For other uses, see Immaculate Conception (disambigua- The definition makes no declaration about the Church’s tion). belief that the Blessed Virgin was sinless in the sense “Immaculata” and “Immacolata” redirect here. For other of freedom from actual or personal sin.[4] However, the uses, see Immaculata (disambiguation) and Immacolata Church holds that Mary was also sinless personally, “free (disambiguation). from all sin, original or personal”.[5] The decreed: “If anyone shall say that a man once justified The Immaculate Conception, according to the teaching can sin no more, nor lose grace, and that therefore he who of the , was the conception of the Blessed falls and sins was never truly justified; or, on the contrary, Virgin Mary in her mother’s womb free from original sin. that throughout his whole life he can avoid all sins even venial sins, except by a special privilege of God, as the The Immaculate Conception is commonly confused with Church holds in regard to the Blessed Virgin: let him be the doctrine of the Incarnation and the virgin birth of anathema.”[6] Jesus, though the two deal with separate subjects. The Catholic Church teaches Mary was conceived by normal biological means, but her soul was acted upon by God 1.2 Virginal conception (kept “immaculate”) at the time of her conception. Although the belief that Mary was sinless and conceived The doctrine of the immaculate conception (Mary being immaculate has been widely held since Late Antiquity, conceived free from original sin) is not to be confused the doctrine was not dogmatically defined until 1854, with her virginal conception of her son Jesus. This mis- by Pius IX in his Ineffabilis Deus. The understanding of the term immaculate conception is fre- Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate quently met in the mass media. Catholics believe that Conception on December 8; in many Catholic countries, Mary was not the product of a virginal conception herself it is a or patronal feast, and in some but was the daughter of a human father and mother,[7] a national public holiday.[1][2] traditionally known by the names of Saint Joachim and Protestants generally reject the doctrine because they do Saint Anne. In 1677, the Holy See condemned the be- lief that Mary was virginally conceived, which had been not consider the development of dogmatic theology to be [8] authoritative apart from Biblical exegesis. It is accepted a belief surfacing occasionally since the 4th century. by some Anglo-Catholics, but is rejected by most in the The Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Con- Anglican Communion. ception (when Mary was conceived free from original sin) on 8 December, exactly nine months before celebrating the Nativity of Mary. The feast of the (which commemorates the virginal conception and the 1 Distinctions Incarnation of Jesus) is celebrated on 25 March, nine months before Christmas Day.[9][10]

1.1 Original sin and actual (personal) sin 1.3 Redemption The defined dogma of the Immaculate Conception re- gards original sin only, saying that Mary was preserved Another misunderstanding is that, by her immaculate from any stain (in Latin, macula or labes, the second conception, Mary did not need a saviour. When defin- of these two synonymous words being the one used in ing the dogma in Ineffabilis Deus, Pope Pius IX explicitly the formal definition).[3] The proclaimed Roman Catholic affirmed that Mary was redeemed in a manner more sub- dogma states “that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the lime. He stated that Mary, rather than being cleansed af- first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and ter sin, was completely prevented from contracting Orig- privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits inal Sin in view of the foreseen merits of Jesus Christ, of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was pre- the Savior of the human race. In Luke 1:47, Mary pro- served free from all stain of original sin.”[3] Therefore, claims: “My spirit has rejoiced in God my Saviour.” being always free from original sin, the doctrine teaches This is referred to as Mary’s pre-redemption by Christ. that from her conception Mary received the sanctifying Since the Council of Orange II against semi-pelagianism, grace that would normally come with baptism after birth. the Catholic Church has taught that even had man never

