PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: A LOOK AT THE CONTRIBUTIONSS OF , MELANIE KLEIN, ERIK H. ERIKSON, SUSAN ISAACS, BRUNO BETTELEHEIM, ~~C.M. FRIJLING-SCHREUDER AND ~UlRGARET RIBBLE

BY

Ann V. Dean

---_._---III. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHODYN~~IC THEORY and choice of methods and IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION strategies. In a sense, they are channels through Particular theoretical beliefs have in the which to navigate toward past led to particular educational practices. the selected educational One of the major forces is --the goals. 1 psychoanalytic--made a penetrating impact on knowledge of child development and A psychodynamic theory may serve as a frame' child behavior. work for "••• consistency with a specific theoretical perspective rather than The psychoanalytic theory sterruning from the spec.ification by a particular theory.il2 work of (1856-1939) saw the individual as governed by irrational In this paper I will examine the implica­ impulses as she/he passed through a series tions of psychodynamic theory for teaching of psychosexual stages (Cowles, 1976). and learning in early childhood education. These stages were: The individual pioneering efforts of Anna Freud and Melanie Klein in understand­ . the oral period ing childhood neurosis and ill developing the anal period child analysis and " therapylf will be . the phallic or oedipal period described and compared. Anna Freud's f-\':e la.tency period strong early convictions of the need for a psychoanalytic pedagogy and later dis­ HO'., ., c.dId passed through these stages illusionment will be discussed. Basic dete). ined to a large degree how healthy psychoanalytic terms such as lithe uncon­ or unhealthy an adult he became. Freudian scious." "Id, Ego, Superego," "trans­ theory emphasized unconscious motivation, ference" etc. will be broadly defined to the beginnings of sexual development, the illuminate early psychoanalytic theory. A inevitable conflicts between social psychohistorical perspective on initial expectations and spontaneous behavior attempts to create a psychoanalytic pedagogy and the impact of emotions on behavior. in Europe will be synthesized and current pre-school developmental programs in North In the 1920's there was an attempt to America described, programs which draw create psychoanalytic pedagogy utilizing from psychodynamic theory. The theories theory from Freudian child-analysis. of Eric H. Erikson, Susan Isaacs, Psychodynamic. theory was to be translated Bruno Bettelheim, E. C.1-1. Frij ling·-Schreuder, directly into educational goals and and Margaret Ribble will be presented. practices. But as Biber (1977) points out: In conclusion some criticisms of the psychodynamic theories' impact on education ... psychological theories do not will be aired. of therc elves specify what the immediate or ultimate Psychodynamic learning theory is based on purposes of education sh.all the premise that not all learning or be. They do have an important motivation is conscious. screening influence on curriculum building in its Traditional conceptions of broadest sense as well as on how human beings think and decisions about priorities learn have started from a of experimental content natural but incorrect and

34 misleading assumption that The child who has faith in we think and learn himself believes in consciously. This is not himself. He has convic­ true. Conscious pro­ tions which are an cesses are important integral part of him. He not for thinking but makes decisions for for sampling, checking, himself and carries them reality testing, out. He expresses correcting, ruminating, himself freely and fully and cOIT@unicating. and does not fear that he Even the intake of bits will be condemned for his of information, TJ1hether feelings or his beliefs. from the source or from The child who feels faith the outer world, is knows what he wants to do, predominantly pre­ wha.t he can do. and ,,'hat conscious. It he will do. He trusts his consists largely of m'ln feelings. 4 an incessant subliminal bombardment which goes To look more clearly at the roots of OIL unc.easin.gly -\~hether psychodynamic theory one must become we are aVJake or acquainted vlith its language. Although the asleep .•. But 'whether use of the terminology of psychoanalytic the input is largely theory has been fairly popularized since the from distance and turn of the century, the follOWing terms surface receptors (as broadly defined in a rough-and-ready fashion in the normal "laking by Nancy Proctor-Gregg. translator or

