HESPERIA 75 (2006) GODDESSES, SNAKE Pages 137-173 TUBES, AND PLAQUES
Analysis of Ceramic Ritual Objects from the LM IIIC Shrine at Kavousi
abstract
Ceramic ritual objects from the Late Minoan IIIC (ca. 1175-1050 b.c.) shrine were at Kavousi, Crete, analyzed by thin-section petrography and scanning electron microscopy. The authors investigate aspects of the objects' production on technology, drawing the extensive comparative data available in the study area. It appears that potters manufactured these items as sets, in different locations around the Isthmus of Ierapetra, utilizing different raw materials, and conditions. These relate to paste recipes, firing contrasting technologies a those used in the manufacture of cooking pots and to range of jug/jar types, indicating that objects considered specialized may have been made by different in same area. groups of potters the
PROVENANCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND POTTERS' TRADITIONS
The physicochemical analysis of pottery has been employed regularly in the study of prehistoric Crete and the Aegean to elucidate questions of both provenance and technology.1 Chemical analysis has succeeded in isolating on compositional divisions the island of Crete that have proved invaluable
1. are to are to We grateful the Greek We grateful them for discus the Natural Environment Research to Archaeological Service and the Amer sion regarding fabrics and also the Council of the United Kingdom. ican at in are to School of Classical Studies following colleagues the Kavousi We indebted those institutions to team on are Athens for permission sample for their observations ceramics for their support. We grateful for ceramics Our at the site: Kevin Donald constructive from the from Kavousi. work Glowacki, suggestions has been facilitated Metaxia editor and two by Tsipo Haggis, Nancy Klein, Margaret Mook, Hesperia anonymous the late and and Lee Ann Turner. poulou, Nikos Papadakis, referees, which greatly improved the Costis Davaras on behalf of the 24th The Kavousi Excavations are spon text. We also thank Maria Relaki for Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical sored by the University of Tennes editorial help. Photographs in Fig. 1 P. see. out on are Antiquities. Leslie Day and the late Work has been carried this courtesy of the Kavousi Excava William D. E. the codirectors and related with are Coulson, comparative pottery tions; Figs. 2 and 4 by Efi Kartso of the Kavousi Project (G. C. Gesell, the financial help of the Institute for naki; Figs. 3 and 5-10 are by the were most Executive Director), gen Aegean Prehistory, the National En authors. erous our in their support of work. dowment for the Humanities, and
? The American School of Classical Studies at Athens i38 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
in early studies of exchange and trade.2 Studies of ceramic technology, some primarily by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), met with success. Notable among these have been the analysis and reconstruction of decora tive techniques3 and the study of firing technologies.4 More recently, ceramic petrography (PE) has offered additional pos sibilities for the scientific study of archaeological pottery. In the favorable narrow geological conditions of Crete, PE has been used to clay sources to con down geological types and sometimes to specific locations. Yet its not tribution has been only in the field of provenance, but also in providing on a information the technology of ceramic. It is this sort of detail that dovetails with the renewed interest in the study of technology contextual ized in social relations of the past. us to Such new-found capabilities in ceramic analysis allow address more questions complex than the reconstruction of exchange relations on a through joining points in space. The approach works variety of levels now a and it is acknowledged generally that tailor-made integration of different suitable analytical techniques is the best strategy in many cases. These often revolve around the application of chemical (neutron activation analysis [NAA], X-ray fluorescence [XRF], and inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy [ICP-AES]), mineralogical (PE, X-ray diffraction as a [XRD]), and microstructural techniques, such SEM, to give view of the many aspects of pottery production, exchange, and consumption.5 can a In this light, analytical studies of ceramics elucidate number of issues current in the consideration of Minoan material culture: the range of traditions that existed in the manufacture of ceramics, how the organi to zation of production related social and economic change, how finished were products exchanged, and the investigation of consumption patterns across the Minoan landscape. we a Here present study of ritual objects?goddess figures,6 snake tubes, and plaques?from the Late Minoan (LM) IIIC shrine at Vronda, Kavousi, in East Crete. Our aim is to characterize the different ceramic fabrics used for the manufacture of these objects in order to clarify their are location and history of production. These special objects, relatively we rare, which suggest would also have been special in the past. The story were as of their manufacture and how they found together offerings and ritual equipment in one shrine is of interest in revealing the nature of social relations not only in the ceramic landscape, but also in the sacred landscape of the Isthmus of Ierapetra.
a et al. 2. For summary of early analyses 5. E.g., Day 1999; Tite 1999; in Crete, see Jones 1986. Shaw et al. 2001. 6. use of the term 3. E.g., Noll, Holm, and Born 1975; The "figures" a Stos-Fertner, Hedges, and Evely 1979; follows French 1981, p. 173; for term Noll 1982; Betancourt et al. 1984; discussion of the "goddess" and Betancourt and Swann 1989; Swann, whether these figures conventionally to as with Ferrence, and Betancourt 2000; Faber, referred Goddesses Upraised Kilikoglou, and Day 2002. Hands (orArms) in fact represent see 4. Maniatis and Tite 1981; Mania goddesses, Gesell 2004, pp. 131, 143-144. tis, Katsanos, and Caskey 1982; Mania tis 1984; Kilikoglou 1994. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 139
CERAMIC PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION, AND RELIGION IN BRONZE AGE CRETE
