Effects on Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish

Home , European bass, Salminus brasiliensis

Journal of Aquaculture & Marine Biology

Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish

Abstract Review Article

Volume 5 Issue 6 - 2017

needOver for the more last fewknowledge years theon the increasing effect of usevariations of fish in as environmental animal models parameters in scientific on research and the increased fish breeding for human consumption have stressed the

fish biology and on the welfare of specimens used both in research and aquaculture 1Department of Biology and Biotechnology ‘‘Charles Darwin”, contexts. Experimental evidence shows that environmental variations can affect fish Sapienza University, Italy 2 biology at various levels, from the molecular to that of the population, sometimes in a Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and different way depending on the species considered. In order to achieve reproducible Statistics, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy environmental parameters constant at the optimal value to guarantee the wellness of 3Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto results in experiments involving fish it is necessary to set and maintain all Superiore di Sanità, Italy

the animal. The effects of the variation in environmental parameters on the behaviour, *Corresponding author: Mattia Toni, Department of physiology and cell biology of teleosts are here discussed in order to provide useful Biology and Biotechnology ‘‘Charles Darwin”, Sapienza Keywords:information Environmentalfor research based parameters; on fish models. University, Italy, Tel:+390649918005; Fax:+3906499157516; Email: Teleost fish; Welfare; Aquaculture; Research Received: June 05, 2017 | Published: June 13, 2017

Abbreviations:

ASR: Aquatic Surface Respiration; CNS: Central incomplete, and therefore not completely predictable. The report IntroductionNervous System of the experimental results must therefore be accompanied by a precise and detailed description of all the environmental replicateparameters exactly to whichthe same the environmental animal has beenconditions. subjected during housing and the experimental phases in order to be able to A close relationship between the environment and living beings has always existed. Since the peculiar environmental conditions on our planet have enabled the development of life, principleRecently, of relative the use Replacement of teleost fish in research has increased the environmental parameters strongly influence the biological sharply also aided by the acquisition and application of the factorsprocesses induces and simultaneously responses in animals the biological at multiple activity levels modifies from the suggesting wherever possible molecular,environment. cellular, The variationorganismic in and biotic population and abiotic levels. environmental the use of animal with a simpler Central Nervous System (CNS).

dissolvedThe environmental oxygen, the parameterspH level, the that presence need to of be nitrogenous taken into environment, it is essential to control and regulate the compounds,account in relaying the environmental fish are the salinity, quality theand temperature, supply of water, the light the environmentalWhen animals parameters are kept to in ensure captivity conditions in a non-natural not only intensity and the dark-light alternation cycle, the noise in term of intensity and frequency of sound waves, the stocking density, the compatible to the animal’s life but which ensure the welfare of and killing procedures (Figure 1), as stated also in European animals by preventing the state of suffering. Directiveenvironmental 2010/63/EU. complexity, the feeding, and finally the handling in vitro cell culture The scientific research takes advantage of animal models whose utilization can be strongly reduced by In animal housing for the purpose of research, the control systems, but currently it cannot be completely eliminated. The researcher who uses teleost fish models, as well as and standardization of environmental parameters is crucial Thisaquaculture review providesfarmers, mustan overview know as on much the currentas possible understanding the effects ofinduced the effects on the of animal changes by invariation single environmentalin environmental parameters parameters. on to ensure not only the welfare of animals, but also the quality induceand reproducibility physiological ofresponses the scientific in the outcome.animal that The may variation affect the in the behaviour, physiology and cell biology of teleost fish, in order experimentalany biotic and results. abiotic Depending environmental on the parameter species considered, can potentially the to provide a useful tool for research groups that use models of fish or who approach for the first time the use of this model. knowledge of the effects of such variations may be more or less

Submit Manuscript | http://medcraveonline.com J Aquac Mar Biol 2017, 5(6): 00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 2/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

Figure 1:

Environmental parameters that must be considered to ensure the welfare of the fish in research and aquaculture contexts. to them. The relevance of acclimatization period is also stated in Environmental Parameters Water supply and quality underlined.the European Moreover, Recommendation in the aquaculture on farmed fish, context where the the complete species- specific degree of adaptability to the water quality changes is

