Prophet Muhammad's Approaches to the Political System During the Meccan and Medinan Periods by Muhammed Murat Oymez

PROPHET MUHAMMAD’S APPROACHES TO THE POLITICAL SYSTEM DURING THE MECCAN AND MEDINAN PERIODS

MUHAMMED MURAT OYMEZ

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of in Political Science

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

MARCH 2020 ABSTRACT

The administrative and social structures formed by the Messenger of Allah in Medina are invaluable and integral for Muslims in their efforts to develop a practical Islamic political system. However, this specific example is provided not to encourage the blind imitation of an exact replica, but to understand how the creation of a political system compatible with Islam may be executed. The system implemented in Medina was not one that sought to destroy everything and to supplant a model that had yet to be seen; but rather, it was a continuation, albeit of a different paradigm, of the existing system. In other words, it constituted the reinterpretation of the existing processes in alignment with the rules of Islam. Therefore, this thesis aims to analyze Prophetic approaches to political authority using Ibn Khaldun’s Social Cohesion State Theory. Following a qualitative approach while reading, analyzing, and comparing the texts, this thesis analytically examines the events occurring during Prophet Muhammad’s lifetime rather than simply cataloguing what happened during the early period of Islam. More specifically, this thesis adopts J. David Velleman’s Narrative Explanation, which aims to correlate different variables, in its methodological approach. Following this correlation, this method attempts to find a causal justification between the variables.

ii ُمل خُصُالبحثُ

اهلياكل اإلدارية واالجتماعية اليت أنشأها رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم يف املدينة املنورة ؛ أنظمة

ال ت قدر بثمن نظ را إىل أمهيتها الكبرية يف أهنا العنصر الرئيس املو حد اجلامع جهود املسلمني كافة يف سبيل تطوير نظام سياسي إسالمي عملي ، وليس القصد من هذا املثل تشجيع التقليد األعمى لألصل حبذافريه، ولكنه يهدف إىل فهم كيفية تنفيذ وإنشاء نظام سياسي جديد ميكن أن يتفق مع اإلسالم، فنظام املدينة املنورة ال يسعى إىل حمو كل شيء واستبداله أبمنوذج ال ميكن رؤية أبعاده رؤية واضحة، وإمنا يشكل استمرا ا ر ألنظمة سابقة تطور ت من أمن وذج ات ختتلف عما يف النظام األخري، وعليه؛ يهدف البحث إىل حتليل املقارابت النبوية للسلطة السياسية ابستخدام نظرية حالة التماسك االجتماعي البن خلدون؛ القرتاح نظام يعيد تفسري اإلجراءات احلالية وحتليلها مبا يتم ىشمع قواعد اإلسالم، وذلك ابتباع هنج نوعي يف أثناء قراءة النصوص وحتليلها ومقارنتها، ويتناول البحث حتليلي ا الوقائع اليت حدثت يف حياة النيب صلى هللا عليه وسلم، بدال من سرد ما حدث خالل صدر اإلسالم سر دا سطحي ا، ويعتمد البحث حتدي دا شروحات ديفيد فيلمان وأطروحات ه اليت يهدف هبا إىل ربط املتغريات املختلفة يف منحاها املنهجي، ومن مث؛ من املمكن ابتباع هذه الطريقة مقرتنة مع الربط السابق ذكره؛ حتديد مس و غ سبيب هلذه املتغريات مجيعها.

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I have certified that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for degree of Master of Arts (Political Sciences).

………………………………………….. Abdi Omar Shuriye Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts (Political Sciences).

………………………………………….. Md. Moniruzzaman Internal Examiner

This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and it is accepted as a fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts (Political Sciences).

………………………………………….. Rabi'Ah Aminudin Head Department of Political Sciences

………………………………………….. Shukran Bin Abd Rahman Dean, Kulliyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

iv DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Muhammed Murat Oymez

Signature ………………………… Date ……………………..

v INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

PROPHET MUHAMMAD’S APPROACHES TO THE POLITICAL SYSTEM DURING THE MECCAN AND MEDINAN PERIODS

I declare that the copyright holder of this thesis is International Islamic University Malaysia.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Muhammed Murat Oymez

…………………………… ….………………………….. Signature Date

DEDICATION

-This thesis is dedicated to my wife and son. May Allah give us strength and happiness.

vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All glory is due to Allah, the Almighty, whose Grace and Mercies have been with me throughout the duration of my program. Although it has been tasking, His Mercies and Blessings on me have eased the herculean task of completing this thesis.