a LM III pottery has been considered prime subject of interest in the investigation of changes in the social and economic landscape of Crete.7 even Biographies of the most ordinary ceramics offer a variety of insights were into the way objects created and used at the end of the Bronze Age, a to one time thought be of considerable change. Until now, however, on analytical work has been largely restricted to that transport stirrup jars and other traded ceramics. on In general, studies of ceramic production have moved from the to was time when anything prior the building of the palaces considered simple and dispersed, based around the household. We know that pottery were more even making and exchange complex, in the Early Neolithic,8 was a while production in the Early Bronze Age clearly carried out in specific number of centers, with wide distribution of the potters' products.9 a Recently, Knappett has produced sophisticated study of the possible links between pottery manufacture, exchange, and consumption and the politico-economic organization of the early state in the Middle Minoan period.10 These analyses have made it clear that pottery production varied over substantially different regions and times. Another notable aspect of were such ceramic studies is the evidence they provide that ritual objects to often manufactured very high standards in both the Early and Middle are Bronze Age11 and that their patterns of exchange and consumption similar in many ways, in spite of changes in at least the built environment at key palatial sites.12 an Recently, others have studied ritual objects in effort to understand a the social, political, and religious landscapes of Crete, with clear emphasis on those at the shrines we refer to as sanctuaries.13 objects open-air peak to Ceramic analysis trace the origin of such offerings has been used to on determine the sphere of influence of particular ritual sites the island.14 Broad changes in the relationship between sacred and natural landscapes have been posited for the Minoan period. Ritual activity is often thought to have undergone transformations of scale and organization, with Peatfield we see arguing that in theMiddle Minoan peak sanctuaries ritual sites that a a represent popular religious practice in mystified countryside, which is subsequently appropriated by the palatial elite by the Neopalatial period.15 we Thus have the close relationship between the peak sanctuary of Juktas 7. P?lsson E.g., Hallager 1985; and the palace at Knossos, a case of centralization that may break down 1997. Borgna upon the destruction of the Does cult or ritual become less cen 8. Tomkins and palaces. Day 2001; Tomkins, more tralized and town-centered in the Postpalatial period? How would Day, and Kilikoglou 2004. 9. we this to be in the material culture found in shrines Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1997. expect represented 10. Knappett 1997. of this period? 11.Wilson and 70 we not a Day 1994, pp. While do expect complete reflection in material culture of 82; Faber, Kilikoglou, and Day 2002. nature are the and organization of ritual, clearly there links that might 12. andWilson Day 1998,2001. to our usefully be investigated further knowledge of society at this crucial 13. Rethemiotakis 1997; Karetsou transitional If material culture sets are or used in shrines and Kourou 1997. phase. deposited as some 14. Maniatis et al. 1992. part of ritual activity, the location of their manufacture may give 15. Peatfield 1987. as to over indications spatial organization and movement the landscape. 140 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
THE SHRINE AT KAVOUSI AND ITS RITUAL EQUIPMENT
near Recent excavations at Vronda the modern village of Kavousi have a a revealed LM IIIC settlement comprising complex of domestic build a a ings, shrine (building G), and pottery kiln. Although the site contains some area earlier pottery from the Early andMiddle Bronze Ages and the was later used extensively for the placement of graves during the Geo use metric period, its main phase of is the LM IIIC settlement (ca. 1175 as a 1050 b.c.). The excavation of building G, identified shrine by its deposit our a of ritual objects, which is interest here, has been presented in series of preliminary reports.16 rooms The shrine comprises two with benches along their east walls. was a There substantial scatter of broken fragments of ritual objects out room over side the building to the south and west of 1. Numbering 4,000 sherds in all, the deposit contained figures of the Goddess with Upraised Hands, snake tubes, plaques, and kalathoi. It is likely that much of this was was deposit created when, in the Late Geometric period, grave 19 room to dug into 1. Prior this, many of the goddess figures and their ritual on room equipment may have been grouped and in front of the bench of 1. were room cor A few fragments found in 1 itself, mostly in the northeast a was ner outside grave 19; second group of ritual equipment discovered or none was on in room 2, some of it intact nearly so, though in situ the now floor.17 Through painstaking work, many of these ritual vessels have been reconstructed (Fig. 1), studied in terms of their fabric and technology to on of construction,18 and compared other similar assemblages the island. are There more than 26 separate Goddesses with Upraised Hands, while parts of at least 37 plaques and 33 snake tubes exist. Macroscopic examination makes it clear that the fabrics of the goddess figures, snake tubes, and plaques vary considerably. All three are a are types of object made in range of fabrics, which present also in the domestic ceramic assemblage, notably in cooking pots and storage occur same jars. One goddess, snake tube, and plaque in the distinctive are micaceous red clay, while another goddess, snake tube, and plaque a made from light-colored, calcareous clay with frequent sandy inclu sets com sions. This gives the impression that there existed of objects, a prising goddess figure with associated, matching ritual equipment.
GODDESS FIGURES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES
16. Gesell, Day, and Coulson 1988, at and The ceramic ritual equipment found Vronda bears comparison with pp. 289-290; Gesell, Coulson, Day a 1991, pp. 161-163; Gesell, Day, and deposits from variety of similar shrine sites of the LM IIIB and IIIC Coulson 78-82. to 1995, pp. periods. It is the earlier period that the geographically close deposit of 17. Gesell, Day, and Coulson 1995, Gournia Gournia lies some 10 km west of the shrine at Kavousi. belongs. p. 80. near west Situated the top of the side of the ridge running through the 18. Gesell 1995; Gesell and S aupe town, the shrine contained at least three goddess figures and five snake 1997. goddesses, snake tubes, and plaques 141
Figure 1. Ritual objects from Kavousi: (a, b) goddess figure 1, front and rear views; (c) snake tube 4 with kalathos; (d) plaque 2 142 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
km
Mochlos
2. of the Kavousi Figure Map area, in the text showing sites mentioned