. Fish raised in life cycle of fish must be sustained. Therefore, water quality Water supply and quality are important abiotic parameters parameters shall be set and monitored in according to different that must be considered to ensure fish welfare life-stages (e.g. larvae, juveniles, adults) and physiological status aquaria or in laboratory husbandry facilities have more or less (e.g.Oxygen metamorphosis, spawning) of fish. reduced volumes of water available in comparison to a natural environment, so that it becomes essential to monitor the water parameters to ensure stable, controlled conditions for fish welfare. The concentration of O2 Water quality must be also monitored in relation to the possible Fish, as all aerobic organisms, require oxygen for breathing. dissolved in water affects fish activity normalpresence swimming. of toxic substances Any changes such in as water pollutants, quality metals, and conditions chlorine and ammonia and the water flow should be set to levels supporting and metabolism [1] and alters the swimming behaviour [2,3] with related effects on many aspects of fish life. Hypoxia can be should be gradually applied allowing fish to acclimatize and adapt caused by a variety of factors, including excess of nutrients and water bodies stratification due to saline or temperature gradients.

Citation: Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish. J Aquac Mar Biol 5(6): 00137. DOI: Toni M, Angiulli E, Malavasi S, Alleva E, Cioni C (2017) Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on 10.15406/jamb.2017.05.00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 3/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

Oxygen levels required depend on fish species, their ecological enzymes[26,27], compromisedinduction and foodimpairment intake of and ion growth exchange [28], through modified the adaptation to hypoxia [3] and the metabolic rate of the animal at amino acid metabolism [29,30], altered oxygen delivery[31], morerest [4-6]. oxygenated The behavioural waters, and response a decrease to acute in the hypoxia same activityinvolves to a balance between an increase in swimming activity, in search of maintainedgills [16,32]. at Forlow theseconcentrations. reasons, in order to ensure the welfare of fish housed in animal facilities nitrogen compounds must be reduce oxygen demands [7]. A behavioural response adopted pH swimmingby some fish close that to frequently the surface experience for ventilating environmental the gills withhypoxia the Fish can survive in a narrow range of pH as its value strongly is to perform aquatic surface respiration (ASR), that consists in exposes them to a greater risk of predators. Moreover, hypoxia more oxygenated superficial water. This behaviour, however, 6.5-8.5,affects thewhich metabolism corresponds and homeostasisto the same ofrange cells found and the in wholemost freshwaterorganism. Thelakes, great streams, majority and ofponds. aquatic pH organismsvariations out live of at this pH affects the escape response of fish and their schooling behaviour 2 [8]. In captivity, factors such as fish density, handling, water flow and temperature influence the levels of O available and its range can affect the animal health by damaging the outer surface demandNitrogenous [9]. compounds of gills, eyes, and skin, and causing an inability to dispose of The concentration of nitrogenous compounds, derived as waste metabolic wastes. All this may eventually lead the animal to toxicitydeath. In of aquaria, some compounds water pH mayhas varyto be depending daily monitored on the pHand of kept the solution.stable by Forcontrolling example, parameters the percentage related of ammonia to its value. in solution Indeed, andthe products from the amino acid catabolism, is another parameter to 3 and be considered+ in fish housing. In teleost fish, the most abundant 4 ) and urea. Ammonia is a highly toxic compound extremely nitrogen products of excretion are ammonia (sum of NH itsEnvironmental toxicity are strongly salinity dependent on the water pH [33]. NH Fishes can also tolerate different levels of environmental soluble in water. Because of its toxicity, ammonia must be quickly ureaand efficiently depends on excreted the species by the and organism the life cycle. or converted Most adult into teleosts a less aretoxic ammonotelic product [10]. since The relativethey produce amount and of excretedexcrete ammonia ammonia asand a salinity. In both freshwater and marine fishes, there are species able to tolerate large variations in salt concentration, called are ureotelic as they excrete nitrogenous waste in the form of amongeuryhaline, marine and waters, others thatestuaries, are not rivers able and to, calledlagoons. stenohaline On their result of deamination whereas juveniles of several fish species species. In natural environments, euryhaline fish usually move regulatory systems of ions and water (gills, digestive system, urea [11-15]. Fish diet is particularly rich in proteins that make kidney)way these undergo fish experience structural gradual and functional changes of reorganizations salinity and their in a major contribution (41-85%) to the total energy production proteinof fishes intake[16] and and this ammonia determines excretion the intake was of demonstrated high amounts inof severalnitrogen species. containing For example, amino acids. in salmon A direct (Oncorhynchus relationship nerka between) an response to altered salinity. In particular, it has been shown that increased release of ammonia was measured after food intake the acclimation to salinity requires adjustments of the activity and hasthe abundanceenergy costs of ion and transporters requires suchtime as for the modifyingsodium-potassium protein + 3 4 ). The relative concentration ATPase pump [34-36] and GLUT1 [37]. The acclimation process [17]. In aqueous+ solution, an equilibrium exists between its un- 3 4 is not only dependent on the ammonia pKa ones, rapid changes in water salinity can have adverse effects ionized (NH ) and ionized form (NH expression at cellular level [28,38]. Differently from the gradual of NH and NH other stressors (such as temperature changes and low oxide (9.5), and thus on the hydrogen ion concentration, but also on 3, while the even in euryhaline fish resulting in an increased sensitivity to temperature,+ pressure and other ions concentration [18]. The 4 fortoxicity ammonia. for the Because aquatic of organisms its toxicity, is the largely ammonia due to generated NH in the concentration) and diseases [39]. Changes in salinity can also NH gives only a minor contribution to the toxic events reported affectFor neurochemical example, the parametersdecreased activity[40]. of acetylcholinesterase cells by the nitrogen catabolism must be quickly and efficiently excreted by the organism or converted into a less toxic product (AChE) is associated to increased activity of NTPDase (ADP [10]. Thus, the ammonia generated in the liver is released in the hydrolysis) and 5’-nucleotidase in the brain of silver catfish environment through gills, body surface and renal routes. The exposedWater temperature to elevated salt concentrations [40]. toepithelium a lesser thatextent. best At fulfils cellular the rolelevel, for the ammonia ammonia-transporting excretion is the As regard the importance of the water temperature gill epithelium, whereas the epidermis and the kidney contribute

