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Home , Alfred Hugenberg, Alois Hitler, Anton Drexler, Braunau am Inn, Dietrich Eckart, Erich Ludendorff

10/9/19

Nazis in American Consciousness Senior Scholars: Interwar Europe: • What do we know about Nazis? Working Out Modernity • What shapes our image of Nazis? in the Midst of Crisis

Fall 2019 Prof. Kenneth F. Ledford [email protected] 368-4144

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Rise of NSDAP

• Powerful counter-voice to economic, political, and cultural Hitler, 1923 change – National Socialist German Workers’ Party • Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei, NSDAP – Founded January 5, 1919, by – Party Member 7: • of Braunau am in

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• Early history of party gave no hint of great success • NSDAP began as inconspicuous member of vast array of – Its charismatic leader, Hitler, developed an ideology that was basis for racialist, nationalist, militarist groups that sprang up in appeal to German people in early 1919 • Adopting tactic of legality after 1923, languished until Great – Founded January 5, 1919, by wood-turner Anton Drexler Depression – Hitler joined in September 1919 as party member 7 • Understanding of political developments 1929-33 crucial to understanding how NSDAP came to power

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• Hitler born in in Austria – Son of lower civil servant, customs collector on April 20, 1888 – Indifferent student, sought admission to art academy in but denied admission after failing admission exam several times – Lived dissolute life in Vienna 1907-13 – Absorbed of Christian Social movement of mayor Karl Lueger – Struggled to support himself, rejecting, violently, appeals of organized working class – May 1913 moved to Munich to avoid military service

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• In , Hitler volunteered for Bavarian Army and • Initially, Hitler shared spotlight with other leaders entered service at front in France on October 23, 1914 – In 1921, formed (SA) under leadership of Captain Ernst – Served as message runner and rose to rank of corporal Röhm – Service in army was meritorious, not as valiant as he made it out to be – Heavily influenced by antisemitism of and Julius • Won , First Class Streicher – October 14, 1918, hospitalized near Stettin, allegedly because of a gas – Heavily influenced by geo-racial teachings of Prof. Karl Haushofer of attack, but really because of PTSD University of Munich – December 1918 returned to to guard POW camp, experienced – Fell into company of General excitement of revolutionary events of April-May 1919

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Ernst Röhm

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Hitler and SA in 1926

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Gottfried Feder Dietrich Eckart Prof. Karl Haushofer

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• Attempted famous on November 8-9, 1923 – Failed – Convicted of conspiracy to overthrow republic – Sentenced to 5 years Festungshaft in – Released after 9 months – While in prison, dictated his great ideological thesis (My Struggle) to his secretary, – Developed his ideological blueprint to which he remained remarkably true for the rest of his career

NSDAP Rally, Bürgerbräukeller, Munich

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Beer Hall Putsch, November 9, 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, November 9, 1923

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Beer Hall Putsch, Odeonsplatz and Feldherrnhalle

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Hitler and Ludendorff after trial 1924

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• National Socialist ideology – Anti-modern – Replace economics with biology as key to understanding existence – Stress on will – Lessons of • and – Übermensch and Führerprinzip

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• Key points of NSDAP Program: • Charismatic leader, der Führer, the leader – Restoration of German greatness through elimination of limits of – Organizing principle of Führerprinzip, based upon Führerbefehle – Antisemitism, hostility to as immutable bearers of modernism, capitalism, , and racial impurity – Opposition to capitalism and replacement of capitalist individualism by submission of interests of individual to greater good of racial community (Volksgemeinschaft)

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• Two key concepts of “race” and “space” • Hitler drew 3 lessons from failure of Beer Hall Putsch – History is biological struggle of races organized as nations – Abandoned idea of Putsch for idea of achieving power through legal – Struggle is over space, meaning agriculturally productive land means – Agriculturally productive land in Europe viewed as existing in East • Did not entail abandonment of force – Populated by hated and inferior races – Party thus needed to diversify in both constituency and geography • Slavs and Jews, whom Hitler often equated – Both Party and SA had to be firmly subordinated to obedience to will • Ruled by Communists, whom he also equated with Jews of Führer

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Rise of NSDAP

• But electoral progress slow during the years of stabilization of the – 6.5% 32 deputies – December 1924 3.0% 14 deputies – May 1928 2.6% 12 deputies

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• Patiently expanded organizational basis • February 28, 1925, President died – To create “alternative culture,”, a “socio-moral environment” for – Hochverrat (High Treason) trial in Magdeburg members • 1926 – National Socialist German Student’s Association • 1926 – Hitlerjugend () • 1928 – Lawyers’ Association • 1929 – National Socialist Union of School Pupils • 1929 – Medical Doctors, Teachers, other University-educated people

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Death of Ebert, 1925 • Presidential Election 1925 – First Election, March 29, 1925: 7 candidates, no majority • , DVP and DNVP 10.4 MM • , SPD 7.8 MM • , Zentrum 3.9 MM • Ernst Thälmann, KPD >2.0 MM

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Wilhelm Marx, Center Party, 1925 Otto Braun