state) or predominantly Anna Freud i s The Psych~ana~yti~[:..!:ea.!=me..E~~~.~f. iraTI1 t'v'ithi:n. tIle body ~~hi)_drenj; \0"111 serve as explana.tioIlS which (as in sleep), the may make future references in th:Ls paper IIlaj or in.pu. t is alvlays to psychoanalytic theory more intelligible. subliminal", The con- scious component is "The unconscious" - the highly never more than a active self within us of which fragment of the total we are not directly aware. input. This neglected (Some of its activities are but psychophysiological revealed in dreaming or in fact is of major particular aljlTal<.ened states .. ) significance and is relevant to all "Repression" - the process educational processes. 3 applied to impulses, notions, etc" uH'welcome to our Although the psychoanalytic position does conscious selves, which we not deal directly with classroom teaching mean to~ but cannot discard; and learning, it can be useful, as a repression throws them into theory of behavior, in deepening our the unconscious--making understanding of the unconscious the material unconscious. motivati.ons of all children, their needs, There is no conscious the particular needs of "disturbed" memory of this process. children and our awareness of the role of adults in the children's development. "Id, Ego, Super-ego" - the unconscious, the conscious The nc:h.ild--ceD.tered H focus I:t\'hic.h resulted arld the nco~lsc.iencen fror;l the psyellodyriaInic positiorl in Early functions of self - (internal Childhood Education is not mainly concerned judge of self created from with techniques and skills but rather with internalized requirements tn.e 'ki11d of relationship W11ic}1 enables and ideals to which the children to grow emotionally and to gEin self at some period has faith in themselves as feeling individuals. given allegiance; usually

35 parents--whether consciously From 1920-1930 llpsychoanalytic pedagogyll or child's imagination.) thrived among the continental psychoanaly­ tic community. "" - an emotional attitude assumed Freud vlritES in ~n Autobiograp0-ical Study by client, under the that although he had little to do with the direction of unconscious direct application of to in analysis towards education, B ••• analytic discoveries about analyst; a projected the sexual life and mental development of overlay created by one children should attract the attention of person towards another educators and make them see their problems person of importance in in a new light. 117 her/his life .. In Freud's fundamental book on child "Latency period" - a time developmen~ Three Essays On the Theory of usually beginning about Sexuality, his theories of infantile the fifth year of a sexuality, developmental stages and signifi­ child's life and lasting cance of early childhood experiences lay until puberty; the child's the groundwork for the psychoanalytic highly active and highly pedagogy of early childhood. varied sexual impulses become largely latent; Although Freud was cautious about making the supplying them direct proposals regarding education before is to a great extend sufficient research had been done to diverted. understand the child, his work of the analysiE of a c.hild--"A Phobia in a Five Year Old Boy,' "" - a way the famous little Hans case, confirms Freud's of denoting the whole set speculations regarding !l... the i.mportance of feelings attached to of early childhood, the existence of infan-· the natural impulses of tile sexuality, the role of the parents in all children to crave for the aetiology of neurosis, and the the::a­ "'.xelusive love, usually peutie effects of sexual enlightment. 118 from a parent of the Oppl'~te sex. Freud felt his findings on the impo1:tance of human and the need for conserving "Analysis" - a treatment rather than supressing the instinctual to alleviate symptoms and deserved to be regarded by educators as an enable the mitigation of invaluable guide in their conduct toward the impact of the superego, children. On the question of what sort of thereby lessening anxiety early education was best, harsh or lenient associated with instinctual Freud wavered. His main thrust was education forces, and freeing the that called upon the findings of psycho­ individual so that psychic analysis in order to understand development energy flows freely. and avoid neurosis. "'W:.iatever 1;\fe can expect in the way of prophylaxis against neurosis The following description of the historical in the individual lies in the hands of a connection between psychoanalysis and psychoanalytically enlightened education,,,g education will serve as an introduction to Freud said. the later contributions of particular psychoanalysts in educating the young With the emergence of a branch of applied child, and in understanding psychodyna­ psychoanalysis--child analysis--the fusion of mically-based child development theory. psychoanalysis and education occu.rred. Child analysis served as a bridge between the two. In 1905 Sigmund Freud and his early circle "Teachers, most of them women, most of theIn were fascinated by the meliorative potential originally kindergarten, nursery, elementary, of a new education informed by psychoanalysis. or high school teachers, became the first what Freud called "the princely education child analysts. 1,10 Anna Freud in ce.ntral along psychoanalytic li11.e3." 6 Europe and Helanie Klein in London ,,;Jere

