber loss possible after logging operations cease. include: • inspecting woodlands at least once Practice: Mechanical Site Preparation for Reforestation a year for evidence of damage by 1. Choose a site preparation method that will expose and disturb as little bare soil as insects, diseases, animals, wildfire or possible. 2. Establish streamside management zones between site prepared areas and stream storms courses to prevent disturbance of stream banks and to prevent sediment and • salvaging damaged or infested organic debris from reaching streams. timber promptly to reduce losses and 3. Operate site preparation equipment along the contour of the land to reduce soil prevent infestation or spread of movement. disease or insect pests 4. Locate windrows well away from drains and along the contour of the land. • taking prompt action to control destructive animals, such as beavers, Practice: Pesticide Use to prevent additional damage to trees 1. Choose pesticides suitable for use on target species and registered for intended by girdling and flooding. use. • thinning stands to reduce the risk of 2. Before using a chemical, be sure that atmospheric conditions allow a maximum insect and disease infestation and amount of chemical to reach the target species. 3. Never apply pesticides directly to water. damage caused by ice, snow or wind 4. Maintain buffer strips to avoid drift or accidental application of chemicals. storms. Practice: Livestock Exclusion 1. Exclude livestock from woodlands to prevent erosion and to protect site productiv- ity and timber growth. 2. Fence off small areas of shade along the woodland for animals to use as shelter. Plant groves of trees for livestock shelter on flat or gently sloping land.

15 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Silvicultural Practices for Major Forest Types in Tennessee

OAK - HICKORY From the 1850s to the early 1900s, elm, beech, hickory, dogwood, heavy logging, grazing and wild fires hornbeam and sourwood; as well as Type description significantly disturbed Tennessee’s many shrubs, are much more tolerant forests. These practices promoted a of shade. These species not only Every physiographic region forest understory of vigorous sprout- reproduce readily under shade, either and nearly every county in the state ing species. In the 1930s, the chest- from seed or seedling sprouts, but will has oak-hickory type forests. Nearly nut blight eliminated the American exist for long periods under a rela- three-fourths of Tennessee’s forests chestnut from the Tennessee forests. tively dense canopy. When released, consist of oak-hickory stands. There- This tragic event allowed for oaks and they grow rapidly and may occupy a fore, management of this forest type hickories to further develop. Oaks considerable proportion of the new is a matter of concern to a large and hickories have somewhat thicker stand. These commercially less number of the state’s 250,000 bark and were able to survive some desirable species must be controlled landowners. of the ravages of the wild fires. When before the stand can be successfully Some species of oak, particu- intensive fire control programs began regenerated to desirable species. larly white, northern red and black, in the 1950s, the surviving oaks and This may be very expensive. Control are prevalent throughout the state. hickories thrived. These species were methods available include the use of These species become predominant able to mature and grow into our prescribed fire, mechanical girdling or and attain peak development on current forests. complete stem removal. Chemical moist sites. Such areas include the control via stem injection or ground lower mountain slopes and coves in Harvesting, Regeneration spot treatments is also an effective the east and the bottoms and river and Cultural Methods method. terraces in the middle and western Oaks and hickories are portions of the state. In the mountain- Factors that contributed to the prominence of the oak-hickory sporadic seed producers. Unless ous eastern areas, chestnut and conditions are ideal, very few oak scarlet oaks are more common in forest (wildfire, grazing, heavy logging) have been reduced in seedlings will become established mixtures with those mentioned above. under a dense forest canopy. Inad- They are the principal species on modern times. This reduction, plus a successional process that favors equate light and moisture conditions poorer sites—dry upper slopes, ridge retard the growth of new seedlings. tops and dry upland flats. In the west, more shade-tolerant species, have left the forest manager with a difficult Following overstory removal, seed- post, blackjack and southern red oaks lings that do survive have difficulty are more likely to occupy the poorer challenge in regenerating oaks and hickories. competing with less desirable but sites. more rapidly growing seedlings and Hickories are a consistent Harvesting in an oak-hickory forest and consequent regeneration sprouts of other species. Oak-hickory part of the oak-hickory type, although seedlings must stay in a dominant not to the same extent as oaks. are inseparably linked. There are certain species characteristics and position in the understory if they are Principal species are shagbark, to survive. Recent studies have pignut, mockernut and bitternut. site requirements that must be met before such a stand successfully shown that by eliminating the mid- Depending upon site quality, topogra- story, some oaks—especially white phy and climate, one may also find regenerates and perpetuates itself as an oak-hickory type. oaks—will become established and ash, blackgum, yellow-poplar, elm achieve a dominant position in the and various maples scattered Most commercially valuable species that generally occur in the understory, thus preparing them- throughout these stands. Sassafras, selves as advanced regeneration. black cherry, black locust, black oak-hickory forest are intolerant or moderately tolerant of shade. These Disturbances in the forest, walnut, persimmon and a variety of such as fire, drought and harvesting, other hardwoods grow here as well. species require nearly full sunlight for successful regeneration and survival create opportunities for oak regenera- Oak-hickory forests are tion to advance. Such disturbances present today primarily because of necessary to establish a new stand. On the other hand, less valuable may kill or reduce other competing past land use practices, the incidence vegetation and allow more light into of chestnut blight and fire protection. species such as maple, blackgum,

16 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE the understory. These disturbances the oak-hickory forest, these species When making a regeneration are usually not fatal to oaks, but top best reproduce and grow as even- opening in the forest, attention should dieback followed by resprouting of the age groups or stands. be given to the amount and type of seedlings may occur. Single-tree selection has not vegetation left standing. Remove or Stump sprouts survive in been used successfully as a silvicul- kill all non-merchantable overstory greater numbers than do seedlings. A tural system for maintaining oaks. trees and undesirable understory mature root system from a former Some oak regeneration will become plants greater than 2 inches in tree nurtures the young succulent established and persist for long diameter. Undesirable untreated sprout. This makes the sprout a periods under selection cutting. plants will impede regeneration hearty competitor and places it in a However, it will not develop satisfac- growth and could occupy a main part much better position to become a torily under a uniform canopy, even at of the new forest. dominant member of the new forest. a one-third stocking level. The result Where sufficient advance Stump sprouts generally are more will be the change of the oak-hickory reproduction of oaks is absent, vigorous than seedlings. Through the stand into one dominated by shade- clearcutting precludes oaks and sprouting process, reproduction of tolerant and usually less commer- hickories from the stand. On medium these desirable species gradually cially valuable species, such as to poor sites, sprouts from the stumps increases in number and size, even beech and maple. of cut trees may provide an oak under moderate canopies. Advance Group selection is a satisfac- component in the new stand. reproduction should be at least 4 feet tory method of cutting for the propa- Clearcutting on good sites without tall and 1/2-inch in diameter at the gation of light-demanding and moder- adequate advance oak regeneration root collar at the time of overstory ately tolerant species such as oak. may result in the conversion of the harvest. This enables it, or sprouts The small, well-dispersed openings stand to more shade- intolerant starting from it, to compete success- thus created leave the forest with the species such as yellow-poplar, fully with other regeneration. Thus, general appearance of having a full sweetgum or black cherry. This may oak-hickory stands begin the regen- canopy. The size of the group cutting be desirable if is consistent with long- eration process before, not after, the has little effect on either the density term goals and the soil is sufficiently final harvest cut. Efforts to harvest or composition of the regeneration. fertile. and regenerate such stands without Resulting seedlings or sprouts will If advanced oak and hickory adequate advance regeneration grow more slowly toward the edges of regeneration is lacking, delay the final should not be attempted. the opening as a result of competition harvest cut. Manipulate the stand In much of the area occupied from the adjoining canopy. Diameter through light cutting to promote new by oak-hickory forests, shade-tolerant of openings should be no more than growth. Control of the mid-story hardwoods are climax types. Site two to three times the heights of allows the oak reproduction an quality, location, other species adjoining trees. The disadvantage of opportunity to become established. present and the response of these this harvesting method is largely Once this growth has reached species to conditions created by administrative and economic. The sufficient size and numbers, harvest cultural operations all affect the creation of many small stands of the tract. rapidity with which tolerant species varying age classes makes them Shelterwood cuttings may be replace the oaks and hickories. If the difficult to identify and treat in later useful in encouraging advanced oak management goal is to perpetuate cultural and harvesting operations. reproduction. Conduct at least two