one are tubes, of which the best-preserved goddess and snake tube of the same was poorly fired red clay.19 Since the present study carried out, further examples of shrines with Goddesses with Upraised Hands have been found at Kephala Vasilikis20 and at Chalasmenos Monastirakiou,21 the locations are of which shown in Figure 2. Other close typological parallels for the were goddess figures, snake tubes, and plaques found farther afield inGazi, Kannia, Karphi, Knossos, and Prinias.22 are All the goddess figures similar in dress and pose, but they differ in on arms details. They stand their cylindrical skirts with upper outstretched to front or side, bent at elbow so that the forearms and hands are raised.23 are The construction techniques also similar; the larger sections of the on skirt, torso, and head were thrown the wheel.24 Details of modeling and to and the ritual on et decoration, however, vary from potter potter symbols 19. Hawes al. 1908, pp. 47-48. to most common are 20. 1998. the figures' tiaras vary from site site. The symbols Eliopoulos 21. 2001. snakes and birds but horns of consecration, palettes, and, at Gazi, poppy Tsipopoulou 22. 41-56. use Gesell 1985, pp. heads appear. The last item suggests the of opium in the ritual. 23. Gesell 1985, pis. 43-49. The distinctive features of snake tubes, ritual stands for bowls holding 24. Gesell and Saupe 1997. are (kalathoi) filled with offering material,25 also similar from shrine to 25. Gesell 1976; Gesell 1995, are on 140-149. shrine. They cylinders thrown the wheel, with ringed top, beveled pis. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 143
bottom, and opposing serpentine handles. Most are open at the bottom. occur on Differences in the number of rings, the number of loops the and the ritual a an handles, symbols. Snakes, birds, bulls head, agrimi, and horns of consecration occur. a The plaque is flat rectangular slab of clay; most of those preserved at or the top have suspension holes for hanging the plaque from the wall ceiling.26 The technique of making them varies. Some are rolled with a frame left at the top, while others have a separate frame attached on all four sides. A few have traces of paint, while others have relief decoration. a a One from Karphi is topped with head. It is likely that all displayed ritual scene like those from Kannia.27
The goddess figures from Kavousi fit into the general pattern, that was a a each part of ritual assemblage, together with snake tube and plaque, to a as belonging shrine. It is also clear that this assemblage, suggested by at was a not those found earlier Gazi, matching set, only in the way that it was was used, but also in the way that it produced. At Gazi each of the five was an goddess figures associated specifically with offering vessel.28 One a goddess ismade from characteristic fabric that is the same as that of her a accompanying plaque; the fabric of second goddess matches that of her a on snake tube. The fabric of third goddess, the other hand, was different from that of her snake tube, but both objects were covered with the same so red paint that the surface appearance of their fabric was the same. The a fabrics of the fourth and fifth goddesses matched those of pedestal bowl a was and cylindrical vessel. It has been suggested that each pair brought to the shrine as a set.29At Kavousi, too, it is apparent that goddess figures same as often have the fabric plaques and snake tubes. a Were there, then, only restricted number of locations where these were ritual ceramics produced? Certainly the figures throughout the is a land follow general typological and technological pattern, but they vary in fabric and in details of style and construction, suggesting that their was more An alternative scenario then production widespread. arises, that these special objects might have been produced by itinerant potters, an explanation that has been popular in consideration of ancient Cretan to ceramic production due the presence of itinerant storage jar makers recent in the past.30 It is through the analyses presented in this article we to that hope choose between these alternative explanations, to re more veal about ceramic production in the area of the Isthmus of Iera at petra this time, and to provide information on the use of the shrine at Kavousi. The Kavousi shrine assemblage breaks down into clearly differenti to ated fabrics that relate fabric types used in the quantification of the whole ceramic assemblage at both the Vronda and Kastro sites. Thus the of are on analysis the ritual objects and the choice of samples based very large numbers of recorded sherds and vessels.
26. Gesell 2001. 29. Gesell 1985, p. 44. 27. Gesell 1985, pl. 108. 30. Voyatzoglou 1974; Day 2004. 28. Gesell 1985, pp. 69-71. 144 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
RITUAL CERAMICS AND POTTERY PRODUCTION IN THE ISTHMUS OF IERAPETRA
are Most of the figures and associated objects discussed above essentially coarse ware, manufactured from fabrics normally associated with storage to some wares jars and cooking vessels. They bear little relation of the fine found on earlier ritual sites in Central and East Crete or, indeed, to the fine wares to of the LM IIIC period. The issue here is find the provenance of raw not the materials. If it is possible to identify their specific geographical one can an locations, nevertheless gain appreciation of the general nature of the geological materials present in the pastes. Macroscopic examination suggests that the goddess figures and other are objects made from at least two fabrics familiar from groups of storage or more jars and two other fabrics normally found in cooking vessels at was to Kavousi. A goal of the project thus compare the fabrics within the two categories (jars and cooking pots) and to characterize any differences two to to in production methods between the in order relate them tech or can us nological traditions practices. Ultimately this tell much about how many groups of potters may have been involved in the production of such objects. We already know much about pottery production in the Isthmus of to Ierapetra, mainly in the periods from Early Minoan (EM) I LM I.Here, more area perhaps than any other of the Aegean, macroscopic, p?trographie, an ce and chemical study of ceramics has played important role. Minoan ramics have been analyzed from Kalo Chorio, Kavousi, Gournia, Mochlos, Pseira, and sites discovered by the Vrokastro Survey and the Kavousi Survey are (Fig. 2). Best known the granitic/dioritic ceramics, commonly referred to asMirabello fabrics, that have their origin in this area31 and that seem a across as as to have wide currency East Crete. They appear early the Early Neolithic period.32 Other fabrics manufactured from metamorphic raw coarse-ware materials have also been recorded.33 The Kavousi Survey to at fabric series has been extended and applied the excavations Kavousi, a while the Vrokastro Survey has also produced detailed fabric typology.34 as as a Analyses of material from Kavousi, well fabric series used in the at quantification of Neopalatial levels Mochlos, have been published.35 a These studies have shown that number of production centers existed in are the area of the Isthmus that notable for the longevity of their activity.