I am most indebted to by father in-law, Abdullah Omer Karamollaoglu, whose kindness, support, understanding, and friendship have facilitated the successful completion of my Master’s Degree.

I am also grateful to my supervisor, Prof. Dr Abdi Omar Shuriye and co- supervisor, Dr. Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar, whose support and cooperation contributed to the outcome of this work. In addition, I must thank my former supervisor, the Minister of Education of Malaysia Dr. Maszlee Malik and former co-supervisor, Datuk Dr. Marzuki bin Muhammad, for their great attribution to this thesis during its initial stages.

I put on record and appreciate to four of my supervisors for detailed comments, useful suggestions and inspiring queries, all of which have considerably improved the quality of this thesis. Their brilliant grasp of the aim and content of this work led to his insightful comments, suggestions and queries that helped me a great deal.

Lastly, my gratitude goes to my beloved wife and our family; for their prayers, understanding and endurance while away.

Once again, we glorify Allah for His endless mercy on us, one such manifestation being to successfully round off the efforts of writing this thesis. Alhamdulillah.

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Arabic Abstract ...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration ...... v Copyright Page ...... vi Acknowledgements ...... vii Table of Content ...... viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Study Background ...... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ...... 3 1.3 Study Rationale And Significance ...... 5 1.4 Study Limitations ...... 6 1.5 Research Questions ...... 7 1.6 Research Objectives...... 7 1.7 Literature Review ...... 8 1.8 Hypotheses and Variables...... 13 1.9 Research Methodology ...... 13 1.9.1 Research sources ...... 13 1.9.2 Data analysis ...... 14

CHAPTER TWO: IBN KHALDUN’S SOCIAL COHESION STATE THEORY ...... 15 2.1 Concept of Asabiyyah...... 17 2.2 Is Asabiyyah Racism?...... 20 2.3 Asabiyyah in the First Muslim Society ...... 22 2.4 Social Cohesion State Theory and Prophet Muhammad’s Approaches to the Political System ...... 26 2.5 Ibn Khaldun’s Theory of Social Cohesion State ...... 29

CHAPTER THREE: THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE EARLY ISLAMIC POLITICAL SYSTEM ... 32 3.2 The Political Structure and Situation of Mecca Before Revelation ...... 38 3.3 Was Mecca Predestined or Merely a Coincidence? ...... 46 3.4 The Political Situation After Revelation Until Hijrah ...... 48 3.5 The Sociological, Economic, and Political Effects of Revelation And Ensuing Conflicts ...... 51

CHAPTER FOUR:CHAPTER FIVE THE FEATURES OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD’S (PBUH) POLITICAL APPROACHES ...... 55 4.1 Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) as a Leader of the Opposition ...... 55 4.2 Migration and What it Meant During his Time ...... 57 4.3 Establishing of Political Authority and the First Islamic City-State ..... 59 4.4 The Role of the Medina Charter in Establishing Political Authority .... 63

ix 4.5 Dealing With External Issues: Relations, Wars, and Treaties ...... 66 4.6 Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) as Head Authority: Economics and Managing A Multi-Religious Community ...... 70

CHAPTER FIVE: PROPHETIC ACTIONS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON POLITICAL SYSTEMS ...... 72 5.1 The Meccan Period and Power Relations ...... 72 5.2 Prophet Muhammad’s (Pbuh) Model of Opposition ...... 74 5.3 The Medinan Period and the Prophetic State: An Example of Prophetic Political Power ...... 80

CHAPTER SIX ...... 90

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 94

x CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 STUDY BACKGROUND

It is only natural that societies may benefit from the experiences of other contemporary or former societies in their endeavor to forge a viable political system. Civilizations, tribes, and even primordial families have benefitted from others’ experiences throughout history. That said, one unique miraculous milestone altered the entire course of history – the revelation received by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). As Muslims, we believe and affirm that the Messenger of Allah is the person bestowed with divine revelation sent to guide us on the straight path. Billions of Muslims from past to present have followed, and continue to follow, what he enjoined on us or forbade us from doing.