17 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE cuttings over a five to 10-year interval harvests depend upon the age and to establish a new stand of oak. A condition of the stand. Utilize the good seed production year and cultural practices of weeding, clean- proper balance of light is important in ing, release, salvage, thinning and establishing advanced oak reproduc- timber stand improvement. These tion under the shelterwood method. practices allow reduction of competi- Control of tolerant midstory canopies tion, improved stand vigor, improved insures proper oak-hickory regenera- composition, control of tree spacing tion and growth. A good method of and maintenance or improvement of control is treatment with herbicides. growth rate. Thinning throughout the The shelterwood system may have rotation also increases crown diam- utility where aesthetics are of prime eter, which may result in greater mast importance, but it has no advantage production for wildlife food. over clearcutting when adequate oak Insects and diseases have regeneration exists prior to harvest. little effect upon the choice of silvicul- The seed-tree cutting method tural systems for use in the oak- has little value in regenerating oak hickory forest. No practical control stands. The heavy seeds are poorly measures exist for either defoliating distributed, and the slow-growing insects or oak fungal pathogens. seedlings are rapidly over-topped by However, because healthy, vigorous other vegetation. Additionally, oaks stands are less susceptible to infesta- have very sporadic acorn production. tion, you can lessen insect and Seed trees might reduce the aes- disease outbreaks through judiciously thetic impact of heavy cuttings and applied improvement cuttings and provide some mast for wildlife. To salvage of infested material. better achieve these goals, restrict Cattle and hardwood forests the size and alter the shape of are not compatible. Cattle eat, clearcut areas, and retain stands of trample and otherwise destroy mast-producing species along the advance regeneration that is essen- borders of adjacent stands. tial to the propagation of oak-hickory Regardless of the harvesting forests. Soils become compacted. If method used, and the time between cattle need forest stands for shelter, a the regeneration of a stand and its small area should be fenced off for later harvest, periodic intermediate their use. cuts should be made. Intermediate

18 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE ownership desires within the limits of mechanical site preparation. OAK - PINE site capability. These forests, due to Most even-age systems of their transitory nature, are seldom regeneration—clear cutting, Type Description managed to perpetuate the type. shelterwood and seed tree—have Rather, they are usually managed been used successfully. However, the The oak-pine forest is the either to hasten their transition into a most effective method of re-establish- second most extensive forest type in climax hardwood forest, or to reverse ing pine has been clear cutting with Tennessee. It is largely a mountain normal trends and re-establish pines intensive hardwood control, and site type, mostly found from the as the dominant species. preparation followed by planting or Cumberland Plateau eastward. On moderate-to-poor sites, direct seeding of the desired species. These forests are transitional generally ridge tops, upland flats with This method allows the landowner to in nature, falling somewhere between shallow soils, and south and west control both species composition and the pioneer southern pine types and slopes, the objective of management density. It also provides the opportu- the climax upland-hardwoods or oak- in oak-pine stand is generally to nity of replacing a species with a hickory type on the successional increase pine at the expense of the more desirable one in particular scale. More than half of the trees in hardwood component. Pine is usually problem areas, e.g., the replacement the oak-pine forests are hardwoods, favored over hardwood here because of natural shortleaf pine with loblolly principally upland oaks, with various it generally produces greater yields pine in areas of disease susceptibility, upland yellow pines—loblolly, short- and faster rates of growth. Pine will or the substitution of shortleaf pine leaf and Virginia—accounting for grow satisfactorily and will produce with loblolly pine in the northern between 25 and 49 percent of the profitable volumes even on shallow or sectors of the range where ice and total number of stems. The principal eroded soils. snow damage is prevalent. oaks are white, northern red, scarlet, Most upland yellow pines are Clearcutting and planting will prob- black, chestnut and southern red, shade intolerant, and therefore ably become more economically depending upon location and site. require an even-age management feasible as genetically-improved Associated hardwoods might be system for successful regeneration. strains of pine and hardwoods, with hickory, yellow-poplar, sweet or black Also, more valuable hardwoods in the greater growth potential and more gum, maples and ashes, combined oak-pine type, such as yellow-poplar resistance to insects and disease, with such understory species as and northern red oak, are relatively become more readily available. dogwood, redbud and sourwood. intolerant, and regenerate best under Natural pine regeneration silvicultural systems that produce may sometimes be obtained under Harvesting, Regeneration even-age stands. To obtain maximum even-age management without and Cultural Methods stocking of commercially valuable planting or seeding. These tech- The silvicultural system and species in future stands, harvest niques will generally result in the harvesting method used in the cuttings must be followed by vigorous regeneration of another oak-pine management of oak-pine forests methods of species control, such as stand, which may or may not be in depend largely upon site quality and prescribed fire, use of herbicides or

