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Contextualization and Folk Islam: a Case Study in the Sudan

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CONTEXTUALIZATION AND FOLK ISLAM: A CASE STUDY IN THE SUDAN by ROBIN DALE HADAWAY submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF THEOLOGY in the subject MISSIOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF. W. A. SAAYMAN NOVEMBER 2010 2 ! Abstract Estimates suggest that seventy percent of Muslims follow folk Islam (popular Islam), rather than the orthodox Is- lamic faith. Most methods for reaching Muslims with the Gospel have concentrated on one of two broad approaches with a third blending the first two methods. Apologetic, polemic and dialogue techniques argue that Christianity is more valid or reasonable than Islam. Other approaches consist of contextualized methods seek- ing some common ground between Christianity and Islam. Apologetic arguments have not been very effective with folk Muslims because cognitive propositions fail to answer the “why” questions posed by popular Islam. Most contextualized methods also miss the mark with folk Mus- lims; they rarely attend Islamic worship, observe the five pillars of Islam, or read the Qur’an. A few missio- logists propose a fourth category for reaching Muslims – contextualizing according to their worldview. This thesis explores what are the best approaches for evangelizing folk Muslims who are particularly influ- enced by African Traditional Religion (ATR). The Beja tribe of the Sudan and the Sukuma tribe of Tanzania serve as case studies. I argue for a contextualized approach to folk Muslims, addressing their unique worldviews. ATR- influenced folk Muslims lean toward a fear-power worldview, while the Sufis among them hold to an existen- tial-transcendent worldview. Each group, therefore, necessitates a different evangelism approach. The first chapter presents preliminary matters, the research question, a literature review, and a rationale for the thesis. The second chapter analyzes the case study example of Beja folk Islam. Chapter three examines folk Islam and its relationship to orthodox Islam, 3 ! including further illustrations from the Beja tribe. The fourth chapter explores the subject of ATR and its rela- tionship to folk Islam. The Sukuma tribe of Tanzania serves as a base-line model of ATR for a comparison with Beja folk Islam. Chapter five introduces the topic of contextualization in Muslim evangelization and assesses the effectiveness and validity of methods that have been used. Chapter six suggests worldview approaches for reaching ATR and Sufi-influenced folk Muslims. The final chapter summarizes the thesis content, reviews the re- sponse to the research question, and analyzes the impli- cations of the findings of the case study. 4 ! Key words Beja tribe; Sukuma tribe; folk Islam; popular Islam; con- textualization; African Traditional Religion (ATR); tra- ditional religion; Sufism; power encounter; Camel method. Acknowledgements I must pay tribute to those who have contributed to this work. First, my wife Kathy and my children, Bethany, Seth and Joy, co-labored with me in our ministry among the Beja people of Sudan and the Sukuma tribe of Tanzania. Second, the late Paul Hiebert introduced me to the field of mission anthropology and folk religion during a course in 1990 and inspired me through his devotions in class. Third, Willem Saayman, my promoter, and Keith Eitel, my co-promoter, have greatly supported me during this project. Fourth, I extend my thanks to Paige Patterson for his encouragement to pursue a D.Th. at UNISA, as well as his friendship over the last twenty-two years. Fifth, my friends David Bledsoe and John Massey assisted the thesis editing process by reading multiple drafts and of- fering their advice. Last, I owe a great debt to my ministry partners Pastor Philemoni of Tanzania for his insights into Sukuma life and to Jonadab, ‘Isa, and Faruk for their assistance in understanding the tribes of Sudan, especially the Beja; I know of know no finer believers anywhere. 5 ! Notes concerning authenticity, Bible translation, trans- literation, and technical terms. I, the author, affirm that the content of this document is solely mine and that all sources used and quoted herein have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. All Biblical quotations and references have been taken from the New American Standard Bible (NAS). The transliteration scheme for this thesis appears in Ap- pendix 1. A glossary of technical terms and foreign words is locat- ed after the appendices and before the bibliography. Copyright © 2011 Robin Dale Hadaway 6 ! Contents Abstract . 