However, even the Messenger of Allah benefitted from past generations’ experiences. Not only did he make use of Persian tactics1 in warfare, he extolled an organization (i.e., Hilf al-Fudul) during the period of ignorance2. This demonstrates that something of benefit for Islam worthy of emulation could very well exist even during the period of ignorance. With the Muslims’ emigration from Mecca occurring in 622, the

Messenger of Allah was bestowed an opportunity to demonstrate the political tenets of

Islam in practice, which have guided Muslims and clarified what is politically appropriate or inappropriate in Islam for more than 14 hundred years. One can fully grasp the Prophet

Muhammad’s political logic only after having gained an understanding of the social and political structure of Mecca, Yathrib, Taif, Abyssinia, and the greater region both prior

1 Taberi, Muhammed b. Jerir, Tarih-i Taberi II (Ta'rikh al-Rusul wa'l-Muluk), (Istanbul: Saglam Publications, 2017) p.556 2 Bin Hanbal, Imam Ahmad, Musnad I, (Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam,2012), p.193

1 and concurrent to his rule. Accordingly, the aim of this thesis is to analyze the factors that shaped the political struggle of the Messenger of Allah.

The administrative and social structures formed by the Messenger of Allah in

Medina are invaluable and constitute an integral mechanism for Muslims in their endeavors to construct a practical Islamic political system. However, this specific example is provided not to encourage the blind imitation of an exact replica, but to understand how the creation of a political system compatible with Islam may be executed. The system implemented in Medina was not one that sought to destroy everything and to supplant a model that had yet to be seen3; but rather, it was a continuation, albeit of a different paradigm, of the existing system4. In other words, it constituted the reinterpretation of the existing processes in alignment with the rules of

Islam.

It would be improper, of course, not to admit that crucial and deep-seated changes took place. However, it is imperative not to confuse the changes in the field of thought with the existent administrative and social structures that regulated daily life.

Specifically, systems and institutions related to social structures and administration are not beliefs per se, but are technical issues related to experiences. Not ignoring the experiences of the day, the Messenger of Allah further improved upon them with the values and concepts of Islam. While the Messenger of Allah created the administrative and social structure in Medina, he strove to actualize a system or model that would transcend the ages.

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) aimed to teach time-transcendent principles and values to all of humanity irrespective of the time and place in which they lived.5

3 Muhammad Hamidullah, The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam, p.17 4 Ibid., p.19. 5 The Holy Quran, 33:40

2 However, it is not the order, system, or model itself that is universal, but the methodology and mentality the Prophet adopted in creating this system. Accordingly, to follow the prophetic example requires one to investigate and understand the underlying logic of the Prophet’s actions and practices. The most important aspect of this logic is the status and function of divine revelation.

Instead of considering revelation to be a catalogue regulating various social apparatuses (e.g., administration, politics, economy, or law), the Messenger of Allah held it to be a book of exalted values. While he abolished or transformed some of the prevailing practices, he maintained others the way they had been. The models, institutions, and practices that had constituted the administrative and social makeup of the community in which the Messenger of Allah lived are insufficient to satisfy the needs of a county today, let alone one of yesteryear. With this understood, it becomes apparent that mere imitation is not the appropriate application of the prophetic method.

The above notwithstanding, the actions of the Messenger of Allah should be carefully scrutinized and absorbed by present-day Muslims. Similar to the Messenger of Allah, Muslims are impelled to understand not only revelation, but also the underlying psyche and fundamental points of the Islamic transformation that occurred during Prophet Muhammad’s time. Accordingly, this study seeks to analyze the dynamics that affected the development of the political structure prior to Prophet

Muhammad’s advent and the ensuing Islamic political structure that he inaugurated.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Some Islamist groups have condemned Western styles of democracy and the form of government that was forcibly imposed onto their countries by Western colonialists.