1 2 2 HISTORY sinned in the Garden of Eden and was sinless, he would title of Mary at the Annunciation as “prepurified” was still require God’s grace to remain sinless.[11][12] subsequently adopted by all theologians interested in his to justify the Byzantine equivalent of the Im- maculate Conception. This is especially apparent in the 2 History Fathers St. Sophronios of Jerusalem and St. John Dama- scene, who will be treated below in this article at the sec- tion on Church Fathers. About the time of Damascene, A feast of the Conception of the Most Holy and All Pure the public celebration of the “Conception of St. Ann [i.e., Mother of God was celebrated in Syria on 8 December of the Theotokos in her womb]" was becoming popular. perhaps as early as the 5th century. Note that the title After this period, the “purification” of the perfect natures of achrantos (spotless, immaculate, all-pure) refers to the of Jesus and Mary would not only mean moments of grace holiness of Mary, not specifically to the holiness of her and glory at the Incarnation and Baptism and other public conception.[13] Byzantine liturgical feasts, but purification was eventually associated with the feast of Mary’s very conception (along with her Presentation in the Temple as a toddler) by Or- thodox authors of the 2nd millennium (e.g., St. Nicholas Cabasilas[17] and Joseph Bryennius).[18] By 750 the feast of her conception was widely celebrated in the Byzantine East, under the name of the Concep- tion (active) of Saint Anne. In the West it was known as the feast of the Conception (passive) of Mary, and was associated particularly with the Normans, whether these introduced it directly from the East[19] or took it from English usage.[20] The spread of the feast, by now with the adjective “Immaculate” attached to its title, met op- position on the part of some, on the grounds that sancti- fication was possible only after conception.[21] Critics in- cluded Saints Bernard of Clairvaux, Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Other theologians defended the expres- sion “Immaculate Conception”, pointing out that sanctifi- cation could be conferred at the first moment of concep- tion in view of the foreseen merits of Christ, a view held especially by Franciscans.[22] Writers such as Mark Miravalle and Sarah Jane Boss interpret the existence of the feast as a strong indica- tion of the Church’s traditional belief in the Immaculate An 11th-century Eastern Orthodox icon of the Theotokos Conception.[23][24] Panachranta, i.e. the “all immaculate” Mary[14] On 28 February 1476, Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan af- Mary’s complete sinlessness and concomitant exemption ter whom the Sistine Chapel is named, authorized those from any taint from the first moment of her existence that wished to introduce the feast to do so, and [20] was a doctrine familiar to Greek theologians of Byzan- introduced it to his own of Rome in 1477, with [25] tium. Beginning with St. Gregory Nazianzen, his ex- a specially composed Mass and Office of the feast. planation of the “purification” of Jesus and Mary at the With his bull Cum praeexcelsa of 28 February 1477, in circumcision (Luke 2:22) prompted him to consider the which he referred to the feast as that of the Concep- primary meaning of “purification” in Christology (and tion of Mary, without using the word “Immaculate”, he by extension in Mariology) to refer to a perfectly sin- granted to those who would participate in the less nature that manifested itself in glory in a moment of specially composed Mass or Office on the feast itself or grace (e.g., Jesus at his Baptism). St. Gregory Nazianzen during its octave, and he used the word “immaculate” of designated Mary as “prokathartheisa (prepurified).” Gre- Mary, but applied instead the adjective “miraculous” to [26][27] gory likely attempted to solve the riddle of the Purifica- her conception. On 4 September 1483, referring to tion of Jesus and Mary in the Temple through consider- the feast as that of “the Conception of ing the human natures of Jesus and Mary as equally holy ever Virgin”, he condemned both those who called it mor- and therefore both purified in this manner of grace and tally sinful and heretical to hold that the “glorious and im- glory.[15] Gregory’s doctrines surrounding Mary’s purifi- maculate mother of God was conceived without the stain cation were likely related to the burgeoning commemo- of original sin” and those who called it mortally sinful and ration of the Mother of God in and around Constantino- heretical to hold that “the glorious Virgin Mary was con- ple very close to the date of Christmas.[16] Nazianzen’s ceived with original sin”, since, he said, “up to this time 2.2 Later developments 3 there has been no decision made by the Roman Church Esame Critico sulla dottrina dell’ Angelico Dottore S. Tom- and the Apostolic See.”[28] This decree was reaffirmed by maso di Aquino circa il Peccato originale, relativamente the Council of Trent.[29] alla Beatissima Vergine Maria [A critical examination of One of the chief proponents of the doctrine was the Hun- the doctrine of St. Thomas Aquinas, the Angelic Doctor, garian Franciscan Pelbartus Ladislaus of Temesvár. [30] regarding original sin with respect to the Most Blessed Virgin Mary],[35] in which Aquinas is interpreted not as Pope Pius V, while including the feast in the Tridentine treating the question of the Immaculate Conception later Calendar, removed the adjective “Immaculate” and sup- formulated in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus but rather the pressed the existing special Mass for the feast, directing sanctification of the fetus within Mary’s womb. Spada that the Mass for the Nativity of Mary (with the word furnished an interpretation whereby Pius IX was relieved “Nativity” replaced by “Conception”) be used instead.[31] of the problem of seeming to foster a doctrine not in Part of that earlier Mass was revived in the Mass that agreement with the Aquinas’ teaching.[36] Pope Pius IX Pope Pius IX ordered to be used on the feast and that would later appoint Spada Master of the Sacred Palace in is still in use.[32] 1867. On 6 December 1708, Pope Clement XI made the feast Pius IX, at the beginning of his pontificate, and again af- of the Conception of Mary, at that time still with the Na- ter 1851, appointed commissions to investigate the whole tivity of Mary formula for the Mass, a Holy Day of Obli- subject, and he was advised that the doctrine was one gation.[21] Until reduced in 1911 the number which could be defined and that the time for a definition of Holy Days of Obligation to 8, there were in the course was opportune. of the year 36 such days, apart from Sundays.[33] It was not until 1854 that Pope Pius IX, with the sup- port of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted between 1851–1853, 2.1 Definition of the dogma promulgated the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus (Latin for “In- effable God”), which defined ex cathedra the dogma of the Immaculate Conception:[37]

We declare, pronounce and define that the doctrine which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary, at the first instant of her conception, by a singular privilege and grace of the Om- nipotent God, in virtue of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind, was preserved immaculate from all stain of original sin, has been revealed by God, and therefore should firmly and constantly be believed by all the faithful. —Pope Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus, December 8, 1854[38]

The dogma was defined in accordance with the conditions of papal infallibility, which would be defined in 1870 by the First Vatican Council. The papal definition of the dogma declares with absolute certainty and authority that Mary possessed sanctifying grace from the first instant of her existence and was free from the lack of grace caused by the original sin at the beginning of human history. Mary’s salvation was won of the Immaculata by Joseph Lusenberg, 1876. Saint by her son Jesus Christ through his passion, death, and [39][40] Antony’s Church, Urtijëi, Italy. resurrection and was not due to her own merits.

During the reign of Pope Gregory XVI the bishops in var- 2.2 Later developments ious countries began to press for a definition as dogma of [34] the teaching of Mary’s immaculate conception. For the Roman Catholic Church the dogma of the Im- In 1839 Mariano Spada (1796 - 1872), professor of the- maculate Conception gained additional significance from ology at the Roman College of Saint Thomas, published the reputed apparitions of in 1858. 4 4 CHURCH FATHERS