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• Presidential Election 1925 – Before runoff, persuaded by DNVP to become candidate of united right • First got permission from Wilhelm II in exile in Doorn – SPD backed Marx of Zentrum – KPD refused and ran Thälmann – Second Election April 26: • Hindenburg 14.6 MM 48.3% • Marx 13.7 MM 45.3% • Thälmann 1.9 MM 6.4% Ernst Thälmann

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Hindenburg Election Poster 1925

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• Hindenburg, 78 when elected, favored keeping DNVP in • SPD won great electoral victory in May 1928 coalitions and SPD out – SPD returned to government under Hermann Müller as Chancellor – Replaced a bourgeois bloc with a Grand Coalition – After Depression began, cooperation between SPD and Center-DDP- DVP broke down over how to cover budget deficit

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Hermann Müller (SPD), Chancellor 1928ß30 Müller Cabinet, 1928

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• DNVP under Hugenberg cooperated for NSDAP and Hitler for first time in referendum in March 1930 • Failed, but campaign provided Hitler a platform for and respectability • NSDAP met greater success in state elections – Entered state government coalition in Thüringen in 1930

Alfred Hugenberg, Anti-Young Plan campaign

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• Crushing budget question was how to pay for unemployment benefits during mass unemployment – Led to collapse of Müller government on March 27, 1930 – Replaced by “presidential” government led by Heinrich Brüning on March 28 – Brainchild of General Kurt von Schleicher

SA as part of Harzburg Front, Anti-Young Plan campaign

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Heinrich Brüning Brüning in 1932

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Unemployment 1929-32

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Brüning Cabinet 1930

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• July 1930, Brüning introduced special tax and cut in unemployment benefits by Emergency Decree under Article 48 of Weimar Constitution – Rejected by Reichstag under Article 48 – Brüning called new elections for September 14, 1930

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• Presidential re-election campaign of Hindenburg – First ballot, March 12, 1932 • Hindenburg 49.6% • Hitler 30.1% • Thälmann 13.1% • Düsterberg 6.8%

Anti-Hitler Election Poster 1932

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Hindenburg Election Poster 1932 SPD Election Poster 1932

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• Presidential Election 1932 – Presidential Runoff, April 10 • Hindenburg 53.0% • Hitler 36.8% • Thälmann 10.1%

Hitler Presidential Campaign Posters 1932

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• Two-round presidential election campaign a great propaganda opportunity for NSDAP

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Ballot 1932 Presidential Runoff

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• May 29, 1932, Hindenburg asked for Brüning’s resignation – Replaced him with a “Cabinet of Barons” under – No party ministers at all – Again brainchild of General Kurt von Schleicher

von Papen “Cabinet of Barons” 1932

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• Franz von Papen

General Kurt von Schleicher

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Von Papen and Schleicher Presidential Cabinets under Article 48

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• July 20, 1932, coup d’etat against elected government in • Reichstag elections of July 31, 1932 by von Papen and national government – Showed that parties supporting von Papen enjoyed minimal support – Preußenschlag – Support for liberalism entirely gone – SPD and Prussian government sued in Supreme Court – Majority of vote cast for anti-republican parties on right and left – SPD lost its power base in government and control of Prussian police force

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• Papen’s cabinet defeated on September 12 in Reichstag by enormous majority – New elections set for November 6 – Nazi vote declined

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• Papen and Schleicher argued with Hindenburg to domesticate Hitler by bringing him into the cabinet – Done on January 30, 1933 – Presidential cabinet like Brüning, von Papen, von Schleicher, since 1930 – Soon to show that it was different

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Kurt von Schleicher 1933, Defense Minister then Chancellor

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SA Fackelzug Brandenburg Gate January 30, 1933

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• “Who Voted for Hitler?”

SA Marching Brandenburg Gate 1933

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Vote Trend NSDAP 1919-33

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Vote Tr end KPD 1919-33 Vot e Tr end DDP 1919-33

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Who Voted for Hitler?

• Electoral Turnout in Weimar Reichstag Elections – Jan. 1919 83.0 % – June 1920 79.2 % – May 1924 77.4 % – Dec. 1924 78.8 % – May 1928 75.6 % – Sept. 1930 82.0 % – July 1932 84.1 % – Nov. 1932 80.6 % – March 1933 88.7 %

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Who Voted for Hitler? Rise of NSDAP

• Electoral Turnout in Weimar Presidential Elections • “Who Voted for Hitler?” – 1925 – Lower middle-class of farmers, shopkeepers, handicraft artisans formed • First Round, March 68.5 % steady base • Second Round, April 77.0 % – Augmented by protest voters from white-collar new middle class, – 1932 retirees, those living off investment incomes • First Round, March 85.6 % – More support that previously supposed from higher social groups • Second Round, April 82.9 % – After 1930, inroads into blue-collar working class • Not workers in Catholic unions and subcultural milieu • Not workers in Socialist free trade unions and SPD subcultural milieu

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• “Who Voted for Hitler?” – Nazi vote varied inversely with size of community • Higher percentage in rural areas rather than in cities – Nazi vote disproportionately Protestant – Largest segment of population not voting for Nazis voted for left, SPD and KPD – Did not attract votes of unemployed – Did win majority of new voters energized in 1930 and 1932 – A majority of Nazi vote came from women • Kinder, Küche, Kirche

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