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Authoritarian Regimes in Small Island States: the Anomalous Cases of Electoral Autocracies in Fiji, the Maldives and Seychelles

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Authoritarian Regimes in Small Island States: the Anomalous Cases of Electoral Autocracies in Fiji, the Maldives and Seychelles UNIVERSITY OF NEW ENGLAND (UNE) Authoritarian Regimes in Small Island States: The Anomalous Cases of Electoral Autocracies in Fiji, the Maldives and Seychelles Mosmi Bhim MA in Governance, University of the South Pacific BA in Journalism and History/Politics, University of the South Pacific A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities, UNE, Australia 27 November 2020 i ii Abstract Authoritarian regimes established through multiparty elections are nearly as prevalent in the world as full democracies and near democracies. Yet most small island developing states (SIDS) are democracies. Despite their diminutive size, Fiji, the Maldives and Seychelles are anomalous because, post-independence, they developed security forces, experienced successful coups, and established authoritarian regimes. This thesis examines political, military and governmental developments in Fiji, the Maldives and Seychelles, before and after they attained independence from Great Britain, to ascertain why autocracies emerged. Deficiencies in democracy contributed to the occurrence of coups, authoritarianism and unaccountable leadership. The nature of politics, the role of defence forces, and the features of authoritarian regimes are explored using theories of authoritarianism, personalist leadership, democratisation and political-military relations. Prevailing international norms resulted in multiparty elections being held, however, authoritarianism persisted in the 21st century through manipulation of elections to produce electoral autocracy, rather than electoral democracy. As a consequence, certain civil and political rights, the media, judiciary, opposition politicians, and civil society were constrained and security forces were manipulated or politicised. The resulting authoritarian elections perpetuated autocratic government. The role of the international community in the development of militaries and authoritarianism in the three SIDS is assessed. The scope for government and citizens to reinstate genuine democracy amidst restrictions is explored using theories of democracy, civil-military relations and international electoral norms. Keywords: Fiji, Maldives, Seychelles, electoral, authoritarian, military, democracy iii Declaration I certify that the analyses and conclusions in this thesis are my own work. Assistance received for this thesis, and all sources used in the preparation of this thesis have been acknowledged. I also certify that the work has not been previously submitted for any other degree or qualification. ……………………………… Mosmi Bhim 27 November 2020 iv Acknowledgements This thesis has been enriched from the information shared by senior qualified and prominent persons during interviews in Fiji, the Maldives and Seychelles. I acknowledge their generosity in availing themselves for lengthy interviews to share their experiences of living in authoritarian nations. I thank the University of New England for providing the scholarship which enabled me to conduct this PhD research. I also am indebted to my employer, the Fiji National University (FNU), for granting me with study leave so I could pursue the PhD. I am grateful to Dr Karin von Strokirch, who has been my Principal Supervisor since I was half-way through my thesis, and has been my co-supervisor since I completed the Confirmation of Candidature (COC). Dr von Strokirch encouraged me to explore all avenues for my thesis. I thank Dr von Strokirch for her moral support and professional advice during this journey. I also thank my co-supervisor Dr Johanna Garnett for her guidance on academic writing and for her personal support and encouragement. Dr Garnett has been my co- supervisor since I was half-way through my thesis, and also has been a reliable friend. I acknowledge Dr Rebecca Spence who initially was my Principal Supervisor and took me through the COC process and stayed till I completed the field trip to the three countries. Lastly, I acknowledge Emeritus Professor Graham Maddox who was my co-supervisor for four months in 2018, and encouraged me to explore theories of democratisation. I owe appreciation to my daughter, Smriti Devi, who was only 3 years old when I commenced my studies. I also owe gratitude to my siblings – my brother Mohan Chand Bhim for looking after my sick father Om Chand, thus freeing me to leave for PhD studies, and my sister Dr Meena Devi, who has been caring for my sick mother Chandra Wati. I thank everyone who assisted me with babysitting. Lastly, I thank FNU’s Professor Nii-K Plange for helpful editorial feedback, particularly on the Fiji chapter, and Torsten Strokirch for proofreading three chapters. I thank the friends that I made in Armidale - from Australia, Fiji, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, and other parts of the world who made my stay in Armidale pleasant. v Publication from this research Bhim, M. 2019, ‘Chapter 10 - Does Electoral Authoritarianism Persist? A Comparison of Recent Elections in Fiji, Seychelles and Maldives’, in Lahai, JI, von Strokirch, K, Brasted, H & Ware, H (eds), Governance and Political Adaptation in Fragile States, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 243-270. Papers Presented 2018 – ‘Authoritarian Regimes in Post-Independence Fiji, Maldives and Seychelles’. Draft paper presented at the 25th IPSA (International Political Studies Association) World Congress on Political, 21-25 July 2018, Brisbane Convention Centre, Brisbane, Australia. 