WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
TECHNICAL NOTE No. 2 TECHNICAL NOTE No. 60
METHODS OF OABSERVATION AT SEA METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE
PARTUPPER I – SEA SURFACEATMOSPHERE TEMPERATURE by
W.W. KELLOGG
WMO-No.WMO-No. 153. 26. TP. 738
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization – Geneva – Switzerland THE WMO
The WOTld :Meteol'ological Organization (Wl\IO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations of which 125 States and Territories arc Members.
It was created: to facilitate international co~operation in the establishment of networks of stations and
centres to provide meteorological services and observationsI to promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, to promote standardization of meteorological observations and ensure the uniform publication of observations and statistics. to further the application of rneteol'ology to Rviatioll, shipping, agricultul"C1 and other human activities. to encourage research and training in meteorology.
The machinery of the Organization consists of: The World Nleteorological Congress, the supreme body of the o.rganization, brings together the delegates of all Members once every four years to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization, to adopt Technical Regulations relating to international meteorological practice and to determine the WMO programme, The Executive Committee is composed of 21 dil'cetors of national meteorological services and meets at least once a yeae to conduct the activities of the Organization and to implement the decisions taken by its Members in Congress, to study and make recommendations Oll matters affecting international meteorology and the opel'ation of meteorological services. The six Regional Associations (Africa, Asia, South America, North and Central America, South~West Pacific and EUTOpC), ·which aloe composed of Member Governments, co~ordinate meteorological activity within their respective regions and examine from the regional point of view all questions referred to them. The eight Technical Commissions composed of experts designated by :Members are responsible for studying the special technical branches related to meteorological observation, analysis, forecasting and l"esearch as ·well as to the applications of meLe01'ology, Technical Commissions have been established for synoptic meteorology, climatology, instruments and methods of observation, aerology, aeronautical meteOl'ology, agricultural meteorology, hydrometeorology and maritime meteorology. The Secretariat, located at Geneva, Switzerland, is composed of au international scientific, technical and administl"ative staff under Lhe du'ection of the Secl'etary~General. It undel"takes technical studies, is responsible for the numel'OUS technicaI assistance and othel' technical co~operationprojects in meteorology tlu'oughout the world aimed at contributing to economic development of the countries concerned. It also publishes specialized technical notes, guides, manuals and reports and in general acts as the link between the meteorological sel'vices of the world. The Secretariat works in close collaboration ·with the United Nations and other specialized agencies. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
TECHNICAL NOTE No. 60 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
by W. W. KELLOGG
PRICE: Sw. fro 8.-
I WMO· No. 153. TP. 73 I
Secretariat of the WorM MetcOl'ological Organization - Geneva - Switzerland 1964
Table of Contents
Page
Foreword V Summary (English, French, Russian, Spanish) VII
Introduction...... 1 1. Description of the upper atmosphere .. 1 1.1 Possible relationsbips between the troposphere and the levels above. 2 1. 2. General circulation and winds ...... 2 1.3 Stratospheric breakdown...... 8 1. 4 The twenty-six month oscillation of the tropical stratosphere 8 1.5 Relations between transport of ozone or radioactive debris and the general circulation. 9 1.6 Diurnal variations in the upper atmosphere...... 10 2.. Indirect sounding techniques for upper-atmosphere observations. 10 2..1 Acoustic propagation ..... 11 2.2 Light scattering...... 11 2..3 Scattering and reflection of radio waves. 12 2.4 Infra-red thermal emission. 12 2.5 Absorption of sunlight. . 13 2.6 Visible and near infra-red emissions from the night sky 13 2..7 Radio meteors ..... 14 3. Meteorological rockets. . 14 4. Very high altitude sounding rockets 19 4.1 Falling spheres 20 4.2 Grenades. .... 20 4.3 Vapour trails. .. 20 t'±.1i: Absorption of solar radiation. 21 5. Gun-launched probes 21 6. Conclusions...... ' 22 6.1 Theoretical problems .... 22 6.2 Specific observations required 23 6.3 Synoptic observations required 23
Appendix 1 - Abbreviated table of average values of temperature, pressure and density, and molecular weight to 200 km ...... 24 Appendix 2 - Resolution 20 (EC-XIV) - Meteorological programme for the International Years of the Quiet Sun (IQSY) ...... 25 Appendix 3 - Mean day-time temperature error, error variability and accuracy of correction as a function of height for the rocket~sondc bead thermistor...... 27 Appendix 4 - Recommendation 75 (63-CSM) - Code for the exchange of meteorological rocket- sonde da La ...... 28 Appendix 5 Standard form for meteorological rocket-sonde observations 31:
References. 41
Foreword
At its third seSSIOn (Rome, 1961), the WMO Commission for Aerology established the Working Group on the High Atmosphere to prepare: (a) A Technical Note suitable for guidance on the general techniques of upper-atmosphere investigation and on the results that have been and could be achieved; (b) A Technical Note on the parameters available for upper~atmosphereinvestigations on the methods that have been and could be used for charting and synoptic analysis of these data.
During an informal meeting of some of the members of this working group (Berkeley, August 1963), it was decided that the above Technical Notes should he combined into one. The chairman of the working group, Dr. W. W. Kellogg, prepared a first draft of the Technical Note and this was circulated to members for comment. A revised version was then reviewed at an informal meeting of some of the members of the group and other interested scientists held in conjunction with the seventh plenary meeting of COSPAH (Florence, wIay :1.964). The present report takes into account all the suggestions made.
I should like to take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to Dr. W. W. Kellogg for having prepared this valuable document and to members of the working group and other scientists for their assistance.
(D. A. DAVIES) Secretary-General
METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
Summary
This report presents a brief and factual review of our current knowledge of the upper atmosphere, defined as the region above the level usually attained by sounding balloons (about 30 km) and below the level of satellites (about 150 km) ; and it then treats the various techniques for observing conditions in the upper atmosphere. Indirect ground-based techniques involving radiation in the ultra-violet, visible, infra-red, or radio parts of the spectrum, or acoustic signals, have all been used for upper-atmosphere measurements for many years, and newmethods are still being developed, such as the applicatinn of the laser. These indirect methods have the advantage, generally speaking, of providing considerable information about the upper atmo sphere at relatively little cost. A new tool for upper-atmosphere observation that is· being used extensively in many countries is the sounding rocket. In particular, smaner rockets have been developed that arc relatively inexpensive and are used for measuring winds and temperatures up to 60 or 80 km, thereby more than doubling the depth of atmosphere that can be observed synoptically. Gun-launched probes have also been developed that can observe the same part of the atmosphere. The results of such synoptic observations have indicated that the upper stratosphere and mesosphere undergo dramatic changes of circulation and temperature that are comparable in intensity (or more so) to those in the I01\'e1' atmosphere j and they arc probably, in some cases, linked to solar disturhances. Such upper~atmosphericobservations have begun to provide a better three-dimensional picture in depth of the dynamic and moving atmosphere, but they have also raised a number of interesting and important questions: How do disturbances at one level propagate vertically to affect the levcIs above and below? Where does Lhe energy come from to drive the upper atmosphere, and where are the energy sinks? How does the composition of the upper atmosphere vary with season, altitude, solar activity, etc. ? With the many tools now available for indirect and direct measurements at high altitudes, plus theoretical studies, these questions arc gradually being answered. SONDAGES METEOROLOGIQUES DANS LA HAUTE ATMOSPHERE
Resume
Le present rapport fait brievement et objectivement Ie point de nOs connaissances actuelles concer nant Ia: haute atmosphere, qui est definie comme etant la region comprise entre Ie plafond generalCInent atteint par Ies ballons~sondes (a environ 30 km d'altitude) et Ie niveau auquel evoluent les satellites (a environ 150 km d'altitude). Il decrit ensuitc les diverses methodes qui sont utilisees pour observer les conditions regnant dans la haute atmosphere. Les diff6rentes method~s indirectes d1observation au sol, faisant intcrvenir les rayonnements ultra violet, visible et infratouge, la bande du spectre qui correspond aux ondes radioelectriques ou les signaux acoustiques, sont utilisees depuis de nombreuses annees pour explorer la haute atmosphere, et de nouvelles techniques continuent a Ctre mises au point, par exemple celle qui est fondee sur l'application du laser. Ces methodes indirect.es ont en generall'avantage de fournir a peu de frais un nombre considerable d'in formations sur la haute atmosphere. De nombreux pays utilisent largement un nouveau moyen d'observation de la haute atmosphere: Ia fusee-sonde. On a construit en particulier de petites fusees, l'elativement peu couteuses, qui sont utili sees pour mesurer Ie vent et la teInperature jusqu'a 60 ou 80 km d'altitude, ce qui double amplement Ie domaine de l'atmosphere pouvant etre observe a l'echelle synoptique. On a egalement mis au point des sondes destinees a etre projetees a l'aide d'un canon .dans la meme region de l'atmosphere pour y faire des observations. Les donnees synoptiques ainsi rceueillies ont permis de constater que la circulation et la temperature subissent dans la stratosphere superieure et dans la mesosphere des changements impres sionnants qui sont au moins comparables (en intonsite) a ceux qui sont observes dans les couches infe rieures de l'atmosphere. Ces changements sont probablement lies, dans certains cas, aux perturbations solaires. Ces diverses observations de la haute atmosphere ont commence a fournir une meilleure image tridimensionnelle de ratmosphere dynamique et mouvante. EIles ont aussi souleve un certain nombre de questions interessantes et importantes : Comment les perturbations d'un niveau donne se propagent-eIIes dans Ie sens vertical de maniere a influencer les conditions aux niveaux inferieurs et supcrieurs r D10il provient l'€mergle qUI ahmente Ie (( moteur)) de la haute atmosphere et OU se produisent les Iuites energe tiques ? Comment la composItion de la haute atmosphere varie-t-elle en fonction de la saison, l'altitudc, l'activite solaire, etc. ? Grace aux nombteux instruments de travail dont nous disposons maintenant pour l'exploration directe et indirecte de la haute atmosphere, auxquels viennent s'ajouter les etudes theo~ riques, il sera possible de repondre graduellement a ces questions. METEOPOJIOrMLJECROE 30H)J;MPOBAHME B BEPXHMX CJIOHX ATMOCC1JEPbI
Pe3IOMe
B )J;ORJIap;e p;aeTCH KpaTIUIM o6aop HMeIO~HXCH B HaCTOH:w;ee BpeMH .u:aHHbIX 0 BepXHHX CJIOHX aTMOCtPepI:i£, T. e. Tofr 06JIaCTH, KOTopaa paCIIOJIOJKeHa B:orme ypOBHff, p;OCTHraeMoro mapaMH-BoHgaMH (OKOJIO 30 KM) H HHme ypOBHH, Ha EOTOpOM orrepHpylOT crrYTHHRH (rrpHMepHo 150 EM) ; KpoMe Toro B HeM p;aeTCH OIHICaHU8 paSJIlrQHbI:K M8TOP;OB M T8XHHlJeCIUIX cpep;CTB P;JIH rrpOBep;eHHH Ha6JIIO;a:eHHM B BepXHHX CJlOHX aTMoctPepI:i£. B TelJ8HHe MHorMX JIeT ;r(JIH rrpOH8Bop;CTBa HBMepeHHM B BepXHHX CJIOHX aTMoc
Resumen
Este informe cOllstituye una puosta al dia, breve y objetiva, de nuestros conocilnielltOti actuales sabre la atmosfera superior, definida como Ia region que se encuentra pOl' encima del nivel alcanzado normalrne~teen los sandeas pOl' gIobo (30 km. aproximadamente) y pOl' debajo del nivel de las trayectol'ias de los satel-ites (150 km. aproximadamellte). En Cl se estudian las diversas tecnicas utilizadas para la observaci6n de las condiciones existentes en Ia atmosfera superior. Desde haee varios alios se vienen utilizando, para efectuar medidas en la atmosfera superior, aparatos instalados en tierra que, pOl' media de tecnicas indirectas, permiten aplicar can este ohjeto radiaciones en las diversas regiones del espectro (ultravialeta, visible, infrarrojo, radio) 0 seiiales acusticas, y actual mente se desarrallan nuevas metodos, tales como la aplicacion del «laser ). Todas estos metodos indircctos tiencn la ventaja, hablando en terminos generales, de proparcionar una informacion considerable a un precio relativamellte baja. Una nueva ayuda para la obscrvacion de la atmosfera superior, y que esta siendo muy usada en muchos paises, es el cohete de sondeo «< the sounding rocket ll). En particular, se han desarrollado pequeiios cohetes, que son relativamente baratos, para efectuar medidas del viento y la temperatura hasta alturas de 60 a 80 km., consiguienda de esta mallera doblar can exceso el espesor de la atlnosfera que puede obser varse sin6pticamente. Pruebas lanzadas con canones (<< gun-launched probes )) se han desarrollado tambien para observar la misma region de la atmosfera. Los resultados de cstas observaciones han mostrado que en la atmosfera superior y en la mesosfera se producen grandes cambios de los campos de viento y tempe ratura, comparables en intensidad (0 incluElo mayores) que los que tienen Iugar en la baja atmosfera. En algunos casos, esos cambios estan probablemente relacionados con las perturbaciones de la actividad solar. Tales observaciones de la atmosfera superior empiezan ya a facilitar una mejor imagen tridimensional del movimiento y la dinamica en esc espesor de la atmosfera, pero su estudio conduce tambien a plantear un gran numero de importantes e interesantes preguntas, tales como: c de que manera se propagan verticalmente las perturbaciones a un cierto nivel para influir en los procesos que tienen Iugar a niveles per encim.a y pOI' debajo ? cde donde proviene la energla que alimenta las perturbaciones de la atmosfera superior, y d6nde se encuentran los pozos de cnergia ? ccomo varia la composicion de la atm6sfera superior en funci6n de la altitud, las estaciones, la actividad solar, etc. ? Con la numerosas ayudas disponibles actualmente para efectuar medidas directas e indil'ectas a fiUy altos niveles, y con los estudios teoricos que se Hevan a caba, todas esas preguntas encontraran respuesta poco a paco. METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
Introduction
One purpose of this report is to present a brief and factual review of our current knowledge of the upper atmosphere, which we will define as the atmosphere above the level generally reached by routine radiosondes (abont 30 km), and below the level of satellites (about 150 km). Our knowledge of the upper atmosphere has taken a rapid step forward in the last decade, due in large part to the widespread use of sounding rockets of various kinds. Although the general picture of the upper atmosphere was known even before the first instrumented rocket was fired in Germany in 1943, our knowledge is ~ow very much nl0re precise, and, more important, the variations in the upper atmosphere can be described in some detail. Since the sounding rocket has now become the workhorse of upper-atmosphere research, and is even being used on a regular operational basis in some areas of the world, a second purpose of this report is to review the stateRof~the-art of sounding rockets and rocket instrmnentation. Measurements of the parameters fundamental to meteorology (p, T, p, and wind) will be emphasized. The treatment here cannot be complete, and the subject is advancing so rapidly that specific details of rockets and rocket systems are likely to become obsolete rather quickly. It is hoped that this condensed report will provide a general reference for those who wish to understand the principles of sounding rockets and their potential for mauy kinds of upper-atmosphere ohservations. (See also Webb et al., 1961; Kellogg, 1961 h; 1961 e.) One of the aspects of the upper atmosphere about which there is still little knowledge is the three dimensional picture of how disturbances develop and move at high levels. Because of the expense and difficulty of launching sounding rockets, there have been relatively few synoptic or co-ordinated ascents from a number of places at the same time. In North America a pioneering meteorological rocket network that can reach to 50 or 60 km has been making synoptic observations since 1958, and the rate at which these rockets have been used has been gradually increasing. Moreover, under the auspices of the Committee for Space Research (CaSPAR) there have been a few international programmes to launch rockets on a co-ordinated basis to make sodium trail observations of winds to much higher altitudes, but this programme is still in its infancy. This lack of adequate synoptic investigations of the upper atmosphere has left the subject of the dynamics and the perturbations in this region largely unknown. The meteorologist depends on his upper air maps to plot the changes from day to day in the circulation, and these upper-air maps are only just being extended above the balloon network now, that is, above the 10 rob level at about 30 km. It is at this important period, then, as- we enter a new phase of upper-atmosphere research and forecasting, that we attempt this review of both our knowledge of the upper atmosphere and the techniques for observing it.
1. Description of the upper atmosphere
Many years hefore the advent of sounding rockets the general features of the atmosphere could be estimated to great altitudes from a variety of indirect groundRbased observations (e.g., Martyn and Pulley, 1936; Grimminger, 1948; Warfield, 1947). Now that many direct ohservations have been made with rocl{ets and satellites, not only are the general or average conditions known with some assurance (CIRA, 1961; COESA, 1962), hut the variations with latitude, time of day, seaSOll, solar activity, etc. arc becoIT1ing clearer. It is a better description and understanding of these variations, and of the dynamical interactions 2 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE in the upper atmosphere, that is being sought with a new set of tools; the emphasis in what follows will therefore be on these variations and the means for observing them. Since we will be discussing the various regions of the upper attnosphere, and since there has been some confusion in the past about the proper labels to use for them, Figure 1 win serve to orient the reader. The regions of the "stratosphere" and "mesosphere", as identified in this figure, have been formally defined by botb WMO (Resolution 15 (EC--XIV) - Annex, "Terminology and Conventions for the High Atmosphere", 1962) and COSPAR (Resolution of Working Group II, Nice, 11-16 January 1960). In the field of aeronomy, the physics of the upper atmosphere, a commonly used term is "ionosphere", referring to the region above about 80km from which radio reflections commonly occur (the exact height of reflec tion depending on the frequency of the radio wave and its angle of incidence). For easy reference, Appendix 1 contains an abbreviated table of average conditions in the atmosphere up to 200 km, taken from the COSPAR International Reference Atmospbere (CIRA, 1961). Figure 2 shows the corresponding temperatures in graphical form. A more recent set of tables, giving conditions in both metric and English units, has been published in the United States (COESA, 1962) ; the values in both sets of tables agree very closely below 20 km (since they both use the ICAO Standard Atmosphere of 1952 as their basis from 0 to 20 km), between 20 and 100 km they agree to better than 5 per cent, and hetween 100 and 200 km the agreement in pressure and density is better than 10 per cent over most of the range. Natural variations are considerably greater than these, and this fact must be kept in mind when using any such table of average values.