Rhesus (Rh) proteins, a family related to methyl ammonia and parameter, we have to consider that fish are ectothermic or ammonia transporters in bacteria, yeast and plants, were shown poikilothermic organisms whose body temperature corresponds to mediate the excretion of ammonia from the gills (Rhag, Rhbg to water temperature. Each fish can live within a given range of and Rhcg) [15,19-23]. In the aquaria, the ammonia released into evolutiontemperatures and characterizedthe adaptation by of a lowerthe animal and an to upper its environment. lethal value severalthe water effects accumulates such as histopathological reaching doses changes that may in be gill dangerous structure Each[41]. speciesThis temperature has an ideal range temperature is species range specific within as whicha result it growsof the for fish health. Indeed, the exposure to ammonia may cause

[24,25], increased cortisol levels and generalized stress effects quickly and the standard environmental temperature is defined

Citation: Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish. J Aquac Mar Biol 5(6): 00137. DOI: Toni M, Angiulli E, Malavasi S, Alleva E, Cioni C (2017) Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on 10.15406/jamb.2017.05.00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 4/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

as the temperature that the fish would prefer if they could choose transcription and translation [65]. Data obtained in zebrafish [9]. Variations in ambient temperature strongly affect fish biology have demonstrated that, as in other vertebrates, most fish tissues and influence growth rate, food consumption, feed conversion, contain circadian clocks [66,67]. The available data suggest that physiology, behaviour along with other body functions [42-47]. light can exert effects on the whole body of fish. In fact, it has Recently, studies performed on juveniles and adults of European been demonstrated that in zebrafish the direct illumination of sea bass showed that acclimation temperature affects both Thecells presenceactivates theof opsins,expression the ofphotopigments a subset of clock usually genes contained and that behavioural responses and neurochemical parameters [48,49] this in turn leads to circadian clock entrainment [66,68-72]. in the CNS The metabolic rate of fish is sensibly affected by in the peripheral tissues of Danio rerio body/ambient temperature: at lower values there is a drop in in retinal photoreceptors, has been recently demonstrated also the metabolic rate, whereas at higher temperatures there is an [73]. Overall, these data increase which implies a greater need for food and oxygen [50- light.indicate that, unlike mammals, fish do not rely only on their eyes 52]. The main response to thermal variation in fish is behavioural: to perceive light as their whole body may be capable of detecting in a natural environment fish are free to move to different areas or depths to find their optimal temperature. When unable to patterns such as schooling, shoaling, foraging, feeding and In fish, ambient light conditions may affect behavioural thermalfind the bestcharacteristics temperature, and fish modifying attempt toprotein maintain environments physiological to rates by expressing protein and enzyme variants with different locomotion [74-77]. Besides, light is crucial in behavioural interactions such as predator–prey encounters [78,79]. As to the minimize the impact of temperature changes [53]. In laboratory maintained under appropriate photoperiod where natural light importance of the photoperiod in fish physiology, fish must be maintainedfacilities, fish within are bred the in optimal tanks without range forthe eachpossibility species of andchoosing kept the preferred temperature. For this reason temperature must be does not allow a suitable light/dark cycle and controlled lighting with an intensity adapted to the reared species must be provided appliedas stable gradually. as possible to avoid stress conditions and to ensure toNoise satisfy biological requirements. the welfare of animals and any changes in temperature must be Light The light and the day/night cycle regulate the environment and The noise is another parameter that should be considered runningin fish welfare. water, waterfall),In aquatic and environments antropogenic noise (engine can beand produced sonar of by both biotic (animal and plant sounds), abiotic (wind, rain, influence the life of all organisms. In teleost fish, light is relevant necessarilyfor the entire exposed life cycle, to the from same embryonic enlightenment development as in the to sexualwater boats, ships and submarines and construction sites) sources and thematuration intensity into and adulthood spectral [54].composition Land animals of the andlight fish decreases are not asfish level, can beduration, exposed spectrum to a wide and range also of on noise the hearingintensity. capacity Potential of effects of sound on fish probably depend on characteristics such with depth due to the absorption by water molecules and the species of interest, as all fish are not equally able to perceive suspended particles. The water column acts as a chromatic filter sound. Teleost fish can be separated into two non-taxonomic violet)rapidly penetrateabsorbing deeper wavelengths through comprised water than between longer infraredwavelengths and groups based on their sensitivity to sound: hearing specialists ultraviolet. As a result, shorter wavelengths of visible light (blue/ and hearing generalists [80]. The hearing specialists, such as they are exposed to different lighting and the aquatic organisms the goldfish, have small bony connections (Weberian ossicles) have(red/orange). developed So, visual depending adaptation on the according depth at whichto their the spectrum fish live, or other structures that bridge the swim bladder with the inner theseear, enabling specialized these connections species to detectand only higher perceive frequency frequencies sounds. Hearing generalists, which are the majority of fish species, lack demonstratedniche. Moreover, that in there teleost are fish differences the threshold in retinal of light morphology intensity and sensitivity to light vary during the development. It has been below 500-1000 Hz [80]. In fish, the apparent effects of sound can range from undetectable or subtle behavioural changes up and cell composition among larval, juvenile and adult fish [55- to severe physiological effects causing deafness and death [81]. and57]. Forthe example,single-cone most retina marine gradually fish larvae transforms have only into pure-conea duplex Intense noise (over 140 dB) in fish may induce temporary hearing retina at their early developmental stages, but later rods appear loss [82-85], damage in the inner ear sensory epithelium [86,87] retinal spectrum perception to their natural photo-environment and endocrine stress responses [85,88,89]. retina [55,56]. Fish are thought to have adapted their vision and Recent experimental works showed that noise exposure [58,59] containing rods and cones in accordance to the available can alter some behavioural patterns in fish, such as swimming arewavelength generally rangesynchronized of their with particular the solar niche day. For [60,61]. example, Light in aspectsbehaviour, concerning swimming the speedeffects andof noise group on cohesionaquatic life, [90,91]. that are As influences human and animal life and physiological processes pointed out by Slabbekoorn and co-workers [92], there are many humans basic functions such as sleep/wake cycle, breathing still to be extensively investigated in order to assess properly the rate, body temperature [62], digestion [63], heartbeat and blood relationships between the type and level of noise, the behavioural topressure regular changes are under in sunlight. circadian These control mechanisms, [64]. Other called organisms, circadian theeffects experimental and the consequences studies on noise for the effects reproductive are still at success an early of stage, fish. including fish, have developed timing mechanisms of adaptation inThis order indicates to provide that, properboth for welfare aquaculture guidelines. and laboratory research, clock, consist in regulatory networks made of feedback loops of