2018 – ‘Development of Militaries after Independence in Fiji, Maldives and Seychelles’. Draft paper presented at the Australian Association for Pacific Studies (AAPS) Conference, 4-7 April 2018, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. 2017 – ‘Decolonisation in Fiji, Maldives and Seychelles’. Paper presented at the International Conference on Social Research & Innovation (ICSRI), 17-19 November 2019, Villa College, Male’, Maldives. 2017 – ‘Does electoral authoritarianism persist? A comparison of recent elections in Fiji, Seychelles and Maldives’. Seminar Presented at University of New England, Australia, on 1 September 2017. 2016 – ‘A case for Fiji’s grassroots citizenry and media to be better informed & engaged for democracy’. Seminar presented at University of Seychelles, Anse Royale, Mahe, Seychelles, 7 October 2016. 2015-2016 – seminars presented at the UNE Post Graduate Conference, and the UNE Peace Conference. vi Acronyms AIMS Africa, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Sea ANC Armed Native Constabulary ANZUS Australia, New Zealand and United States ARID Association for Rights Information & Democracy AU African Union BIOT British Indian Ocean Territory CAMV Conservative Alliance-Matanitu Vanua CCCE Concerned Citizens for Credible Elections CCF Citizens’ Constitutional Forum CEPS Citizens Engagement Platform Seychelles CMR Civil Military Relations CoNI Commission of National Enquiry COP23 23rd annual Conference of the Parties CSO Civil Society Organisation CSP Center for Systemic Peace CSR Colonial Sugar Refinery CRW Counter-Revolutionary Warfare DP Democratic Party DQP Dhivehi Qaumee Party DRP Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party ECS Electoral Commission of Seychelles EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EU European Union FAP Fijian Association Party FDF Fiji Defence Force FEC Fiji Electoral Commission FEO Fiji Elections Office FICAC Fiji Independent Commission Against Corruption FICTU Fiji Islands Council of Trade Unions FLP Fiji Labour Party FMF Fiji Military Forces FTUC Fiji Trades Unions Congress vii FWCC Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre FWRM Fiji Women’s Rights Movement GCC Great Council of Chiefs GIP Gaumee Itthihaad Party HRCM Human Rights Commission of Maldives ICJ International Commission of Jurists IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance IDP Islamic Democratic Party IMF International Monetary Fund IPU Inter Parliamentary Union ISS Institute of Security Studies JP Jumhooree Party JSC Judicial Services Commission LDS Linyon Demokratik Seselwa MDA Maldives Development Alliance MDN Maldivian Democratic Network MDP Maldivian Democratic Party MEC Maldives Elections Commission MIDA Media Industry Development Decree MIRAB Migration Remittances Aid Bureaucracy MNDF Maldives National Defence Force MNU Maldives National University MOG Multinational Observer Group MPS Maldives Police Services NA National Assembly NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NBF National Bank of Fiji NCBBF National Council for Building a Better Fiji NDI National Democratic Institute NFP National Federation Party NGO Non-Government Organisation NGOCHR NGO Coalition on Human Rights NLTA Native Land Trust Act NLTB Native Land Trust Board viii NSC National Security Council NSG National Security Guard NSS National Security Services NYS National Youth Service NZEF NZ Expeditionary Force OAU Organisation of African Unity OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights PA People’s Alliance PANU Party of National Unity PLOTE People’s Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam PPM Progressive Party of Maldives PSU Presidential Security Unit RAF British Royal Air Force RFMF Royal Fiji Military Forces / Republic of Fiji Military Forces RTU Reconciliation Tolerance and Unity Bill SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation SADC Southern African Development Community SBC Seychelles Broadcasting Corporation SDF Seychelles Defence Force SDL Soqosoqo ni Duavata ni Lewenivanua Party (Fijian political party) SDP Seychelles Democratic Party SIDS Small Island Developing States SIUP Seychelles Islanders United Party SLP Social Liberal Party (Maldives) SNP Seychelles National
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