Their negative reaction was, in fact, an expression of their general rejection of European colonial authority and a defense of Islam against greater dependency on the West more

3 than a total rejection of democracy.6 Could Muslims benefit from non-Muslims’ experiences in applying the concept of democracy, the principle of separation of powers, and freedom of speech in their efforts to establish a viable political system? It is appropriate for Muslims to understand the modus operandi in Mecca and Medina as well as the logic behind Prophet Muhammad’s regulations and then to develop a system based on this understanding in the context of the experiences of modern states.

Accordingly, this study analyzes the principles underpinning the transformation of

Yathrib into Medina and the regulations adopted by the Prophet in order to understand how the first Islamic political system was conceived and continued to evolve.

According to the Qur’an, neither the four rightly guided caliphs (i.e., Abu Bakr,

Omar, Othman, and Ali) nor any Muslim scholar can claim to be infallible. On the contrary, there was but a single, peerless individual who did not speak from his own inclination7 whom Muslims should emulate: the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). However, most research on early Islamic politics focuses on the four above-mentioned caliphs.

Although it would be impossible to conduct a complete analysis of the Islamic political system without the word caliph, since neither Abu Bakr nor Ali were prophets and since the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), guided by God, ruled Medina, I have sought to analyze this unique period of Islam from a political science perspective.

Being a excellent example for all mankind, Muslims are enjoined by the Qur’an to follow Prophet Muhammad’s exemplary behaviors. Just as Allah did not dictate strict boundaries defining the state in the Qur’an, neither does Islamic thought suggest a rigid application of models and systems for different areas of life. Instead, the Islamic approach seeks to present the principles, concepts, and values related to the specific subject at hand.

6 John L. Esposito and James Piscatory, ‘Democratization and Islam’, Middle East Journal, Volume 45 (1991), p. 434. 7 The Holy Quran, 53:3

4 It is an obligation upon those Muslim scholars who properly understand the Qur’an and

Sunnah to develop viable models suitable for prevailing conditions. Two possible reasons for Allah’s not imposing a rigid political model or system are: (i) to render the Qur’anic message universal by making it applicable to various types of administrative models and

(ii) to test mankind. The dilemma, however, is that a significant portion of Muslims understand the Medina period as the ideal political model that should be applied to the very letter in contemporary Muslim-majority states. In sum, this study aims to analyze the prophetic political approaches rather than the de-facto implications of the Prophet

Muhammad and, on the other, to track the evolution of asabiyyah among early Muslims while establishing a state.

1.3 STUDY RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE

Researching the Islamic political system in its own right during the early period of Islam is important for the following reasons:

Using Ibn Khaldun’s Social Cohesion State Theory, this study will first analyze the political system during the early Islamic period. It is own claim that no one has analyzed Prophet Muhammad’s political system while subjecting it to Ibn Khaldun’s theory. In this particular case, the current thesis constitutes a novel approach to the analysis of Islam during the Medinan period. The situation of Muslims in Medina post emigration may offer a different interpretation of Bedouins in Ibn Khaldun’s work,

Muqaddimah, and may serve as a new approach to understanding the evolution of the principles underlying Islamic politics.

Secondly, this thesis aims to analyze the political system during Prophet

Muhammad’s (PBUH) lifetime rather than the political systems existent during the lifetime of the four righteous caliphs and the subsequent Umayyad, Abbasid, and

5 Ottoman caliphs. We learn from the Qur’an that the Messenger of Allah is ‘an excellent example’8. Upon analysis of politics in Islam, it is imperative that we consider this verse. Since Allah describes the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and none other, as an excellent example, we are obliged to analyze his life and personality before all other

Muslims, regardless of how pious or just they were. The fact that Prophet Muhammad was unique among men and also a theological, political, and social leader does not render him an unattainable standard, for Allah describes him as an excellent example for us to emulate9. This study therefore aims to analyze the politics as exemplified by

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). It is in this vein that the current study offers a novel approach to understanding politics in Islam.

