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How the Cuisine of Large-Scale, Upmarket Tourist Resorts Shapes Agricultural Development in Fiji

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How the Cuisine of Large-Scale, Upmarket Tourist Resorts Shapes Agricultural Development in Fiji Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. What’s on the Menu? How the cuisine of large-scale, upmarket tourist resorts shapes agricultural development in Fiji A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatū New Zealand Gabriel C. M. Laeis (2019) Abstract Tourism is an economic backbone for many developing countries, especially small island development states (SIDS). Nevertheless, scholars have argued that tourism is a global- ising and, potentially, colonising force that may not be a sustainable path for the economic and cultural development of such countries. Even though international tourist numbers are growing, economic leakages are high in developing countries. This is partly due to a significant share of food being imported for tourists, despite local food production. Re- search on the impediments of agriculture-tourism linkages in developing countries has so far taken mostly an economistic approach, finding a variety of supply, demand, marketing and policy related factors. To allow for a more holistic approach, this study takes a cul- tural perspective and investigates how the cuisine of large-scale, upmarket tourist resorts shapes agricultural development in SIDS, such as Fiji. Sahlins’ (1992) theory of cultural change is combined with the corporate community development framework (Banks, Scheyvens, McLennan, & Bebbington, 2016) to explore the agency of Fijians in negoti- ating the impact of Western-dominated tourism. This study employed ethnographic methods in a case study approach during a four-month field trip to Fiji. Participation and observation in a resort kitchen, field visits to other resorts, farms and food intermediaries, 38 interviews as well as document analysis ena- bled a rich representation of local viewpoints on food, culture and tourism. Large-scale resorts present Fijian cuisine either in the form of tokenistic ‘island night shows’, or in fusion concepts that cater to a few affluent guests. Fijian chefs rarely perceive their own cuisine as valuable, due to decades of Western-dominated tourism. The use of local pro- duce is accordingly low and purposeful development of tourism-agriculture linkages is rare. Farmers, on the other hand, recognise resorts as a valuable market. Nevertheless, many Indo-Fijian farmers turn towards food exporters as a more reliable and predictable business partner. Indigenous food producers engage only to a degree that they deem val- uable for their own socio-cultural needs and goals. Findings suggest that small-scale re- sorts, catering to niche markets, might be more conducive to local integration and sus- tainable tourism development. Policy-wise, developing the agricultural agenda of SIDS to match the requirements of Western diets might have environmentally and socially det- rimental implications. ii Acknowledgements To all participants in Fiji who have so generously taken their time to share their thoughts on food, culture, tourism, farming and development in Fiji, especially the entire team of the Outrigger Fiji Beach Resort: this work is dedicated to you all. In a very real sense, you made this study. A very, very vinaka vakalevu to my dear Ofa and Talatala Rokomatu for – so unexpect- edly – taking me up into your family and introducing me to Fiji, its culture, hospitality, food and sense of humour. Loloma! None of this would have happened without the empathic and supportive minds and hearts of my two supervisors, Regina Scheyvens and Carolyn Morris. Thank you so much for your guidance and support from the first skype call to the last word of this thesis. A big thank you to Robert Oliver and the WWF Pacific staff for inviting me to come along to Fiji and helping me establish initial contacts during my first trip to Fiji. That was exceedingly kind of you and proved invaluable for the development of this thesis. To Mum and Dad, who have once again supported education above all else: thank you for making this journey happen. I love you both. No PhD is written without the continuously nagging soundtrack of other frantic PhD stu- dents. To my beloved associates of the ‘Massey PhD Curmudgeon Club’: Axel, Emma, Ginny, Heidi, Hina, Martin, Michael, Natalie, Waheed and Weqas. Even though not part of the club, yet true curmudgeons at heart: to Sam and Bebe, thank you for providing me with a home away from home and letting me take over your garden. To my three examiners, Glenn Banks, Tracy Berno and Willy Legrand: thank you for your constructive and supportive reviews and a great discussion afterwards! The financial support of Massey University’s Doctoral Scholarship and School of People, Environment and Planning’s Post-Graduate Research Fund is gratefully acknowledged. In loving memory of my godmother Rosemarie and my Fijian host father Talatala Roko- matu, who passed away in the course of this PhD journey. Palmerston North / Bonn, 13. April 2019 iii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii List of Pictures ............................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... x 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Fish’n’chips in Paradise ................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Globalisation, tourism and cultural change ................................................................ 3 1.3 Tourism in Fiji ................................................................................................................. 8 1.4 Research aims and objectives .................................................................................... 13 1.5 Key arguments ............................................................................................................. 14 1.6 Chapter outline ............................................................................................................. 14 2 TOURISM AND DEVELOPMENT ............................................................. 17 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 17 2.2 The economic perspective .......................................................................................... 17 2.3 Tourism’s effects on destinations: Linkages, leakages and beyond ..................... 19 2.4 Tourism, development and sustainability ................................................................. 21 2.4.1 Tourism and development ......................................................................................... 21 2.4.2 Sustainable tourism ................................................................................................... 23 2.4.3 The nexus of sustainability and development: The good life ..................................... 25 2.5 Tourism development in SIDS .................................................................................... 27 2.6 Postcolonialism and neocolonialisation through tourism ...................................... 29 2.7 Corporate community development .......................................................................... 32 2.7.1 From CSR to CCD ..................................................................................................... 33 2.7.2 CCD and tourism ....................................................................................................... 35 2.8 Chapter summary ......................................................................................................... 38 3 TOURISM AND AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ........... 40 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 40 3.2 Linking agriculture and tourism ................................................................................. 40 3.3 Impeding factors .......................................................................................................... 43 3.4 Critique of the literature .............................................................................................. 46 3.5 Examples of successful linkages ............................................................................... 49 3.6 Agriculture-tourism linkages in Fiji ............................................................................ 51 iv 3.7 Chapter summary ........................................................................................................
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