Citation: Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish. J Aquac Mar Biol 5(6): 00137. DOI: Toni M, Angiulli E, Malavasi S, Alleva E, Cioni C (2017) Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on 10.15406/jamb.2017.05.00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 5/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

Equipment used in aquaculture, such as aerators, pumps,

welfare.The stocking Fish must density have ofaccess fish shallto a volumebe based of onwater the thattotal allowsneeds filtration systems, cascading streams associated with recirculation normalof the fishswimming in respect and is to consistent environmental with their conditions, size, age, healthhealth and systems can increase the noise to which the animals are subjected feeding method. Moreover, the introduction or re-introduction [80,93,94] and this may well result in a significant reduction in growth and reproduction rates, higher metabolic rates, increased mortality and lower egg viability [85,95-97]. As noises and relationships.of animals to Furthermore, established groups an adequate shall be stocking carefully density monitored shall vibrations are efficiently transmitted in water and they can act to avoid problems of incompatibility and disrupted social as stressors for fish, it is mandatory to consider them during notexperimental adversely designaffect toanimal ensure welfare. the validity Also, ofalarm the datasystems obtained. must permit minimizing the risk of injures and stress and to promptly soundNoise levelsoutside in thehusbandry sensitive facilities, hearing includingrange of theultrasounds, animals, whilemust maintainidentify and a correct remove water moribund quality or and dead consistent fish. In a breedingwith the feedingfacility, system.the density of fish shall be also appropriate to the ability to not impairing their audibility by human beings. If necessary, Environmental complexity Stocking density holding rooms must be provided with noise insulation. The presence of physical elements in the tank, acting as