19 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE harmony with ownership goals and desirable on the better sites— optimum land use. Natural pine bottomlands, coves and moist slopes regeneration will depend largely upon with a north and east exposure— the number of seed-producing stems where site quality permits rapid in the existing stand, the timing of the growth of higher value hardwood cut, site preparation and hardwood species. control. If the cut can be timed to The method of accomplishing coincide with a good seed crop, and this transition is simple. By cutting adequate site preparation is carried mature pines heavily and hardwoods out, sufficient natural regeneration lightly, and exercising little or no may be obtained to maintain the hardwood control, the stand will be existing pine/hardwood ratio, or even transformed into an all-hardwood increase the pine component. How stand on good sites. The advance much of this regeneration will survive regeneration present in the stand and establish itself in the new stand is prior to the cut will determine, to a directly related to the amount of large extent, the species composition hardwood competition control exer- of emerging stands. cised early in stand development. Before converting an oak- Without this control on good soil, new pine stand to pine, even on the pine seedlings will be rapidly over- poorest site, the landowner should topped by fast-growing hardwood consider the effects such a step will seedlings and sprouts. On poor ridge have on surrounding areas and tops, loblolly will outgrow hardwood wildlife. If the landowner is largely seedling/sprouts without any treat- interested in maintaining or increas- ment. ing wildlife populations versus An oak-pine stand, if undis- commercial timber production, turbed, naturally develops into an existing oak-pine stands may prove oak-hickory, upland hardwood or more valuable for wildlife habitat than cove hardwood stand. Losses of would pure pine stands. pines due to storms, insects, dis- It is recommended, however, eases or fire will create openings in that many upland drainages and the forest canopy. These openings streamside management zones not are quickly occupied by oaks and be cleared and planted to pine, but be other hardwoods already present in either lightly cut or left undisturbed. the understory. This natural process These “natural” areas will add diver- may be accelerated by applying sity to the site and create numerous silvicultural techniques which dis- edges or transition zones, enhancing criminate against the pines and favor wildlife habitat. hardwoods. This is particularly

20 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Cottonwood stands will BOTTOMLAND reduce stocking naturally in the early HARDWOODS years without stagnation. In mixed Bottomland hardwood forests stands, cottonwood usually domi- are wetlands. These sites require the nates in eight or 10 years. Cotton- most sensitive silvicultural treatments. wood matures in about 45 years, Because of the high productivity of while willow stands begin to decline these lands, forest management in after 35 or 40 years. bottomland hardwood offers a wide Cottonwood is usually array of options to the forest land succeeded by a mixture of sycamore, ne of the owner. sweetgum, sweet pecan, hackberry, elm and other riverfront hardwood O major Type Description species. Intolerant species like consider- sweetgum occur in large openings. Bottomland hardwood types ations in Willow breaks which are higher and occur on alluvial soils which are often better drained eventually give way to managing subject to flooding and overflow. Over a combination of hackberry, soft elm, the years, flood-prone areas continue bottomland green ash, Nuttall oak, silver maple, to change soil texture and land honeylocust and river birch. On wide hardwoods is elevation due to siltation and soil open sites, sweetgum and pin oak to avoid dis- deposition from flooding. often take over as the secondary Bottomland hardwood tracts ruption of the type. As soils build, age and become support some of the best wildlife more acid, sweetgum and the red natural water habitat and produce some of the most oaks such as water, willow, Shumard valuable veneer and sawlogs in flow pattern. and cherrybark will predominate. The Tennessee. The major river bottoms older types of the bottomland forest of the state contain the largest and usually include various red and white more productive bottomland tracts. oaks with sweet pecan and hickories. Pioneer bottomland hard- Old river channels, which do wood types are cottonwood and black not completely fill with sediment, will willow, and both occur in pure, even- seed with bald cypress or tupelo gum. Establishment of these channels takes a long time because seed and ottomland hard water conditions must be just right for seeding to occur. B wood tracts support some of the Harvesting, Regeneration best wildlife habitat and Cultural Methods and produce some of Bottomland hardwood the most valuable management and regeneration veneer and sawlogs depend upon the timber types, age in Tennessee. and state of succession, past cutting practices, size and type of ownership and the owner’s goals. One of the age stands. Cottonwood usually major considerations in managing seeds in on the higher areas of bar bottomland hardwoods is to avoid and island formations, usually the disruption of the natural water flow upstream and streamfront areas with pattern. Fortunately, forestry practices lighter, coarser-textured soils. Willow best suited in maintaining hydrologic tends to regenerate on the back side cycles also produce abundant wildlife and downstream toe of islands and habitat. bars.

21 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Adequate hardwood regen- species for sawlog production in- eration usually will not occur where clude: cottonwood, sycamore, soil water tables have been altered sweetgum, sweet pecan, green ash, and where soil degradation has cherrybark oak, Nuttall oak, willow occurred. Water tables raised by oak, white oak, cow oak, black catch basins, hydrologic dams and walnut, yellow-poplar and bald blocked or altered stream channels cypress. are usually associated with road The landowner should construction, beaver dams or care- consider the existing competition prior less logging. Lowered water tables to harvest of a bottomland hardwood rowth in many exist caused by stream channelization may forest. A jungle of undesirable tree G ing unmanaged also affect species composition, species, vines, briars and annuals natural bottomland stands regeneration and growth. Altered often results after the harvest of a water tables can cause reversion of a bottomland forest. However, in may only be 40 board feet bottomland site to a less desirable judging the success of a regeneration per acre or more per year. timber type or to a nontimber vegeta- cut, one must show patience. After 10 Managed hardwood tion. to 15 years, intolerant species begin stands should develop Stand conditions downstream to express dominance. In alluvial and maintain a base vol- from major water impoundments bottoms these intolerant species generally show decline, butt rot of include green ash, cherrybark oak, ume of 4000 board feet mature timber and wind throw. yellow-poplar, sycamore, river birch per acre. A 7 to 8 percent Uniform stream flow and prolonged and eastern cottonwood. For muck annual growth (280 board flooding which maintain a high water swamps, the preferred species feet per acre per year) is table may result in decline of the include swamp black gum, tupelo possible in well-stocked, stand. This situation differs from the gum, bald cypress and green ash. natural ebb and flow of water from Growth in many existing managed stands. streams without impeded drainage unmanaged natural bottomland patterns. stands may only be 40 board feet per Managing mixed hardwood acre or more per year. Managed forests is complicated. Before choos- hardwood stands should develop and ing a harvesting plan, landowners maintain a base volume of 4000 should perform a comprehensive board feet per acre. A 7 to 8 percent survey of the site conditions and annual growth (280 board feet per stand composition. Research and acre per year) is possible in well- experience have shown that bottom- stocked, managed stands. land hardwood stands with less than Research shows large 20, 40 and 60 square feet per acre of responses in growth in bottomland basal area of wood, at ages 20, 30 hardwoods when stocking levels are and 40 years respectively, are adjusted early in stand development. potential candidates for a regenera- Releasing a young stand tion-type harvest. The information should be adequate to allow tree needed for regeneration for each crowns enough room to develop stand includes: 1) condition and size - during the cutting cycle. On good distribution of the overstory trees for sites, stands should be cut back to each species, 2) quantity of all about 80 square feet of basal area understory tree species, 3) amount per acre. and type of competing vegetation, Scarification caused by and 4) seed crop and seed bed normal logging operations in open- conditions. ings is usually helpful in bottomland Silviculture of mixed bottom- hardwood regeneration. As seedlings land hardwoods favors certain develop in the openings, they must species over others for sawlog be released by removing trees in production because of form, quality, other areas. value and rate of growth. Preferred 22 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE This publication considers Landowners may reforest temporary fills for haul roads across well-stocked and well-managed bottomland hardwood sites success- dry drains and sloughs when no stands. However, throughout many fully by artificial regeneration. Both longer in use. Culverts and bridges Tennessee river bottoms, woodlands planting seedlings and direct seeding should be used in water-filled sloughs have been exploited and misman- are options for reforestation work. and bayous to prevent blocked aged, becoming fully stocked with One key to planting hard- drainage. Drains and sloughs blocked saplings and poles of undesirable woods is matching the species to the by natural siltation during overflow species. Many bottomlands are site. Landowners should evaluate the should be kept open, if possible, to literally a jungle of weeds and vines, drainage patterns, flood hazards and prevent water-killed timber. Ditching with a scattered overstory of over- soil types before planting a hardwood may require government permits to mature cull trees. If there are ad- species. dispose of dredged material. equate numbers of saplings or small Cattle and hog grazing are Control beaver populations poles of preferred species in the not compatible with growth and where they cause or contribute to stand to produce future crop trees regeneration of mixed hardwoods. flooding and timber mortality. Trap- (30-40 per acre), then Landowners should also ping is the best way to control beaver removal of undesir- prevent livestock grazing populations. Continuous trapping may able trees should be from damaging hard- be necessary to control populations. the first corrective rapping is wood timberlands. Wildlife managers rate step. If crop trees are Bottomland sites are not bottomland forests as prime habitat. sparse, later selection T the best conducive to excessive Bottomland hardwoods have a higher cuts may be delayed way to control soil erosion. However, deer-carrying capacity than any other or widely spaced in beaver popula- extensive areas of forest type in the South and perhaps time. If adequate tions. hardwood forest have in the nation. Research has shown numbers of potential sustained damage and carrying capacity of one deer per 10- crop trees are not heavy mortality from 12 acres in many bottomlands. This present, and timber blocked drainages and compares with one deer per 18-20 production is the primary goal of silt deposits from upland sites. acres in upland mixed hardwoods, ownership, then clearcutting may be Landowners should take and one deer per 25-30 acres in the necessary. Remove all trees greater precautions to prevent blockages in oak-pine type. Similarly, turkey, than 2 inches in diameter. If a seed the natural drains of bottomland soils. squirrel and rabbit habitat in bottom- tree of a preferred species is avail- Keep clearings for log loading sites land hardwoods is equal to or supe- able in the area and seeded condi- as small as possible. Where planta- rior to other forest types in Tennes- tions can be created by exposure of tions are established on river banks, see. mineral soil, an excellent stand may maintain uncut strips of timber on the Finally, bottomlands make a be obtained. However, newly estab- river bank. Leave filter strips along great contribution to the welfare of lished regeneration obtained must sloughs and bayous when clearing for waterfowl, especially mallards and compete with vines and weeds, and plantations. Keep permanent wood ducks. Both species are acorn therefore is often slow to emerge as a riverbank log-loading sites in ground feeders, and thus find the frequently visible stand. cover when not in use. Remove