1.1 Possible relationships between the troposphere and the Ie pels abope
It is now generally recognized that, while there are certain processes which appear to affect both the upper stratosphere and troposphere simultaneously, these are relatively rare. Usually it is hard to see any direct relationship between the patterns on a surface level map or of the 500 rob surface and the pattern on a map of 10 mb or bigher. The changes in the upper stratosphere synoptic wind patterns are ordinarily slower than in the troposphere, and the same pattern may persist for several weeks with relatively little change. However, from synoptic observations with balloons and rockets it has been possible to trace moving pressure systems up to an altitude of 70 kIll. Above 70 km, in the mesosphere and above, the flow patterns have a different character (Warnecke and Nordberg, 1964). At certain times of the year, particularly in the late winter changes occur in the stratosphere with great abruptness. These peculiar changes will be discussed below.
1.2 General circulation and winds By collecting all the available data from rocket observations and surface observations of the upper atmosphere (e.g. observation of sound propagation, meteor trail drift, etc.), and assuming that year-to-year variations can be neglected, it is possible to construct an average description of the upper atlllosphere for a given season. A number of attempts have been made to do this, each Olle better than the one before due to the ever-growing mass of data (Kellogg and Schilling, 1951 ; Murgatroyd, 1957 ; Batten, 1961; Kochanski, 1963; etc.). It has generally been easier to observe winds than temperatures. In drawing a meridional cross section it is possible to relate the temperature (or pressure) field and the wind observation by means of the thermal wind equation, so that the wind field at a given time of year will be consistent with the derived temperature field. The most recent constructions- of this kind, based on the meteorological rocket data obtained in the U.S. and Canada, have been those of Batten (1961, 1963), and Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 are taken from his work. In the stratosphere the mean winds can be seen from these figures to be from the west in winter and from the east in summer, and in the mean the east winds of the summer hemisphere also prevail in the METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 3
I I I I 120 I 120 HETEROSPHERE CIRA 1961 (AVERAGE) I I ------100 AND / OR THERMOSPHERE 100 U. S. STANDARD I j ATMOSPHERE HOMOSPHERE BO 1962 _ MESOPAUSE (TURBOrHERE) BO I GEOMETRIC MESOSPHERE HEIGHT (KM) 60 I 60
- STRATOPAUSE
40 40 t STRATOSPHERE 20 I 20 - TROPOPAUSE I TROP09PHERE o o 200 300 400 NOMENCLATURE NOMENCLATURE TEMPERATURE (OK) BASED ON BASED ON TEMPERATURE COMPOSITION
Figure 1 - The temperature distribution and nomenclature of the upper atmosphere.
200 / i 175 i i i 150 t 125 Altitude h (km) 100
•••• 0 to 20 krn, ICAQ 75 --- 0 to 200 km, submitted by Academy .~ of Sciences of USSR to CaSPAR 50 -- 0 to 200 km I medium 1 l~45°, based on data submitted to U.S. Committee :Figure 2 - Temperature on Ext. to Standard Atmosphere 25 distribution for the CQSPAR International Reference Atmosphere. 0L-_L..-..."..J'-=='~.J\,-~_"""_....L.._....L.. -J leIRA 1961.) 150 200 250 300 600 1200 1700 2200 Temperature (OK) 4 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPIIERE 100 10
90 ~__------.!20 0 -10 ~---_'O -w BO 40
-'0 70
-'0 60
HEIGHT 50 (km)
-50 40 o -40 30
20
10 (~~ 10
Figure 3 - Average zonal wind components, for all latitudes, between 0 and 100 km at the time of the solstice. Speeds are in mJsec. (Batten, 1961.)
100 o
90
BO
70
60 KILOMETERS 50 I~ 40 20 /\.Q 30 -20 ~O \ / '--/ 20 o 0---- 10 O,-+--+---I---+--l--+---+---+--I---+---'---+--l-' JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Figure 4 - Time cross-section of the zonal wind from 0 to 100 km altitude, and between latitudes 300 and 40°. Speeds are in m/sec. (Batten, 1961.) METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 5
WINTER SUMMER EARLY FEBRUARY SOLSTICE SOLSTICE ( EARLY AUGUST 50 NORTHE~PHERE) ALTITUDE ~ """""'275 (KMl 260 260
30 0 30 60 60 30 o 30 60 LATITUDE LATITUDE NORTH SOUTH NORTH SOUTH
50 ALTITUDE (KMl 40
30 60 ·30 o 30 60 60 30 o 30 60 LATITUDE LATITUDE NORTH SOUTH NORTH SOUTH 11II T>2.75°K ~ T<2.45°K
Figure 5 - Average zonal winds (m/sec) between 30 and 50 km altitude, and between latitudes 20° to 60°, for eight periods of the year. In such a presentation the southern hemisphere is considered to be a mirror image of the northern hemisphere, since all data come from meteorological rockets in the northern hemisphere. (Batten, 1963.)
50 ALTITUDE (KM) 40
60 30 o 30 60 LATITUDE NORTH SOUTH NORTH SOUTH
50 ALTITUDE (KM) 40
NORTH SOUTH NORTH SOUTH • WEST WIND (m/sec) !ll1\! EAST WIND (m/sec) Figure 6 - Average temperatures (OK) corresponding to the wind fields in Figure 5. (Batten, 1963.) +100, iii iii +leO I iii I i I m
SHARON (Na) Es - lmeal96km IVY (AI) Es - lm<:al96km 1801 CST 1720 CST Es - 6 me al 109 km Es - 6mcatl08km -50 .so 8 120 ~ ~
~ ~ 125 Iii (o) 135 (b) 'i! ~ g 110'1/ I \ g 7'5 __._\ o ~ 105 z 3l: -50 ~ -50 ~ 105 ".; "o o -100 I ! I ! I I I I _lcO I ! I I ! I ! I "~ o _200 -150 -100 -50 0 ;50 +100 +150 -2CO -15Q -leQ -50 0 +50 +lCQ +lSC ~ WINO TO EAST (MlSEC) WINO TO EAST (M/SEC) :; ~ ~
00 +100 i I I i I I I I .100 t--:::-;:~~I __-'---"'T--==~::;:=::~""'m--'----I I I I o ESTHER (AI) ___. ~ I I c 110 DINAH (No) z 2245 CST 2145 CST 115 " ~- --0 ;; ~ ·so .so 00 8 120 8 ~ ;; ~ .; " z ~ (0) Iii (d) " z 'i! "c g g • o z 'i! 105 " ~ -50 ~ -SQ ~ ~ 130 o 105 00 135 • -100 -'100 " •~ 100 Es - 3 me at 103 km Es - 2.5 mc at 100 km
-150 I ! I I I I I I -150 I i I!! I I _2CO' _lSC -100 ·so +100 ~ 150 -2QO -15Q -WO -50 0 +50 +100 +150 WIND TO EAS1 (MiSEC)
Figure 7 - Hodographs of the winds deduced from four rocket flights in which luminous or chemiluminescent trails were produced in the upper atmosphere and photographed from four stations on the ground. Place: The Air Force Gulf Test Range, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida; time: 3 December 1962 (exact Central Standard Time shown beside each hodograph). Numbers on the hodograph give altitude in kilometres; the wind vector at any altitude has its tail at the centre and its head on the hodograph. The altitudes and critical frequencies of sporadic -E layers (Eg), as detected by an ionospheric recorder, are also noted for each of these times. (Rosenberg, Edwards, and Wright, 1964.) "METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 7 equatorial lower stratosphere. The wind has a tendency to increase with altitude above the tropopause and to reach a maximum in both winter and summer at mid-latitudes and at altitudes between 50 and 60 km. Above this level the wind decreases in intensity, and in the hundred-kilometre region, at least in mid-latitudes, it goes through a semi-annual reversal of direction. The transitions between winter and summer, as shown in Figures 4, 5, and 6, are rather complex, and the changes tend to occur first at the higher levels and progress downward (Figure 4). The temperature structure in the stratosphere that is needed to provide these kinds of wind patterns in winter and summer is the one that would be expected from a qualitative consideration of solar energy inpnt, though there is some question about the magnitude of the heat that is available to the atmosphere (Murgatroyd and Goody, 1958; Hubert, 1962; Newell, 1963). The result is a colder stratosphere in winter and a warmer stratosphere in summer at middle and high latitudes, and an approach to radiative equili brium - though radiative equilibrium is never quite achieved due to the turbulent transport of heat in the vertical and the large-scale horizontal transport of heat at mid-latitudes by moving disturbances. The net result is the stratosphere cold low pressure in winter over the pole, and the corresponding warm high over the SUlllmer pole. However, in the mesosphere this is no longer true, and the horizontal temperature gradient is appar'· ently reversed above 50 or 60 km, the temperature over the summer poles being colder than the tempera ture over the winter poles. (There is extensive literature on this general subject, e.g., Batten, 196.1, 1963 ; Borovikov, Golyshev, and Kokin, 1963 ; Kondratiev, 1962 ; Finger, Tewelcs, and Mason, 1963 ; H. Ie. Kall mann, 1954; Kellogg and Schilling, 1951; Khvostikov, Izakov, Kokin, Kurilova, and Livshitz, 1963; Murgatroyd, 1957 ; Sheppard, 1963 ; Teweles and Finger, 1963 ; Toth, 1963 ; Nordberg and Stroud, 1961 ; Nordberg, 1964; Smith, 1962; Kochanski, 1963; Scherhag and Warnecke, 1963; Quiroz, 1961 a ; Quiroz, Lambert, and Dutton, 1963; Miers and Byers, 1964; etc.) The reversal of the temperature gradient in the mesosphere from the one that would be expected on the basis of the heat available from the sun is one of the most intriguing problems in the upper atlllo sphere (Kellogg, 1963 a). There have been a number of suggestions concerning the source of energy that maintains the warm temperature over the winter pole in the absence of any solar radiation, and mllong the possible sources are a dissipation of gravity waves that pl'opagate from below and are absorbed at these levels (Hines, 1960; Hines, 1963; BIamont, 1963; Blamont and de Jager, 1961; Zimmerman and Champion, 1963), subsidence and the release of chemical energy stored in the high atmosphere in the form of atomic oxygen (Kellogg, 1961 a; Young and Epstein, 1962), acoustic heating (Maeda, 1963 b), and possibly the release of energy from auroral protons and electrons (Maeda, 1963 a) (though this last would not appear to provide a mechanism that would 'be stronger in winter than in summer). It has recently been pointed out also that large-scale disturbances Inay tI'ansport heat against the horizontal temperature gradient in the mesosphere, thereby cooling the summer poles and warlning the winter poles (Newell, 1963 ; Sheppard, 1963). Observations of the "wind above 60 km invariably show the presence of lnarked wind shears in the vertical. Exalnples of some wind profiles obtained by ohserving the drift of vapour trails released frOlll rockets are shown in Figure 7, taken from Rosenberg, Edwards, and Wright (1964). The amplitude of the wind shears usually increases with altitude, and above 70 or 80 km there is frequently a complete reversal of the wind every six to 10 km. These reversals change, however, from hour to hour, as can be seen from Figure 7, and it is now believed that they"represent gravity waves with a horizontal extent of several hundred kilometres and a vertical wavelength of six to to km (Hines, 1960 ; Hines, 1963). At still higher levels, above 100 km, there are also regions of strong wind shear, but the pattern becomes somewhat more persistent from day to day. Above the· mesopause there is also a strong semi-diurnal tidal variation superimposed on the mean wind. (Elford, 1959; Greenhow and Neufeld, 1961; Kochanski, 1963.) 8 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
1.3 Stratospheric breakdown
Since it was first noted in 1952 Over Berlin by Scherhag (1952), there has been a great intcrest in the phenomenon known as "stratospheric breakdown". or "sudden warming". In the northern hemisphere, as described above, the cold low in the stratosphere is generally centred over the pole and increases in intensity until, sometime in the middle or late winter, there is a sudden change in this regular pattern. There are many variations in the manner of this change. For instance, instead of there being one central low-pressure area, two or nl0re low-pressure areas may appear that move away from the pole. On other occasions a single secondary low may appear over Europe and move westward. Associated with these migrating lows, that often develop quite rapidly, there is a remarkable rise of temperature, and this area of rising temperature tends to move towar~s the we-st and to extend from upper levels downward. (5her hag, 1952; Scherhag, 1960; Craig and Lateef, 1962 ; Teweles, 1961 ; Teweles, 1963; Godson and Lee, 1958; Sheppard, 1963; Palmer, 1959.) Attempts to obtain a synoptic picture of the atmosphere above the level of balloons during one of these periods of stratospheric breakdown have so far been rather unsuccessful. On only one occasion was there a series of rocket firings at one station that was able to probe the region of the sudd~n 'warming, during the IGY in 1958 at Fort Churchill (Jones, Peterson, Schaefer and Schnlte, 1959 ; Stroud, Nordberg, Bandeeu, Bartman, and Titus, 1960; Teweles, 1961). In January 1963 there were enough meteorological rockets ·in the North American sector to observe the general character of the changes up to about 70 kIn, even though there were no rockets in the region of the warming itself, which was over Canada (Morris and Miers, 1964; Finger and Tcwelcs, 1964). During the IQSY a concertcd attcmpt will be made to lannch meteorological rockets "at the time of such an event, and it is hoped to obtain -a three-dimensional picture of the dynamics of the atmosphere during -this period. In addition to meteorological rockets, it now appears possible to trace gross world-wide temperature changes in the 18 to 35 km region by observing the flux of infra~red radiation in the 15-n1icron band of carbon dioxide. This has been first demonstrated during late 1963 and early 1964 by TIROS VII (Nordberg, Bandeen, and Wamecke, 1964). In the northern hemisphere a stratospheric breakdown may occur in midwinter, followed by a re-establishluent of the symmetrical cold low over the pole. In fact, there may be two or three breakdowns before the final reversal of the wind in the spring. However, it appears that in the souther_n hemis·phere a midwinter breakdown of the cold vortex does not usually occur. (There is a hint of such a breakdown in 1957, however.) The low remains more or less stationary over the south pole throughout the winter, and in the spring it breaks down in a relatively orderly way by splitting into two lows, without producing the ~emarkable sudden warming that is usually observed in the northern hemisphere. (Palmer and Taylor, 1960, 1961; Wexler, 1961.) However, the sonthem hemisphere has not been observed as well as the nOI,thern" hemisphere, and in particular 'there have so far "been too few meteorological rocket firings -to determine what happens above 20 or 30 km.
1.4 The twenty-six month oscillation of the tropical stratosphere
One of the·mysteries of the upper-atmospher~circulation is the behaviour of the wind and temperature .in. :the tropical regiop.s of the stratosphere. I,n. the stratosph~re the zonal wind ,alternates between-east.erly and westerly with an average period·of al:lOnt. 26 lllonths. The phase of .the oscillation varies with height.; th~· westerlies or ·eas~erIie~ appe-ar -first at the highest levels of. observation,··about.30 Juri, and 'propagate downward at a rate of slightIy·;"'ore than 1 kin pel' month. In the immediate vicinity of the equator, the amplitude decreases from a- maximum of about 25 m/sec-1 near 25 km to negligible values at the trop.o- METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 9 pause. The easterlies arc slightly stronger than the westerlies, so that the zonal wind averaged over an entire period is from the east. The effect is apparently independent of longitude. (Ebdon, 1960 ; Reed, Campbell, Rasmnssen, and Rogers, 1961; Funk and Garnham, 1962; Ramanathan, 1963; Staley, 1963.) Associated with the wind oscillatio-n there is a temperature oscillation that has an mnplitude of the order of 3°C at 25 km. As in the case of the -wind oscillation, the phase of the temperature oscillation is earliest at-the highest levels and progresses downwards. Because the tenlperature os·cillation is so small, its structure is known in less detail. This 26-monthoscillation has now been observed for over 10 years, and the periodicity seems to be well established, though varying slightly in the length of the period. The explanation for this peculiar period may lie in a 26-month variation in solar ultra-violet output, though this theory must be considered as tentative (Staley, 1963). Attempts have also been made, so far unsuccessfully, to explain it as smne kind of "sub-harmonic response".