the recognition of different individual areas and the reduction Density is another factor that must be taken into account in ofbarriers aggressive and covers, encounters. or sand The for someuse of flatfish, appropriate may facilitate enrichment both fish husbandry. Most of the studies conducted to understand the identifyingeffect of density the optimum on fish growth density and at whichwelfare to have rear beenanimals. performed Among to the animals and to increase their coping activities including on juvenile or adults, given also the interest of Oncorhynchus fish farms in physicaltechniques exercise, should foraging, allow to extendmanipulative the range and of cognitive activities activities, available mykiss Salmo salar Sparus as appropriate to each species. Environmental enrichment in auratathe fish analysed we can mentionStizostedion rainbow lucioperca trout ( Tilapia nilotica) [98], salmon ( Salvelinus) [99], gilthead alpinus sea bream ( needs of the animals concerned. Moreover, complex rearing ) Clarias[100], pike gariepinus perch ( ) [101],Paralichthys animal enclosures must be adapted to the species and individual dentatus [102], arctic charrSolea ( solea ) [103], African (catfishParalichthys ( californicus ) [104], summerLabeo flounder victorianus ( conditions increase the size of different brain structures such as )Mystus [105], dovercavasius sole ( ) [106],Takifugu Californian obscures halibut) providedcerebellum, with telencephalon appropriate andenvironmental optic tectum enrichments [129,130] such making as (Chelidonichthys) [107], ningu ( lucerna ) [108], animals more skilful to cope with environment. Fish must be catfish ( ) [109], pufferfish ( [110], and tub gurnard ) [111]. Together, hiding places or bottom substrate to allow the expression of a these studies have shown species-specific effects of high density wide range of normal behaviours. For more information on all that in some species reduce the growth performance of fish issues concerning the environment enrichment for fish in captive [106,107,112,113] while in other species have no effect upon environments, see the recent review article authored by Näslund reproduction [105,114-116]. The species-specific effect is &Feeding Johnsson [131]. probably dependent on different physiological response to stress, canincreased strongly social affect interactions water parameters and different resulting sensitivity in a reductionof fish to the of deterioration of water quality [113,117-122]. Indeed, high density Feeding is another issue to be considered and the amount and withoutquality of producing food should excessive be sufficient waste to in ensure the aquatic the intake system. of calories As to oxygen availability and a higher concentration of ammonia [108]. and nutrients necessary to meet the metabolic needs of the animal and cellular level. Inappropriate density can affect different The high density may act as a stress factor both at systemic feeding, fish show a wide variability and are generally grouped physiological parameters in fish altering the lipid metabolism as herbivorous, carnivorous, detritivorous and omnivorous on [118,123], increasing the concentration of plasma cortisol the basis of their food habits and they can be further subdivided [16,124] and glucose [118] and decreasing the peritoneal oninto different plankton sensory feeders, systems benthic that invertebrate usually involves feeders searching, and fish feeders [132-135]. In fish, acquisition of food is a process based leukocyte cytotoxicity [125]. Moreover, at high densityTakifugu an detection, capture and ingestion. Different sensory cues including obscurusincrease have of aggressive shown that or the cannibalistic high density behaviour determines in an ocellate over- vision, chemoreception, acoustic, lateral line and electroreception puffer larvae was reported [126]. Recent studies in coding for HSP 70, HSP 90B, metallothionein, cytochrome P450 expression of genes considered biomarkers of stress such as those may contribute to aspects of the feeding behaviour in fish. Among species, differences in role and significance of the sensory show that the high density is a stress factor causing a delay in detection of the prey and the orientation to it. Furthermore, the 1A and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase [110]. These results systems are also present [136]. Vision is crucial for the initial with stress increases the overall energy demand, which is then angular deviation for the initiation of a rapid strike toward the the growth of the animal [110]. It has been assumed that coping lateral line contributes to determine the optimum distance and systems that respond to amino acids, can play a dominant role unavailable for growth [127]. On the other hand, decreased feed prey [137]. Besides, both olfaction and gustation, two sensory additionalconsumption expenditure [123], social of energy interaction at the expense [121] and of growth. altered water quality [128] may result in increased metabolic demands and in food detection in many fish species [136-138]. The type and composition of the diet may influence food conversion and