At Lourdes a 14-year-old girl, Bernadette Soubirous, on the ground that, unless the Blessed Virgin had at one claimed that a beautiful woman appeared to her and said, time or other been one of the sinful, she could not justly “I am the Immaculate Conception”. Many believe the be said to have been redeemed by Christ.[49] woman to have been the Blessed Virgin Mary and pray to [41][42] Saint Bonaventure (d. 1274), second only to Saint her as such. Thomas in his influence on the Christian schools of his Pope Pius IX defined the dogma of the Immaculate Con- age, hesitated to accept it for a similar reason.[4] He ception “not so much because of proofs in Scripture or believed that Mary was completely free from sin, but ancient tradition, but due to a profound sensus fidelium that she was not given this grace at the instant of her and the Magisterium”.[43] conception.[50] Speaking of the witness of the Church Fathers in claiming The celebrated John Duns Scotus (d. 1308), a Friar Mi- for Mary titles such as “Free from all contagion of sin”, nor like Saint Bonaventure, argued, on the contrary, that Pope Pius XII wrote: from a rational point of view it was certainly as little derogatory to the merits of Christ to assert that Mary was by him preserved from all taint of sin, as to say that If the popular praises of the Blessed Virgin [4] Mary be given the careful consideration they she first contracted it and then was delivered. Propos- deserve, who will dare to doubt that she, who ing a solution to the theological problem of reconciling was purer than the angels and at all times pure, the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, was at any moment, even for the briefest in- he argued that Mary’s immaculate conception did not re- stant, not free from every stain of sin?[44] move her from redemption by Christ; rather it was the result of a more perfect redemption granted her because of her special role in salvation history.[51] The Roman Catholic tradition has a well-established phi- losophy for the study of the Immaculate Conception and The arguments of Scotus, combined with a better ac- the veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the field of quaintance with the language of the early Fathers, grad- Mariology, with Pontifical schools such as the ually prevailed in the schools of the Western Church. In specifically devoted to this.[45][46][47] 1387 the university of Paris strongly condemned the op- posite view.[4] According to Bernard Ullathorne, a 19th-century English Roman Catholic prelate, “the expressions - The Immacu- Scotus’s arguments remained controversial, however, late Conception - The Immaculate Preservation - The Im- particularly among the Dominicans, who were willing munity - and Exception from original sin, are all phrases enough to celebrate Mary’s sanctificatio (being made free which bear the same signification, and are used equally to from sin) but, following the Dominican Thomas Aquinas’ express one and the same mystery.”[48] arguments, continued to insist that her sanctification could not have occurred until after her conception.[21] Popular opinion remained firmly behind the celebration 3 Medieval dispute about the doc- of Mary’s conception. In 1439, the Council of Basel, which is not reckoned an ecumenical council, stated that trine belief in the immaculate conception of Mary is in ac- cord with the Catholic faith.[52] By the end of the 15th It seems to have been St Bernard of Clairvaux who, in century the belief was widely professed and taught in the 12th century, explicitly raised the question of the many theological faculties, but such was the influence Immaculate Conception. A feast of the Conception of of the Dominicans, and the weight of the arguments of the Blessed Virgin had already begun to be celebrated in Thomas Aquinas (who had been canonised in 1323 and some churches of the West. St Bernard blames the canons declared “Doctor Angelicus” of the Church in 1567) that of the metropolitan church of Lyon for instituting such a the Council of Trent (1545–63)—which might have been festival without the permission of the Holy See. In doing expected to affirm the doctrine—instead declined to take so, he takes occasion to repudiate altogether the view that a position.[21][39] the conception of Mary was sinless. It is doubtful, how- ever, whether he was using the term “conception” in the same sense in which it is used in the definition of Pope 4 Church Fathers Pius IX. Bernard would seem to have been speaking of conception in the active sense of the mother’s coopera- It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX was tion, for in his argument he says: “How can there be ab- not explicitly mooted before the 12th century. It is also sence of sin where there is concupiscence (libido)?" and agreed that “no direct or categorical and stringent proof stronger expressions follow, showing that he is speaking [21] [4] of the dogma can be brought forward from Scripture”. of the mother and not of the child. But it is claimed that the doctrine is implicitly contained Saint Thomas Aquinas, the greatest of the medieval in the teaching of the Fathers. Their expressions on the scholastics, refused to admit the Immaculate Conception, subject of the sinlessness of Mary are, it is pointed out, 5

so ample and so absolute that they must be taken to in- and original innocence” “in that ark of Noah, which was clude original sin as well as actual. Thus in the first five built by divine command and escaped entirely safe and centuries such epithets as “in every respect holy”, “in sound from the common shipwreck of the whole world; all things unstained”, “super-innocent”, and “singularly in the ladder which Jacob saw reaching from the earth to holy” are applied to her; she is compared to Eve before heaven, by whose rungs the angels of God ascended and the fall, as ancestress of a redeemed people; she is “the descended, and on whose top the Lord himself leaned;[58] earth before it was accursed”. The well-known words of in that bush which Moses saw in the holy place burning St. Augustine (d. 430) may be cited: “As regards the on all sides, which was not consumed or injured in any mother of God,” he says, “I will not allow any question way but grew green and blossomed beautifully;[59] in that whatever of sin.” It is true that he is here speaking di- impregnable tower before the enemy, from which hung rectly of actual or personal sin. But his argument is that a thousand bucklers and all the armor of the strong;[60] all men are sinners; that they are so through original de- in that garden enclosed on all sides, which cannot be vi- pravity; that this original depravity may be overcome by olated or corrupted by any deceitful plots;[61] in that re- the grace of God, and he adds that he does not know but splendent city of God, which has its foundations on the that Mary may have had sufficient grace to overcome sin holy mountains;[62] in that most august temple of God, “of every sort” (omni ex parte).[4] which, radiant with divine splendours, is full of the glory [63] Although the doctrine of Mary’s Immaculate Conception of God; and in very many other biblical types of this appears only later among Latin (and particularly Frank- kind.” ish) theologians,[53]It became ever more manifest among The bull recounts that the Fathers interpreted the an- Byzantine theologians reliant on Gregory Nazianzen’s gel’s address to Mary, “highly favoured one” or “full of Mariology in the Medieval or Byzantine East. Although grace”,[64] as indicating that “she was never subject to the hymnographers and scholars, like the Emperor Justinian curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker I, were accustomed to call Mary “prepurified” in their po- of perpetual benediction"; they “frequently compare her etic and credal statements, the first point of departure for to Eve while yet a virgin, while yet innocence, while yet more fully commenting on Nazianzen’s meaning occurs incorrupt, while not yet deceived by the deadly snares of in Sophronius of Jerusalem.[54]In other places Sophro- the most treacherous serpent”. nius explains that the Theotokos was already immaculate, when she was “purified” at the Annunciation and goes so far as to note that John the Baptist is literally “holier 5 Patronages than all 'Men' born of woman” since Mary’s surpassing holiness signifies that she was holier than even John after Main article: Patronages of the Immaculate Conception his sanctification in utero.[55] Sophronius’ teaching is aug- mented and incorporated in the great St. John Damascene (d. 749/750). John, besides many passages wherein he A number of countries are considered to be under the pa- extolls the Theotokos for her purification at the Annunci- tronage of the Immaculate Conception by pontifical de- ation, grants her the unique honor of “purifying the wa- cree. ters of baptism by touching them.” This honor was most These include Argentina, Brazil, Korea, Nicaragua, famously and firstly attributed to Christ, especially in the Paraguay, Philippines, Spain (old kingdoms and the legacy of Nazianzen. As such, Nazianzen’s assertion of present state), the United States and Uruguay. parallel holiness between the prepurified Mary and pu- rified Jesus of the New Testament is made even more By royal decree under the House of Braganza, it is the explicit in Damascene in his discourse on Mary’s holi- principal Patroness of Portugal. ness to also imitate Christ’s baptism at the Jordan.[56] The Damascene’s hymnongraphy and De fide Orthodoxa ex- plicitly use Mary’s “pre purification” as a key to under- 6 Other churches standing her absolute holiness and unsullied human na- ture. In fact, Damascene (along with Nazianzen) serves as For differing reasons, belief in Mary’s immaculate con- the source for nearly all subsequent promotion of Mary’s ception in the Catholic doctrinal form is not part of the complete holiness from her Conception by the “all pure official doctrines of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Or- seed” of Joachim and the womb “wider than heaven” of thodox, Anglican and Protestant churches. St. Ann.[57] The papal bull defining the dogma, Ineffabilis Deus, mentioned in particular the patrististic interpretation of 6.1 Anglicanism Genesis 3:15 as referring to a woman, Mary, who would be eternally at enmity with the evil serpent and completely Belief in Mary’s immaculate conception is not a doctrine triumphing over him. It said the Fathers saw foreshad- within Anglicanism, although it is shared by many Anglo- [65] owings of Mary’s “wondrous abundance of divine gifts Catholics. In the Church of England's Common Wor- ship prayer book, 8 December is designated a Lesser Fes- 6 6 OTHER CHURCHES tival of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (with- tium took its historical point of departure from Sophro- out the adjective “immaculate”).[66] nios, Damascene, and their imitators. The most famous The report “Mary: Faith and Hope in Christ”, by Eastern Orthodox theologian to imply Mary’s Immacu- the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission, late Conception was St. Gregory Palamas. Though many concluded that the teaching about Mary in the two defi- passages from his works were long known to extol and nitions of the Assumption and the Immaculate Concep- attribute to Mary a Christlike holiness in her human na- tion can be said to be consonant with the teaching of the ture, traditional objections to Palamas’ disposition toward Scriptures and the ancient common traditions.[67] But the the Immaculate Conception typically rely on a poor un- derstanding of his doctrine of “the purification of Mary” report expressed concerns that the Roman Catholic dog- [70] matic definitions of these concepts implies them to be at the Annunciation. Not only did he explicitly cite St. Gregory Nazianzen for his understanding of Jesus’ “revealed by God”, stating: “The question arises for An- glicans, however, as to whether these doctrines concern- purification at His baptism and Mary’s at the Annuncia- tion, but Theophanes of Nicaea, Joseph Bryennius, and ing Mary are revealed by God in a way which must be held by believers as a matter of faith.”[68] Gennadios Scholarios all explicitly placed Mary’s Con- ception as the first moment of her all-immaculate par- Some Anglicans reject the doctrine that Mary was sin- ticipation in the divine energies to such a degree that she less and conceived without original sin, often citing that was always completely without spot and graced.[71] In ad- it is not within the Holy Scripture and is against the Re- dition to Emperor Manuel II and Gennadius Scholarius, demptive role and purpose of Jesus Christ merited for all St. Mark of Ephesus also fervently defended Mary’s title human beings. as “prepurified” against the Dominican, Manuel Calecas, who was perhaps promoting thomistic Mariology that de- nied Mary’s all-holiness from the first moment of her 6.2 Eastern and Oriental Orthodox existence.[72] In the tradition of Ethiopian Orthodoxy, the Kebra Nagast says:

He cleansed eve’s body and sanctified it and made for it a dwelling in her for adam’s salvation. She [i.e., mary] was born without blemish, for He made her pure, without pollu- tion, and she redeemed his debt without carnal union and embrace...Through the transgression of eve we died and were buried, and by the pu- rity of mary we receive honour, and are exalted to the heights (emphasis added).[73]

6.3 Old Catholic

While Old Catholics do not reject the Immaculate Con- ception of Mary, and some of their parishes venerate Mary as immaculately conceived and celebrate the feast of her Immaculate Conception, they do not accept its def- inition as a dogma, since they reject papal infallibility and with it the Pope’s authority to define dogma.[74]

The Immaculate Conception is also portrayed by artists in the 6.4 Protestantism Orthodox Church, for example Holy Mary in Perlez, Vojvodina, Serbia. Martin Luther, who initiated the Protestant Reformation, said: “Mary is full of grace, proclaimed to be entirely Contemporary Eastern Orthodox Christians often object without sin. God’s grace fills her with everything good to the dogmatic declaration of her immaculate conception and makes her devoid of all evil.”[75] But in 1532 he de- as an “over-elaboration” of the faith and because they see nied Mary’s immaculate conception, declaring: “Mary is it as too closely connected with a particular interpreta- conceived in sin just like us.”[76] However, some Luther- tion of the doctrine of ancestral sin.[69] All the same, the ans, such as the members of the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic historical and authentic tradition of Mariology in Byzan- Church, support the doctrine. 7