THE ANALYTICAL PROGRAM
31. Betancourt et al. 1979; Betan The questions addressed here involve aspects of both provenance and court 1984; Day 1995,1997; Whitelaw coarse ceramics. are technology of the relatively Analytical techniques et al. 1997. raw on required that characterize materials and provide information 32. Tomkins and Day 2001. nature 33. Betancourt and 1995. their manipulation and the of the firing process. To fulfill these Myer see a 34. For Kavousi, Haggis and combination of p?trographie analysis and scanning elec requirements, Mook Mook 2005. as 1993; Haggis 2005; tron microscopy is best suited. The former technique, described above, For Vrokastro, see 2003,2004, on Hayden provides information the geological and possibly the spatial origin of 2005. the raw materials work both with mate through comparative geological 35. Day, Joyner, and Relaki 2003; et rial and samples of other archaeological ceramics from neighboring, often Day al. 2005. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 145
TABLE 1. ANALYZED SAMPLES OF RITUAL OBJECTS AND COMPARATIVE MATERIAL
Sample Description SherdNo. Trench
Ritual Objects
Kavousi 93/1 goddess 7 3180 V8802.3 Kavousi 93/2 snake tube 3 V9904.2 Kavousi 93/3 goddess 2 V9904.1 Kavousi 93/4 plaque 5 3871 V8817.2 Kavousi 93/5 goddess 24 1491 V8812.7 Kavousi 93/6 goddess 17 1607 V9314.1 Kavousi 93/7 snake tube 1 3484 V8906.7 Kavousi 93/8 goddess 16 V8905/8906/8907 Kavousi 93/9 snake tube 17 3762 V8905.4 Kavousi 93/10 plaque 1 V9904.2 Kavousi 93/11 snake tube 11 1616 V9306.4 Kavousi 93/12 snake tube 13 1708 V8305.4
Comparative Material
Gournia 88/1 Neopalatial amphora with painted lily pattern Kavousi 93/13 cooking vessel, LM IIIC Kavousi 93/14 cooking vessel, LM IIIC Kavousi 93/18 cooking vessel, LM IIIC Kavousi 93/25 horned kalathos, LM IIIC Kavousi 93/66 pithos, MM Kavousi 93/102 body sherd, EM Lasithi 88/9/3 water jar from modern kiln site at Vainia terra rossa Lasithi 88/95 clay sample of from Aphendis Christos, Kalo Chorio
contemporary, sites. The SEM, through examination of the microstructure a of ceramic, allows the investigation of firing conditions, specifically the equivalent firing temperature and atmosphere. This information supple ments macroscopic study of the techniques used in the construction of or these objects,36 and also aids in the reconstruction of specific practices raw recipes used in selecting and manipulating materials. The latter can be useful in defining traditions of pottery manufacture,37 which can reveal much about both the organization of the craft during different periods and an area. about human groups within were Twelve samples of the ritual ceramics analyzed by both PE and excava SEM, along with roughly 200 ceramic samples from the Kavousi are a are tions. These representative of much larger number of samples that same firm members of the macroscopic fabric groups. Comparative samples are from the material examined from Kavousi and nearby sites presented here to show the direct link between the fabrics used for the goddess figures and other objects and those used in utilitarian pottery (Table l).The compara tive vessels include of and 36. examples Neopalatial, Protopalatial, especially E.g., Maniatis, Katsanos, and date. indicate the nature and source of a Caskey 1982. Prepalatial Together they variety et of as it can be shown that the locations or raw-material 37. Whitelaw al. 1997; Living fabrics, production stone Smith 2004. sources 2000; Day in the Ierapetra region spanned the Bronze Age and beyond. 146 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY
were exam Thin sections of the ritual ceramics and comparative material a a ined with polarizing microscope and described using modified version of the system proposed byWhitbread.38 The analyses reveal information not on raw on only the geological origin of the materials, but also the ways in which those raw materials were mixed, tempered, and fired. Detailed are on descriptions provided in the Appendix, while comments those are descriptions included in the text below. Here itwill suffice to consider a each description in turn, followed by short summary of the results.
Group 1: Frequent Low-Grade Metamorphic Rocks
Kavousi 93/11 (snake tube 11), 93/18 (cooking vessel) coarse-ware The fabric in group 1 corresponds to type XVI in the Kavousi a fabric series (Fig. 3: a, b). It is characterized by wide range of very low rare grade, low-grade, and medium-grade metamorphic rock fragments, set a coarse in groundmass rich in mica laths and quartz grains. The fabric is coarse grained, appearing to be bimodal, with metamorphic rock fragments set a an in finer-grained groundmass. The aplastic inclusions indicate origin a for this fabric in the Phyllite-Quartzite series (Fig. 4), which hosts range runs of mainly low-grade metamorphic rocks39 and which east from the area a of Kavousi.40 The red-firing clay is optically active, which suggests a relatively low firing temperature. Kavousi 93/18 has ribbon of orange clay running parallel to the vessel margins within the red-firing base clay, areas are while of finer-grained clay visible within Kavousi 93/11. These textural features may suggest that the fabric is the product of mixing two or more a common clays, practice in modern pottery of East Crete.41 The occurs same distinctive fabric in cooking vessels of LM IIIC at Kavousi a or area to and is taken to be product made either around Kavousi in the the east that hosts the Phyllite-Quartzite series.
Group 2: Acid Igneous Rocks
Kavousi 93/5 (goddess 24), 93/14 (cooking vessel)
The macroscopic fabric of goddess 24 corresponds to type XXV in the a Kavousi coarse-ware fabric series (Fig. 5:a). With red-firing matrix, it contains frequent inclusions of acid igneous rocks, mostly granite. These rocks are characteristic of those fabrics referred to in the literature as
Mirabello fabrics (see above) and occur as intrusions into limestone along 38.Whitbread 1986,1989,1995. 39. Wachendorf et al. 1974. the southern edge of the Gulf of Mirabello, roughly from Kalo Chorio to 40. et al. 1959; Dur Pacheia Ammos, with another group of intrusions around the village of Papastamatiou kin and Lister 1983. Kapistri, northwest of Kentri (Fig. 4).42 In addition, the constituent minerals 41. Blitzer 1984, pp. 146-148; Day and rock of and diorite occur in both fragments granite Neogene deposits 2004, pp. 129-132. and alluvium within the Isthmus area.43 As the Quaternary red-firing 42. Baranyi, Lippolt, andTodt 1975. same 43. 1997. groundmass of these fabrics contains the mineral constituents in the Day 1995, pp. 159-161; SNAKE AND GODDESSES, TUBES, PLAQUES H7
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of (a) Kavousi 93/11 (snake tube 11) and (b) Kavousi 93/18 (cooking with vessel), group 1, low-grade rocks in a mica-rich metamorphic Crossed groundmass. polars, horizontal dimension 7.4 mm
Dolomite _Alluvium
Neogene
Figure 4. Geological map of the area. After et al. km study Papastamatiou 1959; Fortuin 1977, enclosure I 148 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
Figure 5. Photomicrographs of form of large aplastics, it is clear that this fabric has its origin within the (a)Kavousi 93/5 24), group Isthmus area, the terra rossa soils as of the (goddess exploiting part clay recipe (Fig. tem 2, illustrating acid igneous rock 5:b). This fabric is essentially that of the red cooking-vessel fabrics that per; and (b) Lasithi 88/95, terra rossa a have long history in the area.44Although these fabrics usually have been sample from Aphendis Christos, considered low calcareous, recent work with has shown micropaleontology Kalo Chorio. Crossed polars, horizontal are mm that they often mixed with calcareous, marine Neogene deposits.45 dimension 7.4
Group 3: Common Sand Inclusions
Kavousi 93/1 (goddess 7), 93/3 (goddess 2), 93/7 (snake tube 1), 93/10 (plaque 1), 93/12 (snake tube 13)
to The distinctive group 3 fabric corresponds types X and XI in the Kavousi are common coarse-ware fabric series, which very in pithoi and jugs/jars of most LM IIIC (Fig. 6:a, b). It is the fabric commonly used for ritual objects from the shrine. One of itsmain macroscopic characteristics is the variation between those samples with red inclusions and those with mainly gray. was were to It assumed that such variations due firing atmosphere and are same that the different colored inclusions of essentially the composi are terms to tion. The ritual ceramics examined identical in p?trographie a wide range of jar samples of LM IIIC date from Kavousi examined by the authors.
