DOCSLIB.ORG

The Construction of Chinese Muslim Identities in Transnational Spaces

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Construction of Chinese Muslim Identities in Transnational Spaces review of religion and chinese society 5 (2018) 156-182 brill.com/rrcs The Construction of Chinese Muslim Identities in Transnational Spaces Yuting Wang American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates [email protected] Abstract Since the beginning of the reform and opening up in China nearly four decades ago, China’s Muslim minorities have restored connections with the global Muslim ummah (community) through religious pilgrimages, business activities, and educational and cultural exchanges. Whether attracted by better economic prospects or for religious purposes, an increasing number of Chinese Muslims have found ways out of China, taking sojourns or eventually settling down in diverse locations across the globe. Draw- ing on the author’s field research in China, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates, combined with a review of key studies on Chinese Muslims in Southeast Asia, this paper traces the shape of Chinese Muslim transnational networks and ex- amines the construction of “Chinese Muslim” identity in the diaspora. By locating the study of contemporary Chinese Muslims within the broader scholarship on transna- tional religion, this paper deepens our understanding of the impact of globalization on ethnoreligious minorities. Keywords Chinese Muslims – transnational migration – diasporic identity – transnational Islam – globalization © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2018 | doi 10.1163/22143955-00502003Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 08:38:16AM via free access <UN> The Construction of Chinese Muslim Identities 157 跨国空间里的华人穆斯林身份建构 摘要 改革开放近四十年以来，中国的穆斯林少数民族通过宗教朝觐，商业活 动，以及教育文化交流与世界各地的穆斯林社区恢复了联络。不论是基于 经济考虑或宗教目的，越来越多的中国穆斯林离开中国到海外各地暂居或 者定居。使用作者在中国，美国，阿联酋的田野资料，并结合其他学者对 东南亚华人穆斯林的研究，本文勾勒出华人穆斯林跨国网络的轮廓，并考 察移民社区中“华人穆斯林”身份的构建。将当代华人穆斯林置于跨国宗 教的研究领域之中，本文将加深我们对全球化进程中少数宗教族群的认 知。 关键词 华人穆斯林，跨国移民，流散身份，跨国伊斯兰，全球化 Introduction Chinese Muslims, or more precisely, Chinese-speaking Muslims, have in many ways become a transnational phenomenon in recent decades. More than sim- ply the result of cross-border population movement, the growing visibility of Chinese Muslim communities in Western academia1 and public discourses2 is also the byproduct of the escalating conflict between Islam and the West and the deeply rooted sectarian tensions within the Muslim ummah (community). The legitimacy of the very existence of Chinese Muslims is, on the one hand, threatened by the the invasion of modern and postmodern cultural influences 1 A rich and growing body of literature on Chinese Muslims and Islam in China has developed since the topic was first introduced to Western academia through the work of Jesuit mission- aries in the early twentieth century. James Frankel (2011) provided a review of key publica- tions in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Recent conferences and workshops held in the uk (International Conference on Ethnographies of Islam in China, held at the soas, University of London, in March 2017), the uae (Workshop on Islam in China and Chinese Muslims, held at the American University of Sharjah in January 2018), and Hong Kong (Inter- national Conference on Islam in the China Seas, held at the Chinese University of Hong Kong in March 2018) suggest that the field remains relevant in different areas of academic research. 2 Major media outlets in the West, for example Foreign Affairs and the New York Times, fre- quently report on the affairs of Muslim minorities in China. review of religion and chinese society 5 (2018) 156-182Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 08:38:16AM via free access <UN> 158 Wang that confront those desiring to preserve an ancient tradition, and on the other hand celebrated as a sign of the universality of Islam and of the possibility of cross-cultural dialogues and cooperation. Therefore, the vitality of Chinese Muslims in transnational spaces presents a fascinating case study for both theologians (e.g., Abd-Allah 2004, 2006) and academics. Recently, there has been a renewed scholarly interest in the growing ties between Chinese Muslims in mainland China and the diasporic communities in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and beyond (Ho 2010, 2013; Wang 2016; Cieciura 2018 [in this issue]). A complex Chinese Muslim transnational network, as shown in these studies, links closely knit communities in remote corners of Northwest China to individuals scattered in large