Most Protestants reject the doctrine because they do not maculate conception was condemned by St. Bernard as consider the development of dogmatic theology to be au- a presumptuous novelty.”[80] In the aftermath of the def- thoritative apart from biblical exegesis, and because the inition of the dogma in 1854, this charge was repeated: doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not taught in “Strange as it may appear, that the doctrine which the the Bible.[77] The formal pronouncement of Mary’s Im- church of Rome has promulgated, with so much pomp maculate Conception by the Catholic Church in 1854 and ceremony, 'for the destruction of all heresies, and the alienated some Protestant churches partly due to its im- confirmation of the faith of her adherents’, should have its plication that not all have sinned.[78] origin in the Mohametan Bible; yet the testimony of such authorities as Gibbon, and Sale, and Forster, and Gagnier, and Maracci, leave no doubt as to the marvellous fact.”[81] 7 Islam Without making Islamic belief the origin of the doctrine defined in 1854, a similarity between the two has been noted also by Roman Catholic writers such as Thomas Patrick Hughes,[82] William Bernard Ullathorne,[83] Gi- ancarlo Finazzo.[84] Certain books that speak of the “immaculate conception” in relation to Islam confuse this term with the virgin birth of Jesus, his conception by Mary, not Mary’s own con- ception by her mother.[85][86][87] Among writers who do not mistake Mary’s “immaculate conception” as her vir- ginal conception of Jesus, some say that Mary “is cred- ited in Islam with extraordinary holiness, herself immac- ulately conceived”,[88] while others say that, “with regard to Mary’s putative immaculate conception, while classi- Manuscript of Chapter 19 (Sūratu Maryam) from a 9th-century cal Islam holds the Qur'an to affirm Mary virginity and Qur'an, Turkey. virtue, it repudiates the doctrine as it is known in Chris- tianity. There is no inherited fault in the genesis of hu- Official Islamic teachings highly regard the Virgin Mary mans that requires any further form of salvation than as both a sublime model of purity and piety. An entire moral repentance and an interior act of commitment and Sura chapter of the Qur'an is dedicated to her nobility, surrender.”[89] holiness, and fiat obedience to God. Among Islamic cir- cles and discussions, she is often given a prominent status being the supreme feminine model of sanctity and mater- nal virtue. 8 Prayers and hymns Some Western writers claim that the immaculate concep- tion of Mary is a teaching of Islam. Thus, commenting The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the in 1734 on the passage in the Qur'an, “I have called her Hours naturally includes references to Mary’s immacu- Mary; and I commend her to thy protection, and also her late conception in the feast of the Immaculate Concep- issue, against Satan driven away with stones”, George Sale tion. An example is the antiphon that begins: "Tota pul- stated: “It is not improbable that the pretended immac- chra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te" (You ulate conception of the virgin Mary is intimated in this are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is passage. For according to a tradition of Mohammed, ev- not in you. Your clothing is white as snow, and your ery person that comes into the world, is touched at his face is like the sun. You are all beautiful, Mary, and the birth by the devil, and therefore cries out, Mary and her original stain [of sin] is not in you. You are the glory of son only excepted; between whom, and the evil spirit God Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to placed a veil, so that his touch did not reach them. And our people. You are all beautiful, Mary.)[90] On the basis for this reason they say, neither of them were guilty of of the original Gregorian chant music,[91] polyphonic set- any sin, like the rest of the children of Adam.”[79] tings have been composed by Anton Bruckner,[92] Pablo [93] In addition, further claims were made that the Roman Casals, Maurice Duruflé, Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczy- cki,[94] no:Ola Gjeilo,[95] José Maurício Nunes Garcia,[96] Catholic Church derives its doctrine from the Islamic [97] teaching. In volume 5 of his Decline and Fall of the Ro- and Nikolaus Schapfl, man Empire, published in 1788, Edward Gibbon wrote: Other prayers honouring Mary’s immaculate concep- “The has not disdained to borrow from the tion are in use outside the formal liturgy. The Koran the immaculate conception of his virgin mother.” hymn Immaculate Mary, addressed to Mary as the Im- That he was speaking of her immaculate conception by maculately Conceived One, is closely associated with her mother, not of her own virginal conception of Jesus, Lourdes.[98] The Immaculata prayer, composed by Saint is shown by his footnote: “In the xiith century the im- Maximillian Kolbe, is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as 8 10 GALLERY the Immaculata.[99] A novena of prayers, with a specific other Spanish artists such as Bartolomé Murillo, Diego prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under Velázquez, and Francisco Zurbarán, who each produced a the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena.[100] number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols.[102][103] The popularity of this particular representation of The 9 Artistic representations Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depic- tion of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after Main article: Roman Catholic Marian art her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young The 1476 extension of the feast of the Immaculate Con- woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars sur- round her head, possibly a reference to “a woman clothed with the sun” from Revelation 12:1-2. Additional im- agery may include clouds, a golden light, and cherubs. In some paintings the cherubim are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary.[104]

10 Gallery

• di Cosimo Immaculate Conception, 1505

• Rubens Immaculate Conception 1628-1629

• Zurbarán Immaculate Conception, 1630

• Murillo Immaculate Conception, 1650

• Murillo Immaculate Conception, 1660

• Murillo Immaculate Conception, 1678

• Carlo Maratta, 1689

• Juan Antonio Escalante 17th century

• Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome

• Baroque altar in Our Lady of the Immaculate Con- ception Church, Portugal Swiss emblem 16th century • Caxias do Sul museum, Brazil ception to the entire Latin Church reduced the likelihood of controversy for the artist or patron in depicting an im- • Statue, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 19th century age, so that emblems depicting The Immaculate Concep- • tion began to appear.[101] Palmi, Immaculate Conception, 1925 Many artists in the 15th century faced the problem of • Nicaragua Immaculate Conception, 1950 how to depict an abstract idea such as the Immaculate Conception, and the problem was not fully solved for 150 • La Purisima Concepcion / Impong Maria, Iglesia years. The Italian Renaissance artist Piero di Cosimo was Filipina Independiente, Malabon among those artists who tried new solutions, but none of these became generally adopted so that the subject matter • La Immaculada Concepcion (Canonical Crowned), would be immediately recognisable to the faithful. • La Inmaculada, Manila Cathedral The definitive iconography for the Immaculate Concep- tion, drawing on the emblem tradition, seems to have • , Brasilia been finally established by the master and then father- in-law of Diego Velázquez, the painter and theorist • The Immaculate Conception, Church of the Immac- Francisco Pacheco. Pacheco’s iconography influenced ulate Conception in Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Spain). 9

[3] “the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singu- lar grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin” ( Ineffabilis Deus of Pope Pius IX)

[4] Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911, “The Immaculate Con- ception”

[5] Encyclical Mystici Corporis, 110

[6] Denzinger 833, old numbering.

[7] As the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) somewhat coyly puts it, “Her body was formed in the womb of the mother, and the father had the usual share in its formation. The ques- Immaculate Conception celebration in Guatemala. tion does not concern the immaculateness of the genera- tive activity of her parents.”, “Immaculate Conception”, 11 See also Catholic Encyclopedia [8] “St Anne”, Catholic Encyclopedia • Patronages of the Immaculate Conception [9] The Catholicism Answer Book by John Trigilio, Kenneth Brighenti 2007 ISBN 1-4022-0806-5 page 59-62 • Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception [10] What Every Catholic Should Know about Mary by Ter- • Congregation of the Immaculate Conception rence J. McNally ISBN 1-4415-1051-6 pages 104-108

• Feast of the Immaculate Conception [11] Council of Orange II, 19 “That no one is saved except by God’s mercy. Even if human nature remained • Immaculate Mary in that integrity in which it was formed, it would in no way save itself without the help of its Creator; therefore, since • Immaculata prayer without the grace of God it cannot guard the health which it received, how without the grace of God will it be able • Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church to recover what it has lost?" [12] Theology for Beginners by Francis Joseph Sheed 1958 • Mother of God (Roman Catholic) ISBN 0-7220-7425-5 pages 134-138

• Original sin [13] “The celebration of the Mother of God as immaculate (achrantos), is a clear and universal recognition of her • Perpetual virginity of Mary exceptional and iconic sanctity. Orthodoxy did not fol- low the path of Roman Catholicism in moving towards a • Roman Catholic Marian art recognition of her Immaculate Conception” ( John An- thony McGuckin, The Orthodox Church: An Introduction • Virgin birth of Jesus to Its History, Doctrine, and Spiritual Culture (Blackwell 2011 ISBN 978-1-4443-3731-0), p. 218.)

