sign in sign up
<<
Home , Brahmadeya, Devapala (Pala dynasty), Gopala I, Later Cholas, Mahipala I, Mandore

BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL

Civil Services Examination MADE EASY Publications Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Metro Station), New -110016 E-mail: [email protected] Contact: 011-45124660, 8860378007 Visit us at: www.madeeasypublications.org

History of © Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications. All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or oth- erwise), without the prior written permission of the above mentioned publisher of this book.

First Edition: 2017 Second Edition: 2018 Third Edition: 2019

© All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher. Contents History of Medieval India

Unit – I: Dawn of Medieval India Causes for ...... 15 Consequence of Tripartite Struggle...... 15 Chapter - 1 Dynasties of : Important Facts...... 16 Early Medieval India...... 2 Chapter - 3 1.1 Feudalism...... 2 Kingdoms of ...... 17 Feudalism in India...... 2 3.1 Introduction...... 17 Changes in Land Grants...... 2 3.2 Cholas...... 17 1.2 India and World Relations...... 3 Introduction...... 17 ...... 3 Later Cholas...... 17 Africa...... 5 Important Rulers...... 17 East Asia...... 5 Polity...... 19 South-East Asia...... 6 Administration...... 19 Early Medieval India: Important Facts...... 7 Provincial Administration...... 19 Village Assemblies...... 19 Chapter - 2 Military...... 19 Dynasties of North India...... 8 Revenue...... 20 Religion...... 20 2.1 Palas...... 8 Economy...... 20 Introduction...... 8 Society...... 20 Political Sphere of Influence...... 8 Literature...... 20 Administration...... 8 Art and Architecture...... 21 Religion...... 9 Literature...... 22 Economy...... 9 Importance of Dynasty...... 22 Literature...... 9 3.3 Cheras...... 22 Art and Architecture...... 9 Introduction...... 22 2.2 Pratiharas...... 10 Later Chera...... 22 Introduction...... 10 Polity and Administration...... 22 Political Sphere of Influence...... 10 Religion...... 22 Administration...... 11 Economy...... 22 Religion...... 11 Society...... 22 Economy...... 11 Art and Architecture...... 23 Art and Architecture...... 11 3.4 Pandyas...... 23 Importance of Dynasty...... 12 Introduction...... 23 2.3 Rashtrakutas...... 12 Later Pandyas...... 23 Introduction...... 12 Political History...... 23 Expansion of Political Influence...... 12 Polity...... 24 Administration...... 12 Administration...... 24 Economy...... 13 Religion...... 24 Literature...... 14 Economy...... 24 Art and Architecture...... 14 Literature...... 24 Importance of Dynasty...... 14 Art and Architecture...... 24 2.4 Tripartite Struggle...... 14 Importance of Dynasty...... 25 Significance of ...... 15 Kingdoms of South India: Important Facts...... 25