metropolises from the Middle East to North America, and is sustained by powerful social media. The historical ties between China and Southeast Asia and the prevailing Islamic culture in the re- gion make it attractive to potential Chinese Muslim migrants. The Middle East and North Africa is another desirable destination, for both religious and eco- nomic reasons. A constant flow of Chinese Muslims has traveled to countries like Tunisia, Syria, Egypt, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia, either through official channels or by private means, in order to study in some of the most reputable religious universities or madrasas in the Islamic world. Some of these students, who initially aspired to become imams after completing their studies, took ad- vantage of the growing appetite for Chinese products in the region to build their own trading companies. The rapid economic growth in the Arabian Gulf countries over the last two decades has also drawn a large number of Chinese Muslims, especially from the less developed region of Northwest China. The global North remains an ideal destination for Chinese migrants, including a stream of Chinese Muslims with strong academic credentials and rich pro- fessional experience. Nevertheless, the implications of the increasing cross- border mobility of Chinese Muslims and of the expanding Chinese Muslim transnational networks, both tangible and virtual, on the identities of Chinese Muslims have not been adequately addressed in the existing scholarship. Stud- ies of Chinese Muslim migrants remain outside the mainstream scholarship on Muslim immigrants and on the Chinese diaspora. This paper seeks to bridge these fields by examining the divergent approaches to being and becoming “Chinese Muslims” within a multilayered and expansive Chinese Muslim transnational network. Drawing on my field research in China, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates, combined with a review of key studies on Chinese Muslims in Southeast Asia, this paper traces the shape of the Chinese Muslim trans- national network and the construction of a “Chinese Muslim” identity in varied contexts. To deepen our understanding of the impact of globalization on ethnoreligious minorities and align the study of Chinese Muslims more review of religion and chineseDownloaded society from 5 Brill.com10/01/2021 (2018) 156-182 08:38:16AM via free access <UN> The Construction of Chinese Muslim Identities 159 closely with the agenda of mainstream scholarship, this paper begins by locat- ing the study of contemporary Chinese Muslims within the broad scholarship on transnational religion, specifically transnational Islam.3 It proposes that Chinese Islam, although a local development, is increasingly a transnational religious phenomenon. The identity of contemporary Chinese Muslims is a product of transnational migration and exchanges. It is neither static nor uni- form, but arises from individually conceived ideas responding to a sense of homelessness and anomie that combine to form a strategy to aid the search for a “third space” (Fischer 2004) and a new home in a fragmented world. The role of Islam in this process is important, but not always essential; indeed, the very concept of “Chinese Muslims” reveals the complex relationship between culture and religion. Chinese Islam: The Dialectic between Local and Global Spanning some fourteen hundred years, the history of Islam in China has been greatly shaped by continuous negotiations over spatial boundaries between Muslim minorities and non-Muslim majorities, and by the relationship be- tween local context and global forces. Islam, a monotheistic faith that arose in the Arabian Peninsula, is widely believed to have first arrived in China dur- ing the second half of the seventh century with Arab and Persian caravaneers and voyagers. Some of these pioneers settled down in coastal cities such as Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Changzhou, while others put down roots in the capital city of Chang’an (former name of Xi’an). By the eighth century, Muslim communities had been established in major urban areas (Israeli 2002:291–294). The Chinese imperial court welcomed the arrival of the “foreign guests” (fanke 蕃客), granting extraterritorial privileges within their residential areas, which were known as fanfang 蕃坊 (foreigners’ corners). The emperors ordered the building of mosques for their Muslim guests, some of which still stand today in Guangzhou and Xi’an.4 In the following millennia, these “foreign guests” weathered a turbulent his- tory in the Middle Kingdom and eventually put down roots in a largely Confu- cian society despite their distinctive beliefs and lifestyles. Islam evidently went through a process of Sinicization as it struggled to survive in the midst of an 3 For discussions of transnational Islam and global Islam, see Bowen 2004; Roy 2004; Cesari 2009; Leonard 2009. 4 The Huaisheng Mosque (怀圣寺) in Guangzhou is believed to be one of the oldest mosques ever built in China. The grand mosque in Xi’an was built in the fourteenth century. review of religion and chinese society 5 (2018) 156-182Downloaded from Brill.com10/01/2021 08:38:16AM via free access <UN> 160 Wang overwhelmingly polytheistic majority. Throughout a long period characterized