23 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE flooded bottomlands with abundant They are typically found on northerly oak species perfectly suited to their and easterly aspects, lower and needs. In these environs, waterfowl middle slopes, coves and ravines, also feed on invertebrates found on and valley floors. Stands are charac- the underside of dead leaves for terized by a large number of domi- needed protein. The importance of nant and sub-dominant trees and by bottomland woodlands to the overall a great diversity of species. Species waterfowl picture is clear from study present in the stand and their propor- of both the Atlantic and Mississippi tions vary considerably due to past flyways. In both flyways the mallard treatment, natural stand disturbances and wood duck rank first and second, and sites of different quality, aspect, respectively, in the total duck harvest. elevation and latitude. Other less tangible benefits Cove hardwoods are highly are the aesthetic, recreational and productive and typically occupy good- ecological roles that bottomland to-excellent sites. Soils are fairly forests play. Forests along the deep, medium-textured and well- drainages slow and hold water in time drained. Annual precipitation is well of flooding, acting as a giant funnel distributed and ample, ranging from releasing water slowly when needed. 40 to 55 or more inches. On these Also, the forest has a profound effect rich sites, major species are long on the ground water supply by lived and attain very large sizes. modifying and slowing any abrupt A single species, such as changes. Still unknown is the com- northern red oak or yellow poplar, plete role of the bottomland forest in occasionally dominate a stand, but affecting local rainfall, humidity and typically 25 or more species will be related weather patterns. present. Important components are These intrinsic and ecological yellow-poplar, northern red and white values of the forested wetlands of oak, sugar and red maple, American Tennessee affect and improve the beech, white ash, American bass- quality of life for all Tennesseans. wood, black cherry, cucumbertree, sweet and yellow birches, hickories, yellow buckeye and black locust. Other species occur occasionally, COVE HARDWOODS including a few conifers such as eastern white pine and eastern hemlock. On good sites at higher Type Description elevations, the type merges in many Cove hardwoods occur most places with northern hardwood-black frequently in the Plateau and Eastern cherry mixtures. On drier situations regions of Tennessee between with shallow soils, the type gives way elevations of 500 and 4,000 feet. to oak-hickory.

24 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Harvesting, Regeneration lost. Depending on site, existing and Cultural Methods conditions and objectives, the proper Stand condition is probably time for cleaning is when the stand is the most significant consideration in about 10 years old. determining silvicultural needs, and 3. The intensity will vary with stands should be classified as a first conditions, but should follow the rule management step. These classifica- of doing as little as possible to meet the desired goal. Attention should be tions should reflect factors of dam- ellow-poplar is age, quality, density and age. The focused on selected crop trees and following are offered as examples of removing their competition. Over- among the condition classes: damaged topped stems should be ignored. fastest growing 4. A well-spaced stand of 100 Y poletimber, damaged sawtimber, species in cove sparse poletimber, sparse sawtimber, crop trees per acre, free-to-grow, is generally accepted as a desirable stands, but others low quality pole-timber, low-quality such as northern red sawtimber, mature poletimber, mature goal. sawtimber, immature poletimber, The principal cove hardwood oak and black oak do immature sawtimber, and seedlings species respond favorably to thinning, comparably well. and saplings. although response varies with Stand management in cove species, sites, residual density, tree hardwoods is complicated by the size, vigor and age. wide range of conditions present. The Yellow-poplar is among the many species associated with this fastest growing species in cove type range from intolerant to moder- stands, but others such as northern f the landowner’s ately shade tolerant. There also may red oak and black oak do comparably well. Intermediate in rate of growth objectives include be wide variations in site index. maximum produc- Recommended management are red maple, basswood and ash. I activities for cove hardwoods will White oak, chestnut oak, sweet birch tion of sawtimber, generally fall into one of two catego- and the hickories are among the management should ries: intermediate cutting or thinning, slow-growing species. stress diameter and and harvest cuts for regeneration. If the landowner’s objectives include maximum production of board foot growth of Cove hardwoods generally individual trees require intermediate cuts to produce sawtimber, management should large, high-quality trees. These cuts stress diameter and board foot rather than total will usually consist of either a clean- growth of individual trees rather than cubic foot growth ing or commercial thinning operation. total cubic foot growth within the within the stand. Cleaning takes place in seedling and stand. Cubic-foot growth, unlike sapling stands less than 20 years old diameter growth, increases with the during the period of rapid growth number of trees per acre. Thinning to when crown class differentiation is encourage growth of individual stems occurring and mortality is high. may reduce to some extent this Cleaning should include the following cubic-foot volume growth, but diam- considerations: eters of individual crop trees and 1. The goal is to select board foot volume growth of the stand preferred species, improve stem will be enhanced. Most unmanaged quality, shorten the rotation and stands in Tennessee are over- enhance wildlife habitat. stocked for optimum diameter growth 2. Timing is critical for of individual stems and board-foot success. If done too early, cleaning growth of the stand. will encourage sprouting, which may Thinning eliminates poor- overtop selected trees. If cleaning is quality trees and less desirable delayed, the opportunity for exerting a species, thus concentrating growth on lasting influence on the stand may be crop trees. There is, however, a potential danger of epicormic sprout-