(iii) Chapter - 4 6.3 Economy...... 44 6.4 Trade and Commerce...... 44 ...... 29 6.5 Society...... 44 4.1 Introduction...... 29 Introduction...... 44 4.2 Origin of Rajputs...... 29 Social Divisions...... 45 4.3 States...... 29 Caste System...... 45 Hindushahi Dynasty...... 29 Condition of Women...... 45 Dynasty...... 30 6.6 State of Education...... 45 Solanki Dynasty ( of Gujart).....30 6.7 Bhakti Post 12th Century...... 46 ...... 30 Guru Nanak...... 46 Chandela Dynasty...... 30 Monotheism...... 46 Gahadavala Dynasty...... 31 Vaishnavism...... 46 Bundela Dynasty...... 31 Bhakti Movement in ...... 47 Tomara Dynasty...... 31 4.4 Other Rajput States...... 31 Major Developments During 8th to 15th 4.5 Limitations of Rajputs...... 31 Century: Important Facts...... 49 Rajputs: Important Facts...... 32 Chapter - 7 4.6 Importance of Rajputs...... 32 12th to 14th Century...... 52 Unit – II: The Era of Sultanate 7.1 Invasions from North-West...... 52 Arab Invasion...... 52 Chapter - 5 7.2 Mamluk Sultans (1206-90 AD)...... 52 Advent of Turks in India...... 35 Introduction...... 52 5.1 Introduction...... 35 Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-10 AD)...... 52 Aram Shah (1210-1211 AD)...... 53 5.2 ...... 35 Shams-ud-din (1211-36 AD)...... 53 5.3 ...... 36 Razia Sultan (1236-40 AD)...... 53 Indian Invasions...... 36 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246-66 AD) ...... 54 Ghazni's Battles...... 36 Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-87 AD)...... 54 Somnath Temple Raids...... 37 Administration...... 55 Significance of Muhmud Ghazni's Invasion...... 37 Art and Architecture...... 55 Al Biruni...... 37 Importance of Dynasty...... 55 Firdausi...... 38 Evaluation of Mahmud of Ghazni...... 38 7.3 Khaljis (1290-1320 AD)...... 55 Introduction...... 55 5.4 Changes in 12th Century...... 38 Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-96 AD)...... 56 5.5 Muhammad Ghori...... 38 (1296-1316 AD)...... 56 Punjab and Sind Conquests...... 39 First Battle of Tarain...... 39 7.4 Tughlaqs (1320-1412 AD)...... 58 Second Battle of Tarain...... 39 Introduction...... 58 Evaluation of Muhammad Ghori...... 39 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-25 AD)...... 58 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-51 AD)...... 58 The Advent of Turks in India: Important Facts...... 40 Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88 AD)...... 59 5.6 Ghaznavid Dynasty: Role in Formation of Tughlaq Administration...... 60 Delhi Sultanate...... 40 Tughlaq Art and Architecture...... 60 Chapter - 6 Importance of Dynasty...... 61 7.5 Sayyid Dynasty (1414-51 AD)...... 61 Major Developments During Introduction...... 61 8th to 15th Century...... 41 Khizr Khan (1414-21 AD)...... 61 6.1 Introduction...... 41 7.6 (1451-1526 AD)...... 62 6.2 Religion...... 41 Introduction...... 62 Introduction...... 41 Bahlul Lodi (1451-89 AD)...... 62 Decline of ...... 41 Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517 AD)...... 62 Importance of Temples...... 41 Ibrahim Lodi (1517-26 AD)...... 62 Religious Movements...... 42 Adminstration...... 62 (iv) Literature...... 63 Challenges Faced by Babur in India...... 86 Art and Architecture...... 63 Significance of Babur's Advent...... 86 7.7 Delhi Sultanate: Challenges...... 63 9.3 Humayun...... 87 Inner Conflict among Nobility...... 63 Introduction...... 87 Attack by the Mongols and Others...... 64 Retreat and Rise of the Afghans...... 87 Resistance by Indian Chiefs...... 64 Humayun’s Later Life...... 88 Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms...... 64 9.4 Sur Dynasty...... 89 Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD): Important Introduction...... 89 Facts...... 64 ...... 89 Polity...... 89 Chapter - 8 Encounters: Humayun and Sher Shah...... 89 Regional Dynasties...... 68 Administration...... 89 8.1 Introduction...... 68 Religion...... 90 8.2 Kashmir...... 69 Economy...... 90 Art and Architecture...... 90 8.3 Jaunpur...... 69 Importance of Dynasty...... 90 8.4 ...... 70 Reasons for Decline...... 90 8.5 ...... 70 Struggle for North India (1525-55 AD): 8.6 Mewar...... 71 Important Facts...... 91 8.7 ...... 71 8.8 Vijayanagara ...... 72 Chapter - 10 Introduction...... 72 Foundation...... 72 Consolidation of ...... 93 Important Rulers...... 73 10.1 Introduction...... 93 Polity and Administration...... 74 10.2 ...... 93 Economic...... 74 Introduction...... 93 Society...... 74 Contests...... 93 Religion...... 74 Expansion of Empire (1560-76 AD)...... 95 Art and Architecture...... 74 Administration...... 96 Literature...... 75 Political Administration...... 98 Reasons for Decline...... 75 Relations with Rajputs...... 99 Conclusion...... 75 Religion...... 100 8.9 Bahmani Kingdom (1347 – 1527 AD)...... 75 Evaluation...... 100 Introduction...... 75 10.3 Jahangir...... 100 Mahmud Gawan (1463-1482)...... 76 Introduction...... 100 Polity and Administration...... 76 Initial Challenges...... 101 Art and Architecture...... 76 Conquests and Campaigns...... 101 Conclusion...... 77 Nur Jahan...... 102 8.10 Advent of Portuguese...... 77 Religion...... 102 Introduction...... 77 Relation with Europeans...... 102 Vasco Da Gama...... 77 Evaluation of Jahangir’s Reign...... 102 Supremacy in Indian Ocean...... 77 10.4 Shah Jahan...... 103 Impact on Trade, Society & Politics...... 78 Introduction...... 103 Regional Dynasties: Important Facts...... 78 Conquests...... 103 Religious Policy...... 104 Unit – III: The Era of Mughals Relation with European Traders...... 104 War of Succession...... 104 Chapter - 9 Evaluation of Shah Jahan’s Reign...... 105 Struggle for North India (1525-55 AD)...... 83 10.5 Aurangzeb...... 105 9.1 Mughals...... 83 Introduction...... 105 9.2 Babur...... 83 Northern Phase (1658-81 AD)...... 105 Conquest of India...... 83 Popular Revolts...... 105 Battles...... 84 Rajput Policy...... 106