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Islamophobia and Religious Intolerance: Threats to Global Peace and Harmonious Co-Existence
    Qudus International Journal of Islamic Studies (QIJIS) Volume 8, Number 2, 2020 DOI : 10.21043/qijis.v8i2.6811 ISLAMOPHOBIA AND RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE: THREATS TO GLOBAL PEACE AND HARMONIOUS CO-EXISTENCE Kazeem Oluwaseun DAUDA National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), Jabi-Abuja, Nigeria Consultant, FARKAZ Technologies & Education Consulting Int’l, Ijebu-Ode [email protected] Abstract Recent events show that there are heightened fear, hostilities, prejudices and discriminations associated with religion in virtually every part of the world. It becomes almost impossible to watch news daily without scenes of religious intolerance and violence with dire consequences for societal peace. This paper examines the trends, causes and implications of Islamophobia and religious intolerance for global peace and harmonious co-existence. It relies on content analysis of secondary sources of data. It notes that fear and hatred associated with Islām and persecution of Muslims is the fallout of religious intolerance as reflected in most melee and growingverbal attacks, trends anti-Muslim of far-right hatred,or right-wing racism, extremists xenophobia,. It revealsanti-Sharī’ah that Islamophobia policies, high-profile and religious terrorist intolerance attacks, have and loss of lives, wanton destruction of property, violation led to proliferation of attacks on Muslims, incessant of Muslims’ fundamental rights and freedom, rising fear of insecurity, and distrust between Muslims and QIJIS, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2020 257 Kazeem Oluwaseun DAUDA The paper concludes that escalating Islamophobic attacks and religious intolerance globally hadnon-Muslims. constituted a serious threat to world peace and harmonious co-existence. Relevant resolutions in curbing rising trends of Islamophobia and religious intolerance are suggested.
    [Show full text]
  • Dangerous Truths
    Dangerous Truths The Panchen Lama's 1962 Report and China's Broken Promise of Tibetan Autonomy Matthew Akester July 10, 2017 About the Project 2049 Institute The Project 2049 Institute seeks to guide decision makers toward a more secure Asia by the century’s mid-point. Located in Arlington, Virginia, the organization fills a gap in the public policy realm through forward-looking, region-specific research on alternative security and policy solutions. Its interdisciplinary approach draws on rigorous analysis of socioeconomic, governance, military, environmental, technological and political trends, and input from key players in the region, with an eye toward educating the public and informing policy debate. About the Author Matthew Akester is a translator of classical and modern literary Tibetan, based in the Himalayan region. His translations include The Life of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, by Jamgon Kongtrul and Memories of Life in Lhasa Under Chinese Rule by Tubten Khetsun. He has worked as consultant for the Tibet Information Network, Human Rights Watch, the Tibet Heritage Fund, and the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center, among others. Acknowledgments This paper was commissioned by The Project 2049 Institute as part of a program to study "Chinese Communist Party History (CCP History)." More information on this program was highlighted at a conference titled, "1984 with Chinese Characteristics: How China Rewrites History" hosted by The Project 2049 Institute. Kelley Currie and Rachael Burton deserve special mention for reviewing paper drafts and making corrections. The following represents the author's own personal views only. TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Image: Mao Zedong (centre), Liu Shaoqi (left) meeting with 14th Dalai Lama (right 2) and 10th Panchen Lama (left 2) to celebrate Tibetan New Year, 1955 in Beijing.