36 important figures in establishing the role forces. Jl By on the inter­ of child analysis. Anna Freud subsequently actions between Supergo and Id, a stronger attempted to combine psychoanalysis and Ego will emerge as a natural consequence, education into a psychoanalytic pedagogy thus facilitating the child's natural line which, by preventing neurosis might do of growth at every stage of development." 13 away with the need for analysis. In Her prescription of child analysis pertains 1927 she declared "Child analysis furnishes to all children who could benefit from a transition to a sphere of application working through unconscious material as it which, as many think, should in the arises and is most accessible to the child's future be one of the most important for consciousness. She believes analysis will psychoanalysis: to pedagogics, or the provide individual children with optimal science for upbringing and education. Jlll chances for future healthy adjustment. Hence her theories may offer help to anyone The role of the teacher was clear: the working with children, especially those in psychoanalytic educator focuses upon close daily contact such as educators. th\varting direct instinctual gratifica­ tions and promoting the ability to delay In the following chart (See Appendix A) and rechannel gratifications. Diver­ Anna Freud's psychoanalytic theories are sionary tactics are used: for example, compared and contrasted with those of Anna Freud's suggestion of sand and Melanie Klein as to which children can water playas a substitute for play with benefit from psychoanalysis, how to proceed, feces and urine and the use of paint and to what extent environment should be in­ chalk as a substitute for impulse behavior. volved, and the specific use of psycho­ She also suggested playas an opportunity analytic therapeutic tools. It is from for pleasure in achievement, task completion these basic premises that future educational and independent problem solving. goals and practices were influenced.

The ingenious discoveries of child develop­ Lecturers, courses, seminars and training ment phenomena by Sigmund Freud and his programs in psychoanalytic pedagogy were classical psychoanalytic model necessitate started between 1926-1931. In 1928 modifications and adptations to suit the Sigmund Freud wrote of the application of unique needs and unconscious of the child psychoanalysis to the education of young as his model was postulated restrospect­ children in Th~ Question of Lady Analysis. ively through adult analysis. Psychoanalyst Rudolf Elkstein, a former Viennese teacher labelled the new education­ Both Anna Freud and Melanie Klein "progressive education." succeeded in developing such modified and adapted theory and technique in child The handful of experimental schools employ­ psychoanalysis. ing psychoanalytic pedagogy included Kinderheim Baumgarten, a co-educatiol~l Anna Freud's notion of child analysis is residential school for jewish refugee the" maintenance of unimpeded flow children which was run by Siegfried Bernfeld of energy between the three psychic domains, Anna Freud called the school Ita first such that there is no permanent blockage experiment to apply psychoanalytic principle which will lead to the type of pathology to education. Jl14 evidenced in adulthood."12 Her pre­ scription of child analysis pertains to Bernfeld was concerned with the children's children where it is fairly certain maximum psychological development and tri~d that blocked psychic energy may lead to to help the children through a permissive permanent developmental damage and milieu. The experiment lasted nine months thereby her theories are suitable for "disturbed" children in the main. "In 1927, Anna Freud, along "lith her good friend and sister, child analyst Dorothy Melanie Klein's notion of child analysis Burlingham, collaborated in the establish­ corresponds closely to classical ment of a school for children."lS Freudian analysis. Her aim is to lessen and his wife Joan were among the impact of the Supergo thereby lessening the teachers. Erikson's biographer, the anxiety associated with instinctual Robert Coles described the school. The