2 Key words . 4 Acknowledgements . 4 Notes concerning authenticity, Bible translation, and transliteration . 5 Contents . 6 Abbreviations . 11 1. Introduction . 12 1.1 Research question . 17 1.2 Research methodology . 17 1.3 Rationale for study . 19 1.4 Personal statement . 21 1.5 Literature review . 23 1.5.1 Academic books and articles . 23 1.5.2 News and current events articles . 25 1.5.3 Interviews . 25 1.5.4 Evangelical mission books and articles . 26 1.6 Organization of chapters . 27 2. Folk Islam case study: the Beja tribe of the Sudan . 29 2.1 Introduction to the Beja tribe . 30 2.2 History of the Beja tribe . 35 2.2.1 Early Beja history . 35 2.2.2 Colonial Beja history . 37 2.2.3 Recent Beja history . 39 2.3 Beja society . 43 2.3.1 Beja socieo-economic situation . 44 2.3.2 The Beja personality . 46 2.3.3 The Beja culture . 48 2.3.4 The Beja language . 52 2.3.5 The Beja religion . 54 7 ! 2.3.6 Beja values and worldview . 58 2.4 Conclusion . 61 3. Folk (popular)Islam and official Islam . 62 3.1 Official Islam . 64 3.1.1 Official Islam description of beliefs . 65 3.1.2 Subdivisions and major sects in Islam . 69 3.1.2.1 Sunni Islam . 70 3.1.2.2 Shi’a Islam . 72 3.1.2.3 Sufi Islam . 76 3.2 Folk (popular) religion . 80 3.3 Islamic influences upon folk Islam . 82 3.3.1 Sunni influences upon folk Islam . 83 3.3.2 Shi’a influences upon folk Islam . 86 3.3.3 Sufi influences upon folk Islam . 89 3.3.4 Other Islamic influences upon folk Islam . 96 3.4 Folk (popular) Islam case study, the Beja of Sudan . 97 3.4.1 Beja folk religion and Sunni Islam . 98 3.4.2 Beja folk religion and Shi’a Islam . 100 3.4.3 Beja folk religion and Sufi Islam . 101 3.4.4 Beja folk religion and other Islamic sources . 107 3.5 Conclusion . 109 4. Traditional religion and folk Islam . 110 4.1 Traditional religion defined . 110 4.1.1 Arabian traditional religion and Islam . 112 4.1.2 African Traditional Religion (ATR) and Islam . 115 4.2 ATR example: the Sukuma tribe of Tanzania . 117 4.2.1 Sukuma history . 119 4.2.2 Sukuma society . 123 4.2.2.1 Sukuma socio-economic situation . 124 4.2.2.2 The Sukuma personality . 125 4.2.2.3 The Sukuma culture . 127 8 ! 4.2.2.4 The Sukuma language . 130 4.2.3 Sukuma ATR . 131 4.2.3.1 Sukuma belief in a supreme being . 131 4.2.3.2 Sukuma belief in spirits and divinities . 132 4.2.3.3 Sukuma belief in life after death . 133 4.2.3.4 Sukuma religious personnel and sacred places . 134 4.2.3.5 Sukuma witchcraft and magic practices . 138 4.2.4 Sukuma values and worldview . 140 4.3 ATR influence on Beja folk Islam . 141 4.3.1 Early Egyptian influence . 143 4.3.2 Beja traditional religion (ATR) and folk Islam . 144 4.3.2.1 Beja belief in a supreme being . 145 4.3.2.2 Beja belief in spirits and divinities . 147 4.3.2.3 Beja belief in a life after death . 150 4.3.2.4 Beja religious personnel and sacred places . 152 4.3.2.5 Beja witchcraft and magic practices . 154 4.4 Conclusion . 156 5. Contextualization and folk Islam . 158 5.1 Historical approaches to evangelizing Muslims. 158 5.1.1 Era of the late Ottoman empire (1800-1918) . 159 5.1.2 Era of colonialism and nationalism (1919-1946) . 161 5.1.3 Era of the rise of the Arab world (1947-1978) . 163 5.1.4 Era of Islamic fundamentalism (1979-present) . 166 5.2 Introduction to contextualization issues . 169 5.3 Contextualized approaches with Muslims . 170 5.3.1 Debate-polemic (non-contextual) method . 170 5.3.2 Qur’anic contextualization methods . 171 9 ! 5.3.2.1 The “new hermeneutics” of Qur’anic interpretation . 173 5.3.2.2 The Camel method of Qur’anic contextualization . 175 5.3.2.3 Analytical Qur’anic contextualization . 178 5.3.3 Cultural contextualization with Muslims . 181 5.3.3.1 Cultural contextualization of Muslim customs . 181 5.3.3.2 Cultural contextualization of Islamic forms . 183 5.3.3.3 Cultural contextualization and Islamic meaning . 187 5.4 Evaluating contextualization with Muslims . 191 5.5 Worldview contextualization with Muslims . 193 5.6 Conclusion . 194 6. A contextualized worldview approach to folk Muslims influenced by traditional Religion, especially ATR . 197 6.1 Worldview religious values axis . 199 6.1.1 Guilt-innocence worldview axis . 202 6.1.1.1 Guilt-innocence in Islam . 206 6.1.1.2 Guilt-innocence among the folk Muslim Beja . 209 6.1.2 Shame-honor worldview axis . 214 6.1.2.1 Shame-honor in Muslim societies . 216 6.1.2.2 Shame-honor among the folk Muslim Beja tribe . 219 6.1.3 Fear-power worldview axis . 225 6.1.3.1 The first danger: denying the supernatural in ATR . 227 6.1.3.2 The second danger: overemphasizing the demonic .
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