The fabric is characterized by large, well-rounded, aplastic inclu sions of low-grade metamorphic rocks (phyllite and slate), sedimentary rocks (sandstones and siltstones), and fine-grained igneous rocks (basic set volcanics?), in very fine-grained base clay. The grain-size distribution is bimodal. There is evidence for clay mixing in all these samples. Kavousi a 93/3 displays thin ribbons of calcareous clay within red-firing base clay, a a more and similar features of dark red clay within orange-red base clay a a 44. See Whitelaw et al. 1997 for are also visible. This suggests that calcareous clay and red-firing clay may EM examples; Myer, Mclntosh, and have been mixed together intentionally, although Neogene clays from the Betancourt 1995, pp. 144-145; Vrionisi area on the south side of the Gulf of Mirabello have been shown Day 1997, p. 226. to such characteristic and characteristic display heterogeneity specifically 45. Quinn 1999, pp. 346-356; even et clay pellets, without clay mixing. It is clear, however, that this fabric Tsolakidou al. 2002. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 149
C d
Figure 6. Photomicrographs of a or comprises clay clay mix tempered with water-rounded sand and that Kavousi 93/1 and (a) (goddess 7) a there is marked consistency in examples of the fabric. (b) Kavousi 93/10 1), 3, (plaque group Fabrics similar to this have been noted in the LMI within the common sand inclusions period illustrating area of Gournia 6:c). In that case, their both in terms of in a fine matrix; (c)Gournia 88/1 (Fig. similarity and the of inclusions caused difficulty, in purely (Neopalatial amphora), illustrating technology mineralogy in them from ceramics from the same sand inclusions seen in analytical terms, separating sand-tempered sites in the western Mesara Plain in southern Crete.46 in group 3; and (d) Kavousi 93/66 They do, fact, resemble Mesara to an incorrect (MM pithos), illustrating rounded examples very strongly, perhaps leading some cases. inclusions of schist and phyllite, as assessment of provenance in Although their petrology indicates in with rock. are group 3, granodiorite that they compatible with metamorphic series, their clay groundmass mm Crossed polars, horizontal dimension 7.4 appears to have as its basis fine, calcareous Neogene clay. In short, the fabric is very similar in nature to the calcareous Mirabello jar fabrics, but with rounded metamorphic sand temper instead of added angular, igneous rock fragments. to Sample Kavousi 93/66 from the Kavousi-Thriphti Survey helps solve this problem. A trickle-painted storage jar of Middle Minoan date, it has features both of this fabric and also of those, such as group 4 (below), that a have igneous inclusions in fine, calcareous matrix. It contains fragments to seen 4 of granodiorite very similar those in group and coarse, rounded 46. 157-159. rocks Day 1995, pp. grains of siltstone, sandstone, and low-grade metamorphic (phyllite yo PETER M. DAY ET AL.
a b
Figure 7. Photomicrographs of and slate) that are found in this group 6:d). In addition, commonly (Fig. (a)Kavousi 93/6 (goddess 17), group this fabric has common coarse of mudstone and dark brown grains (red 4, illustrating granodiorite inclusions and rare chert The base varieties) angular grains. clay appears fine-grained in a fine calcareous matrix; and and is reminiscent of the Mirabello-type group groundmass, but the fine (b) Kavousi 93/102 (EM body more a fraction is sparsely distributed despite being composed of similar sherd), illustrating similar fabric. Crossed horizontal dimension 7.4 mm grains (biotite and monocrystalline quartz).This sample, then, provides the polars, link between these two fabrics and shows that fabric group 3 has its ori area we gin in the of the Isthmus. Although cannot yet pin down the source seems exact of the sand inclusions, it that the base clay originates area in the of the Isthmus itself, rather than in the metamorphic series to the east.
Group 4: Granodiorite Inclusions in a Calcareous Matrix
Kavousi 93/6 (goddess 17) to a coarse-ware The group 4 fabric corresponds finer version of Kavousi type XXII, and is characterized by the occurrence of medium/coarse to grained, acid intermediate igneous rock fragments, probably granodio rite, and grains of the constituent minerals (Fig. 7:a).The latter comprise plagioclase feldspar, alkali feldspar, quartz, and amphibole that has almost to all altered biotite mica. The groundmass is composed of red-firing clay are with fine grains of the constituent minerals of the granodiorite. There same streaks of very fine clay within the base clay, having the color, which may indicate heterogeneity of the clay. The fabric is akin to calcareous granitic/dioritic fabrics found in the Early and Middle Minoan periods,47 which also display the textural features noted (Fig. 7:b). It has been argued previously that rather than comprising evidence for clay mixing, they may a some area. be natural feature of gray clays within the Isthmus The aplastic inclusions clearly indicate a source similar to that for group 2. The differ ence two between the groups, however, lies in the technology of the clay mixes and one used for fabrics and the firing, (group 4) being mainly jar 47.Myer 1984; Day 1995; wares. et al. 1997. other for cooking Whitelaw GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 151
Figure 8. Photomicrographs of Group 5: Phyllite Group (a) Kavousi 93/2 (snake tube 3) and Kavousi 93/2 tube 93/4 93/8 (b) Kavousi 93/9 (snake tube 17), (snake 3), (plaque5), (goddess 16), 93/9 tube 93/13 93/25 group 5, illustrating phyllite (snake 17), (cooking vessel), (horned inclusions in quartz-rich matrix; kalathos) Kavousi 93/8 (c) (goddess 16), coarse-ware The group 5 fabric corresponds to type IV in the Kavousi group 5, striations illustrating fabric series and is characterized the of and by presence large, elongate grains suggesting clay mixing; of rock 8:a-c). In addi (d) Lasithi 88/9/2/34, amodern metamorphic fragments, principally phyllite (Fig. are water manufactured in the tion, there of siltstone and sandstone that show of jar village grains signs partial These inclusions are set in a of Vainia, illustrating textural metamorphism. large finer-grained groundmass of and a the of a concentration features from clay monocrystalline quartz red-firing clay, giving appearance Crossed horizontal dimen bimodal distribution. The base to be mixing. polars, grain-size clay appears homogeneous sion (a-c) 7.4 mm and (d) 3.7 mm in some of the samples (Kavousi 93/4, 9,13, and 25) and shows evidence are areas a more for clay mixing in others (Kavousi 93/2 and 8). There of calcareous, finer-grained clay within the red-firing base clay, which may or use a either represent the intentional mixing of different clays, of het source erogeneous clay (cf. Fig. 8:d). The groundmass is optically active, a indicating relatively low firing temperature. This group is consistent in a common its nature and resembles closely fabric in cooking vessels from LM I onward. 152 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