37 children helped plan the day's activities College of Education and chose the subject matter Science, program, draw in varying history, geography, english, poetry, degrees from Erikson's drmdng and painting ':Jere part of the theory in the construc­ curriculum. There were no grades. tion of learning T~e children were treated as climates conducive to iTl.di\TidualsQ It ,,'las a nprogressive!i healthv emotional sc.hoolo development. 16

Erik H. Erikson's extensions and elaboia­ Looking back again to the 1920s experi­ tions of Freud's theory are considered ments in psychoanalytically-based schools important in contributing to education a were ~lso attempted in Russia and Eng~dnd. greater appreciation of differences, (The Moscow Children's Home and especially in terms of unconscious Psychological Laboratory; Summerhill). motivations. Teachers are also offered "Permissive" schools in the U.S.A. drew an avenue of increased seU':-awa:ceness from psychoanalytic theory by developing and growth necessary for most effective goals which included prevention of teaching. neurosis, i.e. "mental hygiene" or P ~~[nental health ... Of the eigb.t stages of th,e .b.um,clD. life described by Erikson. the first three By the late 19308 psychoanalysts were most directly to early childhood education: disillusioned with original goals of trust \180 ill.istrust; autonomy '.TS", shame fLD.cI psyc.hoanalytic pedagogy. Many children i-lho doubt; and initiative vS o guilt, had experienced the experimental schools developed personality problems~ich re­ Erikson focuses on the relationships quired analysis. Anna Freud declared lithe between the child and her/his milieu. and hope of extirpating neurosis from lluman °~ 7 1 0 emphasizes specific external social demands ~lIe lS .c'Louna ~ •. to b e 101"lusory~ 111 . upon the child as influencing her/his development. Erikson's first three stages In 1937 at the "Four Countries Conference" are critical periods in which the child's in Budapest Anna Freud summed up the long healthy, adaptive resolution of the history of trial and errors. "After years crisis of each stage determines to 1iihat of intensive work by some of the best extent he later possesses a sense of psychoanalytic research workers. we are basic trust, is autonomous, and has certain only thaL there still exists no initiative. The degree to which the practlcabo '01 e psychi·oana ytlC peaagogy.J ,,18~ child fails to make a healthy crisis The struggle to specify immediate and resolution determines to "iflhat extent he ultimate purposes of early childhood later feels a sense of basic distrust, l3 2ducation from psychological tbeory ended. ashamed and doubtful in his relation­ Instead psychological theory became a ships, and is handicapped by guilt. screening influence on education.

The major implication of Erikson's work is that teachers must provide an emotional An example of more recent contributions of environment in which children engage in psychodynamic. theory to early childhood both anxiety-producing and pleasnre­ programs is found in the philosophy of the producing experiences. To learn to cope Bank Street College of Education in Nei-l with life a child must face anxiety­ York City. Psychodynamic theory is one of producing experiences but successful, the two lines of psychological theory (the pleasurable experiences are also other being cognitive learning theories) necessary for healthy growth. behind their developmental rationale.

The proponents of three Both theories aim toward opt:tmal human types of child develop­ functioning and are aware of the interaction ment programs, the between cognitive and emotional functions traditional nursery although each places relative emphasis on schools's Head Start the emotional or cognitive aspects of and the Bank Street '·'development.