25 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE ing, a natural reaction of many trees tends to encourage shade-tolerant sensitive locations, aesthetic objec- exposed to increased sunlight on species such as sugar maple, beech tions may limit clearcuts to small their boles, typically occurring follow- and hemlock. Thus, this system areas. ing logging where the remaining trees favors the economically less valuable, Although it is important to are exposed to increased sunlight. slower-growing tolerant species and follow Best Management Practices Many small branches develop below discriminates against more light- (BMPs) when planning harvest the crown, reducing the ability of the demanding species. activities on all forest types, it may be tree to produce grade lumber. In cove Group selection or patch most critical in cove hardwoods. Cove hardwood stands, susceptibility to cutting of small areas, one-half to one sites are characterized by deep soils epicormic sprouting varies with acre in size, permits the establish- and slopes that are often steep, with species, but is most prevalent on ment of light-demanding species such an increased risk of soil erosion. A trees under stress and low vigor. The as yellow-poplar and black cherry. well-planned harvest including the amount of sprouting also depends on But management costs are high and implementation of BMPs will minimize intensity of thinning, and is related to there is a loss of quality in border soil loss, while allowing the land- individual tree genetic characteristics. trees around the openings due to owner to meet his or her forest The risk of epicormic sprouting is epicormic sprouting. As stated earlier, management objectives. greater on poor sites and most this system does not lend itself to commonly occurs on the southerly intensive forestry when timber faces of exposed tree boles. production may be the principal The timing of intermediate objective. cuts can be quite flexible, and for this Shelterwood cuttings appear reason, economic considerations to be a promising method for regener- often influence scheduling. Because ating species with intermediate shade cove hardwoods are commonly tolerance. When advance regenera- composed of many species with tion is lacking, this method has some varying growth potentials and differ- advantage in establishing oaks, ent age classes, cove hardwoods do hickories and other mid-tolerant not stagnate. Depending on the species. However, it also favors those situation, the option exists for either that are more tolerant. The light-but-frequent thinnings, or shelterwood method may have its relatively heavy thinnings at longer best utilization where aesthetics are intervals. important. Cove hardwoods are so The seed-tree method is of complex that no one silvicultural little value in the regeneration of cove system can be considered best for all hardwoods. The heavy seeds of cove conditions. All hardwoods sprout hardwoods, such as oak, are poorly vigorously when small, and seeds of distributed, while the light seeds of some species such as ash, yellow- yellow poplar, ash and black cherry poplar and black cherry are produced and certain other species are usually in abundance annually and remain already sufficiently available in the viable in the forest liter or duff for forest floor. several years. Natural hardwood Clearcutting is a highly useful reproduction usually occurs following tool for the regeneration of fast- any type of harvest cutting. growing intolerant species such as The silvicultural system and yellow poplar and black cherry. its associated harvest cutting method Where adequate advance reproduc- greatly influence species composi- tion is present, it also encourages tion, due to the wide variety of development of oaks, hickories and species and their varying degrees of other mid-tolerant species. tolerance to shade. Clearcutting may well be the most Uneven-age management economical and preferable method with selection cutting causes the least when wood production is the primary disturbance in the forest canopy. It objective. However, in scenically

26 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE PINE in Tennessee have been partially shade intolerant and must be estab- successful in breeding trees that can lished under even-age conditions. A perform well in Tennessee and resist modified shelterwood method or a Type Establishment cold and ice damage. Virginia pine is seed tree harvest can be utilized if Traditionally, Tennessee is preferred on poorer sites and at natural regeneration is planned. considered a hardwood state. Hard- higher elevations. It is an excellent After harvesting is complete, woods will grow in all regions and tree for erosion control or for site the site should be prepared for there is significant established reclamation following mining. Due to regeneration. The method of regen- industry to utilize this resource. its shorter needles and steeper eration will largely dictate the type of However, pine is increasing in branch angles, Virginia pine is much site preparation necessary. Less- importance. About 20 percent of the more resistant to snow and ice intensive forms of regeneration state’s forest lands consist of pine or damage than is loblolly. Virginia pine require less-intensive forms of site pine-hardwood types. Pine offers the does not grow as rapidly as loblolly preparation. A more detailed discus- landowner the advantage of higher and yields fewer economic products sion follows in the section titled per acre yields on poor sites. Sites at maturity. “Stand Conversion.” which might be suitable for planting Shortleaf pine occurs natu- Pines can be regenerated by pine include old fields, ridgetops, rally in many areas of the state, natural seeding, direct seeding or by eroded hillsides and poor southwest usually on good sites. It is also planting seedlings. The methods slopes. Although pine will grow well planted primarily for sawtimber differ both in cost and effectiveness. on almost any site, it does respond as production. Although it will make The landowner must fully understand site quality improves. Elevation, soils, excellent pulpwood, it will take much the ramifications of each method aspect, moisture and winter tempera- longer to mature than loblolly or beforehand. ture all impact where a pine species Virginia pine. A modified shelterwood will grow. On good sites, hardwoods Eastern white pine grows harvest or a seed tree cut can provide must be controlled to insure adequate for natural pine regeneration. This pine survival and growth. naturally in eastern Tennessee and technique requires the harvesting of There are several species of prefers a good site with adequate all trees, except for those mature, pine that grow well in the state. Each moisture. In the past few years, cone-bearing trees left behind to species has special needs and eastern white pine has been widely provide seed. As seed drops and requirements for survival and some planted for Christmas trees and for germinates, the new stand starts to fill are more commercially valuable than ornamental transplant stock. Large in below. Once sufficient regeneration others. eastern white pines are valuable for is present, harvest the seed trees and Loblolly pine is fast growing lumber used in pattern making for the complete the operation. and produces many valuable prod- furniture industry. Currently, timber Seed tree regeneration offers ucts including pulpwood, lumber, sales are generally for sawlogs and the most cost-effective means of plywood and poles. One drawback of logs for log homes. regenerating pine. It does have some loblolly pine is that it is not a native Harvesting, Regeneration significant limitations, however. First, species to many counties of the state. and Cultural Methods the landowner must regenerate to the Cold winter temperatures plus heavy Harvesting methods for pine same species that was growing snows and ice storms may inhibit basically consist of group selections before. A tract that was forested with loblolly from maturing. and clearcuts. Single tree selection is shortleaf will come back to shortleaf. Tree improvement programs not preferred because pines are This negates any opportunities to