(v) I Unit

Dawn of Medieval India

1. Early Medieval India...... 2 2. Dynasties of North India...... 8 3. Kingdoms of South India...... 17 4. Rajputs...... 29 1 Early Medieval India

1.1 Feudalism Along with the transfer of revenue rights, the system also resulted in the transfer of the administrative rights to the Feudalism was a combination of legal and military systems in in particular. This resulted in mushrooming of th medieval Europe that largely flourished between the 9 and feudatories. Also, ceding of the revenue and th 15 centuries A.D. It was a system in which King granted administrative powers resulted in disintegration of state and land to nobles who further granted them to their vassals (a weakening of King’s power. The features of Indian feudalism holder of land on conditions of homage and allegiance), in can be summarized as: return for military and other services on demand. • Political Decentralization: The decentralization A similar system evolved in the early medieval period in achieved in the form of Land grants gradually turned Indian sub-continent, where the weaker kings engaged into a distinctly branched political organization made in compensating through land grants rather than paying up of semi-autonomous rulers such as Samantas, in currency. But, the nature of Indian feudalism was quite Mahasamantas, etc. different from the European feudalism structure and • Emergence of New Class: Feudalism resulted in historians view it as an altogether distinct system. emergence of landholding intermediaries which Feudalism in India became a dominant social group. This was absent in Feudalism began in India with the advent of early medieval the early historical period and was linked to the practice period, when the villages became economically self- of land grants, which began with the Satavahanas. sufficient due to decline in urban centers and commercial • Changes in Agrarian structure: With the growth of activities during the end of the Gupta period. During the feudalism, from the sixth Century AD onwards the 1st Century AD the kings began to donate land free of cost peasants stuck to the land granted to the beneficiaries. to the Brahmins (called as Brahmadeya), scholars and This led to immobility of the population and therefore other religious institutions, thus conferring the ownership isolation from the rest of the world. Its profound of the land and hence the right to collect revenues thereof. implication was development of localized customs, The practice of making land grants to the Brahmanas was languages and rituals. a custom, sanctified by the injunctions laid down in the Dharmashastras, Epics and . The Anusasana Changes in Land Grants Parva of the devotes a whole chapter to the From the period of later Mauryas, land grants included praise of making gifts of land (Bhumidana Prasamsa). This the transfer of all sources of revenue, and the surrender in turn enabled them to make a direct link and control over of police and administrative functions. The grants of the the peasantry. second century AD mentions that the transfer of the king’s control only over salt, which implies that he retained certain other sources of revenue. But in some other grants, it was recorded that the donor (King) gave up his control over almost all sources of revenue, including pastures, mines including hidden treasures and deposits. Then, the donor not only abandoned his revenues but With the growth of feudalism, community right on land also the right to govern the inhabitants of the villages that diminished. The pasture-lands, marshes and forests were were granted. This practice became more prevalent in given as gifts by monarch. Thus, a middle order land owner the Gupta period. There are many instances of grants of class emerged and the peasant lost his land rights. They apparently settled villages made to the Brahmanas during were forced to pay heavy taxes and do forced labour. Their the Gupta era. In such grants, the residents, including the status was reduced to slaves. There was the possibility of cultivators and artisans, were expressly asked by their further transfer of land and in reality that happened too. respective rulers not only to pay the customary taxes to the History of Medieval India 3 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group donees, but also to obey their commands. All this provides Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and western Indian clear evidence of the surrender of the administrative power Ocean islands. The Arabs had close cultural and commercial of the state. relations with the Indians right from the pre-Islamic period. One of the important aspects of the Kings sovereignty was The links were established through trade and commerce that he used to retain the right of punishing the culprits. across the Arabian Sea. In the Post-Gupta times, the king surrendered over to the The spices and other exotic tropical products formed the Brahmanas not only this right, but also his right to punish mainstay of the trade and commerce between Indian and all offences against family, property, person, etc. Arab world. The imports from Arab world constituted coffee, horses and other Mediterranean products. Therefore, 1.2 India and World Relations to secure trade, the Arab traders built their permanent Arabs settlements on the western coast of India. These settlements Arabs are one of the primary population groups of the world. played an important role in exchanging of Indo-Arab cultural Their primary inhabitation is in the Arab states in Western relations.