38 Four major processes of the setting the stage for dramatic developmental sequence play which are presented as the framework for specifying freedom to go beyond the restraints educational goals and of reality in rehearsing and teaching strategies ­ representing experience. comlJetence, individual­ ity. socialization, .j n 5. To help the child internalize impulse and integration.l~ cOTltrol:

Teaching strategies for preschool education COTIlIIlUntcating a clear set of concern teacher-child relationship, curricuhxITt non-threatening controls content and instructional principles. and (limits, rules. regulations) motivation.

cre3 c1 fUT1.ctioIl.ing adult Specific program activites relate learn- authority role, ing exper:Lences to program goals. 20 Eibel-, Shapiro and Wickens (1971) define these goals: 6. To meet the childis needs to cope with conflicts intrinsic to this stage of 1. To serve the child's need to make an de'le.lopTIlerlt: impact on the environment through direct physical contact: dealing with conflict over possession displaced from the exploring the physical world family scene (equipment, space, physical protection) alleviating conflict over separa­ tion related to loss of familiar C011structive j' mani.pulati"Tle (~ontext of place and peopl.e activities with things like b loclcs., clay:- sand:) T!lood .. acce.ptin,g

observation of functioning creating supportive adult role environment outside the school (source of comfort, troubleshooter, solver of unknmms, invested in discussion of contemporary child learning) eve-nts ;;qhich c-hildren h.ear about"

4. To support the play mode of incorporating establis models of human inter- experience: cha.nge which value individua}ity ~

39 These principles are feeling--fondling, caressing, and singing statements concerning the or speaking to a young child elicit awareness child's course of develop­ and trust, which Ribble advocated when she ment and the important defended a child's need for a mothering influences on the child experience to enable the child to grow during his or her develop­ mentally and physically. She believed the ment and they represent psychological role of the mothe~ and the a selective integration of father is vital in helping the newborn's principles of psychodynamic nervous system to mature and to give her/his ana"Jaeve .opmenta_"]..?theor12s.--1 brain time to develop without stress. The p:rimitive biological activities of the In terms of the physical organization of young--breathing, sucking, crying, sleeping. Bank Street School's preschool classrooms elimix.tati.ng...·~-,wllic.rl are fi.rmly'" liD.ked to "the overall aim is to create the atmosphere TIv'l,tal life. of a Ivorkshop., and enjoyable cOII,munity '07ith an admixture of structure and openness of These li.nks between \y'hat is spontaneity and control that serves learn-­ somatic and psychic have ing and facilitates gratifying, productive never been made sufficiently social living."22 d.ear. The inner needs and tensions due to the The philosophy, goals and enVlronment of the grm.vth of the brain and school reflect psychological theory which nervous system in infancy combines cognitive and affective functions. are poorly understood, and the beginnings of Susan Isaacs, Bruno Bettelheim. and the emotional reactions E. C. H. Frij ling--Schreuder have also COD­ and of the thinking tributed richly to child-developm~nt theory. process have never been The following chart briefly synthesizes their sufficiently studied. major ideas and contributions (see Appendix B)" Yet these bio-psycholo­ gical connections are A new emphasis in psyehodynamic development hi.ghly important theory is in the current professional lime­ because the development light. At the First International Congress of vital personality on Pre and Peri-Natal Psychology held in in the adult depends Toronto (July 1983 - Ontario Institute for on the way the premental Studies in Education) papers were presented hungers of the baby are by Barnett, Buchheimer, Catano, Chamberlain, satisfied and on the Earnshaw, Eng, Fedor-Freyburgh. Hull, help he gets in bring-­ Jacobs, Keller, Liley, Milakovic, Stewart, ing his own behavior· Watkins, and others on the psychology of mechanisms into self-· the relationship of pre-natal events to controlled action so later child development and the important that he can later role of early maternal bonding to psy­ satisfy his emoti.onal chodynamic development theory. The field needs and further his has come into its UWIl in the past t"\"enty O~8 intellectual years. curiosity, or desire to know. 24 Forty years ago, in a related field of study, Margaret Ribble, pyschiatrist and Research in these areas is multiplying in psychoanalyst, author of The Rights of the 1980s as evidenced by the recent Congress. Infants attempted" ... to take-;;-a vital aspect of in£< "it care which food and Margaret Ribble advocated the child's general hygiene--that is, the feeling life right for guidance in the development of of a baby, tL-e emotional reactions which her/his emotional life when she/he begins to g their initial momentum and direction show specific emotional responses (around in the primary relationship..• ,,23 She the fourth month of life). The child covered the first two years of development. ,.,.experiences an emotional hunger. "The skill The deeply significant evidence of tender and tenderness of the mother and her actual