27 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE work with genetically improved a professional forester can help the December and April. materials and the enhanced growth landowner achieve a good planting Availability of labor and characteristics that come with such job. equipment, along with local site stock. Second, stocking can be a hit- A forester can help the conditions, determine the decision to or-miss proposition. In years of good landowner locate proper species, find hand- or machine-plant. If the site is seed production, adequately-stocked a good seed source, and locate steep or rocky, hand-planting may be to over-stocked stands are common. quality seedlings. Most nurseries the only alternative. On well-prepared Similarly, in poor years of seed grow two types of seedlings—woods- sites, survival and growth are usually production, under-stocked stands run and genetically improved. Be- superior when seedlings are ma- may occur. Third, removal of seed cause woods-run seed is collected chine-planted. Tractors (crawler or trees frequently causes damage to from a variety of trees, the seedlings farm type) in the 50-75 horsepower the regeneration. And finally, seed produced exhibit great variety in size, range are ideal for pulling a planting trees are subject to lightning strikes, shape, growth, etc. This variation machine. wind throw and ice damage. results in a plantation that may not The spacing of trees in a Direct seeding is a variation grow at an optimum and uniform rate. plantation is determined by the of natural seeding. Following a group Genetically-improved seed- objectives of the landowner. Wider selection or clearcut, pine seed is lings are produced from seed col- spacings produce salable trees broadcast on the harvest area by lected from preferred seed sources or earlier. An 8 x 8, 7 x 9, 7 x 8 or 6 x airplane, helicopter or ground equip- seed orchard. Each tree in the 10-foot spacing is recommended. ment. Positive attributes associated orchard has certain superior charac- This gives each tree about 56 to 64 with this method include moderate teristics. As the superior trees pro- square feet of growing space and cost, the opportunity to switch from duce seed, their offspring receive makes thinnings possible in 12 to 18 one species of pine to another and their genetic traits. This results in a years. With a wider spacing, there are the use of genetically improved seed. forest more genetically equipped to reduced planting costs, minimum As with natural seeding, the main handle the harsh realities of the local mortality before thinning and in- drawback to direct seeding is the environment. For example, geneti- creased growth rates. amount of seed that actually germi- cally-improved loblolly pines grown After pine is successfully nates. Frequently, too many seed for Tennessee landowners have traits regenerated, either by seeding or germinate and stands with too many that enable them to survive freezing planting, intermediate treatments may trees clumped in an area may result. winter temperatures. If available, the be required. Hardwoods must be Planting nursery grown landowner should use genetically- controlled during the early years of seedlings is the most common improved planting stock, even though the plantation to achieve maximum method of regenerating pine. It is also it is slightly more expensive than pine growth. Failure to do so probably the most expensive means. Success woods-run stock. Seedlings should will produce a mixed pine/hardwood rates are high if proper procedures be ordered in the summer prior to the forest. and techniques are used. Advice from planting season, which runs between

28 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Possible methods of removing hardwood competition are:

1. Foliage application of herbicides 1. Foliar Recommendations application of for herbicides specific herbicides cannot be made with any reliability since their authorized use is Recommendationssubject to rapid change. for specific Only herbicides cannotapproved be bymade the withEnvironmental any reliability Protection since their Agency authorized can be use used. is subjectConsult to a rapid professional change. foresterOnly herbicides before the approved use of such by the chemicals Environmental and follow Protection the manufacturer’s Agency can belabel. used. Foliar Consultapplications a professional of herbicides forester are donebefore most the useefficiently of such and chemicals safely using and afollow helicopter the manufacturer’s equipped with label. a drift-control Foliar applicationssystem. Ground of herbicides applications are doneare also most possible efficiently using and tractor-mounted safely using a helicoptersprayers orequipped hand crews. with a drift-control system. Ground applications are also possible using tractor-mounted sprayers or hand crews. 2. Stem application of herbicides 2. Stem This canapplication be done ofby herbicidesapplying EPA-approved chemicals to an axe-made frill around the tree, or with tree injec- Thistors canat the be basedone of by the applying tree. This EPA-approved treatment is chemicals most effective to an during axe-made the growing frill around season. the tree, Some or newwith treeherbicides injec- torscan at be the sprayed base of directly the tree. to theThis stem treatment and absorbed is most effective into the treeduring through the growing the bark. season. This technique Some new is herbicidescalled a basal canspray be treatment.sprayed directly to the stem and absorbed into the tree through the bark. This technique is called a basal spray treatment. 3. Girdling 3. Girdling Girdling involves the use of an axe or hatchet to remove a ring of bark around the tree. Some species have a Girdlingtendency involves to “bridge” the use the ofgirdle an axe and or live. hatchet For a to more remove effective a ring treatment, of bark around apply theEPA-approved tree. Some speciesherbicide have to the a tendencygirdle, as to in “bridge” stem application. the girdle and live. For a more effective treatment, apply EPA-approved herbicide to the girdle, as in stem application. 4. Prescribed burning: 4. Prescribed Fire can be burning: used to reduce fuel and brush in older pine stands. Stands must be 15 to 18 feet tall and have Firestems can diameters be used to at reduce 4 to 6 inches.fuel and Used brush under in older the pineright stands.fuel moisture Stands and must weather be 15 conditions,to 18 feet tall and and properly have stemssupervised, diameters fire isat a4 usefulto 6 inches. tool for Used pine undermanagement. the right Itfuel can moisture have disastrous and weather results, conditions, however, and if improperly properly supervised,used. A state fire burning is a useful permit tool is for required. pine management. Consult with It a can professional have disastrous forester results, before however,any prescribed if improperly burn. used. A state burning permit is required. Consult with a professional forester before any prescribed burn. If overstocked (such as from direct seeding), pre-commercial thinnings may be needed during the first five years Ifif overstocked the stand is (suchto achieve as from any direct reasonable seeding), growth. pre-commercial Pre-commercial thinnings thinning may can be neededbe achieved during by the removing first five pines years in ifstrips the stand with isbush to achieve hogging, any discing reasonable or applying growth. herbicides. Pre-commercial thinning can be achieved by removing pines in strips with bush hogging, discing or applying herbicides. If one of the landowner’s goals is to grow sawtimber, a first commercial thinning may be necessary at ages 12 Ifto one 18. of Two the thinninglandowner’s systems goals are is into generalgrow sawtimber, use today: a first(1) free commercial thinning, thinning leaving maythe best be necessary trees in the at stand ages for12 tothe 18. final Two harvest thinning cut, systems and (2) are row in thinning, general useremoving today: every (1) free second thinning, or third leaving row theof trees. best trees in the stand for the final harvest cut, and (2) row thinning, removing every second or third row of trees. The number of trees left after thinning depends upon the carrying capacity of the land. As the stand ages, for a Thegiven number site the of fewertrees leftthe aftertrees thinning per acre depends that can uponbe maintained. the carrying There capacity are severalof the land. factors As tothe consider stand ages, when for a givendetermining site the howfewer many the treestrees perto remove acre that in cana thinning be maintained. from a pure There pine are stand, several such factors as, stand to consider density, when growth, determiningsite, crown howage, manythe vigor, trees etc. to removeConsult ina professionala thinning from forester a pure prior pine to stand, determining such as, which stand trees density, and howgrowth, many site,trees crown to remove age, the in avigor, thinning. etc. Consult a professional forester prior to determining which trees and how many trees to remove in a thinning. Finally, protect pine stand from insects, disease and wildfire. A landowner must periodically check the trees. If Finally,the area protect has a pine history stand of wildfirefrom insects, problems, disease firelines and wildfire.may be neededA landowner around must the periodically perimeter of check the pines. the trees. Disease If theand area insect has outbreaks a history ofcan wildfire be partially problems, controlled firelines through may be salvage needed harvesting around the operations. perimeter of the pines. Disease and insect outbreaks can be partially controlled through salvage harvesting operations. Wildlife habitat value of the pine stands depend on many factors, including the species composition of the Wildlifeunder- habitatand mid-story. value of Stands the pine with stands honeysuckle depend onas manythe primary factors, species including covering the species the forest composition floor have of highthe under-carrying and capacities mid-story. for Stands deer and with turkey. honeysuckle A dogwood as the mid-story, primary specieswith stems covering 2 inches the DBHforest and floor over, have provides high soft carryingmast (pulpy capacities fruit) in for the deer fall. and Sapling- turkey. and A dogwood pole-size mid-story, mid-story withprovides stems cover 2 inches for deer DBH and and grouse. over, provides Log-road soft re- mastvegetation (pulpy afterfruit) ain cut the can fall. provides Sapling- usefuland pole-size amounts mid-story of forage. provides cover for deer and grouse. Log-road re-