1.5 Relations between transport of ozone 01' radioactive debris and the general circulation
Ozone is created from the photo-dissociation of 02 by ultra-violet radiation at levels above the tropopause, followed by recombination of the atomic 0 with another molecule 02' It has been known for many years that the concentration of ozone below about 25 km is far from that predicted by photochemical equilibrium, though above 25 km the observed and predicted concentrations agree reasonably well. The explanation for this situation lies in the fact that below 25 km the ozone that is produced there or carried there from above is partly shielded from the solar ultra-violet radiation that could dissoei-ate it, and when an ozone molecule there is dissociated it quickly re-forms another ozone molecule. It can therefore be transported both horizontally and vertically as a more or less stable constituent. The ozone which finally comes in contact with the ground is rapidly destroyed. This transport and destruction causes a net depletion of the ozone below 25 km, the greatest deficit being at low latitudes; at high latitudes in the late winter there may be a temporary excess, for reasons that win be explained below. (See, for example, Dobsou and Harrison, 1926; Brewer and Milford, 1960 ; Paetzold, 1955 ; Diitsch, 1956, 1963 ; Wexler and Moreland, 1958; Goody, 195/,; Moscow University, 1961.) The largest values of total ozone usually occur behind (to the west of) surface lows and ahead of surface highs. The changes accompanying such disturbances are thought to be due to a combination of horizontal advection and vertical motion in the stratosphere, since equatorwards motion and descent in this region both result -in increases of t9"tal oione. The most -remarka-ble _anomalies in the -o~one:-concentration occur in the late winter at high latitudes. The very large increase of total ozone at this time accompanies the' build--up of the cold low vortex over the pole and ozone concentrationshelow "the tropopause also increase as the winter progresses. In the late winter; at the time of the stratospheric bre'Ukdown referred to above, there is a complex change in the ozone concentration. In some polar regions the total ozone amount increases very rapidly at this time, and the most rapid increase seems to occur in the vicinity of the strato~ spheric warming (Godson and Lee, 1958; Wexler and Moreland, 1958; Sheppard, 1963; Storeb", 1960; Diitsch, 1963). There are other tracers in the stratosphere that can give indications of the circulation there. The most interesting type of tracer is the complex of radioactive debris released by a .nuclear explosion. There have been a number of _studies of "the radioactive tracers,based on collections of samples-at the surface, hy means of halloons, and by -high-flying_ aircraft. It is even planned to take samples-of radioactive debris in the mesosphere by means 9f sampling rockets. The general' picture that lias been obtailred-6~.the upper~air circulation and' the.1'.ate -of exchange between stratosphere and troposphere is as follows (Sheppard, 1963·; Storeho,1960 ";. Jimge, 1963·;. Libby 10 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE and Palmer, 1960 ; Machta, List, and Telegadas, 1963 ; Lihby, 1963 ; Bleichrodt, Blok, and Dekker, 1961 ; Martell, 1963; Newell, 1963; Rama, 1963; Staley, 1962; Feely, 1963 ; Lambert, 1963; Labeyric and Lambert, 1963 ; WMO(UNSCEAR, 1964) : Radioactive debris injected over the equator into the strato sphere moves relatively slowly both north and south, and it takes about five years for half of it to be removed from the 30 km region. This debris seems to persist for years in a belt within about 10° of the equator and above 2.0 km. The rate of removal at lower levels is faster. By contrast, radioactive debris injected at high latitudes only remains in the stratosphere for about a year, most of it coming down in the first spring following the injection, -and- the route is by way of-the tropopause break and the polar front. In other words, at high latitudes baroclinic waves cause a much more rapid exchange of air between stratosphere and troposphere than in the tropics. Notice that this downward transport of radioactive debris in the spring seems to correspond to the downward transport of ozone at the same time. Recently an isotope which had not previously been present in the atmosphere has been injected at very high levels, above the mesosphere, and its rate of removal from the very high atmosphere has given an indication of the transport through the entire stratosphere. The tracer involved is Rh-102 from the high altitude detonations over the Pacific in the summer of 1958. It appears that about 0.1 of the Rh-1.02 produced comes down every year, indicating a mean storage time in the mesosphere of about 10 years (Kalkstein, 1962). There is every indication that within the mesosphere and thermosphere the rate of mixing of any gas or aerosol is very rapid, being complete in a matter of weeks.
1.6 Diurnal variations m the upper atmosphere
In the troposphere, particularly near the ground, the diurnal changcs from day to night in tempera t':l-re and wind structure are very obvious. However, in the stratosphere and mesosphere diurnal variations are much more complicated and subtle. Both theory and observation suggest a maximum diurnal tem perature change in the upper part of the ozone layer, at 40 to 50 km, of' about 5° per day. Above and below this it appears to be considerably less, except at very high altitudes in the thermosphere (Stroud and Nordberg, 1961; Nordberg, 1964; Lenhard, 1963; Harris, Finger and Tewcles, 1962). The tidal oscillations, already referred to, result in a semi-diurnal change in the wind direction above 70 or 80 km. There is a corresponding small semi-diurnal temperature change.
2. Indirect sounding techniques for upper-atmosphere observations
Prior to the advent of sounding rockets, all the information that was available on the upper atmo sphere above about 30 km came either from theoretical deduction, or from theory combined with certain indirect observations. And, moreover, this information has subsequently been shown to be surprisingly accurate. Even though sounding rockets are now available, there is still a possibility of further extending some of the indirect sounding techniques, and the promise of being able to make·routine observations this way is very attractive from an economic standpoint. It-will be clear that some of the techniques for making indirect observations are useful as adjuncts to rocket observations. For example, winds and the distribution of free electrons in the ionosphere are related under certain conditions (Rosenberg, Edwards, and Wright, 1963) and free electron distribution is one of the parameters that can be measured from the ground while a rocket wind determination is being lllnde. EvCl'y opportunity should be taken to make such co-ol'dinated experilnents, since the value of each is greatly enhanced. The atmosphere is a complex system, and it is most important to understand the many interactions that take place. METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 11
2.1 Acoustic propagation
An explosion on the ground produces a shock wave which travels out in all directions, and as it moves the rate of propagation along the path (or ray) varies as the square root of the temperature in the atmosphere. The resulting gradients in speed of propagation along a path usually cause the ray to bend; and a ray is also bent by changes in the velocity of the air through which it is moving. Thus, the sound waves from an explosion that go into the upper atmosphere are bent upwards as they move through the troposphere toward colder temperatures, and above this, as they progress into the stratosphere towards the region of maximum temperature, they are bent back down towards the ground. The effect of high level winds is to help in bending the ray downwards when they are increasing with height in the direction of propagation ~ the sound is brought to the ground better in the "downwind" direction. The result is the propagation of a sound wave from an explosion for very great distances through the stratosphere and return to the ground in a particular direction (Mitra, 1947 ; Goody, 1954). A number of programmes in the past have employed this in a systelnatic way to determine conditions of temperature and wind above the tropopause. The most extensive were those carried out at locations from Alaska to the Canal Zone in the decade of the 1940's, sponsored by the U.S. Air Force (Crary, 1950 ; 1952), and much of our early information about the stratosphere and mesosphere came from these kinds of observations. The same theory is involved in one of the sounding rocket techniques, namely, the grenade technique. As will be described in more detail below, the explosion in this case originates high in the atmosphere, and the sound arrival is monitored by microphones on the ground (Nordberg and Smith, 1964). However, this application of acoustic techniques is not considered as "indirect" in the sense it is used here.
2.2 Light scattering
A strong beam of light sent vertically upwards can be observed from the side due to the scattering caused by the molecules in its path, and also by the dust and haze in its path. This technique has been used on a number of occasions to observe the distribution of dust in the atmosphere, and it has also been applied to determinations of density at levels as high as 80 km (Elterman, 1951). So lar it has only been practical to carry out such measurements at night, but in principle they can be made in the day-time when a modulated monochromatic light heam is uscd (Kondratiev and Filipovich, 1960). One of the problems with this technique is the difficulty of distinguishing between scattering. frO-m small ~erosol particles and from molecules of air, since in the stratosphere even a small concentration of very fine dust particles can produce a certain amount of scattering which appears like molecular scattering. With the advent of extremely high power monochromatic pulsed sources from lasers it may be possible to improve on" this searchlight technique. The advantage of the laser is its extreme intensity, its monochromatic radiation, and its narrow beam, plus the fact that it can be pulsed to give range as well. Such an optical radar technique may prove to be an important one in the future, and has already been demonstrated as a means for detecting dust layers to over 120 km (Fiacco and SmulIin, 1963). The usc of the sun as a source of light to be scattered has also given data on the upperatmdsphere~ particularly on the distribution of dust layers. The observation in this case involves observing the sky in the direction of the setting or rising sun, and measuring the change in intensity (and polarizatIon) at several wavelengths (colours) as the shadow of the earth changes its altitude (Link, 1934; Bigg, 1956; MegrelishviIi, 1958; Goody, 1954; Volz and Goody, 1962). This technique does not require an artificial light source, but this advantage appears to be somewhat outweighed by the great difficulty of interpreting the results. (A special application -of this principle to measurements of ozone distribution· is discuss-ed below.) 12 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
Still another measurement involving scattered sunlight is that of the distributions of atomic and molecular constituents in the atmosphere above 70 or 80 km and their temperatures. Atoms of sodium, potassium, lithium, etc., and also Nt, have strong resonant scattering at characteristic lines in the visible or ultra-violet part of the 'spectrum, and measurements of the intensity variation of one of these lines at twilight can give not only total density but also the vertical distribution of the constituents. From Nt scattering it is also possible to determine telnperatures (Hunten, 1961). In this way daily and seasonal changes in composition and temperature can be monitored; these changes are undoubtedly associated with the circulation and exchange rates in the thermosphere and lnesosphere (Jones, 1963).
2.3 Scattering and reflection at radio wares
It has been known for many years that radio waves can be scattered or partially reflectcd from regions in the upper atmosphere (below the ionosphere) that have abrupt changes in dielectric constant. These abrupt changes may be due to sharp temperature inversions, to layers of clouds or dust, or to changcs in electron density. Often the pattern of such changes in the mesosphere indicates that they are due to turbulent eddies. Reflections Occur on certain occasions from practically every region of the at.mosphere, but many of these have so far been unexplained. One series of observations, for example, indicated a recurring reflection from the upper troposphere which seems to have been due to reflections from small spider-webs floating at those altitudes. So complicated has been the pattern of scattering of radiowaves b~10w.100 km that it has so far been only a qualitative indicator of conditions in the upper atmosphere (with one important exception, described in Section 2.7 below), but there appear to be possibilities for their use (Aden, 1953; Gregory, 1961). Radio reflection techniques in the ionosphere above 100 km, in contrast to reflections from the tropo sphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere, are a most powerful and quantitative technique for determining the electrical characteristics of the ionosphere. In fact, most of our information on the variations of the electron density- in the ionosphere comes from systematic observations with ionospheric recorders, trans mitters with a variable frequency that send pulses upwards and measure the tilne for the reflection to return (Mitra, 1947; Ratcliffe and Weekes, 1960). Variations of this technique have been used to measure discontinuities as low down as 50 km, these discontinuities presumably being sharp gradients in electron or ion densities in the D-region caused by turbulence or wind shear. Such experiments have indicated on occasion an appaJ.'ent rapid vertical motion of the discontinuities in the D-region (Gregory, 1961), which may -he due- to- atmosphel'ic vertical motion but is mOre likely due to- travelling shear waves. Still another ·recent technique involves the incoherent back-scattering. of pulses of very· high fre quency radio \vave·s~ ftom the -ionosphe·re. This is a most powerful technique for probing the ionosphere to- v'~ry-·great heights; giving electron densities and -even electron temperature to over 1000 kin. Potentially the technique can give iOl1ic masses also (Bowles and Staff, 1963; Booker et al., 1962; Moorcroft, 1964). As the method- is only of use where very great transmitter power (several megawatts) and a narrow bealn width (large antenna) is available, it is relatively expensive at this time.
2'.4 I ntra~red thermal emLSSWn
In the far .infra-red, at wavelengths long.er than ab-ou~ _5 microns, the -thermal infra~ted emISSIOn from .th~atmo·Bphere can be observed to vary with conditions in the upper atmosphere. A particularly interesting part. of.the, infra-red spectrum in this respect is at ·about .9.6Jl, corresponding 'loa strong ab.sorption band of ozone.. It happens that this 9.13~ band is also in a part of the spectrum where carbon diQxid-e);wd water vapour_are.relative1y·tl'ansparent, so emissions orjginating.in the s.tratos.pher.e· from the ozone region are able to penetrate to the ground. Intensity of this emission observed at the ground -is METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPP:ER ATMOSPHERE 13 therefore proportional to the temperature of the_ emitting region, and detailed studies of the structure of this band permit an estimate of the height .(01' pressure)·from which the emission takes place. This has pCl'lnitted estimates of the variation in temperature of the ozone regioll, observed entirely.from the ground. The approximate vet:tit-;.al distribution of ozone can also be obtained in,this way.._Although this technique has been demonstrated experimentally (Epstein, Osterberg, and Adel, 1956; Walshaw and Goody, 1956; Goody and Roach, 1956 ; Strong, 1941 ; Vigroux, 1959), the difficulty of using it and the complexity of its interpretation have discouraged the operational use of the method.
2.5 Absorption of sunlight
The distribution of ozone in the atmosphere, which has already been referred to, has been measured for many decades from the ground by observing variations in the absorption of sunlight (or moonlight) in the near ultra-violet caused by changes in the ozone content of the upper atmosphere. During the IGY, for example, a large number of such instruments, called Dobson speetrophotometers after the designer, were stationed at many parts of the world to observe in a systematic way variations in total ozone content. A variation of this technique, involving a measurement of the scattered light from the zenith when the sun is near the horizon, can be used to _give the vertical distribution of ozone in the stratosphere. In this technique a series of measurements are made of the relative intensities of two wavelengths in the ultra-violet, one, (A) tbat is shorter and strongly absorbed by ozone and the other (B) at a longer wavelength which is less strongly absorbed. The ratio of intensities IAjlB decreases with increasing zenith angle of the SI,111, due to the increasing path length or the sun's rays through the ozone, up to the point at which the effective scattering height ior both wavelel1gths lies below or within the ozone layer. A critical point is ~eaehed, when the solar zenith angle is about 85°, when the combined scattering and absorption of both wavelengths becomes comparable, and beyond this the ratio lA/In increases with increasing solar zenith angle. This reversal of the trend has been called the "Unlkehr effect", and the vertical distribution of ozone caIi be inferred from the- exact change of the ratio lA/IB as the sun rises or sets -(Mitra, 1947; Goody, 1954; Diitseh, 1956). This technique has been developed to a bigh degree to determine variations in the distribution of ozone in the stratosphere, but it is a difficult one to apply and requires clear conditions at twilight. Furthermore, in practice it has limited accuracy, and it is not possible to determine the detailed distribution when there arc several maxima in the_ ozone distribution.
2.6 Visible and near infra-red em,sswns from the night sky
A. number of photochemical reactions take place in the upper atmosphere, abovc 70 or 80 km, that result in a variety of characteristic emissions, known as "the airglow'l. One of the strongest emissions in the nirglow spectrum is that _of atomic oxygen, at 5577 A,and the related atOlnic oxygen emission at 6300 A.Other emissions are from free sodium, from molecular oxygen, and from the.OH·radical. The last emission, in the near infra-red, is the strongest emission in the airglow. Analysis of the OB emissions has permitted estimates of the temperature of the emitting layer, since the effect of an increase in tempera ture is to broaden the emission lines and to change the relative intensities of the lines in a band. This technique has led to some interesting determinations of temperature variations at middle latitudes, but it is difficult to apply at high latitudes due to the interference of auroral emission, to be discussed presently. In principle the monitoring of airglow emissions at appropriate wavelengths, and detailed analysis of the m:nissionliries, can giv.e indications of.upper-atmosphere temperature. A djfficulty.in this--technique is the relatively poor knowled-ge of the height of the emitting layer, which can change due to changes in compo sition and vertical moLion of the upper' atmosphere. - "Nevertheless, this technique has been uS'ed in the past with success. 14 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
The aurora, seen most frequently in the auroral zones about 150 to 20° from the magnetic poles, is a relatively bright emission caused by protons and electrons bombarding the upper atmosphere. Tempera tures can be obtained from a similar analysis of the Nt band emission, such temperatures being obtainable to altitudes of several hundred kilometres (Hunten, 1960; Hunten, 1961; Mulyarchik and Schleglov, 1963);
2. 7 Radio meteors
When a meteor enters the upper atmosphere at velocities of tens of kilometres per second, it ionizes the atoms and molecules in its path, and for a short tilllC the ionized trail grows in its wake by diffusion and drifts with the winds. Thus, the growth and motions of such meteor trails, which can be measured quite accurately by observing radio reflections from the trail, give an indication of the turbulence and winds in the 80 to 100 km region. This has been one of the most powerful techniques yet found for measuring motions just above the mesopause. (Elford, 1959 ; Greenhow and Neufeld, 1961 ; Greenhow, 1959.)