40 presence have far-reaching effects in 2. The theory may overemphasize the breadth bringing out the most complete mental and depth of unconscious processes in development.'. '1)"-~ behavior. It could ,-lell be that normal people are more aware of the origins of In the years of World War II, WPA nursery their motives for behaving than this theory schools and. Lanham-Act day care centen, " gives them credit for" provided opportunities for the stud,y of children~ But there were years of little 3~ The theory was established on the money available for research~ After the basis of emotional disturbances among war, many middle-class children went to middle-·class people in over ha.lf a nursery schools and day-care centers. century ago ,. There is no compe11 lng Not until 1950 ;,Ihen the VJhite House evidence to suggest that the theory is Conference attempted to consolidate equally applicable to other kinds of '(,,;hat was then kriO"\;m about personality people in other cultural settings. development did the special contribution of infancy and pre-school years come into Not all psychoanalysts discussed in this ~'Jorthy Freudian~ ligl.tt" HTrust J selfb.ood y i11itiati\Te-,--­ paper are strictly Erikson, t.rlese vler.'e thevifatc.rrw"'ords for the. nurser.?, Bettelheim, Frijling-Schreuder and Ribble years, while mastery was highlighted in came from psychoanalytic backgrounds to the elementary school years. The establish more contemporary neo-psycho­ scheme set forth implied the constant ie, developmental frameworks~ From interplay between the child's emotional these adaptations, extensions and new concerns and his developing understanding theories, come new theories come new of the world. In the language of today. k.nowledge a'bout ell.iId bel1a"tlior \'·yhich help cognition and effective developme~t educators better understand children and 0·'- ~7er2 seen. as intertvlined.., HLO how to educate them~

The future work of researchers in the area of developmental studies and the continued efforts of existing psycho­ dynarnic.ally--based, de"\!elop·inental pre~'" 8c.1:"1001s erlsu.res an eclectic., child­ conscious j development pedagogy~

Although psychodynamic theory is ,.;idely acknowledged it has its critics. In particular if one traces the psycho­ dynamic theory back to its Freudian roots it provokes controversy in the minds. of many educat.ors. Platt (1969), Weinstein (1969)} Kris (1948), and Lederer (1964) are reluctant to see any connection between Freudian concepts and changes in education. Zachary (941) overemphasizes the liberationist orientation of Freud's educational prescription~ Although tlle 'vastness of Freud W 3 theoretical cOD.struction Inade his work vulnerable to distortion. some of the rei.ore 'valid corurlon criticis'ms (Hamacheck, 1979, p" lO~ll) of his "Vlork. are ~

l~ The theory was generated out of a preoccupation with the pathology of abnormal people.. It is doubtful that such a theory can effectively deal with the normal personality. 41 Notes

1 Barbara Biber. "A Developmental-Interaction Approach: Bank Street College of Edv.cation, If in The Preschool in Act:ion 2nd eel., Day, M. C. and Parker, R. K. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1977. p. Lf 28.

2 Mary Carol Day. IIA Comparative Analysis of Center-Based Preschool Programs," in The Preschool in Action, 2nd ed", Day, LvI. C. and Parker, R. K. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1977. p. 464.

3 L. S. Kubie. "The Utilization of Functions in Education." In E. H. Bower and W. C. Hollister (eds.), Behavioral Science Frontiers in Education. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1964. p. 94.

4 Clark Houstakas. Childmn in PIal. Therapy. New York: Ballantine Books, 1953. pp. 5-6

5 Nancy Proctor-Gregg. "Translator's Note," in Anna Freud's The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Children. New York: Sehocken Books, 1946. p. ix.