29 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE vegetation after a cut can provides and planting on the contour. Building marked to be cut on both the bole as useful amounts of forage. waterbars on firelanes will also well as the stump. Stand Conversion reduce erosion. Normally, after the Before making a sale, Converting hardwood stands first growing season, there is an determine the volume of the trees to to pine is a management option that adequate cover of grass and weeds be sold. Such a volume determination some landowners may wish to to prevent any significant amount of will usually involve an assessment of consider. Extremely poor hardwood soil movement. quality and species identification. The sites generally are more economically only reliable method is to estimate the productive if reforested in pine. Stand Marketing of volume of all trees to be cut with conversion is only recommended assistance from a professional following a clearcut. Methods of Forest forester. The volume will give the conversion include: landowner an inventory of the forest (1) Clearing. On flat ground and on Resources products he or she intends to sell. moderate slopes, land clearing is an Many marketing opportunities Volume determination can excellent conversion technique. This exist for the Tennessee forest land- also be achieved by measuring or is the most expensive method, but is owner. These range from the sale of scaling the products after they have generally also the most successful. timber to the sale of access for been harvested. This can take place The clearing process usually involves hunting. With this great diversity of at the harvesting site or at the mill shearing the remaining brush and cull forest products, it is almost impos- that purchased the products. This trees from the ground with a crawler sible to specify any one set of possi- method of inventory doesn’t give the tractor-mounted blade, piling the bilities as being “the best” for a landowner any prior information about brush in windrows, burning and single particular owner. Since the prime the sale and could result in a poor or double discing with a heavy offset producer of income to the forest marketing decision. tandem disc. landowner is the sale of timber and After specifying which trees (2) Use of herbicides. Stand conver- wood products, this aspect of the to cut and determining stand volume, sion with herbicides commonly landowner marketing possibilities will a selling price must be established. consists of foliar spray applied by be stressed. Because of the com- The landowner can simply determine helicopter equipped with a drift plexities associated with the sale of the stumpage price of each species, control system. Mist-blower applica- timber, the landowner should seek size and quality tree, and multiply by tions, except inside large acreages, assistance from a professional the volume to determine the total tend to drift. The amount and species forester (private consultant, state price for the sale. The local state of brush on the land determines the service forester, Extension forester or service forester or other landowners actual formulation of spray mixture. industrial forester) as early as pos- who have recently made sales are After full leaf development, spray sible. Given the landowner’s objec- good sources of price information. areas, control burn in late August or tives, the forester can assist with the The best way to sell timber is September and then plant or seed design of a sale to best meet those to solicit sealed bids. Research has with the desired species during the goals. In many cases, harvesting to proven that sealed bids are the best winter. achieve financial goals is consistent way to receive the highest price for (3) Use of fire. Following a clearcut, a with the achievement of other goals. timber. By inviting sealed bids, controlled burn is often adequate to Regardless of the objectives of the landowners 1) exploit the total market remove undesirable brush and timber harvest, consideration must be for timber, 2) develop competition suitably prepare the area for planting. given to the re-establishment of the among all the buyers, 3) notify the Use of fire is dependent on weather stand. Again, the professional forester buyers of condition of sale, 4) may be conditions, but it is a valuable and can help the landowner decide on a assured that at least a minimum relatively inexpensive site preparation regeneration plan that fits his or her acceptable price will be reached, and tool. goals. 5) may prevent collusion among Erosion associated with There are several ways to buyers. stand conversion may result from designate harvestable trees. These An alternative is to advertise land clearing or plowed fire lines. have already been discussed in or auction the standing timber. However, erosion can be limited by connection with appropriate silvicul- Advertise sales by mail, in trade clearing only slopes of less than 25 tural practices for each forest type. In journals, local papers and by word of percent, piling windrows continuously any selective harvest, trees should be mouth. The key to successful timber on the contour, discing on the contour marketing is to be patient. Since