Trades Routes in Indian Ocean

Arab Contact with India Condition of Sind As aforementioned, in the earlier period, Arabs acted Long before the Arab invasions, the as a conduit for shipment of the Indian goods to the territory of Sind was contented by European world. But with the rise of Islam in the Arab both and Buddhists in world, they started to spread their influence in the struggle for power and influence. Till neighborhood. After conquering Syria, Palestine, Egypt 622 AD, was under a Buddhist and Persia, they set their eyes on India which, at that . A Brahmin minister of Rai usurped the throne and declared time, was wealthy and prosperous. himself the king. He ruled from the The socio-cultural condition was also ripe for Arab invasion capital city of Brahmanabad. His of India in . After the demise of Harshavardhana Dahir Raja reign was marked by civil unrest in north India, the political environment was highly unstable. which worsened during rule of his son Dahir. It was Dahir Islam had already established foot-prints in India, through who faced Arab invasion in 712 AD. trade relations in the southern part of the country. 4 Early Medieval India BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Arab Conquest of Sind He attacked Debal, an ancient port city (near modern In 8th century, the Arab world was ) and defeated the nephew of Raja Dahir, who ruled by the Islamic of was in-charge of the port city. The city was plundered of Syria. Muhammad Bin Qasim, its wealth and all the people who refused to accept Islam a general of the Caliphate, was were brutally killed. After Debal, Qasim crossed the river sent by the Caliph-Al-Walid I to Indus and fought battle with Raja Dahir. Dahir admirably conquer India. The chief aim of the fought but was defeated and killed in the Battle of Aror fanatic Muslim rulers in Arab was to (712). Enormous wealth was looted from Brahmanabad, and this brought an end to the Hindu Kingdom of Sind. strengthen Islam and punish those Muhammad Bin Qasim who refused to accept Islam.

Arab Conquest of Sind Significance of Conquest • Sind province was earlier more of a desert with minimal • After the conquest of Sind, Islam was established in trade and commerce. Arab occupation resulted in Sind and the Multan region. Though, the influences introduction of camels and horses, which began to be used for trade. The investment by Arabs brought of Arabs couldn’t reach farther east and north due development and prosperity to the region. to strong Rajput rulers, this was the first instance of • The decimal system which is the basis of modern Islamic aggression in India. mathematics, and which developed in India in the 5th • It also led to interaction between two distinct cultures Century, travelled to the Arab world during this period and evolution of Indo-Islamic culture. Thus, Sind was and later came to be known as Arabic numerals. the birth-place of Sufism which in turn was related to • Many Indian works dealing with astronomy and the emergence of the bhakti cult in the middle ages. mathematics were also translated to Arabic. The • The significance of the Arab conquest of Sind also lies famous work on astronomy, Surya-Siddhanta was in the tolerance shown to by Islam. The Arab one of these. Work of Charaka and Sushruta dealing governors chose to leave Hindu religious practices with medicines were also translated. A number of untouched. The persecution of Hindu by Islamic literary works such as Kalila wa-Dimna invaders started much later after invasion of Mahmud or Panchatantra were translated into Arabic and of Ghazni. formed the basis for Aesop’s Fables in the West. Dynasties of 2 North India

2.1 Palas king of Kannauj. His territories included the vast region from Kamboj in the north to the Vindhyas in the south. The Introduction king of also sent an ambassador to his court. After the death of the Gauda King , Bengal The death of , marked the beginning of the end passed through a period of chaos and confusion for almost of the . Though his successor Mahipala tried a century. The internal disorder made Bengal vulnerable to to maintain the control over the dominions, the successor the external invasion. To end the prevailing environment of kings were weak and gradually succumbed to pressure anarchy, leading members of Gauda met at an assembly from neighbouring kingdoms. and elected Gopala as their king. Thus, Gopala (also Known as Gopala-I) became the founder of the famous Pala dynasty of Bengal around 750 AD.