6 Barbara Finkelstein. Regulated Children - Liberated Children, Education in Psycho~istorical Perspective. New York: Psychohistory Press, 1979. p. 185.

7 Sigmund Freud. "An Autobiographical Study," (1925) in The Standard Edition of ~he Complete Works of Sigmund Freud. Trans. and ed. by in collaboration with Anna Freud (London, 1953). Vol. 18, p. 69.

8 Finkelstein, p. 188.

9 Sigm',nd Freud. "Scientific Interest in Psychoanalys " 1913, S. E. Vol. 13, pp, 189-190.

10 Finkelstein, p. 191.

11 Anna Freud. "The Theory of Children's Analysis." International Journal of Psycho- analysis. Vol. 8, 1927. p. 65.

12 Finkelstein, p. 185.

13 Hazel Ipp and Nira Kolers. "1'1elanie Klein and Anna Freud: Contributors to Child Analysis." The Journal of The Melanie Klein Society. Vo1. 1, No. 1, £.larch, 1983. p. 22.

14 Willi Hoffer. "Siegfried Bernfeld and Jerubbae1." Publication of the Leo Baeck Institute. Yearbook. Vol. 10, 1965. pp. 159-166.

15 Robert Coles. Erik H. Erikson: Growth of His Work. ------The Boston: Allyn & Bacon, J.970. pp. 16-20.

16 joe Frost, and Joan Kissinger. The Young Child and the Education Process. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 976. p. 104.

42 17 Anna Freud. The Ego and Mechanisms of Defer~e, p. 54.

18 . "Ego Strength, Ego Education and Learning, II (1938), Primary Love and Psychoanalytic Technique. London: Hogarth, 1952. p. 197.

19 Biber, p. 429.

20 Barbara Biber, Edna Shapiro and David Wickens. Promoting Cognitive Growth: A Development Interactionist Point of View. National for the Education of Young Children. Washington, D. C., 1971. pp. 435-446.

21 Day, p. 466.

22 Biber, p. 451.

23 Margaret Ribble. The Right~ of Infants: Early Psychological Needs and Their Sarisfactions. New York: Columbia University Press, 1943. p. 2.

24 Ribble, pp. 42-43.

25 Ribble, p. 120.

26 Susan Isaacs. The Nursery Years. New York: Schocken Books. p. ix.

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Segal, Hanna. Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein. New York: Basic BOJks, 1964.

Melanie Klein. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd., 1979.

Zachary, Caroline, liThe Influence of Psychoanalysis in Education. n ?syc~oanaly_~ic Quarterly, Vol. X, 1941. p. 434.

4S APPENDIX A

ANNA FREUD MELANIE KLEIN

Eligibility for - pre-required ego development; - children of all ages and all Child Analysis cautious prescription levels of functioning - child arrested in develop­ - 3 particular age groups: early, ment; latency, puberty - fairly well developed personality; - neurotics and severely dis­ turbed - verbal, bright child

Psychoanalytic - similar to adult analysis - play analysis - child expresses Techniques: - play materials for child's fantasies, wishes and actual comfort and interest and to experiences assess drives, attitudes, etc. - direct interpretation to child - No interpretations - Young Child: assortment small - interpret child's drawings toys, immediate play interpEtation and verbal descriptions - Latency Child: interpret re­ - interpret dreams pressed curiosities, establish - encourage day dreans relations with child's uncon­ use for inter­ scious pretations - Adolescent Child: - interpret ego defenses and - gain access to anxiety and resistances - recognize - verbal association

Involvement of the - ideal of having parents, - minimized parental involvement EnVllunment: especially mother) in therapy - contact not necessary - be in touch with parents - changes in child may elicit - do not expect gratitude from change in parental interaction parents

Use of psychoanalytic Jherapeutic Tools:

Child's suffering help the child see his source after several sessions a child and insight into of suffering as internal will be motivated to return illness/problems...... - establish positive relation­ because of relief of anxiety ship with child - encourage play to discharge - rely on parents to bring child fantasies to therapy at rough times

• Free Associations - play, puppetry> drm-lings - play analysis to express only partially successful fantasies, wishes and exper­ iences - successful

46 APPENDIX A

ANNA FREUD MELANIE KLEIN

II Transference early view: d~d not believe child able to transfer child transference possible - interpret and review constantly later view: caution in interpreting a transference­ like experience

Drearris - heavy use of dreams with Klein focused on latent content children of play dream analysis by analyst dreams dealt with like adult and child therapy - did not elicit dreams

47 APPENDIX B

SUSAN ISAACS BRUNO BETTELHEIM E.C.M. FRIJLING-SCHREUDER

Educational faith in child's ability to apply psychoanalytic thera­ follow individual path of Theory-Method or learn in her/his own way peutic techniques in educa­ development ReCOIlLTllenda tion through imposing order on tion to normal children • favors Montessori method her/his O\VTI materials · play therapy "finding out" no premature, forced • play therapy academic studies "learn by doing" in Kibbutz experiments­ nurture individual suggests successful intelligence educational group homes Montessori influenced away from parents (goal: draw on fantasy life of to create a radically child new personality in a • free activity single generation)

Role of to stimulate active inquiry • establish good relation­ • bonding with students Teacher of the children themselves ship with child influence child's self-esteem to bring within children's • see child's learning positively immediate experience every experience through the • stimulate intellectually range of fact to which their eyes of the child ­ • guidance toward mental health interests reached out respect his subjective • awareness of socialization • awareness of fantasy life viewpoint of child and relationship do not interfere, elicit to intellectual interest spontaneous response • to help children "learn awareness of psychologi­ by doing" cal reasons for errors • to provide for develop­ rather than always ment of child's own bodily being the result of skills, social skills and lack of skills, means of expression knowledge or attention • empathy around errors in order to strengthen the child's ability to cope with the task at hand APPENDIX B

____--::0..::.SUSAl'1 ISAACS. ,. ~. . BRUNO._,BETTELHEIH__. . E.C.H.. FRIJLING·-SCHREUDER...... _... ..

Works related to Th <:_~ u r E!-'::..!::y__'£~.?:..1?E:l. • L~v.~_~~1~£~~E~h-1~~,:: • ___Children.'_HH__••~ What•.__~ Are.• Thev?L'" E.C.E. Intellectual Growth in t ---_._--_._~,---~._.__ ."~ Trea!:.ment. o(_Emo ionallz Young Children Disturbed Children _~-0_~~J::....!2...eve1.~:'pm'?_~l-t:._J:E pi~l.og~.~.s ,,'it~._H;-ther:2 r~lng_~):1.j..1:.d J:.~.ll: • The Children of the Dream: ._±_--~----_. ----- ~mmul~al Child Rearing and A,merican Education •A---_._------Home for the Heart The Uses of Enchantment: --~---_._~----_..- Tll...~...tf'::~Ili.r.!:K an~l~or t_~':l:c e 9..L F ~~.?:i: Tale E!. • On Learning to Read: The Fasci~at:bn Child!__• H S ~_•••~J • __lvithH_~ Mea~t!:g

Hajor psychoanalytically · psychoanalytically oriented • psychoanalytically priented Theoretical oriented - Freudian Neo··Freudian Freudian Framework Ges(:-ll i11spirc-:.d Erikson inspired • directress The Malting • director of University of House SchooJ_ (1924-1927) Chicago's Orthogenic School

Development: child ~·'(-:e.n ter ed·~' ri\~lhole'if child~'centerec1 child'-centered Theory child Erik Erikson's mndel theory affect and personal aspects of child's understanding emphasiz,ed cognitive functioning res8clrched influenced by Gesell's model in conflict with Piager