Citation: Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish. J Aquac Mar Biol 5(6): 00137. DOI: Toni M, Angiulli E, Malavasi S, Alleva E, Cioni C (2017) Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on 10.15406/jamb.2017.05.00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 6/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

growth rate. In particular, differences have been reported in fish beFish lifted killing by individual body parts only, such as the gill covers. fed with natural or artificial diets that could be attributed to the lower protein and higher carbohydrate content of an artificial amountsdiet when of compared particulate with organic a natural wastes one in [139-143]. the form Asof wasteregard feed the The killing of fish is a circumstance of potential pain and amount of food, fish overfeeding results in the production of large suffering for animals. Recommendations are given for farming fish to the production of reduced compounds such as ammonium and bred in Europe in order to the killing is on spot and without delay and faecal matter that can contribute to water deoxygenation and by a person properly trained and experienced. The method used shall cause immediate death, rapidly render the fish insensitive or sufides [144]. Moreover, studies demonstrate that overfeeding cause the death when fish is anaesthetized or effectively stunned. affect the feed conversion energy depending on fish species Parameters such as immediate and irreversible cessation of and environmental condition [145]. On the other hand, the respiratory movements and the loss of eye roll reaction shall be underfeeding can cause an increase in the interfish competition monitored as indicator of death occurred. If large groups of fish and in the number of attack events that can cause injuries to have to be killed for emergency as disease control, the effectiveness the animals [146,147]. The time of day when the fish are fed is a of procedure shall be evaluated on a sample, and just in this case, parameter that must be considered as it may affect growth, food carbon dioxide might be used. In the Directive 2010/63/EU the hormoneconversion plays efficiency an important [142,148-151] role in the and control even animal of food behaviour. intake. In modalities by which fish must be sacrificed are listed in the Annex This influence may be hormonally mediated [148] and the ghrelin IV, where it is specified that fish can be euthanized only by using orexigenic, or appetite stimulating, effect as its administration Conclusionan overdose of anesthetic or by electrocution. fish, as in other vertebrates, ghrelin is a peptide that shows an The chemical-physical parameters of the natural aquatic environment can vary widely depending on the geographic suggestingincreases fooda role intake for this [152]. hormone The in release regulating of ghrelin food assumption increases under fasting conditions and decrease after feeding [153,154] location and the type of area considered. Each species of fish in fish. Ghrelin acts activating other orexin systems such as the conditions and they respond to environmental variations moving have adapted during evolution to live in specific environmental neuropeptide Y and orexin [155]. In fish, ghrelin is also involved in foodthe modulation anticipatory of locomotoractivity as activitythe increase [135,156,157]. in locomotor In particular, activity toward areas with more suitable characteristics. it has been proposed that ghrelin is involved in the generation of aquaculture purposes, it is essential to know the effects of In fish housing practices, that they are for research or was observed 3-4 h before food supply in scheduled fed animals, animal an optimal environment to live, which ensures the well- including goldfish [158]. environmental parameters on the fish in order to provide the of theTaken diet togethercomposition the and above the information timing of food emphasize administration the wide on beingThe of knowledge animal avoiding of the suffering.effects of environmental parameters on variability in feeding modalities in fish and the significant influence fish growth and behaviour. For these reasons, fish must be fed animal’s biology and the availability of suitable equipment to keep with a suitable diet at an appropriate feeding rate and frequency, foodthese productparameters with constant high organolepticis a prerequisite quality to obtain in aquaculture repeatable and that particular attention must be given to feeding larval fish context.experimental data in scientific research and to ensure a healthy during any transition from live to artificial diets. Furthermore, all fish have to get access to feed to avoid undue competition, Acknowledgment especiallyHandling for fry and young fish.