[14] Raymond Burke, 2008, Mariology: A Guide for Priests, 12 Bibliography Deacons,seminarians, and Consecrated Persons Queen- ship Publishing ISBN 1-57918-355-7 page

• Le Franc, Martin. The Conception of Mary -- A [15] Patrologia Graeca 36: 326B 41-42; idem, 36: 633C 7-8 Rhyming Translation of Book V of Le Champion des Dames by Martin Le Franc (1410-1461). Ed. and [16] Brian Daley, Gregory of Nazianzus (The Early Christian Church Fathers), New York 2006, 115-118. trans. Steven Millen Taylor. Lewiston, NY: The Ed- win Mellen Press, 2010. [17] Nicolas Cabasilas (†1371?). Homélies sur la Nativité, L’Annonciation et la Dormition de la Sainte Vierge, ed. M. Jugie (Patrologia Orientalis 19), Turnhout 1990, pp. 456-512 (ch. 10, lines 1-8): “If there are some of 13 References the holy doctors who say that the Virgin is ‘prepurified (προκεκαθάρθαι)’ by the Spirit, then it is yet necessary [1] Catechism of the Catholic Church, 490-493 to think that ‘purification (κάθαρσιν)’ (i.e. an addition of graces) is intended by these authors, and these [doctors] [2] “Christianity: Immaculate Conception”. BBC. Retrieved say that this is the way the angels are ‘purified,’ with re- 25 May 2014. spect to whom there is nothing knavish.” 10 13 REFERENCES

[18] Joseph Bryennius, Ιὠσῆφ Μαναχοῦ τοῦ Βρυεννίου τὰ [35] Pareri dell'episcopato cattolico, di capitoli ... etc., sulla εὐρεθέντα, vol. 3, ed. E. Bulgaris (Thessaloniki: 1990), definizione ... - Pius IX (pope.) - Google Boeken. 31: “He says: ‘Yet, on one hand, how did another Mother Books.google.com. Retrieved 2013-03-12. of God not come about?’ But, on the other hand: ‘Had she some sort of virtue/excellence, because of which she [36] 3-11-2013; Il mistero di Maria: teologia, storia, devozione was honored above all women?’ First, another woman by Giuseppe Damigella, p. 175: “Pio IX si senti' soll- was not chosen over her, because while God foreknew all evato dal peso teologico di dover sostenere una dottrina women, he sanctified (ἡγίασεν) the future woman from non fondata nel pensiero di san Tommaso, il cui inseg- her mother’s womb, purer (καθαρωτέραν) than other namento era allora, come oggi, ritenuto “sicuro”." Cf. A. women, who were going to come to exist; but he eschewed Andaloro, “P. Mariano Spada, o.p. interprete di San Tom- all unworthy persons with respect to her, as is reasonable. maso sull'Immucolata Concezione,” Catania, 1958 But she procured for herself the excellence superior to all [37] The Creeds of Christendom by Philip Schaff 2009 ISBN men and [procured for her] to be prepared as a containing 1-115-46834-0 page 211 receptacle of the divinity, which [same receptacle] was prepurified (τὸ προκαθαρθῆναι) by the Holy Spirit; O [38] “Papal Definition of the Immaculate Conception”. what a marvel, indeed!" Ewtn.com. Retrieved 2010-09-13.

[19] Francis X. Weiser, The Holyday Book (Harcourt, Brace [39] Jenny Schroedel, The Everything Mary Book (Adams and Co. 1956) 2006 ISBN 1-59337-713-4) pp. 180-181”

[20] Michael Kunzler, The Church’s Liturgy (Continuum Inter- [40] Mark Miravalle, 1993, Introduction to Mary, Queenship national 2002 ISBN 978-0-8264-1353-6), pp. 434-435 Publishing ISBN 978-1-882972-06-7 page 64-70

[21] Frederick Holweck, “Immaculate Conception” in The [41] EWTN Catholic Encyclopedia 1910 [42] Vatican website

[22] Matthew Bunson, OSV’s Encyclopedia of Catholic History [43] “Agenzia Fides - Congregazione per l'Evangelizzazione (Our Sunday Visitor 2004 ISBN 978-1-59276-026-8), p. dei Popoli”. Fides.org. Retrieved 2009-05-05. 455 [44] Pope Pius XII, Encyclical Fulgens corona, 10 [23] Mark Miravalle, 1993, Introduction to Mary, Queenship Publishing ISBN 978-1-882972-06-7 page 66-69 [45] Mariology Society of America http:// mariologicalsocietyofamerica.us [24] Mary by Sarah Jane Boss, Neil Warmsley 2004 ISBN 0- 8264-5788-6 page 139 [46] Centers of Marian Study http://www.servidimaria.org/en/ attualita/promotori2/promotori2.htm [25] John D. Bryant, The Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God” (Boston 1855), p. 166 [47] Publisher’s Notice in the Second Italian Edition (1986), reprinted in English Edition, Gabriel Roschini, O.S.M. [26] Denzinger 734 (old numbering) (1989). The Virgin Mary in the Writings of Maria Val- torta (English Edition). Kolbe’s Publication Inc. ISBN [27] Saint Conleth’s Catholic Heritage Association 2-920285-08-4