30 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE timber is not a liquid asset, and the erty increases, hunters continue to wood markets tend to be volatile and vie for private property for a exclusive cyclic, it may require six to 18 months place to hunt. Lease arrangements or andowners who to receive fair market value for a day use fee system are the most are committed to standing timber. Be patient. common agreements reached wise forest man- Timber sales which contain between landowners and hunters. L high value products like veneer logs agement are eligible to and cooperage bolts should be Sources of Assistance for enroll at no cost in the considered differently. Landowners Landowners American Tree Farm will likely receive a greater monetary There are many sources of program, which is ad- gain by selling these products sepa- information for landowners on how ministered in Tennessee rately. In some cases pulpwood and they may better manage their forest sawtimber may be effectively mar- by the Tennessee For- lands and where they may market the estry Association (TFA). keted separately. Prices may differ- products. ent enough between products to The Tennessee Division of warrant special consideration. Forestry (TDF) provides services in of information, private consulting A timber sale contract should timber management and to a limited foresters provide valuable landowner be constructed early in the marketing degree in timber marketing. TDF is services, particularly in the area of process so that potential buyers will also the public agency that approves timber sales administration and completely understand the terms and the eligibility of landowners for marketing. A list of consulting forest- conditions of the sale prior to submit- government cost share programs, ers in Tennessee is available from ting bids. Seek competent legal aid such as the Forest Stewardship most Tennessee Division of Forestry during this process. A contract Program. The Forest Stewardship offices. provides for methods of measure- Program is designed for forest Landowners who are commit- ment, prices, termination dates, landowners who have multiple use ted to wise forest management are access, liabilities for damage and objectives and intend to implement eligible to enroll at no cost in the other aspects that may be of impor- forestry stewardship practices on American Tree Farm program, which tance to a particular landowner. their land. Enrollment offers landown- is administered in Tennessee by the Sellers should include as part of their ers opportunity to participate in the Tennessee Forestry Association contract that Tennessee Best Man- Stewardship Incentive Program (SIP) (TFA). Tree Farm foresters will help agement Practices be followed in the for government cost share assistance the landowner develop a manage- timber harvest. The seller should for such practices as wildlife habitat ment plan designed to meet his or her inspect the sale area during and after improvements, road construction goals, and will periodically inspect the completion of the harvest to assure improvements, tree planting, fencing tree farm at no charge. Many of compliance with the contract. for water quality improvements, etc. Tennessee’s best-managed forests Forest landowners have The state service forester can give display the familiar green and white, many non-timber products that can the landowner information with regard diamond-shaped “Tree Farm” sign. be marketed. Gravel, stone, and sand to these valuable subsidies. Several of Tennessee’s forest are always in high demand. Vegeta- The Extension forester of The products companies provide a service tive materials like ginseng root are University of Tennessee Department to landowners who are interested in readily sold to herb buyers. The of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries practicing forestry. These companies commercial and ornamental nursery serves as a source of educational offer agreements in which landown- industry buys numerous young trees assistance and technical information ers receive professional assistance and saplings from growers. They also for landowners. This service is and services in return for a commit- buy mulch in the form of tree bark, available through Agricultural Exten- ment to practice intensive forestry. A sawdust and pine straw. All these sion Service county agents. Assis- list of these programs is also avail- products are derived from the forest tance is also available in certain able from the Tennessee Forestry and can be sold for the benefit of the areas from the Soil Conservation Association. landowner. Service, the Tennessee Valley Hunting access represents Authority and Tennessee Wildlife another readily marketable commod- Resources Agency. ity for the forest landowner. As In addition to public sources competition for public hunting prop-

31 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Appendix

Agencies Assisting Landowners

State Forester Executive Director Tennessee Division of Forestry Association of Consulting Foresters P. O. Box 40727, Melrose Station of American, Inc. Nashville, TN 37204 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 300 (615) 360-0724 Bethesda, MD 20814-2198 (301) 530-6759 Extension Forester The University of Tennessee Forestry Leader Agricultural Extension Service Tennessee Valley Authority P.O. Box 1071 Forestry Building Knoxville, TN 37901-1071 Norris, TN 37828 (615) 974-7346 (615) 494-9800

State Conservationist Executive Director Soil Conservation Service Tennessee Forestry Association 675 US Courthouse P.O. Box 290693 801 Broadway Nashville, TN 37229 Nashville, TN 37203 (615) 883-3832 (615) 736-5471

GLOSSARY alluvial soil A soil consisting of recently water-deposited sediment and showing practically no soil horizon development. basal area The area of the cross-section of a tree stem including bark, generally at breast height (4.5 feet from the ground).

Best Management Practices Harvesting and silvicultural guidelines developed to reduce the amount of soil erosion resulting from logging and other forestry-related activities. carrying capacity The maximum number of a given species that can survive on an area without deterioration of the environment. cleaning A cutting made in a stand not past the sapling stage. This releases the best trees by removing less desirable individuals of the same age which overtop them. climax forest The final stage in natural plant succession in a given environment. The plant community has reached a highly stable condition, and will not change in composition unless there is a change in climate and/or soil. commercial forestland Forest lands capable of growing merchantable forest products, and not being withdrawn from such use. cruise A survey to locate and estimate the quantity of wood on a given area according to species, size, quality and possible products. cutting cycle The planned interval of time between successive cuttings.

32 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE DBH Diameter at breast height. The average stem diameter, outside bark, at 4 1/2 feet above ground. dominance The influence that a species exerts, measured by the total cover or mass that it occupies within a community. epicormic branching A branch that sprouts from a dormant bud on the stem of a woody plant. even-age A silvicultural system wherein the age difference between the youngest and oldest trees is less than 20% of the length of the rotation. forest stand A community of trees, sufficiently uniform in composition, age and spatial arrangement to make it distin- guishable from adjacent plant communities. forest type A category of forest defined by its particular vegetative composition; i.e., the predominant species that occupy the area. frilling Girdling by making a series of downward and overlapping incisions; usually done for the introduction of herbicides. intermediate cutting Any type of tree removal from a stand which takes place between the time of its formation and the final harvest cutting. pioneer species A plant capable of invading disturbed areas and persisting until replaced by successor species having more exacting environmental requirements. pole Trees that are from 4-to-10 inches in DBH. prescribed fire Controlled application of fire under carefully supervised conditions to achieve planned objectives. release Freeing a tree(s) from competition by eliminating species that are interfering with optimum growth performance. rotation The number of years between the regeneration of a forest stand and its final harvest cutting. salvage cutting Utilization of trees that are dead, dying or deteriorating.Usually following a natural diaster like a wildfire, storm, or insect. sanitation cutting The removal of dead, damaged or susceptible trees, to prevent the spread of insects and/or disease. sapling Trees that are less than 4-inch DBH and more than 3 feet tall. scarification Disturbance of the surface layer of soil that supports forest vegetation, thereby exposing the mineral soil and making it receptive for seed germination and plant growth. site An area considered in terms of its environment, particularly as this determines the type and quality of the vegetation the area can support. site index A measure of the relative productive capacity of a site. The height of the dominant trees in a stand at a specific age for a single species. site preparation Removal of unwanted vegetation, branchwood and other residue on the ground before the establish- ment and forest regeneration of an area. soil series The basic unit of soil classification, consisting of soils that are alike in all major profile characteristics of the surface layer.

33 THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE soil type A sub-category of a soil series, based mainly on the surface layer texture; i.e., percentage of sand, silt and clay. stocking level Refers to stand density; i.e., the proportion of an area that is actually occupied by trees, and compared to the desirable number for best growth. stumpage The value of standing timber as it stands uncut. succession The gradual replacement of one plant community by another, over time, brought about by environmental changes of the area. The final stage is termed climax. thinning Cuttings made in immature stands in order to stimulate the growth of the remaining trees and to increase the total yield of useful products from the stand. timber stand improvement (TSI) All intermediate cuttings intended to improve species composition, stand composition and tree growth. tolerance The ability of a plant to grow satisfactorily in the shade and competition of other trees. uneven-age A silvicultural system wherein trees of at least three or more age classes are present. Usually resulting in a forest of trees of different sizes, species and heights. weeding A cutting made in a stand to reduce competition from undesirable vegetation during the seedling stage of forest development.

PB1523-30M-2/95 R12-1041-08-001-95

A State Partner in the Cooperative Extension System The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, age, national origin, sex or disability and is an Equal Opportunity Employer. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Agricultural Extension Service Billy G. Hicks, Dean

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