Summary of Petrographic Analyses
The fabrics identified within the ritual ceramics of Kavousi are all familiar
from components of the utilitarian ceramic assemblage. They comprise well defined, separate groups. Moreover, groups such as 3 and 5 demonstrate a notable consistency within fabric group and marked differences between our groups, thus increasing confidence that they represent the products of were different production locations. It is likely that they all manufactured area or areas either in the of the Isthmus from geologically dominated east by the Phyllite-Quartzite series, to the of Kavousi. Before progress a ing to detailed assessment of their technology (using SEM), it isworth are noting that three of the five groups analyzed (groups 1,2, 5) normally considered to be cooking-vessel fabrics, primarily comprising red-firing, coarse are common fabrics. The other two (groups 3, 4) jar fabrics. The ware fabrics bearing a resemblance to cooking and jar fabrics respectively show distinctly different paste recipes.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
were a The microstructures of 17 samples examined with scanning electron to a microscope (SEM), coupled microanalysis system (EDAX), for estima tion of the extent of vitrification. Chemical composition of the samples can combined with the degree of vitrification of the clay minerals provide a reliable estimate of the equivalent firing temperature.48 Other informa tion can be derived from a SEM-EDAX examination, including the type or of clay used, its degree of refinement tempering, and the morphology, assess chemistry, and quality of decoration.49 All these parameters the technology employed in producing the pottery and provide grounds for raw discussing the suitability of materials used in the final product. to a SEM has been applied quite extensively pottery from variety of an on the Bronze Aegean sites and chronological periods, with emphasis on Age. In Crete, Noll and coworkers concentrated the decorative technol ogy of Middle Minoan pottery, while Maniatis and Matson, respectively, determined firing temperatures and characterized slips for Early Minoan White-on-Dark ware from East Crete.50 More systematic studies have been on wares carried out Early Minoan pottery for all of the main and types.51 on a a recent ca. Similarly, and larger scale, major project examined 200 of samples of Middle Minoan polychrome pottery by SEM.52 The results these studies are used for comparisons with the present findings. 48. Maniatis andTite 1981. Terracotta statues from a LM IB/LH II in Irini, Kea, sanctuary Ayia 49. 1994. also studied at first to the closest to Kilikoglou by SEM,53 may appear provide parallel 50. Noll, Holm, and Born 1975; shows how different their the Kavousi material, but closer inspection just Noll 1982;Maniatis 1984;Matson were. statues were all made production technologies The Kea low-fired, 1984. to 51. Whitelaw et with low calcareous clays, and divided into two groups according their Kilikoglou 1994; have been carried al. 1997. firing temperatures. In addition, technological studies 52. Faber, and out on material similar to that from the Kavousi theMiddle Kilikoglou, Day shrine, namely, 2002. Minoan from sanctuaries in Crete, clay figurines peak including Kophinas 53. Maniatis, Katsanos, and Caskey in the Asterousia Mountains.54 It was found that most of these figurines 1982. were made in the wider area of theMesara Plain; the rest could be divided 54. Maniatis et al. 1992. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES !53
TABLE 2. SEM DATA FOR RITUAL OBJECTS AND COMPARATIVE MATERIAL
P?trographie CaOFiring Fabric Sample Description (wt%) Vitrification Atmosphere Temperature (?C)
93/11 11 1: Kavousi snake tube group low-grade <3 NV/IV O/R -750
metamorphic Kavousi 93/18 cooking vessel group 1: low-grade <3 V O/R 800-900 metamorphic
Kavousi 93/5 goddess 24 group 2: acid igneous <3 NV/IV R -750 Kavousi 93/14 cooking vessel group 2: acid igneous <3 NV R <750
Kavousi 93/1 goddess 7 group 3: sand 7-9 vc O 800-850 Kavousi 93/3 goddess 2 group 3: sand 7-9 vc O 800-850 Kavousi 93/7 snake tube 1 group 3: sand 7-9 vc O 800-850 Kavousi 93/10 plaque 1 group 3: sand 7-9 vc O 800-850 Kavousi 93/12 snake tube 13 group 3: sand 7-9 vc O 800-850 Kavousi 93/66 pithos cf. group 3: sand 4-6 vc O 800-850
4: 7-9 Kavousi 93/6 goddess 17 group granodiorite IV O 750-800
Kavousi 93/2 snake tube 3 group 5: phyllite NV R <750 rrtwiii-? ?? t-?r?THI! <-/_> Kavousi 93/4 plaque 5 group 5 phyllite NV R <750 Kavousi 93/8 goddess 16 group 5 phyllite NV R <750 Kavousi 93/9 snake tube 17 group 5 phyllite NV R <750 Kavousi 93/13 cooking vessel group 5: phyllite NV O/R <750 Kavousi 93/25 horned kalathos group 5: phyllite NV R <750
are an were not CaO values given with approximation because the sections analyzed polished. no Abbreviations: NV: vitrification, IV: initial stage of vitrification, V: extensive vitrification, Vc-: incomplete vitrification (calcareous structure), O: oxidation, R: reduction (after Maniatis andTite 1981).
a into relatively large number of chemical groups reflecting many different areas on same of provenance. SEM study the material revealed low firing temperatures, the majority below 800?C, suggesting the use of open fires rather than kilns. are The SEM data for the present study summarized inTable 2. Our was to aim investigate the very clear fabric groupings resulting from thin section p?trographie analysis in order to determine the manner of ceramic was on a production. The estimation of firing atmosphere based combina tion of macroscopic and microstructural characteristics. Freshly fractured were a surfaces of the samples examined with Philips 515 SEM, connected an to EDAX 9900 analysis system. What is remarkable about the results is the consistency within each group in firing temperature, atmosphere, and calcium content. These are very clear and well-formed groups in both SEM and PE terms.