1.4 STUDY LIMITATIONS

This study has its limitations. First, it focuses on Prophet Muhammad’s own era. In other words, it will not focus on the four righteous caliphs or any subsequent caliphs. Had we begun our analysis in the period following Prophet Muhammad’s own, it would have been necessary to analyze the Abbasids, Umayyads, Mamelukes, Seljuks, and Ottomans.

Although there is a vast amount of research and publications on this subject,

the scope of the current study is on the political system in Mecca and Medina during the life of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

Secondly, this study aims to evaluate Prophet Muhammad’s approaches to politics. Although the first thing that comes to mind in any discussion on Islamic Politics is

Shariah, Shariah is more concerned with the application of the law rather than with

8 The Holy Quran, 33:21 9 Ibid.

6 actual political science. Furthermore, public administration applications of Medina

State are not the main research area for this thesis. With this in mind, the current study analyzes Prophet Muhammad’s political actions, using the Qur’an and prophetic tradition (i.e., Sunnah) as its principal sources.

A final limitation is that primary sources are quite limited and mostly demonstrate events fused together with Muslims’ theological point of view.

Consequently, it is difficult to objectively evaluate the events that transpired as a response to the prevailing needs and status quo of the people of Medina.

To sum up, this study endeavors not only to provide a foundation on which to base current discourse on Islamic political institutions guided by the values propagated by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) prevailing during his lifetime, but also to constitute a reference point for further research and studies in this field.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• What were the main features of Prophet Muhammad’s political system in

Mecca and Medina?

• What factors influenced Prophet Muhammad’s approach to politics?

• How did the Islamic political system evolve from the pre-Islamic model into

the prophetic model?

1.6 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

• To analyze the main features of Prophet Muhammad’s approaches to the

political system in Mecca and Medina.

• To identify the factors that shaped Prophet Muhammad’s approach to

politics in the early period of Islam.

7 • To examine the evolution of the Islamic political system from the pre-

Islamic period to the early Islamic period.

1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW

"The Muqaddimah" as "a philosophy of history, which is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind in any time or place."10 Arnold J. Toynbee, British Historian.

Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History is one of the main resources of this study. Muqaddimah is also the introductory chapter of Kitabu’l-Iber, one of the founding texts of history. Although it is written as history book, it is the first sociological work. The concept of asabiyyah is one of the main concepts addressed in

Muqaddimah. Ibn Khaldun’s understanding of politics, property, and even public law form the basis of his Theory of Asabiyyah, meanss a collective sense and faction arising from solidarity. According to Ibn Khaldun, societies pass through two phases: Bedouin

(nomadic) and hadari (civilized). Briefly, asabiyyah is more powerful among member of

Bedouin societies because these communities are in need of more defense to deal with the harsh conditions present where they live. Hadari societies, on the other hand, exhibit less asabiyyah and their economic well-being is greater and because they pay taxes for militaries to protect them, have fewer security concerns compared to Bedouins. A

Bedouin society with a greateramount of asabiyyah is able to overcome a society with less or no asabiyyah at all. After a period of time, however, this same Bedouin society settles down in a specific geographical area and as soon as it does, it begins to decline.

Another important resource benefitted from is William Montgomery Watt’s

Muhammad at Mecca, in which he uses historical references to analyze the political,

10 Eccyclopedia Britannica, IBN KHALDUN, Retrieved on 25.01.2020 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-Khaldun

8 economic, and social structure of Mecca prior to Prophet Muhammad. The distinguishing feature of thisspecific biography of Muhammed is that Watt does not arrange sources in historical order and instead gives more importance to material factors.

Watt’s Muhammad at Medina, is another important publication used during the course of this research. In this book, Watt identifies the same dimensions as he does in

Muhammad at Mecca but in Medina. The provocations of the Quraysh, the inability of the Quraysh to launch a successful attack on Medina, and the Muslim conquest of

Mecca are all explained in great detail. Watt diligently examines the unification of the

Arabs, the internal politics of Medina, and the social characteristics of the Islamic reforms implemented in Media.