[28] Denzinger 735 (old numbering) [48] Ullathorne, William Bernard, The immaculate conception of the Mother of God, an exposition, 1855. [29] Denzinger 792 (old numbering) [49] Summa Theologica, III, q. 27, art. 3 [30] Z. J. Kosztolnyik, Some Hungarian Theologians in the [50] Mary’s Immaculate Conception Late Renaissance, Church History. Volume: 57. Issue: 1, 1988. Z. J. Kosztolnyik, Pelbartus of Temesvar: a Franci- [51] Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi can Preacher and Writer of the Late Middle Ages in Hun- by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 896- gary, Vivarium, 5/1967. Kenan B. Osborne, O.F.M., The 898 History of Franciscan Theology, The Franciscan Institute St. Bonaventure, New York, 1994. Franklin H. Littell [52] Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Encyclopedia (Merriam- (ed.), Reformation Studies, John Knox Press, Richmond, Webster 2001 ISBN 978-0-87779-017-4), p. 795 Virginia, 1962. [53] Brian Reynolds, Gateway to Heaven: Marian Doctrine [31] Paul Cavendish, “The Tridentine Mass” and Devotion Image and Typology in the Patristic and Medieval Periods, vol. 1 (NY: New City Press, 2012), [32] Marion A. Habig, “Land of Mary Immaculate” 348-353.

[33] Supremi disciplinæ in Catholic Encyclopedia [54] Sophronios of Jerusalem, In Sanctissimae Deiparae Annuntiationem (Patrologia Graeca 87.3:3248A [34] “These petitions were renewed in these our own times; 24): “Οὐδεὶς κατά σε μεμακάρισται, οὐδεὶς κατά they were especially brought to the attention of Gregory σε καθαγίασται· οὐδεὶς κατά σε μεμεγάλυνται, XVI” (Ineffabilis Deus). οὐδεὶς κατά σε προκεκάθαρται· οὐδεὶς κατά σε 11

περιηύγασται, οὐδεὶς κατά σε ἐκπεφώτισται.” N.B., [72] Mark of Ephesus, On the Distinction between Essence oudeis kata se prokekathartai was rendered in Latin as and Energy: First Antirrhetic against Manuel Kalekas. nemo, sicut tu, purificante gratia praeoccupatus est.” Editio princeps, ed. M. Pilavakis (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), London 1987: “But He did so with her, af- [55] Sophronios of Jerusalem, In Sanctissimae Deiparae An- ter he prepurified (προκαθαρθείσῃ) her through a most nuntiationem (Patrologia Graeca, 87.3: 3273D 43): profuse grace by means of the protecting Holy Spirit and “Πνεῦμα ἅγιον ἐπὶ σὲ, τὴν ἀμόλυντον, κάτεισι, divine power […]" καθαρωτέραν σε ποιησόμενον, καὶ καρπογόνον σοι παρεξόμενον δύναμιν.”; idem, Encomium in S. Iohan- [73] Kebra Nagast, Chapter 96:Concerning the Prophecy about nem Baptistam, PG 87:3332C christ

[56] “The air, the fiery ether, the sky would have been made [74] “Old Roman Catholic Church of North America - What holy by the ascent of her spirit, as earth was sanctified IS Catholic?". Orccna.org. Retrieved 2009-05-05. by the deposition of her body. Even water had its share in the blessing: for she was washed in pure water, which [75] Luther’s Works, American edition, vol. 43, p. 40, ed. H. did not so much cleanse her as it was itself consecrated.” Lehmann, Fortress, 1968 See John Damascene, On the Holy and Glorious Dormi- tion and Transformation of Our Lady Mary, Mother of [76] Gregory Lee Jackson Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: A God and Ever-Virgin by Our Holy Father John, Monk of Doctrinal Comparison ( 1993 ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3), Damascus and Son of Mansour. Homily 2, in On the Dor- p. 249 mition of Mary: Early Patristic Homilies, tr. B. Daley (Crestwood, NY :1998), 215. [77] The Protestant faith by George Wolfgang Forell 1962 ISBN 0-8006-1095-4 page 23 [57] Christiaan Kappes, The Immaculate Conception: Why Thomas Aquinas Denied, While John Duns Scotus, Gre- [78] Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, gory Palamas, and Mark Eugenicus Professed the Ab- Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607- solute Immaculate Existence of Mary (Bedford, MA: 856-6 page Academy of the Immaculate, 2014), 39-61 [79] George Sale, Koran, commonly called the Alcoran of Mo- [58] Genesis 28:12 hammed, chapter 3, p. 39

[59] Exodus 3:2 [80] Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. V, chapter 50 [60] Song 4:4 [61] Song 4:12 [81] The Evangelical Repository and United Presbyterian Re- view (Philadelphia 1865), vol. XLII, p. 433 [62] Psalm 87:1 [82] Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam. First [63] Isaiah 6:1-4 published London 1885; reprinted by Asian Edu- [64] Luke 1:28 cational Services 2001. ISBN 8120606728, ISBN 9788120606722. Entry “IMMACULATE CONCEP- [65] Our Lady Saint Mary by J.G.H. Barry, 2008, ISBN 0-554- TION”. (Google Books) Quote: “This doctrine was as- 24332-6, pages 25-27 serted by Muhammad (Mishkāt, book i., ch. iii., pt. 1).”

[66] Common Worship: Festivals (Church House Publishing, [83] William Bernard Ullathorne. The Immaculate Concep- Church of England ISBN 978-0-7151-2114-6), p. 20 tion of the Mother of God: An Exposition. First published 1855; ISBN 111089977. Chapter XIV, “Mahomet and [67] Ecumenical Affairs - Dialogues - Anglican Roman Martin Luther”. (Google Books) Catholic Paragraph 78 - Accessed 8 December 2008 [68] Ecumenical Affairs - Dialogues - Anglican Roman [84] Giancarlo Finazzo. “The Virgin Mary in the Koran”. Catholic Paragraph 60 - Accessed 8 December 2008 L'Osservatore Romano Weekly Edition in English, 13 April 1978, page 4. Quote: “The dogma of the Immacu- [69] John Meyendorff, The Orthodox Church: Its Past and Its late Conception ... is univocally recognized by the Islamic Role in the World Today (St Vladimir’s Seminary Press religion.” 1996 ISBN 978-0-913836-81-1), p. 181 [85] Khwaja Nazir Ahmad, Jesus in Heaven on Earth, chapter [70] See https://www.academia.edu/4375213/The_ 8 Immaculate_Conception_Why_Thomas_Aquinas_ Denied_While_John_Duns_Scotus_Gregory_Palamas_ [86] Roy Jackson, Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam and_Mark_Eugenicus_Professed_the_Absolute_ (Routledge 2011 ISBN 0-203-84872-1), p. 180 Immaculate_Existence_of_Mary , pp. 69-81 [87] Abdelwahab Bouhdiba, Muḥammad Maʻrūf Dawālībī, [71] Christiaan Kappes, The Immaculate Conception: Why The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture (Bernan Asso- Thomas Aquinas Denied, While John Duns Scotus, Gre- ciates 1998 ISBN 978-92-3-102742-0), p. 264 gory Palamas, and Mark Eugenicus Professed the Ab- solute Immaculate Existence of Mary (Bedford, MA: [88] Juan Eduardo Campo, Encyclopedia of Islam (Infobase Academy of the Immaculate, 2014), 69-92; 157-169 Publishing 2009 ISBN 978-1-43812696-8), p. 559 12 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