    [Show full text]
  • View / Download 7.3 Mb
    Between Shanghai and Mecca: Diaspora and Diplomacy of Chinese Muslims in the Twentieth Century by Janice Hyeju Jeong Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Engseng Ho, Advisor ___________________________ Prasenjit Duara, Advisor ___________________________ Nicole Barnes ___________________________ Adam Mestyan ___________________________ Cemil Aydin Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2019 ABSTRACT Between Shanghai and Mecca: Diaspora and Diplomacy of Chinese Muslims in the Twentieth Century by Janice Hyeju Jeong Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Engseng Ho, Advisor ___________________________ Prasenjit Duara, Advisor ___________________________ Nicole Barnes ___________________________ Adam Mestyan ___________________________ Cemil Aydin An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2019 Copyright by Janice Hyeju Jeong 2019 Abstract While China’s recent Belt and the Road Initiative and its expansion across Eurasia is garnering public and scholarly attention, this dissertation recasts the space of Eurasia as one connected through historic Islamic networks between Mecca and China. Specifically, I show that eruptions of
    [Show full text]
  • Religion in China BKGA 85 Religion Inchina and Bernhard Scheid Edited by Max Deeg Major Concepts and Minority Positions MAX DEEG, BERNHARD SCHEID (EDS.)
    Religions of foreign origin have shaped Chinese cultural history much stronger than generally assumed and continue to have impact on Chinese society in varying regional degrees. The essays collected in the present volume put a special emphasis on these “foreign” and less familiar aspects of Chinese religion. Apart from an introductory article on Daoism (the BKGA 85 BKGA Religion in China proto­typical autochthonous religion of China), the volume reflects China’s encounter with religions of the so-called Western Regions, starting from the adoption of Indian Buddhism to early settlements of religious minorities from the Near East (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) and the early modern debates between Confucians and Christian missionaries. Contemporary Major Concepts and religious minorities, their specific social problems, and their regional diversities are discussed in the cases of Abrahamitic traditions in China. The volume therefore contributes to our understanding of most recent and Minority Positions potentially violent religio-political phenomena such as, for instance, Islamist movements in the People’s Republic of China. Religion in China Religion ∙ Max DEEG is Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of Cardiff. His research interests include in particular Buddhist narratives and their roles for the construction of identity in premodern Buddhist communities. Bernhard SCHEID is a senior research fellow at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. His research focuses on the history of Japanese religions and the interaction of Buddhism with local religions, in particular with Japanese Shintō. Max Deeg, Bernhard Scheid (eds.) Deeg, Max Bernhard ISBN 978-3-7001-7759-3 Edited by Max Deeg and Bernhard Scheid Printed and bound in the EU SBph 862 MAX DEEG, BERNHARD SCHEID (EDS.) RELIGION IN CHINA: MAJOR CONCEPTS AND MINORITY POSITIONS ÖSTERREICHISCHE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN PHILOSOPHISCH-HISTORISCHE KLASSE SITZUNGSBERICHTE, 862.
    [Show full text]
  • Islam in China More Legitimate Than Their Death in 632 CE
    Asian Intercultural Contacts he presence of Muslims in as they did not proselytize, the China challenges the con- government did not interfere Tventional wisdom about with the practice of their reli- both the country’s isolationism gion. Nor did it impose itself on and homogeneity in traditional their communities, which had times. In fact, pre-modern their own judges who adminis- China dealt with a great variety tered Islamic law. They formed of foreign states, tribes, empires, virtually self-governing entities. and confederations, and numer- Other than one disastrous ous foreign religions reached episode, relations between and influenced the so-called China, the Islamic communities, Middle Kingdom. Globalization, and the world were amicable. A to use modern terminology, af- conflict erupted between Tang fected China long before the and Arab armies near the Talas twenty-first century. Other than River in Central Asia. In 751, Buddhism, Islam was China’s Arab forces defeated the Chi- most important foreign religious nese, but had to return to West import. Indeed Muslims, both Asia because of the temporary Chinese and non-Chinese, cur- turbulence accompanying the rently are found throughout the Abbasid overthrow of the country. A survey of the history Umayyad Caliphate (661–750). of the Islamic communities in The Abbasids, one of the most China is essential for an under- glorious West Asian dynasties standing of the present status of (750–1258), claimed descent Muslims in the country. Islam from one of Muhammad’s un- reached China within a few cles, portrayed themselves as decades after Muhammad’s Islam In ChIna more legitimate than their death in 632 CE.