Watt’s Muhammad Prophet and Statesman is one of the most detailed studies on this topic. He analyzes the situation of the Arab peninsula before the emergence of

Prophet Muhammad and his revolution. In this book, however, Watt frequently repeats the same issues that he had already used in Muhammad at Mecca. This particular work in which Watt compares the social and economic dimensions of Mecca and Medina is noteworthy because while a great number of scholars do not agree on Medina’s political structure constituting a veritable state, Watt regarded it as such. He compared.

The three mentioned wirtings of Watt are objective and well-known works. Watt analyzes the Mecca and Medina periods of Prophet Muhammad in detail. Muhammad:

Prophet and Statesman is a combination of both Muhammad at Mecca and Muhammad at Medina books in a political perspective. Even if his works are well-analyzed, Watt does not analyzes the political thought and public administration of Prophet Muhammad in his third book Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman.

The Annals of the Prophet and Kings (Ta'rikh al-Rusul wa-l-Muluk) by Taberi is essentially the history of religious politics. Beginning by identifying all prophets of

9 Allah accepted in Islam, Taberi states that his work is based on the accounts and narrations that he had collected from various sources. For this reason, the information contained in this book should be carefully scrutinized. The author is content to write news about the people whom he gives information about their lives and does not make any evaluation about them. Likewise, without expressing an opinion on the accuracy of the narrations he conveyed, he took no responsibility rather he leaves the decision to those who reads the work and whether they are accepted the conveyed information or not. Tabari almost never included his own opinions and thoughts. However, he paid attention to the transfer chain of the news he conveyed and he made an appeal in this aspect. In this case, Taberi’s work must be evaluated carefully. Taberi also proceeds to analyze the theological aspects of Prophet Muhammad’s approaches, which aids the prospective researcher to identify, comprehend, and compare the political and theological approaches of Prophet Muhammad.

Muhammad Hamidullah’s The First Written Constitution in the World: An

Important Document of the Time of the Holy Prophet analyzes the very important milestone in Prophet Muhammad’s political life. In his book, Hamidullah considers the

Medina Charter to be the first constitution in the history of the world. Although he focuses on the discipline of law, his book also provides ample examples of the prevailing political climate. However, he rarely uses inauthentic (i.e., non-Sahih) hadiths as evidence in his work.

Wael Hallaq’s The Impossible State is another relevant work used in this study.

In this work, Hallaq claimed that the era of Prophet Muhammad was unique and that the separation of powers in his time was unimaginable. In this understanding, however, every action of the prophet is super natural, which renders it impossible for his followers to emulate his life cannot even after his death. For instance, in The Impossible State,

10 Hallaq claimed that any kind of Islamic political system is unsustainable in the modern world. In order to reach this conclusion, he analyzed the early Islamic period through the lens of Western historical and political experience. Although his study contains several misunderstandings, it provides some information for this thesis.

Joseph J. Kaminski’s The Contemporary Islamic Governed State is another study related to this thesis. Kaminski analyzes the form of the Islamic political system and shariah from Prophet Muhammad up to today. Even if his work mostly focuses on the era after the Prophet, the direct and indirect effects of the Meccan and Medinan periods are certainly relevant resources for this study.

Abdelwahab El-Affendi’s Who needs an Islamic State compares the modern debates on the Islamic State with Prophet Muhammad’s own era. However, he ignores the debates on and critiques leveled against nation states and seeks to demonstrate that the nation state is the last and perfected form of government. Additionally, since El-

Affendi holds Prophet Muhammad’s era to be a unique and inimitable experience, he refrains entirely from analyzing the Messenger of Allah, desipte his being held as the best example for all of mankind in Islamic perspective.

Mustafa Akyol, however, presents a different approach in his book Islam

Without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty, where he asks whether Prophet

Muhammad would have done the same thing that he had in Mecca had he been sent to a Greek city-state. Unfortunately, this approach is based on assumptions rather than on facts. The Islamic perspective holds that Allah, the Almighty, chose the specific time and place where Prophet Muhammad lived in order to demonstrate to Muslims that there was something special there. That said, the most significant feature of the social sciences is that they aim to analyze historical events within their own era.