Petrographic Group 1
in 1 are Both samples group (Kavousi 93/11, 93/18) characterized by coarse a their clay, feature that produced rough fracture surfaces with very areas were limited of clay that free of inclusions?vital for estimating fir ing temperature. The majority of the inclusions present in the clay mass 154 PETER M. DAY ET AL
^i-?S"
c
are 9. SEM quartz, K-feldspars, and biotite (rich in Fe, K, Mg), with magnesium Figure photomicrographs a of (a) Kavousi 93/11 (snake tube 11), present in great quantity, characteristic of this fabric. Both samples fired to as a content most group 1, illustrating initial stages of dark brown result of the relatively high iron and vitrification in and an was (IV) pockets likely atmosphere that not completely oxidizing. The estimated with no vitrifica one micromorphology firing temperatures for these samples, however, differed from other. tion (NV); (b) Kavousi 93/18 (cook no Kavousi 93/11 exhibits initial vitrification only in limited areas, while ing vessel), group 1, illustrating vitrification was detected in the of the fracture surface 9:a). majority (Fig. higher-fired, vitrified (V) body; A of initial vitrification is assumed The marginal temperature (~750?C). (c) Kavousi 93/7 (snake tube 1), vessel was fired cooking (Kavousi 93/18) higher (800-900?C), exhibiting group 3, illustrating incompletely an extensive of as a min network glass result of vitrification of the clay vitrified (Vc-) micromorphology; erals (Fig. 9:b). and (d) Kavousi 93/66 (MM pithos), illustrating incomplete vitrification similar to 3 (Vc-), group examples. Petrographic Group 2 = Bar lOjim
a coarse Group 2 is also low calcareous group, made of clay containing frequent rock fragments of quartz-feldspars-amphiboles. Both samples no or (Kavousi 93/5, 93/14) exhibit vitrification very few signs of initial vitrification (Fig. 10:a) and, accordingly, temperatures of around 750?C or are below estimated. At such low temperatures complete oxidation to is difficult achieve and, therefore, both samples fired to dark brown colors. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 155
/ ff
?3 T^TWL
c d
10. SEM Figure photomicrographs Petrographic Group 3 of (a) Kavousi 93/14 (cooking vessel), group 2, low-fired body, on All of the illustrating Group 3 is also extremely consistent technological grounds. no vitrification (NV); (b) Kavousi were a ritual objects in this group made with calcareous clay containing illus 93/6 (goddess 17), group 4, to ~8% wt% CaO. The presence of calcium and the objects' exposure trating incomplete vitrification; in of cellular relatively high firing temperatures resulted the formation (c) Kavousi 93/8 16), (goddess over microstructures characterizing clays fired 800?C (e.g., Kavousi 93/7; group 5, illustrating low-fired body, As the filament network was not no vitrification (NV); (d) Kavousi Fig. 9:c). glass completely developed in all we can of around 800-850?C. Due 93/13 (cooking vessel), group 5, illus samples, assign temperatures low-fired no vitrifica to the color of the it can be surmised that an trating body, light clay bodies, oxidizing = was their The tion (NV). Bar 10u.ni atmosphere predominant during firing. comparative pithos same features with sample (Kavousi 93/66) exhibited the technological in some areas the exception of being slightly less calcareous and forming a coarser vitrification microstructure (Fig. 9:d).
Petrographic Group 4
In technological terms (level of Ca and firing) the sample representing to 3 group 4 (Kavousi 93/6; Fig. 10:b) is very similar the members of group 93/66. Both 93/6 and and especially to the comparative sample Kavousi a coarser is of 93/66 contain slightly glass filament network than typical 156 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
some areas group 3. In of its ceramic body, however, Kavousi 93/6 exhibits an only initial stages of vitrification and therefore it should be assigned overall temperature of 750-800?C.
Petrographic Group 5
a coarse to Group 5 is fabric with very rough fracture surfaces, due the large number of inclusions. The clay in all samples is low calcareous and the firing temperature consistently low (<750?C) (Fig. 10:c, d). As mentioned a above, given the low firing temperature, relatively reducing atmosphere to is likely have existed; combined with the low calcareous nature of the clays, this atmosphere produced the dark colors observed in these samples (dark brown to gray).
SYNTHESIS OF ANALYTICAL RESULTS
a The results from PE and SEM form clear picture of the production of these distinctive groups of pottery. The consistency in their raw materials seems were as and firing to confirm that, indeed, they produced sets of ritual ceramics: goddess figures, snake tubes, and plaques. All three types of objects appear in petrographic groups 1,3,4, and 5, while 20 of 26 goddess can figures, 24 of the 33 snake tubes, and 27 of the 37 plaques be classified within petrographic fabric group 3 (see Table 3). are Although it is clear that the ritual objects produced primarily in one fabric (macroscopic fabric XI,55 represented by petrographic group 3), one they do not represent the products of local workshop specializing in were the production of religious objects. The various fabrics produced by potters in quite different locations, employing varied technologies of are production. There those that exploited low calcareous clays and used low firing temperatures and those that tempered calcareous clays and fired them at Such a contrast between two relatively higher temperatures. very a different conceptions of ceramic paste has been noted for EM IIB56 and as two it seems that in LM IIIC, during the earlier period, these traditions produced primarily cooking pots and jug/jar repertoires, respectively. With their fabrics identical to those of everyday utilitarian objects, same these ritual ceramics were almost certainly made in the workshops coarse-ware were that produced the normal range of pottery. But where to such workshops located? We shall discuss this first by reference geologi context of on cal deposits and their distribution, and then within the work resource thresholds for ceramic raw materials.
The first observation that can be made is that the clay matrix and aplas tics of group 5 and perhaps group 1 derive from low-grade metamorphic is common in the deposits, probably the Phyllite-Quartzite series, which area east 55. Haggis andMook 1993, immediately to the of the Isthmus of Ierapetra (Fig. 4). Phyllite pp. 275-276; Mook 2005, p. 171. based fabrics have a in this area, with a long history significant proportion 56.Whitelawetal.1997. and from these in the of from Kavousi Mochlos et 1999. pottery deriving deposits 57. Day al. Bronze as well as from Mochlos the Early Age,57 during Neopalatial pe 58. Betancourt and Myer 1995; Day, on riod.58 In fact, the site of Vronda itself is situated deposits of the Phyllite Joyner, and Relaki 2003. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES J57
TABLE 3. FABRIC GROUPS FOR RITUAL OBJECTS
Goddess Macroscopic Petrographic Fabric Tubes Fabric Type Figures Snake Plaques
IV group 5 1 4 2 XI group 3 20 24 27 XVI group 1 1 1 6 XXII group 4 1 1 2 XXV group 2 1 1 0 XXVI 0 2 0 Others 2 0 0
Total 26 33 37
are in Macroscopic fabric types defined Haggis and Mook 1993.