[89] Cleo McNelly Kearns, The Virgin Mary, Monotheism and • “St. Augustine and Original Sin” — a short arti- Sacrifice (Cambridge University Press 2008 ISBN 978-0- cle on the different understandings of Original Sin 52187156-3), p. 254 in Eastern and Western Christianity, without distin- guishing Protestant theology from Roman Catholic. [90] The text (in Latin) is given at Tota Pulchra Es - GMEA Honor Chorus. The latter holds that “original sin does not have the character of a personal fault in any of Adam’s de- [91] Tota pulchra es Maria, Canto gregoriano scendants” (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 405).

[92] Anton Bruckner - Tota pulchra es • Mark I. Miraville (editor), “Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated [93] Maurice Duruflé: Tota pulchra es Maria Persons [94] Poznańskie Słowiki - Tota pulchra es ( G. G. Gorczycki) • Original Sin According To St. Paul by John S. Ro- [95] Tota pulchra es, Grex Vocalis manides • [96] José Maurício Nunes Garcia Catechism of the Catholic Church “Conceived by the Power of the Holy Spirit and Born of the Vir- [97] Tota Pulchra - Composed by Nikolaus Schapfl gin Mary” [98] Immaculate prayers

[99] University of Dayton Marian prayers

[100] EWTN Immaculate Conception Novena

[101] Emblems for Immaculate Conception

[102] Ésotérisme, gnoses & imaginaire symbolique: mélanges of- ferts à Antoine Faivre by Richard Caron, Antoine Faivre 2001 ISBN 90-429-0955-2 page 676

[103] Divine Mirrors: The Virgin Mary in the Visual Arts by Melissa R. Katz and Robert A. Orsi 2001 ISBN 0-19- 514557-7 page 98

[104] Our Lady in Art by Katherine Lee Rawlings Jenner 2009 ISBN 1-103-32689-9 pages 3-9

14 External links

• The Immaculate Conception in Art (Painting)

• Ineffabilis Deus ( of Pope Pius IX defining the dogma of the Immaculate Con- ception)

• Godzinki: The Little Hours of the Immaculate Con- ception

• St. Alphonsus Liguori’s writing on the Immaculate Conception in his book

• Catholic Encyclopedia entry on the Immaculate Conception

• Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Original Sin

• The Immaculate Conception. A study by a Melkite archimandrite

• The Immaculate Conception of the Mother of God based on Juniper Carol’s Mariology and William Bernard Ullathornee's book 13

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Wombat, Supertouch, TIY, Shark96z, SaHeh, Stuthomas4, Dans1976, Lartoven, Torquemama007, Elizium23, SchreiberBike, Muro Bot, BOTarate, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, JederCoulious, DumZiBoT, Am- brosius007, XLinkBot, Delicious carbuncle, JRDoroghazi, Edgepedia, MystBot, Addbot, Ocrasaroon, Fieldday-sunday, Leszek Jańczuk, Usersnet, Buster7, Glane23, Zorrobot, Caius k, Legobot, Yobot, Weatherbird07, Mariocortesjr, AnomieBOT, Marauder40, JackieBot, Taam, Chuckiesdad, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Piraja, JimVC3, DSisyphBot, Gemckinzie, Ute in DC, RibotBOT, Cresix, As- kicka4, Haldraper, FrescoBot, Riverwhich!, Mckenzdo, Anthony on Stilts, Buddhaamaatya, LinDrug, Footwarrior, Full-date unlinking bot, SW3 5DL, ActivExpression, JosiahHenderson, , Jexen0127, Keith Cascio, Zink Dawg, Fastilysock, Athene cheval, Pleas- eStand, Tbhotch, HOTCC, Maynilad, Joseph Spadaro, TjBot, Beyond My Ken, Hajatvrc, MrRedBeard, Talmid3, Esoglou, Marishia01, Stebunik, Slightsmile, Manfredwinslow, Judistian, Christina Silverman, BlizzmasterPilch, Aarondarlington, Willthacheerleader18, Parvu- lus scholasticus, ClamDip, Imorthodox23, Jesusisthemessiah, ClueBot NG, IamKRnatino, PatrickGuadalupe, Satellizer, Stevenmillen, Hazhk, Ianlopez12, Mannanan51, PT33Judistian, Jorgenev, Radovanovic, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, GattiM, Juro2351, Messiaindarain, ElphiBot, Allenjambalaya, Dainomite, Arminden, Agneljose, Tpwhdeodhkd, LoveforMary, Cherboizzz, Andrej Mohor- cic, Khazar2, McCreeper, AthanasiusOfAlex, Webclient101, Mogism, HeartyBowl1989, Quiet Editor, Tomlin87721, QvisDevs, SFK2, Matthewrobertolson, Hoppeduppeanut, Knatino, Filedelinkerbot, Horselover Fats, Hnc78, TreasureIslandMediaBoss and Anonymous: 493

15.2 Images • File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Holy_See.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54; Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Emblem_of_the_Holy_See_usual.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Emblem_of_the_Holy_See_ usual.svg License: CC0 Contributors: • Keys: File:Sede_vacante.svg Original artist: Gambo7 • File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides • File:ImmaculateEmblem.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b5/ImmaculateEmblem.jpg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kirchenfenster_Böckweiler.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Kirchenfenster_B%C3% B6ckweiler.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/11596438@N00/2435169073/sizes/o/in/ photostream/ Original artist: tiegeltuf 14 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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