11 Despite his approach toward Islamic politics and thought being very narrow, overly secularist, and full of misunderstandings, Mustafa Akyol’s Islam Without

Extremes is still relevant to this master’s thesis. Specifically, Akyol attempts to find an answer to the main question in his book: Might authoritarian regimes and movements in the Muslim world stem from political cultures and social structures rooted in this part of the world, and not from Islam? In other words, are authoritarian Muslims simply the authoritarian individuals who have adopted a Muslim identity? Akyol’s comparative analyzes is therefore releveant to this thesis.

In his book Islam and the Secular State, Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im analyzes

Prophet Muhammad as a unique, irreplicable individual because Muslims do not accept the possibility of another prophet after Prophet Muhammad. Because he abstains from analyzing Prophet Muhammad’s political life, his analysis is quite limited. However, the topics covered in his book on the epistemology and ontology of the secular world are quite relevant to this thesis.

Muhammad Hamidullah’s Life of Prophet Muhammad is another important resource benefitted from in this study. In it, Hamidullah analyzes the life of Prophet

Muhammad as an example to be emulated, as he is described in the Qur’an. His research is not arranged in chronological order, but is an explanatory study explaining what happened in Prophet Muhammad’s era and how contemporary Muslims should understand these events.

Recep Yumuk’s article “Ibn Haldun’da Devlet Görüşü” (Ibn Khaldun’s Views on the State) is yet another very valuable resource used in this master’s thesis.

Analyzing the geography in which Ibn Khaldun lived and the experiences that affected his political views and analyzes, Yumuk expounds upon Ibn Khaldun’s theories in careful detail. Interestingly, Yumuk even uses Ibn Khaldun’s own approaches to

12 examines him. For instance, since Ibn Khaldun claims that geography and sociologic networks affect people behavior, Yumuk investigates what may have impacted Ibn

Khaldun’s own understanding.

1.8 HYPOTHESES AND VARIABLES

How Prophet Muhammad approached the concept of an ancient form of statehood constitutes the independent variable of this thesis. Although making political and theological decisions is complicated, such a discussion may be operationalized by looking at several indicators emphasized by the Prophet in the various books of hadith.

Meanly, the factors affecting the understanding of the early Islamic political system are the study’s independent variable. The Prophetic actions and their effects on political systems is dependent variable.

1.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.9.1 Research sources

Analyzing the early period of Islam, this study makes use of both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources used in this study are Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah,

William Montogomery Watt’s Muhmmad at Mecca, Muhammed at Medina,

Muhammad Prophet and Statesman, Muhammad Hamidullah’s The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam, Introduction to Islam, and Islam Oncesi Mekke (Mecca Before

Islam), by Yasar Celikkol. Although a lack of knowledge of the Arabic language would normally be considered a disadvantage in this field, there are comprehensive and analytical translations of these sources from which one may benefit.

The secondary sources of this study consist of the Qur’an, hadith literature, fiqh

(Islamic jurisprudence), and tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis), books, individual chapters from

13 larger books, and both scholarly and newspaper articles. Accordingly, the writings of

Hasan al-Banna, al-Maududi, Syed Qutb, Taqiyudin al-Nabhani, Olivier Roy, Sherman

Jackson, and Wael Hallaq will be benefited from in this thesis. Furthermore, the researcher has extracted all relevant information from the available literature and has presented an evaluation of the facts after having critically analyzed them.

1.9.2 Data analysis

Following a qualitative approach while reading, analyzing, and comparing the texts, this thesis analytically examines the events occurring during Prophet Muhammad’s lifetime rather than simply cataloguing what happened during the early period of Islam. More specifically, this thesis adopts J. David Velleman’s Narrative Explanation,11 which aims to correlate different variables, in its methodological approach. Following this correlation, this method attempts to find a causal justification between the variables.

For this thesis, some of the indicators of independent variable are the political structures and situation before the revelation of the Prophet Muhammad in the region.

And dependent variable’s indicators are Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) model of opposition and prophetic way of management in Medina.

11 Ersel Aydinli, Erol Kurubas, and Haluk Ozdemir, Yontem, Kuram, Komplo (Method, Theory, Conspiracy), (Istanbul: Kure Publications, 2015) p.85