3. Meteorological rockets
Meteorologists are accustomed to synoptic observations by means of their balloon network, involving hundreds of simultaneous radiosonde ascents from many parts of the world every day. The term "meteoro logical rocket" has come to refer to a relatively inexpensive small rocket that can also be used on a synoptic basis, and currently its altitude is generally limited to about 60 to 70 km. Since October 1958 (Webb, et al., 1961; 1962 ; Meteorological Rocket Network Committee, 1961) a network of meteorological rockets has been in operation on the North American continent, at first on an intermittent basis, and now on a regular basis. The data obtained by the Meteorological Rocket Network arc published in graphical and digital form under systematic data reduction techniques as volumes of Inter-Range Instrumentation Group Document 109-62 (available from World Data Center A, Meteorology, Asheville, North Carolina, or from the Defense Documentation Center, or Secretariat, Range Commanders' Council, White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico). (An example of the data format is shown in Figure 12.) The first year's effort resulted in data adequate for a preliminary look at the stratospheric circulation (Joint Scientific Advisory Group, 1961; Keegan, 1961 ; Kellogg, 1961), and over three thousand soundings have now been accumu lated. During the IQSY it is planned to extend this network of synoptic rockets (Godson, 1963) and it is hoped that it will include stations throughout the northern hemisphere and SOlne in the southern hemi sphere, including the Antarctic. (See Appendix 2, Resolution 20 (EC-XIV) on the IQSY, adopted at the fourteenth session of the WMO Executive Committee, May-June 1962.) It has sometimes been pointed out that meteorological rockets do not go high enough to enter the ionosphere. This is true at the present time, of course, but it should also be pointed out that meteorological rockets give the paralneters of the atmosphere that are of most interest to Ineteorologists up to altitudes more than twice as high as those reached by balloons. The main value of their observations at the present time is for research, but with the growing need for very high altitude observations for forecasting the circulation of the atmosphere and for observing the regions in which high altitude jet aircraft of the future may fly, the increasing adoption of me~eorological rockets seems inevitable (unless SOmeone develops a practical indirect method for measuring the same things from the ground). There are a very great variety of meteorological rockets and sensing systems in use or under develop ment, and these are described in detail elsewhere (e.g., Joint Scientific Advisory Group, 1961 ; aufm Kampe and Lowenthal, 1963; Beyers and Thiele, 1961; Force, 1961; Jenkins, 1962; Jenkins and Webb, 1959 ; Kondratiev, 1962; Kalinovsky and Pinus, 1961; Kiss, 1960; Maeda, 1963; Maeda and Hiaro, 1962; METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 15
Poirier, 1961; Rapp, 1960; Robinson, 1962; Smitb, 1960; Webb and Jenkins, 1959; Wilkins, 1963; Jobnson and Webb, 1963; Masterson, 1959; Masterson, Hnbert, and Carr, 1961; Qniroz, 1961 b ; etc.). The purpose of this section will therefore be to summarize the main characteristics of these current meteorological rockets. Propably the simplest form of meteorological rocket is the single stage rocket which boosts a small Hdart" containing radar chaff, or "window". An example of such a rocket and its separable dart is shown in Figure 8. Sncb rockets can eject a clond of chaff dipoles at levels up to 80 or 90 km, tbough in practice the limit is usually about 60 km, and these clouds of chaff can be tracked by a radar as they fall. The rate of fall is rapid at first, and thereafter it slows down as the cloud falls through levels of increasing atmo spheric density; as it falls the chaff cloud also- increases in size, making it a progressively poorer target for the radar to track. The horizontal drift of such a cloud as it falls is an indication of the wind - in fact, this is the o,!,ly meteorological parameter given by this technique. The requirement for a good radar makes the use of chaff rockets limited to those sites where there are such radars. However, the simplicity of the rocket system. and the relatively small cost of the rocket and payload makes this a most useful technique at sites where the ground equipment is readily available (Force, 1.961; Jenkins, 1962; Smith, 1960 ; Masterson, 1959). Another variation of the meteorological rocket involves a rocket-sonde that is lowered -by parachute after the rocket reaches its peak altitude; in the Soviet system the rocket and instrumented nose cone remain together and both can be recovered and used again. An example of such a rocket and its payload is shown in Figure 9, and a schematic diagram of how it is used is shown in Figure 10. Such rocket-sondes are capable of measuring temperature and/or pressure as they fall, and the measurement of their horizontal drift also gives the wind. It has generally been difficult to make measurements of temperature by direct exposure of temperature clements, either thermistor or fine wire, above 60 or 65 km, and at these altitudes the correction factors that must be applied to account for effects of radiation, electrical heating, conduction through the wire leads to the thermistor, etc., become very large, of the order of 30°. At 45 or 50 knl these corrections become less than 5° for the U.S. thermistor elements, and below this altitude temperatures are believed to be very reliable (Wagner, 1961 ; 1963). (Appendix 3 shows the corrections that should be applied to a particular kind of bead thermistor widely used in the U.S. and elsewhere. Corresponding corrections for the wire elements used in the U.S.S.R. were not available to this author.) This general type of rocket·sondc system has been flown repeatedly in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. and has given large amounts of useful data on temperature and winds (aufm Kampe and Lowenthal, 1963 j Kalinovsky and Pinus, 1961 ; Kondratiev, 1962 ; Khvostikov, Izakov, Kokin, Kurilova, Livshitz, 1963 ; Webb, Christensen, Varner, and Spurling, 1962; Shvidkovsky, 1958). In principle it should be possible to measure conditions in the atmosphere directly from the rocket as it llloves rapidly upward. For example, simultaneous measurements of both dynamic and static pres sure would give an indication of the pressure and density of the atmosphere, and winds could be deter mined from variation of pressure on the side of the rocket as it turns. While this approach has been used effectively in large and stabilized high-altitude rockets (LaGow, Horowitz, and Ainsworth, 1958 ; Ains worth, Fox, LaGow, 1961. ; Johnson, Hoffman, Young, Holmes, 1960), the requirement for knowing the attitude of the rocket and difficulty of interpreting such observations has discouraged it from being used in the current generation of smaller meteorological rockets. Nevertheless, it seems that the advantage of eliminating the parachute might make this an attractive possibility in the future. Still another technique that has been used successfully with meteorological rockets involves the expelling of an inflatable plastic sphere of about a metre in diameter containing a radar reflector, as shown in Figure 11. When such a sphere falls it is subject to air drag, and the drag is proportional to the square of the relative velocity of the sphere and to the air density. Thus, when such a sphere is accurately tracked by a radar the drag can be deduced from its rate of change of velocity, and the distribution of air density 16 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPBn ATMOSPHERE
Figure 8 - Picture of a high-altitude sounding Figure 9 - Picture of a version of a rocket rocket (HASP) developed by the U.S. Navy; sonde using the Arcas rocket, showing the way showing the single-stage rocket motor (diameter in which the parachute is deployed from its 3 inches) and the detachable head which contains canister, and the instrumentation with its nose radar chafl'. The chafi'is expelled at apogee by cone removed. During its descent on the para a delayed explosive charge. chute, after the nose cone has dropped off, the temperature element is automatically extended on a boom (not shown here) from the base plate of the sonde. , 300xlO ~osDnde I AN/OMQ.lI Launch Angle B5' ..,
rDeplOyment , /' ~,
\\,, , I , ,~"--' -.... _--- . ----- '00 -- Figure 10 - Schematic dia & ~ erg ------gram of the way the Areas ~~#l ~. rocket-sonde is used with a o ~>/ modified GMD-2 rawinsonde , I...... surnout e> ground station. The lower radio frequency (403 me) is .1 ~~§ r~ used for ranging, and the ~RaWI[1JlOnde higher frequency is used to , ~ AN!GMD·2 carry the telemetered data , , '00 .00 and for angular tracking. 00' '" .. .. 00' 00' TlME_ .ecande METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 17
Figure 11 - The inflatable "Robin" sphere, with its built-in corner reflector to make it a good radar target. This package is carried to about 80 km by an Areas rocket, is automatically inflated at peak altitude, and is tracked as it falls. 18 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHEfiE METEOROLOGICAL ROCKET ..
.. ,~ .. ,~ ~ i~ ,.,~ ,i
a070@50~030 \0 0 '0 ~1l 30 ~O ,0 '00 110 '20 J3Q '00 110 120 "'0 140 '50 lH-El----+--I.-WI -ij(l -70 -60 -ill -4 HETEOROlOGIr;AL ROCKET SOUNDING DATA RP NAME + PLACE DATE TIME TR RT \/S is RP ·IJ 00 WHI WHO THT Y II 0 l '"' Z3DH IISMR, NEil MEXICO 63 07 31 1915 +05 01 02 01 RAOB ROCKET IUNDS THERMOOYNII.IUCS COMPOS IfION PHD II. flSL COMP WNDS RH HI II. HS1 caMP IINOS II. HSL TOC PKS 0 '" II. HSL 0 ED LAR '" "05.0 000.24 00.303 334 0012.1 3048 -004 -020 -37.8 045 5828 "000 -05Z 6096 -44.5 5060 +05.0 0110.85 01.058 334 0015.1 2896 -002 -023 050 5526 "006 -040 +004 -010 -42.0 ..011 -044 4694 ..02.5 001.32 01.b66 333 0019.0 2744 060 5178 -002 -015 -44.9 010 4794 ..C12 -045 4542 -05.0 001.59 02.068 328 01123.7 2590 0029.8 2438 -004 -012 -49.1 080 4484 "001 -043 4054 -15.0 002.91 04.012 322 -21.0 0113.64 05.025 318 0041.8 2134 -002 -008 -57.6 090 4234 -002 -040 3902 -61.2 3840 -la.O 003.94 05.386 320 0017.4 1828 -002 -012 100 4002 +000 -025 +004 -010 -10.9 110 3826 +006 -028 3150 -20.0 004.45 06.129 319 0128.3 1524 -24.0 004.83 06.160 316 0209.4 1220 -002 .. 000 -51.0 120 3660 +C08 -036 3688 -26.5 +000 -033 3596 -26.5 005.48 07.734 315 0326.2 0914 -001 -003 130 3512 +001 -005 50 -06.9 140 3378 +OLO -023 3414 -34.5 001.06 10.3L2 310 0489.0 0610 -38.5 008.41 12.484 301 0711.8 0304 "001 +000 32 +15.3 150 3210 +003 -021 3292 11 '"25.0 -001 -013 -39.5 OL2.50 18.634 306 0819.0 0122 +0011 +002 160 3158 3018 -001 -024 -31.5 110 3054 +006 -015 2926 -41.0 oL4.27 21.420 ~05 OOLO.O 3166 -42.0 015.96 24.047 305 0050.0 2098 -001 -006 -51.1 180 2956 ..cOS -023 2850 -70.9 +000 -025 211<1 -46.0 096.54 29.969 302 0100.0 1668 +-000 -001 190 2884 +001 -005 54 -06.0 +000 -020 2652 -49.0 021.41 33.281 300 0500.0 0592 ZOO 2198 +001 ..000 34 +14.2 220 2688 -005 -019 2514 -50.0 026.36 41.153 299 0700.0 0320 240 2582 -002 -014 2408 -51.0 031.01 48.629 299 260 2414 "003 -014 2216 -51.0 041.57 65.1'l6 299 280 2314 +003 -1111 2118 -51.0 048.35 11.928 295 300 2298 +002 -1113 1966 -59.0 320 2232 ..002 -013 1828 -62.0 1100 -69.0 Figure 12 - Sample of data obtained by a rocket-sonde, showing the standard format being used for archiving such observations. Note that the balloon radiosonde data for the same time and place are also given. Temperature corrections on the graph near the top of the rocket-sonde flight are those given in Appendix 3 ; the temperatures in the table are uncorrected. METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 19 can be derived. Moreover, since such a sphere also responds to the wind in the layer through whi·ch it is falling, its horizontal drift is a measure of the "vind field. Experience with these falling spheres, called * "ROBIN spheres" in the. U.S., indicates that wind measurelnents can be made below 50 km with an accuracy of a few metres per second, and densities can .be determined up to 70-knl with an ac·curacy of about 5 per cent (Lally and Leviton, 1958 ; Leviton and Wright, 1961). (Use of larger instrumented spheres can give densities at even higher levels, as will be mentioned belmv.) In the progranune of current meteorological rockets the development emphasis has been towards cheaper "flight hardware" (rocket and payload) and self-contained ground equipment that allows the rocket sounding system to operate without the complex support of a firing range and a high·powered radar. In the U.S. the use of standard or modified RAWINSONDE ground stations (GMD-1 and GMD-2) with parachute rocket-sondes has provided a capability for firing meteorological rockets at remote sites. For example, such a system has been demonstrated in the Antarctic, as well as at many other stations. A similar approach is being taken in the U.K. in preparation for the IQSY, and it is understood that meteorological rocket systems are being developed in France, Poland, West Germany and Japan. It is likely that, as the cost of such rockets goes down and the reli€\bility goes up, it "\-vill be feasible for many weather services to adopt meteorological rockets on an operational or semi-operational basis. The pro gramme of the IQSY is but a start in this direction. In anticipation of the world-wide use of meteorological rockets and the need -for rapid exchange of this new kind of aerological data, WMO has adopted a code for transmission of this data internationally. Appendix. 4 sumlnarizes this code. Steps have also been taken by WMO· to arrange for a uniform method for archiving the data from sounding rockets for research use. (See Appendix 5.) At present, all the avail able U.S. meteorological rocket data are coUccted in tabular, graphical and punch card forms, and Figure 1.2 shows a sample from an Areas flight at White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico. These data are available through World Data Center A in Asheville, North Carolina, or from the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. 4. Very high altitude sounding rockets Above the level presently attainable by current meteorological rockets lie th.e mesosphere and thermosphere, a region in which many of the techniques men.tioned in Section 3 can no longer be applied. Above 60 or 70 km the parachute of a rocket-sonde of reasonable area-to-mass ratio falls too rapidly to permit good Ineasurements of the atu10sphere, and it does not respond to the wind. Above about 60 km a directly exposed telnperature sensor is incapable of making accurate measurements of air temperature. Therefore other measuring techniques must be used in rockets capable of going higher. There is another reason for making a distinction between very high altitude sounding rockets and the current meteorological rockets: the mesosphere and thermosphere are different from the stratosphere in several ways, and therefore different parameters of the atmosphere are of interest. Two such parameters are the free electron density, a quantity that is of fundalllental importance in studies of the ionosphere and its effect on radio propagation, and atmospheric composition, particularly the dissociation of O2 to atOlnic oxygen. Furthermore, there is now good evidence for the existence of both semi-diurnal tidal oscillations and very intense internal gravity waves (see Section 1.2), and the wind field can probably not be treated in the same way as in the lower atmosphere, i.e., it is turbulent and extrenlely variable, and the gradient wind relationships between pressure and wind probably no longer apply, since the flow is not in a steady state. In short, the ordinary tools of meteorology "vill have to be modified in several respects in order to deal with the very high atmosphere, and aeronomy (the physics of the upper atmo sphere) and meteorology will both have to be applied to understand it. '" ROBIN is an acronym derived from ROcket Balloon INstrument. 20 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATblOSPHERE In this section some of the rocket techniques that provide meteorological and aeronomical parameters at very high altitudes will be summarized. Many:o£ these techniques are described in detail in a series on "Sounding Rocket Research Techniques", being prepared under the auspices of CaSPAR (see biblio graphy; a general review is contained in the book by Kondratiev, 1962). 4.1 Falling spheres During the IGY densities were obtained to over 70 km by the University of Michigan using 18 em diameter falling spheres with built-in accelerometers that telemetercd the acceleration as they fell (Jones, Peterson, Schaefer, and Schulte, 1959). Since that time these small spheres have been improved, and other developments along the same line have resulted in inflatable spheres with accelerometers, and the technique can now give density to over 100 kIn (Faucher, Procunier, and Stark, 1961). To obtain densities at this altitude it is necessary for the peak altitude of the rocket to be well above 100 km (approximately 150 km), so that the spherc can gain sufficient supersonic specd before it re-enters the region where the density is to be measured - the high ~pc~d is needed to provide a measurable drag at these altitudes, and also to insure that the sphere is operating at a favourable Reynolds number at which the drag coeffi cient is known. A variation on this has been used in the U.S., in which the acceleration of the falling sphere is determined by tracking it from the ground with a very sensitive and accurate radar. Both the passive and active falling spheres are in use, and both systems have proved effective. Early difficulties with the determination of the coefficient of the drag for such spheres have apparently been overCOme. (Jones, 1964.) 