    [Show full text]
  • Confessional Peculiarity of Chinese Islam Nurzat M
    INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL & SCIENCE EDUCATION 2016, VOL. 11, NO. 15, 7906-7915 OPEN ACCESS Confessional Peculiarity of Chinese Islam Nurzat M. Mukana, Sagadi B. Bulekbayeva, Ainura D. Kurmanaliyevaa, Sultanmurat U. Abzhalova and Bekzhan B. Meirbayeva aAl-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, KAZAKHSTAN ABSTRACT This paper considers features of Islam among Muslim peoples in China. Along with the traditional religions of China - Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam influenced noticeable impact on the formation of Chinese civilization. The followers of Islam have a significant impact on ethno-religious, political, economic and cultural relations of the Chinese society. Ethno-cultural heterogeneity of Chinese Islam has defined its confessional identity. The peculiarity of Chinese Islam is determined, firstly, with its religious heterogeneity. In China there all three main branches of Islam: Sunnism, Shiism, and Sufism. Secondly, the unique nature of Chinese Islam is defined by close relationship with the traditional religions of China (Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism) and Chinese population folk beliefs. Chinese Islam has incorporated many specific feat ures of the traditional religious culture of China, which heavily influenced on the religious consciousness and religious activities of Chinese Muslims. KEYWORDS ARTICLE HISTORY Chinese Muslims, history of Islam, confessional Received 21 March 2016 heterogeneity, Islamic branches, religions of China Revised 05 June 2016 Accepted 19 June 2016 Introduction Political and ethno-cultural processes taking place in contemporary Chinese society lead us to a deeper study of the religious history of China (Ho et al., 2014). Along with the traditional religions of China - Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam influenced noticeable impact on the formation of Chinese civilization (Tsin, 2009; Erie & Carlson, 2014; Gulfiia, Parfilova & Karimova, 2016).
    [Show full text]
  • Indonesian Schools: Shaping the Future of Islam and Democracy in a Democratic Muslim Country
    Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 5 Issue 1 Spring 2015 http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252 Indonesian Schools: Shaping the Future of Islam and Democracy in a Democratic Muslim Country Kathleen E. Woodward University of North Georgia This paper examines the role of schools in slowly Islamizing Indonesian society and politics. Why is this Islamization happening and what does it portend for the future of democracy in Indonesia? The research is mostly qualitative and done through field experience, interviews, and data collection. It is concluded that radical madrasahs are not the main generators of Islamization, but instead the widespread prevalence of moderate Islamic schools are Islamizing Indonesian society and politics. The government began the “mainstreaming” of Islamic elementary and secondary schools, most of which are private, in 1975. This has continued and grown, making them popular options for education today. The government has more recently been increasing the role of state run Islamic universities by expanding their degree offerings to include many non- Islamic disciplines. The use of Islamic schools to educate Indonesians is due to the lack of development of secular public schools and high informal fees charged for the public schools. By making Islamic schools an attractive option that prepares students for success, society has been Islamized slowly as the number of alumni increases and as these alumni play leadership roles in society, business, and government. This Islamization is not of a radical nature, but it is resulting in more Islamic focused public discourse and governing policy, and low levels of tolerance for other faiths and variant Muslim practices.
    [Show full text]
  • The Rise of Islamic Religious-Political
    Hamid Fahmy Zarkasyi THE RISE OF ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS-POLITICAL MOVEMENTS IN INDONESIA The Background, Present Situation and Future1 Hamid Fahmy Zarkasyi The Institute for Islamic Studies of Darussalam, Gontor Ponorogo, Indonesia Abstract: This paper traces the roots of the emergence of Islamic religious and political movements in Indonesia especially during and after their depoliticization during the New Order regime. There were two important impacts of the depoliticization, first, the emergence of various study groups and student organizations in university campuses. Second, the emergence of Islamic political parties after the fall of Suharto. In addition, political freedom after long oppression also helped create religious groups both radical on the one hand and liberal on the other. These radical and liberal groups were not only intellectual movements but also social and political in nature. Although the present confrontation between liberal and moderate Muslims could lead to serious conflict in the future, and would put the democratic atmosphere at risk, the role of the majority of the moderates remains decisive in determining the course of Islam and politics in Indonesia. Keywords: Islamic religious-political movement, liberal Islam, non-liberal Indonesian Muslims. Introduction The rise of Islamic political parties and Islamic religious movements after the fall of Suharto was not abrupt in manner. The process was gradual, involving numbers of national and global factors. 1 The earlier version of this paper was presented at the conference “Islam and Asia: Revisiting the Socio-Political Dimension of Islam,” jointly organized by Japan Institute of International Affairs (JIIA) and Institute of Islamic Understanding Malaysia (IKIM), 15-16 October, Tokyo.