Political Sphere of Influence

Devapala Map Map Dharmapala succeeded Gopala-I Administration and was known as the ablest of the The Pala rule was monarchical in nature with the king Pala rulers. He had a great military being the centre of all the power. Pala kings generally brain and conquered many States. adopted imperial titles like Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara He even dethroned the reigning and Paramvattaraka. The Pala kings also appointed Prime prince of Kannauj and set up Ministers for better administration of the kingdom. his own nominee. His long and Administratively, the was divided into several glorious reign lasted for almost 30 Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were further divided into years. Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). The Smaller units were known as Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Dharmapala Devapala was also a vigorous ruler like his father. He fought Pattaka. Thus, it is evident that administration covered successfully against the Huns and the Gurjara-Pratihara widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court. History of Medieval India 9 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Religion inscription' of Devapala as well as "Bhagalpur inscription" of . Apart from agriculture, mineral resources were also important constituents of the economy during the Pala period. Though the use of iron ore was still not very extensive, yet the process of smelting ore was well known to the people of Bengal. Copper deposits and pearls were also found in the various parts of the Pala Empire. Agro-based industries thrived during the Palas reign in The Pala kings were the patrons of branch of Bengal. Textile industry was flourishing during the Pala Buddhism. Gopala-I was a devout Buddhist, and built the period and cotton textiles were the principal industry famous monastery at Odantapuri. His son, Dharmapala, in Bengal. Silk industry was also very popular in Bengal made the renowned Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra as during this period and it catered not only to the domestic his spiritual guide. market, but foreign market as well. He established the famous Though economy had flourished during the Pala phase, there was a general decline in trade and commerce. The monastery (located near Bhagalpur, ) and the decline in the standards of trade is evident from the coins in of the Pala period. The scarcity of gold and the silver coins led to dependence on copper coins. This resulted in drastic . After his death, decline of the foreign trade. Consequently, the economic Devapala restored and enlarged system became entirely dependent on agriculture and the architecture at Somapura the flourishing agrarian economy gave rise to feudalistic Mahavihara, which featured society. Thus, it could be said that the agricultural economy several themes from the epics and feudalism developed simultaneously during the Pala’s and Mahabharata. Haribhadra reign. carried on the restoration work and ordered construction and repairs of several Literature sacred structures at , Sarnath and . Pala Kings patronized several Sanskrit and Buddhist scholars, some of whom were also appointed as their officials. The Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the reign of Palas. During their rule, many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated. They have a distinct influence even today in the region. Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhava- kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the significant scholars from the Pala period. The first signs Somapura of the proto- can also be seen in the composed during the Pala rule. Apart from Buddhism, the later Palas also supported the Shaiva ascetics. Narayana Pala himself established a Art and Architecture temple of and patronized the Brahmins. Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of , Shiva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the later rule of Pala dynasty.

Economy The reign of Palas was marked by general economic and material prosperity. Agriculture was the main occupation during the Pala period. The Pala kings granted land to the farmers for cultivation and the chief source of Vikramshila University income of people was derived from agricultural products of the land granted to them. During this period, paddy The sculptural art of Pala period is recognized as a distinct cultivation had become the chief source of economy in phase in , and is famous for displaying the artistic Bengal. This was mentioned in the 'Monghyr () genius of the Bengal sculptors. It was largely influenced 10 Dynasties of North India BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group and inspired by the Gupta art. As discussed earlier, the Introduction Buddhist Palas built a number of monasteries and other The dynasty, also known as Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty sacred structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present- ruled over much of northern India from the mid-to the day Bangladesh has been given the status of a World century. It is believed that they ruled first from and Heritage Site. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, later established capital at Kannauj. including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are The founder of this Dynasty was Harichandra in 6th other masterpieces of the Palas. century. Nagabhata-I (730-756 AD) was the first important ruler of this dynasty whose reign from Mandore () to Malwa, and Bharuch. His capital was in Malwa. The dynasty, also known as Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty ruled over much of northern India from the mid of 8th Century AD. It is believed that they ruled first from Ujjain and later established capital at Kannauj. The founder of this Dynasty was Harichandra in 6th Century AD. Nagabhata-I (730-756 AD) was the first important ruler of this dynasty whose empire extended from Mandore (Jodhpur) to Malwa and Gwalior to Bharuch. His capital was Avanti in Malwa.