4.2 Grenades One of the earliest rocket methods for deteqnining temperatures and winds in the very high atmo sphere, to over 90 km, has been the grenade technique. In this experiment a succession of explosions are created one above the other at intervals of several kilometres, and the arrival of the shock wave is sensed by an array of microphones suitably spaced on the ground. The time of arrival of the shock wave at each microphone is Ineasured, the tilne of travel being a measure of the temperature along the path, and the direction of arrival (deduced from the arrival tilnes) being a measure of the wind. This technique has been used in the U.S., Australia, Japan, Sweden, etc., and is described extensively in the literature; and recently a "Manual Describing the Rocket-Grenade Experiment" has heen prepared at the instigation of COSPAR (Nordberg and Smith, 1964 ; see also Nordberg and Smith, 1963 ; Maeda and Riaro, 1962). It is hoped that this manual will encourage still other experimenters to undertake this type of upper-atmosphere observa tions during the IQSY. 4.3 Vapour trails The most frequently used lnethod for deterlnining winds in the upper atmosphere above 60 or 70 km has been the technique of measuring the drift of alkali metal vapours that scatter sunlight at twilight. This technique-has the advantage of great simplicity, in that the rocket need only create a trail of vapour at a time when the trail can be illuminated by the sun while the lower atmosphere is already in the shadow of the earth. Observations of these brilliant trails are usually made by several cameras on the ground, and the winds are deduced by triangulation measurements from the photographs. Limitations of this technique are fairly evident: they can only be made at twilight, and the sky must be clear so that the vapour trail can be observed from the ground; in addition the data reduction is difficult. However, a great deal of useful information has been obtained in this way. (Broglio, 1963 ; Dubin, Manriug, Jenkins, Levy, Rosenberg, 1964; Egidi, Fea, and Fratucello, 1961; Rosenberg, 1963.) rtlETEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 21 A new variation of this has been the tracking of trails that are made luminous at night by a photo~ chemical reaction of the vapour with atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere. It was observed that grenades -in Australia that had aluminium casings glowed at night, the puff being visible to the eye for several minutes (Groves, 1963). Following this a number of experiments in Australia and the U.S. were undertaken in order to determine the cause of such a persistent luminosity and to exploit it. A most promising substance for use at night is trimethylaluminium (TMA). A trail of TMA can be photographed from 85 to about 160 km. Another substance that glows at night, not quite so efficiently but over a similar range of altitudes, is nitric oxide. Such glows do not extend as high as the resonance scattering of sunlight from alkali metals, which can give results to well over 200 km, but their use throughout the night opens up a new field for studies of the dynamics of the thermosphere (Rosenberg, Golomb, and Allen, 1963 ; Rosenberg and Edwards, 1963; Rosenberg, Edwards, and Wright, 1964). The observations of twilight trails have also given information about temperatures in the upper atmosphere. The doppler broadening and relative intensities of the resonant spectral lines (for example, that of sodium or potassium) permit an estimate of the temperature. This technique involves a most ingenious method for determining the line shape. While its accuracy is not as great as could be wished, it is one of the few techniques to give temperature in the upper atmosphere to about 400 km directly (Blamont and Lory, 1963 a ; 1963 b). Another characteristic of the upper atmosphere which can be observed by such techniques is tur~ bulence or rate of diffusion. Observations of the rate of growth of the trail indicate that above 105 km the growth is by molecular diffusion alone, and is quite predictable. Below 105 km, however, the character of the trail is very different, and the growth is mainly by turbulent eddies. The trail is seen to break up into globular masses and to move in an irregular way, the eddy motion being superimposed on the general motion of the winds. The character of these turbulent eddies in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere is the subject of considerable observational and theoretical study at the present tillle, since it appears that this turbulent behaviour has an illlportant effect on both the rate of mixing and the temperature balance of this part of the atmosphere. (Hines, 1960 ; 1963 ; BIamont and de Jager, 1961 ; Blamont, 1963; Wilkins, 1963 ; BIamont and Baguette, 1961.) 4.4 Absorption of solar radiation Radiation from the sun at wavelengths below about 3000 A does not reach the earth's surface. As a rocket moves upward it passes through the regions that absorb this radiation - first the ozone abf?orbing layer (2000-3000 A), then, the molecular oxygen absorbing layer (about 1000 to 1800 A), and then the nitrogen absorbing layer (a continuum below 900 A). X-ray absorption is more or less independent of the composition. The penetration of sunlight into the atmosphere is summarized in Figure 13, by Friedman. This fact has made it possible to measure the vertical distribution of certain constituents (e.g., 0 3 and 0z) and of total density by monitoring the change of solar flux with altitude at specific wavelengths. One advantage of this technique is its simplicity, since relatively simple filtering systems and detectors have been developed. (Friedman, 1960; 1964.) 5. Gun-launched probes Several years before sounding rockets became generally available, in 1945, a series of observation~ were lllade in England of smoke puffs created at 30 km by a special high~mu·zzle-velocity'gun fired from the ground (Johnson, 1946 ; Murgatroyd and Clews, 1949). Although soundings of this sort have not found very general use in high altitude research, a continuing interest in their possibilities has led to additional developments. 22 METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE The U.S. Navy has developed a chaff round that can he fired from regular naval guns to about 30 km (Masterson, 1959). The U.S. Army has demonstrated that a 5-in. gun could fire a 10 kg shell to about 60 km. In the past year a series of firings frOln a 16 in. gun in the Barbadoes by scientists from :McGill University in collaboration with scientists of the Aberdeen Proving Grounds (Marks, MacAllister, Gehringl Vitagliano, and Bentley, 1961 ; Mad 160 140 0,,0, N"N 120 ~ 100 I ~ ;-" 80 >= ;J 60 40 20 0'------;2"'0;;;0-"40;;;0"6;O;O"0";;80"'0"'oo;V;;0"~1"200='1;;;4-!;OOO"'6"'OO""IBO~0;-C2"'0;;;OO"2"'2"0V'0;-;;2;;i4;;;OOec2'"600k'"2"'8~OO"-';30""'00'" WAVELENGTH - ANGSTROMS Figure 13 - The penetration of solar radiation into the earth's upper atmosphere, showing the approximate height at which vertical radiation of a given wavelength is reduced to one-third (1/e) by atmospheric absorption. (Friedman, 1960.) In principle, a rocket-sonde complete with parachute and transmitter could be developed for such gun-launched sounding vehicles, even though the accelerations are extrenlely large (of the order of 40,000 g's for the 5-in. or 7-in. guns, and about 10,000 g's for the 16-in. gun). The firing itself, once the gun is· available and in place, and the flight hardware are relatively simple and inexpensive compared to rockets, accordi~g to the estimates of the agencies that are developing them. 6. Conclusions This report has been concerned with what we know of the upper atmosphere (below the altitude of satellites), and with our present methods for observing it. One cannot pursue this matter very far without being impressed with the vastness of our ignorance of how the upper atlllosphere behaves. One can however point to a number of rather specific things that need to be done in order to improve our knowledge, and we will touch on these now - lllany have already been mentioned. 6.1 Theoretical problems The most striking thing about the atmosphere as it moves and changes from day to day is its coher ence. It is a complex fluid in which all parts eventually interact with the other parts. The laws governing these interactions, particularly those which govern the vertical propagation of disturbances,_ are ,still METEOROLOGICAL SOUNDINGS IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 23 poorly understood. The fact that changes on the sun are first felt as disturbances at high levels suggests that it would he most important to establish how (if at all) such disturbances can later be felt lower down in the atmosphere. This lnight be the missing link between the changes on the sun and the changes in the weather that some meteorologists have suspected, a subject that is still most controversial. Closely associated with this is the detailed description of how energy from various sources is released in the atmosphere. 'rVe are beginning to understand how very complex this is. No longer are radiative processes the only ones to be considered, since it is becoming evident that we may also have to consider such relatively difficult subjects as turbulence, internal gravity waves, and the release of chemical energy. For exaluple, it has been suggested that the atmosphere may act as a heat engine (converting potential energy into kinetic energy) in some regions, and may act as a refrigerator (using available kinetic energy to carry heat against the temperature gradient) in other regions. Also, large-scale vertical motions and turbulence can affect the composition of the atmosphere, thereby changing its thermal and electrical properties. We mention these points (out of many) only to convey a feeling for the richness of this field for theoretical studies, and the need for an imaginative approach. 6.2 Specific observations required Among some of the most critical observations that are needed before we can make much progress in understanding the upper atmosphere arc the following: (i) The solar flux in the ultra-violet and X-ray part of the spectrum: We know (sec Figure 12) that solar radiation below about 3000 A is unobservable at the ground, but determines the temperature and composition aloft. Y ct we are uncertain about the magnitude of the actual flux by 20 to 40 per cent in the 2000 to 3000 A region, and by 50 per cent or more below 2000 A. (Our knowledge of the mriations in these fluxes is only slightly better.) (ii) The composition of the atmosphere: The heat budget of the free atmosphere depends on the distributions of various constituents, most notably water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, and oxygen (whether atomic or molecular). In addition, nitric oxide plays an important role in the creation of free electrons in the ionosphere, and methane is important as a source of hydrogen at around 100 km. Few of these have been measured adequately above balloon altitudes, and we have virtually no knowledge of their variations with latitude, season, solar activity, etc. 6.3 Synoptic obserpations required As we stated in the Introduction, a three-dimensional description of the atmosphere that changes with time is needed to understand the dynamics of the -atmosphere. Even our observations below 30 km are now becoming inadequate with the advent of new computers and new techniques for analysing the atmosphere and making numerical forecasts. Stated another way, our theoretical models are now becoming better than our description of the initial conditions of the atIuosphere, which must include an entire hemisphere. If this is true for the part of the atmosphere accessible to balloons, it is much more true for the regions higher up. Meteorological rockets are beginning to provide this step upward in synoptic observa tions, and a new era in our deseriplion of the 30 to 100 km region (and above) is opening. It is hoped that a world-wide network will COlue into being, with the same rapid exchange of rocket observations between countries that now exists for balloon observations. The next step, seen only dimly now, win be the development of ground-based observation techniques that can do the same job as the rockets - but, hopefully, continuously and at less cost. Such techniques deserve our most careful attention, and somc of the hopes expressed in Section 2 may then some day be realized. APPENDIX 1 Abhreviated table of average values of temperature, pressure density, and molecular weight to 200 km (taken from CIRA 1961, prepared by H. Kallmann-BijI, R. L. F. Boyd, H. LaGow, S. M. Poloskov, and W. Priester) (See also Figure 2) Altitude Tcmpel'atul'c Pressure Density Molecular (km) (OK) {dynes cm-2} (g cm-') weight 0 289.25 1.02 X106 1.23x10-' 28.96 o (Standard) 288.15 1.01325 X10' 1.2250 X10-' 28.964 10 222 2.68x 10' 4.19xl0-< 28.96 20 217 5.54x 10' 8.89 X10-6 28.96 30 228 1.21x 10' 1.84x10-5 28.96 40 248 2.90x 10' 4.07 X1(}-6 28.96 50 270 7.91x 10' 1.02 X10-6 28.96 60 258 2.25x 10' 3.04x 10-7 28.96 70 217 5.51 X10' 8.84x 10-8 28.96 80 185 1.03x 10' 1.91, X10-8 28.96 90 181 1.62 X10° 3.12x10-' 28.96 100 212 2.92xl0-1 4.78x 10-10 28.85 110 265 7.28X 10-2 9.49x 10-11 28.72 120 31,3 2.44x 10-' 2.44x 10-11 28.60 130 569 1.16x 10-' 6.95x 10-12 28.43 140 799 7.22x 10-' 3.07x10-12 28.25 150 1014 5.08x 10-' 1.69X 10-12 28.09 160 1155 3.81x 10-' 1.11 /10-12 27.90 170 1176 2.92X 10-' 8.26x 10-13 27.70 180 1193 2.25x 10-' 6.59x 10-13 27.47 190 1210 1.75x10-' 4.73x 10-13 27.25 200 1227 1.36x 10-' 3.61 X10-13 27.00 APPENDIX 2 Resolution 20 (EC.XIV) Meteorological Programme for the International Year of the Qniet Snn (IQSY) THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, NOTING: (1) Resolution 7 (CAe-III), (2) Resolution 16 (EC-XIV), (3) The report of the CAe Working Group on the IQSY Meteorological Programme submitted in February 1962, (4) The report of the International Geophysical Committee Working Group II (meteorology), March 1960, (S) Recommendation 25 (CAe-1962) ; CONSIDERING: (1) The importance of having an IQSY programme for meteorology integrated and co-ordinated with those of other geophysical disciplines; (2) The urgent requirClnent for a prompt and clear statement on a proposed meteorological pro gramme to permit implelnentation by the commencement of the International Year of the Quiet Sun; (3) That the IQSY provides a good opportunity for conducting meteorological investigations on a planetary scale, especially in the high atmosphere, by instruments which have been developed since the IGY or which were not available in sufficient quantity for general use at that time j DECIDES that the World Meteorological Organization will participate in the Meteorological Pro- gramme for the IQSY (1 January 1964 to 31 December 1965) ; URGES Members and the meteorological services of non-Member countries: (1) To participate in this programme to the maximum possible extent; (2) To take all possible steps to implement Resolutions 6 and 7 (Ee-XIII) and 12 (EC-XIV) before the commencement of the International Year of the Quiet SUll; RECOMMENDS: (1) That the meteorological programme for the IQSY should concentrate on the study of the large scale physical, dynamic and thermodynamic characteristics of the upper atmosphere above the 100 mb level and the relations between the upper and lower atmosphere; (2) That in are'as where full exploration to 100 mb was not achieved during IGYIICC, a major effort should be expended during IQSY to estahlish an appropriate aerological network in order to complete the world upper-air network; 26 APPENDIX 2 (3) That, for the layer from 20 to 60 km, the following elements should be observed on a network basis: (a) The vertical distribution of wind, temperature and, if possible, water vapour, (b) The vertical distribution of ozone at all levels above the ground, with particular attention to measurements in the ozone production region above 25 km, (c) Solar and terrestrial radiative fluxes, and their vertical distribution where possible; (4) That, if possible, the observations specified in (3) above, should be extended to 120 km, even if only on an individual sounding basis; (5) That observations at the ground of total ozone and of net radiative fluxes be carried out on a continuing basis, to supplement and support the observations in 3 (b) and 3 (c), above; (6) That consideration be given to observations of stratospheric radioactivity, stratospheric clouds and aerosols, and stratospheric electrical parameters, at least during World Geophysical Intervals; (7) That satellite-borne experiments, which can add significantly to the knowledge of the atmo spheric processes ordinarily studied from below, be conducted, and that these observational platforms be exploited with a view to obtaining information on atmospheric radiation balance, solar radiation and its fluctuations, composition and state of the high atmosphere, and density changes above about 150 km ; (8) That in the planning of networks and observational programmes, including instrumental inter comparisons, and in the planning of publication and analysis programmef;i, reference be made to the following resolutions and rec.ommendations : Resolution 13 (EC-XIV) Ozone networks Recommendation 10 (CAe-III) Total ozone programmes Recommendation 15 (CAe-III) High-altitude radioactivity Resolution 16 (EC-XIV) Meteorology of high atmosphere Resolution 18 (EC-XIV) - World Geophysical Intervals Resolution 12 (EC-XIV) Collection and publication of data in physical meteorology Resolution 6 (EC-XIII) Publication of aerologicaJ observations; and DIRECTS the Secretary~General: (1) To bring this resolution to the attention of all concerned, (2) To prepare and distribute a guide to the IQSY Meteorological Programme on the basis of the recommendations and resolutions listed above. APPENDIX 3 Mean day-time temperature error, error variability and accuracy of correction as a function of height for the rocket·sonde bead thermistor (Taken from N. K. Wagner, "Theoretical