    [Show full text]
  • Islam in Asia: People, Practices, Traditions ABOUT the EXPLORING ASIA PROJECT and the “ISLAM in ASIA: PEOPLE, PRACTICES, TRADITIONS” SERIES
    NEWSPAPERS IN EDUCATION PRESENTS Islam In asIa: PeoPle, PractIces, tradItIons ABOUT THE EXPLORING ASIA PROJECT AND THE “ISLAM IN ASIA: PEOPLE, PRACTICES, TRADITIONS” SERIES Exploring Asia is a collaborative project between the Newspapers In Education program of The Seattle Times and the University of Washington’s Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies’ Asia and Global Studies outreach centers. The project consists of a five- article series, a teaching guide and a pre-series workshop for secondary teachers. Designed with young readers in mind, articles in this year’s Exploring Asia online newspaper series titled “Islam in Asia: People, Practices, Traditions” focus on social, political, educational, devotional and cultural practices in Islamic societies in Asia, where a majority of the world’s Muslims live. The five-part series includes articles on Indonesia, Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan and China, as well as an overview of Islam in Asia. This teaching guide provides a lesson plan for each article and activities to do with students before, during and after reading the featured weekly article. Together, the articles and accompanying lessons take students on an exploration of Islam in several Asian countries, asking students to look at the issues from multiple perspectives and to promote understanding. The points of view represented in the articles and the guide materials are a sampling of perspectives among many viewpoints on these issues. AUTHOR OF THE TEACHING GUIDE The author of the teaching guide for Exploring Asia’s “Islam in Asia: People, Practices, Traditions” series is Tese Wintz Neighbor. Tese Wintz Neighbor received a Master of Art degree in China Regional Studies from the Henry M.
    [Show full text]
  • The Chinese Communists Find Religion the Struggle for the Selection of the Next Dalai Lama
    Policy Forum The Chinese Communists Find Religion The Struggle for the Selection of the Next Dalai Lama Anne Thurston Lhamo Thondup was just two years old when he was recognized as the reincarnation of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama. The Great Thirteenth, as he is popularly known, had died in Lhasa in 1933 at the age of fifty-eight. The team charged with finding his new incarnation was composed of leading lamas from monasteries in Tibet, and some were eminent reincarnations themselves. Clues and omens unique to Tibetan Buddhism— some provided by the Thirteenth Dalai Lama himself—guided their search. The Dalai Lama had intimated that his reincarnation would be found in the east. Thus, when the head of the embalmed Great Thirteenth was discovered to have turned overnight from facing south to pointing northeast, the search team was certain which direction their journey should take. When the regent in charge of the search visited the sacred Lhamo Lhatso Lake and gazed into its deep blue waters, the characters for “Ah,” “Ka,” and “Ma” appeared, and he saw a hilltop monastery with a golden roof and an ordinary farmer’s house with strangely configured gutters. The “Ah” led the search team to the Amdo region of eastern Tibet, then governed by the Hui (Muslim) warlord Ma Bufang as Qinghai, as the region is known in Chinese. The “Ka” and the vision of a monastery led them to Amdo’s Kumbum monastery, one of Tibetan Buddhism’s leading seats of religious learning, built by the founder of the Gelugpa, or Yellow Hat, school of Buddhism to which all Dalai Lamas have belonged.