We thank Dr. Arianna Manciocco for the help in the manuscript haveFish shown handling that is anotherhandling parameter may affect that different needs to bephysiological considered preparation. This study was supported by Sapienza University of parametersin fish welfare. related Various to stress studies such conducted as glucose on different and cortisol fish speciesplasma Rome [Progetti di Ricerca 2016] and by FIRB Futuro in ricerca References2012 (RBFR12QW4I_002). concentration [159,160], may negatively influence the antioxidant 1. defences [161], may affect the blood lactate concentration and commonLefrancois sole C, ClaireauxSolea solea G. Mar(2003) Ecol Influence Prog Ser of259: ambient 273-284. oxygenation haematocrit and, finally, fish growth [162]. On the basis of these and temperature on metabolic scope and scope for heart rate in the scientific information, fish handling has to be kept to a minimum. 2. Steffensen JF, Farrell AP (1998) Swimming performance, venous The handling should be carried out only when necessary in a farm oxygen tension and cardiac performance of coronary-ligated too. The stakeholder shall behave to make as much as possible Oncorhynchus mykiss, exposed to progressive hypoxia. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 119(2): 585- limited the stress of fish. Equipment and procedure used shall be 592.rainbow trout, chosen to minimize stress and injury. The sedation or anaesthesia may be appropriate. Moreover, everything shall be made to handle 3. fish in the water; if fish have to be taken out of the water, this shall swimming performance and the effects of hypoxia in the mulloway, Fitzgibbon Q, Strawbridge A, Seymour R (2007) Metabolic scope, be done in the shortest time possible and equipment in direct Argyrosomus japonicus (Pisces: Sciaenidae). Aquaculture 270(1): 358-368. contact with body fish shall be moistened. Additionally, in order to correctly handling a fish, it shall be entirely supported and not

Citation: Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish. J Aquac Mar Biol 5(6): 00137. DOI: Toni M, Angiulli E, Malavasi S, Alleva E, Cioni C (2017) Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on 10.15406/jamb.2017.05.00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 7/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

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Citation: Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish. J Aquac Mar Biol 5(6): 00137. DOI: Toni M, Angiulli E, Malavasi S, Alleva E, Cioni C (2017) Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on 10.15406/jamb.2017.05.00137 Variation in Environmental Parameters in Research and Aquaculture: Effects on Copyright: 11/11 Behaviour, Physiology and Cell Biology of Teleost Fish ©2017 Toni et al.

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