accuracy of the meteorological rocket-sonde thermistor", Electrical Engineering Laboratory, University of Texas, Rept. No. 7.23) (Contract DA.23.072.0RD.1564, JnIy 1963) Erl'ol' Error Height (to be subtracted pariability Probable from apparent (depending on accuracy 01 temperature) ambient condition) correction (km) lOCI lOCI 1%) 40 3.5 45 4.5 50 5.0 ± 3.5 ± 1.3 55 7.5 ± 5.0 ± 1.9 60 19.0 ± 5.0 ± 2.0 65 33.5 ± 9.0 ± 3.8 A bstract of Wagner'8 report: The ability of the bead thermistor currently used in U.S. meteorological sounding rockets to measure the mnbient kinetic temperature of the environment is examined theoretically. A nOllRsteady state heat transfer environment including forced convection, infraMrcd and solar radiation, compressional heating, lead wire conduction and internal heating is considered, along with normal variations to be expected in this environment. The temperature measurement error is computed, which, when corrected for, should yield ambient temperature values to within ± 2 per cent up to 60 km with the correction accuracy decreasing to ± 3.8 per cent at 65 km. The correction accuracy deteriorates rapidly above 65 km suggesting that either a different type-sensing element or a different sounding technique will be necessary for temperature lneasurement above this level. APPENDIX 4 Recommendation 75 (63-CSM) Code for the exchange of meteorological rocket-sonde data THE COMMISSION pon SYNOPTIC METEOROLOGY, NOTING: (1) Resolution 28 (Cg-IV) ; (2) Resolution 8 (EC-XV) ; CONSIDERING: e1.) That telegraphic exchange of rocket-sonde data would facilitate the successful operation of the STRATWARM scheme; (2) That rocket-sonde data would be useful for Members analysing very high altitude synoptic charts on a routine basis; (3) That a telegraphic exchange of rockct-soude data should take place already at the beginning of the IQSY; RECOMMENDS that the HROCOB" code, specified in the. annex to the recommendation, should be used, on an experimental basis, during the IQSY for telegraphic exchange of rocket-sonde data. Annex to Recommendation 75 (63-CSM) Rocket-sonde form of message 1. Form of Message ROCOB IIiii raesIDrGd YYGGgg HHZTTT ddffjn (9dp plplpl) HHZTTT ddffjn (9dpPlplpl) etc. JJJ 2 . Definitions ROCOB Code name for rocket-sonde form of message. ROCOB SHIP Code name for rocket-sonde form of message from a ship. When the ship form of message is used the group IIiii is replaced by the groups YQL,L,L. LoLoLo II MMMUL.U"" and the form becomes: ROCOB SHIP YQL,LoL. LoLoLo II MMMUL.U"" rae,m,Gd YYGGgg etc. Iliii Index number of the observing station; I.e., where the telemetering equipment IS located. APPENDIX 4 29 r Type of rocket motor. (Code Table 1) a Reason for no report and ground equipment. (Code Table 2) e, Type of data-sensing equipment. (Code Table 3) m, Method of reducing data. (Code Table 4) Gd Estimated delay until replacement rocket is fired. (Code Table 5) YY Day of the month (GCT) on which the observation was taken. GGgg Tilne of observation in hours and minutes GMT. The time of firing of the rocket is the time of observation. HH Altitude, to the nearest kilometre, of the level for which data are reported. Zr Character of the temperature. When the temperature is zero degrees or above, code figure 0 is reported for ZT. When the temperature is within the range of -1° to -99°, inclusive, code figure 5 is reported for Zr. Vvhen the temperature is within the range of -1.00° to -1.99°, inclusive, code figure 6 is reported for ZT' When the temperature is missing for any reason, the solidus (/) is reported for ZT' TT Temperature of the air in whole degrees Celsius. The absolute value of the temperature IS reported (i.e., the plus or minus sign is disregarded in detcrmining the value to be coded). For example: If. the temperature is -570, the coding is TT = 57 and ZT = 5. When the temperature is missing for any reason, two solidi (f f) are reported for TT. dd True direction, in tens of degrees, from which the wind is blowing at the specified levcl. (W1\-10 Code 0877.) When the wind speed is 100 to 1.99 knots, inclusive, 50 is added to the value normally reported for "dd". When the wind direction is missing for any reason, two solidi (ff) are reported for dd. ff Wind speed in knots at the specified level. For wind speeds of 100-199 knots, inclusive, 50 is added to "dd" and the actual speed in excess of tOO is reported for "if". For wind speeds of 200 to 299, inclusive, the speed in excess of 200 is reported for "ff" and the group 00200 is inserted in the message immediately following the "ddffjll" group for the specified level. For wind speeds of 300 to 399, inclusive, the speed in excess of 300 knots is reported for "if" and the group 00300 is i!1serted in the message imme (Example: Assume 120 g/m', the group IS coded 90120 (i.e., dp = 0). Assume 1.20 g/m', the group IS coded 92120 (i.e., dp = 2). Assume 0.281 g/m', the group IS coded 93281 (i.e., dp = 3). Assume 0.0788 g/m', the group IS coded 94788 (i.e., dp = 4).) Density in gjcm3 rounded to three significant figures, at the specified level. Termination group. The letters JJJ are always included as the last group of the report to indicate its end. Y Day of the week (GCT) on which the observation is taken (WMO Code 4900). Q Octant of the globe (WMO Code 3300). LaLaLa Latitude in tenths of degrees. LoLoLo Longitude in tenths of degrees. The hundreds digit is omitted for longitudes 1000 to 1800 • MMM Number of the Marsden Square for the ship's position at the tilne of observation. Units figure in the reported latitude. Units figure in the reported longitude. NOTES 1. MANDATORY levels are defined as specified altitudes for whieh data are reported. These levels are: (a) the 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, etc., km and for every 5 km upward to the top of the ascent, and (b) the lowest (Le., termination) level of the ascent for which data are available, provided its altitude is higher than 20 km. In the event data are not available for one of the specified altitude MANDATORY levels, the code groups for thai level will be inserted in the report in its altitude sequential order and solidi (f or //, as appropriate) will be reported for the missing elements. 2. SIGNIFICANT levels are defined as those levels (other than MANDATORY) at which significant changes occur. Whenever anyone of the criteria is satisfied, all data available for that SIGNI FICANT level will be reported. SIGNIFICANT levels are determined according to the following criteria: 2.1 Speed - A departm'e of 10 or mdre knots '£1'0111 a linear interpolation between any two consecutive levels selected for transmission; OR 2.2 Direction - When the departure from a linear interpolation between any two consecutive levels selected for transmission is one of the following: 2.2.1 60° or more - When the average wind speed for the layer is 16 * to 30 knots, inclusive; 2.2.2 30° or more - When the average wind speed for the layer is 31 to 60 knots, inclusive; 2.2.3 200 or more - When the average wind speed for the layer is 61 knots or greater; OR 2.3 Temperature - A temperature change: of 30 from linearity between any two consecutive levels selected for transmission. *. (Note: Speeds of '15 knots, or less, are not 60nsidered to be of significance for this purpose.) APPJ::NDIX 4 31 3. A SIGNIFICANT level will be reported when anyone of the above criteria (i.e., speed, direction or temperature) is satisfied. All data available will be reported for each SIGNIFICANT level included in the message. The MANDATORY and SIGNIFICANT levels are intermixed in the message in ascending order with respect to altitude. 4. The 9dpP1P1Pl group is enclosed in parentheses to indicate that the group is included in the message when data are available and omitted whenever data are not available. 5. The HHZTTT ddffjn groups are always included in the message for each level reported. 6. The first four groups (i.e., ROCOB IIiii rae,mrGd YYGGgg) are always included in the report. 7. When a firing is made but data are not obtained, the group "raesmrGd" is coded as follows: Symbols r, e, and m, - code figures normally applicable will be reported. Symbol a - a code figure from 0 through 4 will be reported. Symbol Gd - the code figure from 0 through 8 whicb best describes the expectations for firing a replacement rocket will be reported. Code figure 9 wiJI be reported when it is definitely known that a replacement rocket will NOT be fired. 8. When a firing is made and data are obtained, the solidus (f) will be reported for symbol "Go'. TABLES OF SPECIFICATIONS Code Table 1 Symbol r - Type at rocket motor Code figure o 4.5 inch, end burning 1 3.0 inch, internal burning 2 Boosted, 4.5 inch end burning 3 ,,3.0 inch internal burning Code Table 2 Symbol a - Reason tal' no report and ground equipment Code figure o Data doubtful and not transmitted, reason not specified 1 Rocketmotor failure 2 Instrument (or telemetry) signal not received by tracking equipment - data not available 3 Ground tracking equipment failure 4 Automatic data processing equipment failure 5 GMD-1 and radar 6 GMD-2 7 FPS-16 class 8 Unassigned 9 Other tracking systems not comparable to GMD-1 and radar, GMD-2 or FPS-16 class (i.e., double GMD-1, SCR 584, etc.) 32 APPENDIX 4 Code Table 3 Symbol e, - Type oj data sensmg equipment Code figure o Falling sphere 1 ChaIT 2 Immersion thermometry with hypsometer 3 Immersion thermometl'y without hypsometer 4 Pressure or density gauge 5 Unassigned 6 " 7 " 8 9 Other" type Code Table 4 Method oj reducing data Code figure o Manually - Nomogram 1 Electronic computer 2 Unassigned 3 " 4 5 " 6 " " 7 " 8 9 Other" method Code Table 5 Symbol Gd - Estimated delay until replacement I'Ocket ,s fired Code figure 0 0 - 3 hours after scheduled launch - 6 hours 1 3 " " " 6 -12 hours 2 " " " 12-18 hours Replacement 3 " "" 18-24 hours rocket will 4 " " - 2 days " be fired 5 1 " " - 3 days " 6 2 " " 7 Over 3 days " 8 Unknown 9 Replacement rocket will not be fired / Replacement rocket not required APPENDIX 4 33 Code Table 6 Symbol jn = Thickness of the layer through which the wind speed and direction were determined Code figure Metres o 0- 250 1 251- 500 2 501-1000 3 1001-1500 4 1501- 2500 5 2501- 3500 6 3501- 4500 7 4501- 5500 8 5501- 6500 9 6501 - or greater APPENDIX 5 Standard form for meteorological rocket-sonde observations INTRODUCTION 1. One of the most important meteorological aspects of the IQSY is the programme of meteorological rocket ascents, details of which are given in section 6.2 of the "Guide to the IQSY Meteorological Programme" (WMOjIQSY Report No.1). Arrangements have been made for the results of these ascents to be exchanged in a special code by telecommunications, primarily for the benefit -of countries where attempts are being Inade to plot and analyse- high altitude synoptic charts j details of this scheme were promulgated by WMO in a circular dated 28 November 1963. It is however most important that tbe observations should be published. This need was recognized at the thirteenth session of the WMO Executive Committee in 1961, when Resolution 7 (EC-XIII) was adopted; this recommended that "all Members which undertake rocket observations in the upper atmosphere should publish in printed form the meteorological information obtained". 2. In response to a suggestion from the CIG-IQSY General Assembly (Rome, March 1963), the Secretary-General of vVlVIO was requested by Fourth Congress to investigate the possibility of designing a standard form for meteorological rocket-sonde observations. The purpose of the present report is to describe this standard form, which was prepared in consultation with the president of the WMO Com mission for Aerology and with lVIember countries known to be engaged in meteorological rocket-sonde observations. STANDARD FORM 3. A specimen of the standard form for IQSY meteorological rocket observations is attached to this report. It has been designed to include all the techniques likely to be used on meteorological rockets during the IQSY. 4. Members are invited to consider using this standard form for recording any meteorological data obtained from rockets during the IQSY. If for any reason this standard form is not considered to be suitable, it is hoped that the Members concerned will follow its lay-out as closely as possible when designing their national forms. 5. Explanations and guidance for the completion of the standard forms are given in the annex to this report. It should be noted that many code numbers have not been assigned; these are available for expansion of the information to be recorded, depending on the practices of individual countries. All suggestions regarding the use of additional code numbers should be Sent to the Secretary-General of WMO. 6. For the sake of economy, the standard form attached to this report has been reduced to approxi mately one half the size which will be required to allow sufficient space for all the digits to be entered. OBSERVATIONAL RECORD OF METEOROLOGICAL ROCKETSONDE DATA ''P __'' __ DATE STATION ---- !'!O~tb ,,~ ANNOTATION '" ';I~" .d~ ,,1/', ,i~;~ ~ ~':~""""':":"~------1 ~~~ Il~~ ~ l::l~;t ~ .,-"1~~I';~i~;f.i.... i'l "M'li ~~ III, i I j lP,g! B fr.:-" ATMOSPHEIUC COMI'OSITION ASSOCIATED RAWrNSONDE WINDS TIi£RMODYNAMICS ~ C'tWIliJ'lt;"'ii"t =,re AloT. AT ~'I:CTt:fl Alti~ud. "'I~D m. n~ COMPONENT """"nn =m reo", ,~ ~~. ALTlTtlIlE ,,,. "". Aluwd. ~ .. ,~ (1Il&I"') ~% ,., • SPD. ,~ ~3~ ,~ om. ,ro. U""orr. (1"1» "'"' f~ ~ om 1/l.0tit~ rmIWQ ,=. b./s) (III/s) (dog) {m/sl " FmINC= (1Il,h) ("JaJ (do~) ("JIl) (l/ld"C) (l/loQ C) '00"'(lOis) O'"ar 10) ("u1» " . S (lo'.ar~ - ~ .:r ~ •• ". '" ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ on lIMO Fen Y..l w on 36 APPENDIX. 5 EXPLANATIONS AND GUIDANCE FOR THE COMPLETION OF THE FORMS FOR ROCKET-SONDE OBSERVATIONS 1. General Each rocket-sonde will be recorded on its own form or forms. If lllore than one form is required for cOlnplete entry of data, the page number, and total nUlnber of pages required will be entered in the space provided. The station name and number, as well as the date of observation will be stamped or written on each form. 2. Annotation section 2.1 Roc/ret time (4 digits) The actual rocket firing time will be given in hours and minutes. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) will be used. 2.2 Raob time difference (3 digits plus sign) The actual time of rawinsondc release will be given in minutes of difference from rocket firing time. 2.3 Rocket type (2 digits) The type of rocket will be entered according to the following code: Code Rocket type Code Rocket type 01-19 One stage; internal burning 40- 59 Two stage, main rockei 01 Loki I internal burning Nike-Cajun 02 Loki II 40 03 Judi I 60-79 Two stage, main rocket end 04 Mark 32 Mod. 0 burning 60 Boosted Arcas 20 -39 One stage, end burning 20 Areas 80- 99 Other (Misc.) 2.4 Tracking equipment (2 digits for each tracking device - 4 digits total to accommodate two pieces of ground equipment *) The nature of tracking equipment will be indicated according to the following code: Code Tracking device 01-19 Radiotheodolite or radio receiver 01 GMD or WBRT without ranging 02 GMD or WBRT with ranging 20 - 99 Radar 20 FPS 1.6 or FPQ 6 21 SCR 584 22 M-33 23 MPS 19 24 Mark 25 Mod. III * For example, it is common to use a radar for wind and height determination and a radiotheodolitc or other radio receiver for reception of telemetry data, such as temperature. APPENDIX 5 37 2.5 Sensors (2 digits) The various sensors will be described in the eight columns according to the fonowing code: Winds Density 00 Derived/computed 30 Derived/computed 01 Chaff 31 Densitometer 02 Parachute 32 Falling sphere 03 Falling sphere Speed of sound 04 Smoke trail 05 Aspect sensor 40 Derived/computed 41 Grenades Temperature 42 Acoustic thermometer (Sonotherm) 10 Derived/computed Ozone 11 White Sands, Gamma 12 'Vhite Sands, Deha 50 Derived/computed 13 Arcsonde 51 Ozark 14 DMQ-6 Elech'on density 15 I-Iasp Temp 60 Derived/computed 16 Pac. Miss. Range 61 WS-Two frequency beacon (Mod. I) Pl'essure Lyman a l'adiation 20 Derived/computed 70 Derived/computed 21 Hypsometer 71 WS-LAR Soude 22 Pressure gauge 2.6 Wind time interred (2 digits) The frequency of sampling by the recorders attached to the tracking equipment win be gIven in seconds. 2.7 Raob release point (2 letters, 2 digits) The direction and distance of raoh release point from point of rocket firing win he indicated to eight compass points and in whole miles, 2.8 Temperature adjustment 2.8.1 Baseline temperature adjustment (3 digits plus sign) If the rocket temperature has been adjusted to the raoh temperature, the amount of the adjust ment will be given in degrees (DC) and tenths of degrees. 2.8.2 Other temperature adjustment (1 digit) A code (yet to be developed) identifying any techniques used in temperature adjustment other than the baseline adjustment. 38 APPENDIX 5 2.9 Questionable data (2 digits) Any doubtful data will be indicated by the following code figures as appropriate: Wind Density 00 Ground equipment malfunction_ 30 Ground equipin~~t malfunction 01 Chaff dispersion 31 Flight equipment malfunction 02 Damaged parachute 32 Damaged sphere 03 Damaged sphere Speed of BOllid 04 Unfavourable optical conditions 05 Unfavourable position with respect 40 Ground equipment malfunction to double GMD baseline 41 Flight equipment malfunction Temperature Ozone 10 Ground equipment malfunction 50 Ground equipment malfunction 11 Flight equipment malfunction 51 Flight eqnipment malfunction 12 Calibra60n shift Electron density 13 Missing reference 60 Ground equipment malfunction Pressure 61 Flight equipment malfunction 20 Ground equipment malfunction Lyman a radiation 21 Flight equipment malfunction 70 Ground equipment malfunction 71 Flight equipment malfunction If more than one parmueter involves questionable data, the parameter code with the lowest numerical value will be entered in the questionable data box; the others will be entered in Remarks. The levels or layers of questionable data will be enclosed in parentheses in the appropriate data columns below. 