Siddheshwara Mahadeva Temple Political Sphere of Influence The temples constructed during the Pala period depicted The Gurjara-Pratiharas were a distinctive vanga style. The Siddheshwara Mahadeva instrumental in containing the temple at Barakar in Burdwan district is one such fine march of Arab armies moving east example of early Pala style. Terracota sculpture was very of the Indus river, after the popular for decorative purposes. In painting, murals were conquest of Sind by Mohammad highly popular for wall paintings. Miniature paintings also Qasim. Nagabhata-I defeated the showed considerable development during this period. Arab armies under Junaid and Tamin, who during the Caliphate 2.2 Pratiharas campaigns in India tried to extend their influence. Nagabhata-I was Nagabhata-I succeeded by who captured Kannauj and thus came in direct conflict with the Palas of Bengal. Although he defeated Dharmapala, in 786 AD, the Rastrakuta King Dhruva defeated him.

Somnath Temple Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhata-II. Under the rule Gurjara Pratihara Empire India of Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most Kingdoms of 3 South India

3.1 Introduction more expansion of the agrarian economy. We also notice the march of triumphant Brahmanism with the beginning The history of medieval south India has its separate space of the construction of stone temples for Shiva and Vishnu in the study of political, social, and economic realms of the in under Pallavas and in under society. The history of medieval India in north is marred by Chalukyas of Badami. extreme turmoil due to rising and falling . But the history of medieval south is relatively stable. In this section, Later Cholas we are going to study three most important Kingdoms of After the end of the Sangam era, the Cholas became south, i.e., the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas. feudatories in . They again came into prominence The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely in the 9th Century AD when they established an empire in the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. South India. Tanjore became the capital of Chola Kingdom. The political history of these dynasties can be traced from Cholas extended their dominance in Sri Lanka and Malay the literary references like Sangam literature, the records Peninsula. These Cholas colonized the South East Asian of Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Countries and had the most powerful army and navy of the Ptolemy, Ashokan inscriptions which mention the Chera, world at that time. Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire, Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga.

Hathigumpha Inscription

Chola Empire Map 3.2 Cholas Important Rulers Introduction After the end of the Gupta dynasty a little after the fifth Vijayalaya Chola (848 – 871 AD) Century AD, a process of political fragmentation started Vijayalaya Chola was the founder of the Imperial Chola in the whole subcontinent. Feudatories and subjugated empire. He ruled over the region to the north of the powers took the opportunity to become independent river Kaveri. Vijayalaya took advantage of fight between which led to emergence of small kingdoms. Rise of small the Pandyas and Pallavas and rose into prominence by Kingdoms increased rivalry and competition to gain capturing and the surrounding regions from the political supremacy. Elango Muttaraiyars, who was the final ruler of mutharaiyar dynasty. After capturing Tanjavur, Vijayalaya built a temple By 9th Century AD the Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas of of Goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga). He also undertook Badami and the Pandyas of emerged to be the the renovation of the city of Thanjavur. three major states. This phase after the Guptas saw far 18 Kingdoms of South India BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Shortly after Vijayalaya’s capture of Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu, the Gangavadi, Thanjavur, the Pandyan king Nolambapadi and northern part of Ceylon. Rajaraja’s last Varagunavarman II and Pallava King military achievement was a naval expedition against the Nandivarman III joined hands to Maldives Islands. reduce the growing prowess of Chola Rajaraja Chola I died in 1014 AD and was succeeded by power under Vijayalaya. Vijayalaya his son Rajendra Chola, who was declared as the crown Vijayalaya Chola Chola, a veteran of many battles, was getting old and thus handed the prince in 1012 AD. The powerful standing army and a control of the army to the crown prince . Soon, great navy organized under Rajaraja Chola-I achieved Aditya I succeeded his father as the emperor after his even greater heights under Rajendra Chola. death in 871 AD. Narttamalai, Pudukkottai has a solesvara temple attributed to vijayalaya. Rajendra Chola-I (1014 – 44 AD) Rajendra Chola is considered as Rajaraja Chola I (985 – 1014 AD) one of the greatest rulers and Rajaraja Chola I, born as military generals of South India. He Arulmozhi Varman, was one succeeded his father Rajaraja of the greatest emperors of Chola I in 1014 AD. Rajendra had the Chola Empire who ruled demonstrated his military between 985 and 1014 AD. In leadership skills during his father’s his reign, the Cholas reign. After becoming the ruler, he expanded beyond South continued his father’s policy of India stretching from Kalinga aggressive conquests and in the north to Sri Lanka in the expansion. Apart from reaching Rajendra Chola-I south. possessed a northwards to river Ganga and strong army and a moving overseas to Maldives and Sri Lanka, he also considerable navy. He fought invaded the Southeast Asian territories of in many battles with the Malaysia, Indonesia and southern Thailand making the Chalukyas in the north and Chola empire one of the most powerful empires of India. the Pandyas in the south. He His important conquests are as under: Rajaraja Chola I followed the school of Hinduism but was tolerant towards other faiths. In 1010, • When Mahinda V, the King of Sri Lanka attempted to Raja Raja built the Brihadesvara temple in Thanjavur recover the northern part of Sri Lanka from the Cholas, dedicated to Lord Shiva. He also helped in the construction Rajendra defeated him and seized even the southern of a Buddhist monastery at . Sri Lanka, thus taking control of the whole of Sri Lanka. • He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries. • He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and consequently, river Tungabadhra was recognized as the boundary between the Cholas and the Chalukyas. • His most significant military expedition was of North India. The Chola army crossed the by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign, Rajendra founded Brihadesvara Temple the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed Rajaraja I was involved in many successful military the famous Rameshwaram temple in the city. He also conquests during his reign. The extent of the Chola Empire excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the on the western side of the city. History of Medieval India 19 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group under Periyanattar and nadu under Nattar. The town was known as Nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called Nagarattar.