    [Show full text]
  • Congressional-Executive Commission on China
    CONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVE COMMISSION ON CHINA ANNUAL REPORT 2017 ONE HUNDRED FIFTEENTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION OCTOBER 5, 2017 Printed for the use of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China ( Available via the World Wide Web: http://www.cecc.gov VerDate Nov 24 2008 16:24 Oct 04, 2017 Jkt 000000 PO 00000 Frm 00001 Fmt 6011 Sfmt 5011 U:\DOCS\26811 DIEDRE 2017 ANNUAL REPORT VerDate Nov 24 2008 16:24 Oct 04, 2017 Jkt 000000 PO 00000 Frm 00002 Fmt 6019 Sfmt 6019 U:\DOCS\26811 DIEDRE CONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVE COMMISSION ON CHINA ANNUAL REPORT 2017 ONE HUNDRED FIFTEENTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION OCTOBER 5, 2017 Printed for the use of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China ( Available via the World Wide Web: http://www.cecc.gov U.S. GOVERNMENT PUBLISHING OFFICE 26–811 PDF WASHINGTON : 2017 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Publishing Office Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512–1800; DC area (202) 512–1800 Fax: (202) 512–2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402–0001 VerDate Nov 24 2008 16:24 Oct 04, 2017 Jkt 000000 PO 00000 Frm 00003 Fmt 5011 Sfmt 5011 U:\DOCS\26811 DIEDRE CONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVE COMMISSION ON CHINA LEGISLATIVE BRANCH COMMISSIONERS Senate House MARCO RUBIO, Florida, Chairman CHRISTOPHER H. SMITH, New Jersey, JAMES LANKFORD, Oklahoma Cochairman TOM COTTON, Arkansas ROBERT PITTENGER, North Carolina STEVE DAINES, Montana TRENT FRANKS, Arizona TODD YOUNG, Indiana RANDY HULTGREN, Illinois DIANNE FEINSTEIN, California MARCY KAPTUR, Ohio JEFF MERKLEY, Oregon TIMOTHY J. WALZ, Minnesota GARY PETERS, Michigan TED LIEU, California ANGUS KING, Maine EXECUTIVE BRANCH COMMISSIONERS Department of State, To Be Appointed Department of Labor, To Be Appointed Department of Commerce, To Be Appointed At-Large, To Be Appointed At-Large, To Be Appointed ELYSE B.
    [Show full text]
  • 16 Biblio 537 27/7/04, 11:48 AM 538 Durga’S Mosque
    Bibliography 537 BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY LUB, MS Lor. Leiden Universiteit Bibliothek, Leiden Oriental MS BL/IO British Library/India Office library LUB/LOr Leiden Universiteit Bibliothek: Leiden Oriental manuscript KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde PNRI: KBG Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia (Indonesian National Library): Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap NBS Netherlands Bible Society, loan collection, Leiden RAS Royal Asiatic Society (London) SMP/KS Surakarta MS Project: Karaton Surakarta SMP/MN Surakarta MS Project: Mangkunagaran (Palace library) SMP/RPM Surakarta MS Project: Radyapustaka Museum, Surakarta MANUSCRIPTS Babad Mangkunagaran, LUB, MS LOr. 6781. “Bundel Slametan dan Labuhan serta Kebo Maésa Lawung”, Mangkunagaran Palace Archives. Ms. 102 Ra. Fatwa-fatwané para Pinituwa (“Councils to the Elders”). Radèn Tanoyo. 1971. Gambar2 kanthi keterangan plabuhan dalem dhumateng redi2 saha dhateng seganten kidul nuju tingalan dalem jumengan mawi 11 lembar (verjaardag van troonsbestigang) from Ir. Moens Platen Album, no. 9 Museum Pusat, Yogyakarta, ms. 934 Dj. Kraemer, H. Autograph note on prayers (donga) important slametan and the Maésa Lawung with donga’s (LUB, MS LOr. 10.846 §4). Mangkunagaran Archives M.N.VI: (box 31) In 1915 the population of Krendawahana: 127 bau of cultivated fields and only 26 bau of rice fields. Mangkunagaran Archives: (box 5.256) As a sort of terminas ad quem for deforestration by 1947 the village of Krendawahana had 139 ha. under cultivation (all classes combined) and was paying an annual tax to the Mangkunagaran of 300 guilders. Pangruwatan. Leiden Oriental Ms. 6525 (1). Pradata (Ngabèhi Arya), Klathèn 1890. Information on 67 palabuhan offerings, with Dutch notes by Rouffaer.
    [Show full text]