2.10 Remarks Any special notes, peculiarities, etc. not otherwise provided for will be entered in plain language. 3. Wind data section 3.1 Time (3 digits) The time after rocket firing will be given in minutes and tenths. The standard time intervals are: (a) 0.5 minute to and including 5.0 minutes after firing; (b) 1.0 minute intervals from 5.0 through 20.0 minutes; (c) 2.0 Ininute intervals from 20.0 minutes to termination. 3.2 Altitude (4 digits) Heights will be indicated m 10's of geometric metres above mean sea level (MSL). 3.3 Component S-N wind (3 digits plus sIgn: -N, + S) Component W-E wind (3 digits plus sign: -E, +W) Components will be given in metres/sec. 3.4 Veetor wind APPENDIX 5 39 3.4.1 Direction (3 digits) Direction will be entered III whole degrees. 3.4.2 Speed (3 digits) Wind speed will be given In metres/sec. 4 . Thermodynamics section Each line selected as a significant temperature level by criteria in the current Ramnsonde Manual. 4.1 Altitude (4 digits) Heights above mean sea level (MSL) "nil be gIven In 10's of geometric metres. 4.2 Temperature (uncorrected) (3 digits plus sign) TempeN'ture (corrected) (3 digits plus sign) Temperatures will be recorded in degrees (DC) and tenths of degrees. 4.3 P"essure (5 digits) Pressure will be given in hundredths of millibar (mb) for pressures greater than 1. mb j for pressures 1 mb, or less, in thousandths of millibar (~b). 4.4 Density (5 digits) Density will be recorded In thousandths gm/m' (mg/m'). 4.5 Speed of 80und (4 digits) The speed of sound will be indicated In metres/sec. 5: Atmospheric eomposition section Each line selected as significant level by criteria which are yet to be developed. 5.1 Altitude (4 digits) Heights above mean sea level (MSL) will be gIven In 10's of geometric metres. 5.2 Ozone (3 digits) Ozone concentration will be gIven as IJ.mb. 5.3 Electron density (2 digits) 3 Electron density will be given ill E/cm . 5.4 Lyman alpha radiation (2 digits) Tenths of microwatts per cm2• 6. Rawinsonde data section A selection of standard height levels (2 km intervals) and of mandatory pressure surfaces (1.0 mh, 50 mb, 100 mb, 500 mb, 700 mb). 40 APPENDIX 5 6. 1 Pressure (4 digits) Pressure will be given 1Il millibar (mb) to the nearest tenth. 6.2 Altitude (4 digits) Heights above mean sea level will be entered in la's of geometric metres. 6.3 Component winds See paragraph 3.3 above. 6.4 Veetol' wind See paragraph 3.4 above. 6.5 Relatiee Immidity (2 digits) Relative humidity will be expressed 1Il percentage (%). 6.6 Temperature (3 digits plus sign) Temperature will be given in degrees (DC) and tenths of degrees. Refel'ences Aden, A. L., Feasibility of detecting atmospheric inpersions Booker, H. G., et ai., "Atmospheres of the solar system", by electromagnetic probing, Air Force Surveys in Geo Chap. 5 in A Review 01 Space Research, National Aca physics, No. 34, Air Force Cambridge Research Labora demy of Sciences, PuLl. 1079, ,'Vashington, D.C., 1962. tories, Bedford, Massachusetts, 1953. Borovikov, A. M., G. 1. Golyshev, and G. A. Kokin, "Some Aimworth, J. E., D. F. Fox, and H. E. LaGow, "Upper characteristics of the structure of the atmosphere of the atmosphere structure measurement made with the southern. hemisphere", CaSPAR Symposium on Rocket Pitat-Static Tube", J. Geophys. Res., 66, pp. 3191 and Satellite Meteorology, North-Holland Publishing 3212,1961. Company, Amsterdam, pp. 1640-172, 1963. aufm Kampe, H. J., and M. Lowenthal, "Review of US Bowles, K. L., and StaIT, "Equatorial electron densit.y pro meteorological rocket network activities and results", files at 5,000 km using the incoherent scatter technique", CQSPAR Symposiwn on Roc/ret and Satellite lIieteol'()logy, in Space Research III, W. Priester (ed.), North-Holland North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, PublishingCompan;y, Amsterdam, pp. 253-26<), 1963. pp. 15-33, 1963. Brewer, A. VV., and J. R. Milford, "The Oxford-Kew Ozone Bates, D. R., "The auroral spectrum and its interpretation", Sonde", Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), 256, pp. lJo70-~95, 1960. Chap. 7 in Physics 01 the uppel' atmosphere, J. A. Rat_ cliffe (ed.), Academic Press, New York and London, 19GO. Broglio, I.., "Review of Italian meteorological activities and results", CaSPAR Symposium on Rocket and Satellite Batten, E. S., "'iVind systnms in the mesosphere ancl lo·wer l'vleteoroiogy, North-Holland Publishing Company, Am ionosphere", J. iUet., 18, pp. 283-291, 1961. sterdam, pp. 940-118, 1963. Batten, E. S., "A model of the seasonal and latitudinal CInA (CaSPAR Intemationai Reference Atmosphere), variations of winds and temperatures between 30 and H. K. Kallmann-Bijl, et ai. (comp.), North-Holland 50 km", paper presented at IAMAP Upper Atmosphere Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1961. Meteorology Symposium, Berkeley, August 1963 (to be published). COESA, US Standard Atmosphere, 1962, US Government Printing Office, VVashington, D.C., 1962. Beyers, N. J., and O. 'IV. Thiele, Performance characteristics 01 .<;yslems for high altitude wind and temperature obser Craig, R. A., and M. A. Lated, "Vertical motion during the vations, Instrument Society of America, Prepl'int 170 1957 stratospheric warming", J. Geophys. Res., 67, LA-61, Los Angeles, 1961. pp. 1839-185., 1962. Bigg, E. K., "The detection of atmospheric dust and tem Crary, A. P., "Stratospheric winds and temperatures (rQln perature inversions by twilight scattering", J. lVIet., acoustical propagation studies", J. .1.Wet., 7, pp. 233-242, 13, pp. 262-268, 1956. . 1950. Blamont, J.-E., "Turbulence in the atmospheric motions Crary, A. P., "Stratospheric ",vinds and temperatures in between 90 and 130 km of altitude", Planel. Space Sci., low latitudes from acoustical propagation studies", 10, pp. 89-101, 1963. J. M"., 9, pp.93-109, 1952. Blamont., J.-E., and J.-M. Baguette, "l\Iesures deduites des Dobson, G. M. B., and D. N. Harrison, "Measurements of deformations de six TIuagcs de met.aux alcains formes pal' the amount of ozone in the earth's atmosphere and its fusees dans la haute atmosphere", Ann. de Geophys.,17, relation to geophysical condition", Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), pp. 319-337, 1961. no, p. 660, 1926. Blamont, J.-E., and C. de Jager, Ann. de Geophys., 17, Dubin, M., E. Manring, R. J. Jenkins, R. J. Levy, and p. 13<), 1(")61. N. Vif. Rosenberg, The TTapoJ' Tl'ailHxpel'imellt, CaSPAH VVorking Group II for the IQSY, Sounding Rocket Blamont, J.-E., and M. L. Lory, "New direct measurements Research Techniques, CaSPAR Secretariat, Paris, 196'-". of ionospheric temperature", CaSPAR Symposium on Rocket and Satellite 1\!leteorology, North-Holland Puhlish Diitsch, H. D., Arch. Jl..let. T¥ien (A), 9, p. 87, 1956. ing Compau,)r, Amsterdam, pp. 71-75, Amsterdam, 1963a. Dtitsch, H. U., Beill'. Phys. Almas., 1963. Dlamont, J.-E., and M. L. Lory, "l\iesure de la temperature Ebdon~ R. A., "Notes on the wind flow at 50 mb in tropical de I'atmosphere de 100 - 200 km au moyen de nuages and subtropical regions in January 1957 and January de potassium", paper presented at CaSPAR Symposium, 1958", Quat. J., Roy. M". Soc., 86, pp. 5.0-5.3, 1960. 'Varsaw, June, 1963b. Egidi, A., G. Fea, and G. Fratueello, "Misure di vento nella Blcichrodt, J. F., J. Elok, ·and R. H. Dekker, "On the bassa termosfera mediante la tecnica della nube al socHo", spring maximum of radioact.ive fallout fmm nuclear test Aui delllt Associazione Gcofisica Italiana, pp; 331~342, explosions", J. Geophys. Res., 66, .pp. 135-1402, 1961. 1961. 42 REFERENCES EHord, W. G., "A study of winds between 80 and 100 km", Grimminger, G., Analysis of pressure, iemperature, and den Planet. Space Sci., I, pp. 94-101, 1959. sity 0/ the atmosphem e:dending to extreme altitudes, The RAND Corporation, R-105, 1948. Elterman, L., "The measurement of stratospheric density distribution with the searchlight technique", J. Geophys. Groves, G. V., "High atmosphere wind studies by Skylark Res., 56, pp. 509-520, 1951. Rocket cloud releases", CaSPAR Symposium on Rocket and Satellite l\IIeteol'ology, North-Holland Publishing Epstein, E. S., C. Osterberg, and A. Adel, "A new method Company, Amsterdam, pp. 60~69, 1963. for the determination of the vertical distribution of ozone froll.a ground station", J. Aiet., 13, pp. 319-334, Harris, M. F., F. G.. Finger, and S. Teweles, "Diurnal vari 1956. ation of wind, pressure, and temperature in the tropo sphere and stratosphere over the Azores", J. Atmos. Faucher, G. A., R. W. Procunier, and C. N. Stark, Flight Sci., 19, pp. 136-149, 1962. informatl:on {md expel'imental remUs of inflatable falling sphere system for measuring ttppcr-ai,. density, GRD IIaurwitz, n., "Frictional effects and the meridional circu Research Note 63, Air Foree Cambridge Research Labora lation in the mesosphere", J. Geophys. Res., 66, pp. tories, Bedford, IVlassachusetts, August 1961. 2381-2391, 1961. Feely, H. W., "Discussion of paper by VV. F. Libby, '1\'1ora Hines, C. 0., "Internal atmospheric gravity waves at iono torium fallout and stratospheric storage' ", J. Geophys. spheric heights", Canadian J. Phys., 38, pp. 1441-1481, R"., 68, pp. 6215-6220, 1963. 1960. Finger, :1". G., and S. Teweles, "The mid-winter 1963 stra Hines, C. a., "The uppor atmosphere in motion", Qnal't. J. tospheric warming and circulation change", J. Appl. Roy. Met. Soc., 89, pp. 1-42, 1963. Met., 3, pp. 1-15, 1964. Hubert, W. E., "Rocket observations of high level meri Finger, F. G., S. Tewcles, and R. B. Mason, "Synoptic ana dional flow over North America during 1960 and 1961", lysis based on meteorological rocketsonde data", J. Mon. lVeathel' ReP., 90, pp. 259-262, 1962. Geophys. Res., 68, pp. 1377-1399, 1963. Hunten, D. M., "The airglow and auroras", Chap. 2, E. B. Fiacco, G., and L. D. Smullin, "Detection of scattering Armstrong and A. Dalgarno (eds.), Pergamon Press, layers in the upper atmosphere (60-140 km) b:>' optical London, 1960. radar", Nature, 199, pp. 1275-1276, 1963. Hunten, D. M., "Temperatures deduced from aurora and Force, C, T" "Sandia's D-A and V-A Sounding Rockets", airglow spectra", Ann. de Geophys., 17, pp. 2(~9-255, 1961. Astronautics, 6, p. 38, 1961. Jenkins, K. R., "Empirical comparisons of meteorological rocket wind sensors", J. Appt. Met., 1, pp. 196-202, Friedman, H., "The sun's ionizing radiations", Chap. 4 in Physics of the Upper Atmosphere, J. A. Ratcliffe (ed.), 1962. Academic Pross, New York, 1960. Jenkins, K. R., and VV. L. \iVcbb, "High altitude wind mea surements", J. Met., 16, pp. 511-515, 1959. Priedman, H., The molecular oxygen e:vpel'iment, COSPAR Working Group II for the IQSY, Sounding Rocket Re Johnson, C. Y., J. H. Hoffman, J. 1\'1. Young, and J. C. search Techniques, CaSPAR Secretariat, Paris, 196ft. Holmes, "A method for measLlring temperature directly in the upper atmosphere 'with a rocket-borne magnetic Funk, J. P., and G. L. Garnham, Tellus, XIV, pp. 378-382, mass spectrometer", J. Geophys. Res., 65, pp. 2996-2998, 1962. 1960. Godson, W. L., "Meteorological rocket plans - Recom Johnson, F. S., and "V. L. Webb, "The atmo.sphere and mendations for the IQSY", CaSPAR Symposiwn on near space", Astronaut. Aerospace Eng., I, pp. 81-93, Rocket and Satellite Meteorology, North-Holland Publish 1963. ing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 173-186; 1963. Johnson, N. K., "Wind measurements at 30 km", Nature, Godson, W. L., and R. Lee, "High-level fields of wind and 157, p. 24, 1946. temperature over the Canadian Arctic", Beitl'. Phys. Atmos., 31, pp. 40-68, 1958. Joint Scientific Advisory Group to the Meteorological Rocket Network, "The Meteorological Rocket Network Goody, R. 1\'1., The physics of the stratosphere, Cambridge - An analysis of the first year in operation", J. Gco University Press, 1954. phys. Res., 66, pp. 2821-2842, 1961- Goody, R. M., and W. T. Roach, Quat. J. Roy, NIet. Soc., Jones, A. Vallance, "Metallic emissions in the twilight and 82, p. 217, 1956. their bearing on atmospheric dynamics", Planet. Space Sci., 10, pp. 117-128, 1963. Greenhaw, J. S., "Eddy diffusion and its effect on meteor trails", J. Geophys. Res., 64, pp. 2208-2209, 1959. Jones, L., The falling sphere experimerU, CaSPAR Working Group II for the IQSY, Sounding Rocket Research Greenhaw, J. S., and E. L. Neufeld, "'Winds in the upper Techniques, CaSPAR Secretariat, Paris, 1964. atmosphere", Qua.rt. J. Roy..Met. Soc., 87, pp. 472-489, 1961. Jones, L. M., J. W. Peterson, E. J. Schaefer, and H. F. Schulte, '.'Upper ail' density and temperature:" Some Gregory, J. B.,"Radio wave reflections from the meso variations and an abrupt warming in the n~esosphere", sphere", J. Geophys. Res., 66, pp. 429-445, 1961. J. G,ophys. R"., 64, pp. 2331-2340, 1959. REFERENCES 43 Junge, C. E., "Studies of global exchange processes in the Labeyrie, J., and G. Lambert, Comptes Rendus, 256, p. 2664, atmosphere by natural and artificial tracers", J. Geo~ 1963. phys. Res., 68, pp. 3849--3857, 1963. LaGow, H. E., R. Horowitz, and J. Ainsworth, "Rocket Kalinovski;y, A. G., and N. Z. Pinus, Ael'ologiya, Chast'I j measurements of the Arctic upper atmosphere to 250 Metody Aerologicheslrikh Izmereniy, Gidrometeorologi km", Annals, ICY, 12, pp. 343-359, 1958. cheskaye. Izdatelstvo, Leningrad, 1961 (lVlethods of aerological measurement, Joint Publication Research Lally, V. E., and R. Leviton, Accuracy of wind determina Service, JPRS 16, 691, US Department of Commerce). tion fmm the track of a falling object, Air Force Surveys Kallrstein, M." I., "Rhodium-102 high altitude tracer experi in Geophysics, No. 93, Air Force Cambridge Research ment", Science, 137, pp. 645-652, 1962. Laboratories, Bedford, lVIassachusetts, 1958. Kallmann, H. K., "Conference on motions in the upper Lambert, G., These, Paris, 1963. atmosphere", Bull. d'Information de fUGCI, 3, pp. 297 3liO, 1954. Lenhard, R. W., Jr., "Variation of hourly winds at 35 to 65 km during one day at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida", Keegan, T. J., "Large-scale disturbances of atmospheric J. Geophys. Res., 68, pp. 227-234, 1963. circulation between 30 and 70 km in winter", J. Geo phys. Res., 67, pp. 1831-1838, 1962. Leviton, R., and J. B. Wright, Accuracy of density from the Robin Falling Sphere, GRD Research Note 73, Air Force Keegan, T. S., "The meteorological rocket network, an Cambridge Research Laboratories, Bedford, l\bssa analysis of the first year in operation", J. Ceophys. chusetts, 1961. Res., 66, pp. 2821-2842, 1961. Libby, W. F., "Moratorium fallout and stratospheric stor Kellogg, "Chemical heating above the polar meso ' Kellogg, W. W., "The upper atmosphere", Trans. Amel'. Maeda, K.,· "Auroral dissociation of molecular oxygen in 44, pp. 413-416, 1963h. Geophys. Union, the polar mesosphere", J. Geophys. Res., 68, pp.185-198, Kellogg, W. W., and G. F. Schilling, "A proposed model of 1963a. the circulation in the upper stratosphere", J. Met., 8, pp. 222-230, 1951. Maeda, K., "On the acoustic heating of the polar night mesosphere", paper presented at the American Geo Khvostikov, I. A., M. N. Izakov, G. A. Kokin, Yu. V. physical Union meeting, Boulder, Colorado, D.pcember Kurilo-ya, and N. C. Livshitz, "Investigations of the 1963b. c stratosphere by means of meteorological rockets in the USSR", COSPAR Symposium on Rocket and Satellite Maeda, Ken-ichi, "Japanese rocket sounding for meteoro Meteomlogy, North-Holland. Publishing Company, Am.,. logy", CaSPAR Symposium on Rocket and Satellite sterdarn, pp. 34-401, 1963. l'vleteol'ology, North-Holland Publishing Company, Am sterdam, pp. 86-93, 1963. Kiss, E., "Annotated bibliography on rocket meteorology", l11et. Geoastrophys. Abstracts, 11, pp. 1480-1535, .1960. IVlaeda, Ken-iehi, and K. IIiaro, "A review of upper atmo sphere rocket research in Japan", Planet. Space Sci., Kiss, E., "Annotated bibliography on upper atmosphere 9, PI'. 335-369, 1962. structure (General and 30-80 km)", Met. Geoastrophys. Abstracts, 12, pp. 776-827, 1961. Mal'ks, S. T., and E. D. Boyer, A second test of an upper Kochanski, A., "Circulation and temperatures at 70- to atmosphere gun probe system, Ballistic Research Labora 100-km height", J. Geophys. Res., 68, pp. 213-226, 1963. tories, Memo Report 14064, Aberdeen, Maryland, 1963. Kondratiev, K. Ya., Meteomlogicheski Isledwania si Po Marks, S. T., L. C. MacAllister, J. W. Gehring, H. D. Vita moshno Rakict i Sputnikov, Gidrometeorologicheskoye gliano, and B. T. Bentley, Feasibility test of an upper Izdatelstvo, Leningrad, 1962 (A'leteorological investiga atmosphel'e g[tn probe S1Jstem, Ballistic Research Labora tions with rockets and satellites, National Aeronautics and tories, Metn.o Report 1368,· Aberdeen, Maryland, 1961. Spacc Administration TT-F115). Martell, E. A., Radiochemical evidence on stratospheric Kondratiev, K. Ya., ·and O. ;Po Filipovich, Teplyy Rezhim mixing above 20 km. Paper presented at IUGG General 11erknikh Sloyev Atmos/ery, Gidrometeorologicheskoye Assembly, Berkeley, August, 1963. Izdatelstvo, Leningrad, 1960 (The thermal stale of upper atmospheric layers, National Aeronautics and Space Martyn, D. F.) and O. O. Pulley, "Constituents of the upper Administration TT F-103). atmosphere", Proc. Roy. Soc. (AJ, 154, p. 455, 1936. 44 REFERENCES Masterson, J. E., "A review of meteorological sounding Nordberg, 'V., and YV. Smith, "Grenade and sodium rocket rockets", Proceedings of the International Symposium on experiments at VVallopa Island, Virginia". CaSPAR Rockets and Astronautics, Japanese Rocket Society, Symposium on Rocket and Satellite lVletcoJ'ology, North Tokyo, 1959. Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp. 119-1340, 1963. Masterson, J.E., W. E. Hubert, and T. R. Carr, "Wind and temperature measurements in the mesosphere by meteo Nordberg, W., and "v. Smith, The grenade experiment, rological rockets", J. Geophys. Res., 66, pp. 21!i1-2151, CQSPAR Working Group II for the IQSY, Sounding 1961. Rocket Rescarch Techniques, COSPAR Secretariat, Paris, 1964. McGill University, Project HARP - Report on the first twellJf3 firings and status as of July 30, 1963, Department Nordberg, "V., and W. G. Stroud, "Results of IGY rocket of Mechanical Engineering, Report 63-5, 1963. grenade experiments to measure temperatures and winds above the Island of Guam", J. Geophys. Res., 66, II'Iegrelishvili, T. G., "The possibility of investigating aero~ pp. ,55-46" 1961. sol layers by the twilight method", Bull. Akacl. Sci., USSR., Geophys. Se!'., pp. 315-317, 1958. Pactzold, H. K., "NO"\y experimental and theoretical inves tigations on the atmospheric ozone layer", J. Atmos. Meteorological Rocket Network Committee, Initiation of Terrest. Phys., 7, pp. 128-140, 1955. the Meteorological Rocket Network, Inter-Range In strumentation Group Document 105-60, August 1961. Palmer, C. E., "The stratospheric polar vortex in wintcr", J, Geophys. Res., 64, pp. 749-76l1, 1959. Miers, B. T., and N. J. Byers, "Rocketsonde wind and Palmer, C. E., and R. C. Taylor, "The vernal breakdown of temperature measurements betwcen 30 and 70 km for the stratospheric cyclone over the South Pole", J. sclected stations", J. 16-26, 1964. Appl. ]'vIet., 3, Geophys. Res., 65, pp. 3319-3330, 1960. Mitra, S. K., The upper atmosphere, Royal Asiatic Society Palmer, C. E., and R. C. Taylor, "The Antarctic-strato of Bengal, Calcutta, 1947. spheric vortex in 1958", J. Geophys. Res., 66. 1591, 1961. Moorcraft, D. R., "On the determination of temperature Poirier, Bernard, "Rocket power ranks ahroad rapidly in and ionic composition by election backscattering from creasing", Missiles and rockets, 9, pp. 48-50, August 7, the ionosphere and mesosphere", J. Geophys. Res., 69, 1961. 955-970, 196,. Quiroz, R. S. "Seasonal and latitudinal variations or ail' Morris, J. E. and B. T. Miers, "Circulation disturbances density in the mesosphere {30 to 80 km)", J. Geophys. between 25 and 70 kilometers associated with the sud Res., 66, pp. 2129-2139, 1961a. den warming of 1963", J. Geophys. Res., 69, pp. 201 21'10, 1964. Quiroz, R. S., Ail' density profiles for the atmosphere between 30 and 80 km, Air Weather Service Technical Rcport Moscow University, ed., "Atmospheric ozone" (in Russian), 150, 1961b. 1961. Quiroz, R. S., J. K. Lambert, and J. A. Dutton, Upper Mulyarchik, T. Iv!., and P. V. Shchleglov, "Temperature stratosphere density und tempe1'ahLre fJariability detel'lnined and corpuscular heaLing in the auroral zone", Planet. from meteorological J'ocket network results, 1960-1962, Spa" Sci., 10, pp. 215-218, 1963. Ail' Weather Service Technical Rcport 175, 1963. Murgatroyd, R. J., "'Vinds and temperatures between 20 Rama, Atmospheric circulation from ohservations of na and 100 Ian", Q[tart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 83, pp. 417-458, tural radioactivity, J. Geophys. Res., 68, 3861-3866, 1957. 1963. Murgatroyd, R. J., and C. -J. B-. Clews, Geophys. Mem. Met. Ramanathan, K. R., XIII Genel'al Assembly If/GG, Berke Off. (UK) No. 83, 1%9. ley, Paper No. C-II-24, 1963. Murgatroyd, R. J., and R. M. Goody, "Sources and sinks of Rapp, R. R., "The accuracy of winds derived hy the tadar radiative energy from 30 to 90 km", Quurt. J. Roy. litlet. tracking of cliaff at high altitudes", J. l11et., 17, Soc., 84, pp. 225-33" 1958. . pp. 507-511" 1960. Newell, H. E., "The upper atmosphere studied by rockets Ratcliffe, J. A., and K. V\'eekes, "The ionosphere", Chap. 9 and satellites", Chap. 3 in Physics of the upper atmosphere, in Physics of the upper atmosphere, J. A. Ratcliffe (ed.), J. A. Ratcliffe (ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1960. Academic Press, New York, 1960. Newell, R. E., "Preliminary study of quasi-horizontal eddy Reed, R. J., YY. J. Campbell, L. A. Rasmussen, and D. G. fluxes from meteorological rocket network data", J. Rogers, "Evidence of a downward-propagating anllual Atmos. Sci., 20, pp. 213-225, 1963. wind reversal in the equatorial stratosphere", J. Geo phys. Res., 66, pp. 813:"'818, 1961. Nordberg, W., "Rocket soundings in the mesosphere", to appear in Astronaut. Aerospace Eng" 1964. Robinsoll, E., New meteorological sensors to 150,000 ft, Phase II: Anulysis, Stanford Research Institute, Final Nordberg; "V., W. tJ.. Bamleen, and G. Warne~ke, Global Report, -Contract DA-36-039-SC-87296, 1962. analysis of stratospheric tempel'atq.re patterns based on radiometric measurements from the TIROS VII satel Rosenberg, N. "V" "Chemical releases in the upper atmo lite.Paper presented to COSPAR Symposium, Florence, sphere _(Pl'oj-ect Firefly), a summary report", J. Geo . May 196,. phys. Res., 68, pp. 3057-3064, 1963.· REFERENCES 45 Rosenberg, N. W., and H. D. Edwards, "Ionospheric wind Teweles, S., Communication procedures and meteorological patterns through the night"; paper presented at cas criteria fol' stratospheric warming alerts, draft document, PAR, 'Varsaw, June, 1963. US Weather Bureau, November 1963. Rosenberg, N. 'V., H. D.-Edwards, and J. '~', "'right, "Iono Teweles, S., and F. ·G. Finger, "Synoptic studies based on s-pheric- winds:- :Motions into night arid sp"oradic E rocketsonde data", -CQSPAR .Symposium on -Rocket .and correlations", J. Geophys. Res.-,1964 (to be published). Scttellite Nleteol'ology, North-Holland Pu.blishing Com pany, Amsterdam, pp. 135-153, 1963. Rosenberg, N. 'V., D. Golomb, and E. F. Allen, Jr., "Chemi luminescent techniques for stud)Ting night-time wincIs in Toth, J., Dber die Temperatur in del' Stratosphare und the upper atmosphere", J. Geophys. Res., 68, pp. 3328 Mesosphare", lWet. Rundschctl~, 16, pp. 16-19, 1963. 3330, 1963. Tmgeon, E. C. and G. G. Shepherd, Upper atmospheric Scherhag, R., "Die explosionsartigen Stratospharenerwar temperatures from Doppler line widths, Planet. Space ungen des Sp~itwinters 1951/52", Bel'. Deltt. l'Vetlel' Sci., 9, 295-304, 1962. 51~63, clienstes, 6, pp. 1952. US Standard Atmosphere, 1962, US Government Printing Scherhag, Richard, "Stratospheric temperature changes Office, W'ashington, D.C., 1962. and the associated changes in pressure distribution", Vigroux, E., Ann. Geophys., 15, p. 516, 1959. J. Met., 17, pp. 575-582, 1960. Volz, F. K, and R. M, Goody, "The intensity of the t-wilight Scherhag, R., and G. Warnecke (eds.), Proceedings of the and upper atmospheric dust", J. Atmos. Sci., 19, International Symposium on Stratospheric and Meso pp. 385-l,06, '1962. spheric Circulation (Freien Universitat Berlin, August 1962), Verlag von Dietrich Reimer, Berlin, 1963. 'Wagner, N. K., "Theoretical time constant and radiation error of a rocketsonde thermistor", J. Met., 18, Sheppard, P. A., Atmospheric tracers and the study of the pp. 606~614, 1961. general circulation of the atmosphere, Reports on Pro gress in Ph;ysics, Vol. 26, pp. 213~267, Institute of '''-'agner, N. K., Theoreticctl ctCCU1'aC1J of the meteorological Physics and Physical Societ)', London, 1963. rocketsonde thermistor, Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory, University of Texas, Report 7~23, 1963. Shvidkovsky, E. G., "Certain results of measurements of thermodynamic parameters of the stratosphere with the 'Valshaw, C. D., and R. 1\'1. Goody, Quat. J. Roy. Met. Soc., aid of meteorological rockets", Annals, IGY, 12, 82, p. 177, 1956. pp. 337-302, 1958. Warfield, C. N., Tentative tables for the propel,ties of the Smith, L. B., "The measurement of winds between 100,000 upper atmosphere, National Aeronautics and Space and 300,000 ft by use of chaff rockets", J. 1\1et., 17, Administration, Technical Note 1200, 1947. pp. 296-310, 1960. "V'ilarnecke, G., lJber den Tcmporaturverlauf in del' Stra Smith, L. B., "Monthly wind measurements in the meso tosphal'e del' beiden Polargebiete, Polarforschung, V decline over a one-year period", J. Geophys. Res., 67, (Jahrgang 32, 1962, Heft 1/2), '1963. pp. 4653-4672, 1962. '''-'arnecke, G., and W. Nordberg, Inferences of strato Staley, D. 0., "On the mechanism of mass and radioactivity spheric and mosospheric circulation systems from rocket transport from stratosphere to troposphere", J. Atnws. experiments, Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, Sci., 19, pp. 450-467, 1962. X-651-64-22. 1964. Staley, D. 0., "A partial theory of the 26-month oscillation 'Webb, VV. L., and K. R. Jenkins, "Application of meteoro of the zonal wind in the equatorial stratosphcre", J. logical rocket systems", J. Geophys. Res., 64, pp. 1855 Atmos. Sci., 20, pp. 506-515, 19G3. 1861, '1959. vVebb, "'. L., VV. 1. Christensen, E. P. Varner, and J. F. Storebo, Per B., "The exchange of ail' between stratosphere Spurlillg, "Inter-range instrumcntation group participa 547~554, and troposphere", J. Met., 17, pp. 1960. tion in the mcteorologieal rocket network", Bull. Amer. Strong, J., On a new method of measuring the mean height Met. Soc., 13, pp. 640-61,[-9, 1962. of the ozone in the atmosphere, J. Franklin Inst. Phila vVebb, W, L., Vol. E. Hubert, R. L. lI'Iiller, and J. F. Spur delphia, 231, 121, 1941. ling, "The first meteorological rocket network", Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 42, pp. 482-494, 1961. Stroud, W. G., and V\'. Nordberg, Seasonal, latitudinal and diurnal pariations in tlw ltpper atmosphere, National Aero ''Vexler, H., "Some aspects of stratospheric and mesospheric nautics and Space Administration, Technical Note temperature and wind patterns", in Space Research II, D-703, 1961. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1961. Stroud, W. G., VV. Nordberg, 'V. R. 13andcen, F. L. Bartman, Wexler, II" and VV. B. Moreland, "''Vinds and temperatures and P. TiLus, "Rocket-grenade measurements of tem in the Arctic stratosphere", Polar Atmosphere Sympo peratures and winds in the mesosphere over Churchill, silun, Part I, Pergamon Press, 1958. Canada", J. Geophys. Res., 65, pp. 2307-2324, 1960. Wilckens, F., Bibliographe iiber Raketenmessverfahren in der Teweles, S., ":McLCOl'ological anal)Tsis of Chmchill rocket Stmtosphiil'e und lvlesosphiil'e, Bericht 11, Flugwissen sounding data", Amel·. Rocket Soc. J. 31, pp. 841~844, schaftIichc Forschungsanstalt c.V. Munchen (FFM), '1961. 196'1. 46 REFERENCES ·Wilkins, E. M., "Decay rates of turbulent energy through Young, C., and E. S. Epstein, "Atomic oxygen in the polar out the atmosphere", J. Atmos. Sci., 20, pp. 473-476, winter mesosphere", J. AtmQs. Sci., 19, pp. 435-443, 1963. 1962. ';VMO /UNSCEAR Symposium on Radioactivity in the Zimmermann, S. P., and K. S. W. Champion, "Transport Atmosphere..Geneva, February 1964. (To be published processes in the upper atmosphere". J. Geophys. Res., as WMO Tech. Note). 68, pp. 30.9-3056, 1963. WMO TECHNICAL NOTES Price • No. 1 Artificial inducement of precipitation...... Sw·fr. 1.- "No.2 Methods of observation at sea Part I: Sea smface temperature ...... •. SWofr. 1.- Part II: Air temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloud height, wind, rainfall and visibility. Sw·fr· 1.- * No. 3 MeteOl'ological aspects of aircraft icing...... Sw·fr. 1.- "'No. 4 Energy from the wind ...... 0••0••••••••• Sw·fr.l0.- ll: No. 5 Diverses experiences de comparaison de radiosondes. Dr. L. M. Malet 1.- * No. 6 Diagrammes aerologiques. Dr. P. Defrise . I Sw·fr. * No. 7 Reduction of atmospheric pressul'e (Preliminary report on problems involved) Sw·fr. 3.- * No. 8 Atmospheric radiation (Current investigations and problems). Dr. W. L. Godson •...•...... •...... Sw·fr. 1.- "No.9 Tropical circulation patterns. Dr. H. Flohn...... } No. 10 The forecasting from weather data of potato blight and other plant diseases and pests. P. M. Alllltin Bourke ..•.•..•...... No. 11 The standardization of the measurement of evaporation as a climatic factor. Sw·fr. 2.- G. W. Robertson...... } " No. 12 Atmospherics techniques ...... Sw·fr. 3.- "No. 13 Artificial control of clouds and hydl'ometeors. L. Dufour - Ferguson Hall F. H. Lndlam - E. J. Smith ...... Sw·fr. 3.- "No. 14 Homogeneite du reseau europeen de radiosondages. J. Lugeon - P. Ackermann "No.15 The relative accuracy of rawins and contour~measured winds in relation to performance criteria. W. L. Godson . Sw·fr. 4.- "No.16 Superadiabatic lapse rate in the upper air. W. L. Godson .. } No. 17 Notes on the problems of cargo ventilation•.W. F. McDonald. Sw·fr. 3.- No. 18 Aviation aspects of mountain waves. M. A. Alaka...... Sw·fr. 7.- "No. 19 Observational characteristics of the jet stream (A sw"vey of the literature). R. Berggren - W. J. Gibbs - C. W. Newton ...... Sw·fr. 9.- No. 20 The climatological investigation of soil temperature. Milton L. Blanc ... No. 21 Measurement of evaporation, humidity in the biosphere and soil moisture. Sw·fr. 5.- N. E. Rider . } "No. 22 PrepID"ing climatic data for the user. H. E. Landsberg ..•.••... Sw·fr. 4.- No. 23 Meteorology as applied to the navigation of ships. C. E. N. Frankcom - M. Rodewald - J. J. Schule - N. A. Lieurance...... •...... Sw·fr. 4.- No. 24 Turbulent diffusion in the atmosphere. C. H. B. Priestley - R. A. McCormick - F. Pasquill ...... Sw·fr. 7.- No. 25 Design of hydrological networks. Max A. Kohler ...... • No. 26 Techniques for sm'veying surface~water resources. Ray K. Linsley .... I Sw·fr. 4.- No. 27 Use of groWld-based I'adar in meteorology (Excluding upper~.vind measure ments). J. P. Henderson - R. Lhermitte - A. Perlat - V. D. Rackney - N. P. Sellick - R. P. Jones. .. 0•00••••0••0•••0•••••• Sw·fr. 9.- No. 28 Seasonal peculiarities of the temperature and atmospheric circulation l'egimes in the Arctic and Antarctic. Professor H. P. Pogosjan ...•...... Sw·fr. 3.- No. 29 Upper~air network requirements for numerical weather prediction. A. Eliassen - J. S. Sawyer - J. Smagorinsky ...... 0•••••••••••• No. 30 Rapport. preliminaire du Groupe de travail de la Commission de meteorologic synoptique sur les reseaux. J. BessemouIin, president - H. M. De Jong - W. J. A. Sw·fr.14.- Kuipers - O. Lonnqvist - A. Megenine - R. Pone - P. D. Thompson - J. D. Torrance ..•...... •....•.....•.... No.31 Representations graphiques en meteorologie. P. Defl'isc - H. Flohn - W. L. I Godson - R. Pone ..•...... Sw·fr. 3.- No.32 Meteol'ological service for aircraft employed in agl'iculture and forestry. P.l\L Austin BOUl"kc - H. T. Ashton - M. A. Huberman - O. B. Lean - W. J. Maan- A. H. Nagle 0 •••••••••••••••• 0 • Sw·fr. 3.- * Out of print No. 33 Meteorological aspects of the peaceful uses of atomic energy. Part I- Meteoro logical aspects of the safety and location of I'eaetor plants. P. J. Meade•. Sw·fr. 5.- No. 34 The airflow over mountains. P. Queney - G. A. Corby - N. Gerbier H. K08chmieder - J. Zierep •...... •..•. Sw·fr.22.- • No. 35 Techniques for high-level analysis and forecasting of wind- and temperatlU'6 fields (English edition) ...... Sw·fr. 8.- No. 35 Techniques d'analyse et de prevision des champs de vent et de temperature a haute altitude (edition franc;aise) ...... •...... Sw·fr. 8.- No. 36 Ozone observations and their meteorological applications. H. Taba Sw·fr. 5.- No. 37 Aviation hail problem. Donald S. Foster ...... Turbulence in clear air and in cloud. Joseph Cladman...... No. 38 Sw·fr. 8.- No. 39 Ice fOl'mation on aircraft. R. F. Jones ...... • No. 40 Occurrence and forecasting of Cirrostratus clouds. HeI"bert S. Appleman. } No. 41 Climatic aspects ofthe possible establishment ofthe Japanese beetle in Europe. P. Austin Bourke ...... '...... Sw·fr. 6.- No. 42 Forecasting for forest fire services. J. A. Turner - J. W. Lillywhite - Z. Pidlak } No. 43 Meteorological factors influencing the u"anspOl"t and removal of radioactive dehris. Edited hy D,·. W. Bleeker ...... Sw·fr. 8.- No. 44 Numerical methods of weather analysis and forecasting. B. Bolin - E. M. Dobrishman - K. Hinkelmann - K. Knighting - P. D. Thompson Sw·fr. 4.- No. 45 Performance requirements of aerological instruments. J. S. Sawyer ..•. Sw·fr. 4.- No. 46 Methods offorecasting the state of sea on the basis of meteorological data. J. J. Sehule - K. Terada - H. Walden - G. Verploegh...... 6.- No. 47 Precipitation measurements at sea. Review of the pI'esent state of the problem Sw·fr. prepared by a working group of the Commission for Maritime MeteOl'ology. } No. 48 The present status of long-range forecasting in the world. J. M. Craddock - H. Flohn - J. Namias...... Sw·fr. 4.- No. 49 Reduction and use of data obtained by TIROS meteorological satellites. (Pre pared by the National Weather Satellite Center of the U. S. Weather Bm'eau) Sw·fr. 6.- No. 50 The problem of the professional training of meteorological personnel of all grades in the less-developed countries. J. Van Mieghem ....•..•. Sw·fr. 4.- No. 50 Le probleme de Ia formation professionnelle du personnel meteorologique de tous grades dans les pays insuffisamment developpes. J. Van Mieghem Sw·fr· 4.- No. 51 Protection against frost damage. M. L. Blanc - H. Geslin - I. A. Holzherg B. Mason . Sw·fr. 6.- No. 52 Automatic weather stations. H. Treussart - C. A. Kettering - M. Sanuki S. P. Venkiteshwaran - A. Mani ...... •...... •. Sw·fr. 3.- No. 52 Stations meteorologiques automatiques. H. Treussart - C. A. Kettering M. Sanuki - S. P. Venkiteshwaran - A. Mani . Sw·fr. 3.- No. 53 The effect of weather and climate upon the keeping quality of fruit ... Sw·fr. 8.- No. 54 Meteorology and the migration of Desert Locusts. R.C. Rainey ..... Sw·fr.25.- No. 55 The influence of weather conditions onthe occurrence of apple scab. J. J. Post - C. C. Allison - H. Burekhardt - T. F. Preeee ...... Sw·fr. 5.- No. 56 A study of agroclimatology in semi~arid and arid zones of the Near East. G. Perrin de Brichambaut and C. C. Wallen ...... • Sw·fr. 6.- No. 56 Une etude d'agroclimatologie dans les zones arides et semi~arides du ProcheM Orient. G. Perrin de BI'ichambaut et C. C. Wallen ...... Sw·fr. 6.- No. 57 Utilization of aircI'aft meteorological reports. P. K. Rohan H. M. de Jong S.N. Sen· S. Simplieio . Sw·fr· 4.- No. 58 Tidal phenomena in the upper atmosphere. B. Ham'witz ....•..•. Sw·fr. 3.- No. 59 WindbI'eaks and shelterbelts. J. van Eimern, R. Karschon, L. A. Razumova, G. W. Robertson ...... ••. Sw·fr.10.- ... Out of print