Village Assemblies The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule. Two inscriptions belonging to the period of found at Uttaramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village councils. The local administration was vested in village. Village administration was quite powerful and had the Gangaikondacholapuram power to collect revenue. Basically there was two type of villages. The first type was called ur. This type of village • Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval was consisted of people from different caste. The second expedition to Kadaram or Srivijaya. It is difficult to pin type of village was called agrahara. In this type only the point the real objective of the expedition. The naval caste Brahmins were settled. Most of the land in agrahara expedition was a complete success as the Chola forces was tax free. occupied a lot of places. But it was only temporary and no permanent annexation of these places was The affairs of the village were managed by executive contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan. committees. In this committee only educated person owning property were elected by drawing lots or by Like his father, Rajendra I also followed Shaivism. He built rotation. These members had to retire every three years. a temple for Lord Shiva at the new capital Gangaikonda There were other committees for helping in the assessment Cholapuram and made liberal endowments to this temple and collection of land revenue for the maintenance of law and to the Lord Nataraja temple located in . and order, justice etc. One of the important committee Rajendra I was tolerant towards other religions and sects was the tank committee which looked after the distribution including the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects. of water to the fields. The mahasabha could settle new Polity lands and exercise ownership rights over them. It could The system of governance under Cholas was monarchical. also raise loans for the village and levy taxes. The self- Besides and Thanjavur, government enjoyed by the Chola villages was a well Madurai and acted as regional capitals thought out system. under Rajendra I where occasional courts were held. The King was supreme with absolute authority and issued oral Military commands to officers as and when needed. As there was The Cholas maintained a regular standing army, of which no formal legislative process, the fairness of the King’s the King was the supreme commander. The military order depended on his intuition, morality and belief. consisted of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. The Chola army was spread throughout the country and was Administration stationed in local garrisons or military camps called as The Chola kingship was hereditary in nature. King was Kodagams. Many war elephants were present in Chola centre of all the power in which all the decision making army as they played a vital role in wars. The Chola army power was vested, though he was aided and advised by used weapons such as bows, swords, spears, javelins, the council of ministers on different matters. Chola Empire and shields which were made up of steel. About seventy was divided into provincial, district and local administration. regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions of which the There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising royal troops were called as Kaikkolaperumpadai. The royal various officials called Perundanam and Sirudanam. troops had personal troops, named Velaikkarar to defend the King. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy, Provincial Administration which played a prominent role in the expansion of Chola The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each Empire. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there peak under the Cholas as they controlled the Malabar and were a number of autonomous villages. The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams. The valanadu was Coromandal coast.