a Quartzite series and indeed has potter's kiln dated to LM IIIC.59 It is likely that the ceramics produced in this updraft pottery kiln exploited the nearby phyllite deposits, although the link between the Kavousi kiln and the group 5 fabrics is less clear. Similar fabrics could have been produced in other geologically similar locations. are as In contrast, the aplastic inclusions found in groups 2 and 4 occur as on sociated with deposits that intrusions into the limestone the southern border of the Gulf ofMirabello. These granitic and granodioritic a a rocks have restricted distribution that should give good indication of where the temper for group 4 was obtained. The constituent minerals of are rossa these igneous rocks also present in the terra deposits of the Iera case petra depression (Fig. 4) and itmay be that this is their origin in the of group 2. Analyses of modern ceramics from the village of Vainia, whose use a mrx rossa a potters of terra and nearby marl,60 show the presence of granodiorite-derived minerals (Fig. 8:d).61 The aplastics of these two fabric on west groups clearly originated the side of the Isthmus of Ierapetra. In case was the of group 2, it is likely that the aplastic component already a present in the red bed deposits that surely formed major part of the clay or mix (from the alluvial deposits around the Ierapetra depression Kalo Chorio area; see Fig. 5:b). on Group 4 differs in its clay matrix, being based a fine, calcareous Neo was gene clay that high fired. Such deposits are found across a broad area, to some mostly the west of the Isthmus, with those around Vrionisi being most of the suitable for pottery production, along with those in the vicinity of Vasiliki and Vainia (Fig. 4).62 a Having similar base clay, pithos sample Kavousi 93/66 demonstrates a as also that its dominant metamorphic sand grains have geographical area as sociation with the of the granodiorite outcrops, both types of inclu are same not sion present in the fabric. It is immediately clear where these metamorphic rocks originate, but in examples of the closely comparable
59. Gesell, Day, and Coulson 1988, Myer 1984. pp. 290-293. 62. Dermitzakis 1969; Fortuin 1977; 60. Blitzer 1984. Gifford andMyer 1984; Hein, Day, 61. See also Gifford andMyer 1984; and Kilikoglou 2004. i58 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
are group 3 they associated with altered igneous rock fragments, suggesting a area possible link to the ophiolitic outcrops in the of Gournia. s Arnold influential Exploitable Threshold Model63 has often been used effectively in assessing probabilities of the location of pottery workshops to raw us at a in relation their materials. It offers least general guideline common sources. concerning the proximity of production sites to their clay no or area Although workshops kiln structures have been found in the of the granodiorite outcrops, both the clays and aplastics contained in the a areas pottery give clear indication of at least two for the production of the goddess figures and the associated ritual ceramics. A strong argument can at be made that least four of the fabric groups represent quite different are as clay recipes and ways of firing. In summary, they follows:
1. fine calcareous clay with granodiorite aplastics (relatively high fired, west of Isthmus); 2. fine calcareous clay with rounded metamorphic sand inclusions west (relatively high fired, of Isthmus, but separate from above); 3. low calcareous phyllite fabric (relatively low fired, east of Isth mus); 4. low calcareous micaceous, metamorphic fabric (relatively low fired, east of Isthmus, but distinct from above fabrics).
are common coarse-ware All of these fabrics in the normal assemblage of Kavousi and represent pottery from different production locations. In addition to their varying origins, they also display distinctly different technologies.
SPECIAL OBJECTS AND SPECIALIST POTTERS?
we are Clearly then, not faced with the specialist production of what appear to be rather special ritual objects, let alone their centralized pro duction. On the our to from different contrary, analyses point potters traditions in different locations producing similar equipment for reli use. gious The objects may still be special to both producer and consumer, but they take their place within the normal material bounds of pottery manufacture. a or This, however, does not mean that the production of cult figure as a vessel might not have been acknowledged special occasion. The creation a a of Zhikile pot (a representation of deity) by the Ngwazla caste potters same of theMafa inNorthern Cameroon takes place in the space and with the same raw material as the other repertoire of the potters. However, the a more figure of god is the subject of input from the potters husband and a are more the rites and libations associated with such figure elaborate than an they would be in ordinary day's work.64 Similarly, in 20th-century East Crete, many potters interviewed claimed to have that else knew how to make. These special pots nobody 63. Arnold 1985, pp. 20-60. were and with birds that acted as foun commonly "justice cups" large jars 64. David, Sterner, and Gavua 1988; care were tains?vessels that required special in their manufacture and David 1990. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 159
as or as case used trick cups vessels of display. Although the potters in each claimed the unique nature of their creation, in fieldworkby Day this story was a heard repeatedly from variety of individuals belonging to either of or the main traditions, the Thrapsano potters the Kentri potters. we a Can envisage similar situation with potters around the Isthmus of Ierapetra during LM IIIC? Were the striking goddess figures, snake tubes, and plaques special items that most potters had in their repertoire? Were the complex figures shaped in similar ways by distinct groups of pot ters, despite differences in the way those potters manufactured utilitarian as a pottery? Were these figures much chance for the potters to show off as were their skills within their community they for display at the shrine were in which they deposited? are Although the locations and traditions of production distinct, the centers common con whole range of products from these is at Vronda. In we a sumption terms would consider them normal part of the domestic repertoire of the site. Therefore, it is difficult to argue that, in the case of ritual objects from these production centers, their differing micro provenance indicates the presence at the shrine of people from different as communities. It is not yet clear whether the objects traveled with other were or products and obtained at Kavousi, individuals themselves brought across to such sets the landscape that place of worship. are These questions of great interest, addressing issues of how people on an on and objects moved around the landscape everyday basis and special a occasions. The analyses presented here offer way forward. The analysis of now the ritual ceramics known from Kephala Vasilikis and Chalasmenos on our Monastirakiou would certainly shed further light ability to trace the routes of people and objects around the Isthmus region at this time. APPENDIX PETROGRAPHIC FABRIC DESCRIPTIONS*
GROUP 1: FREQUENT LOW-GRADE METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Kavousi 93/11 (snake tube 11), 93/18 (cooking vessel)
Microstructure
are There very few voids in these samples, comprising few megavughs, common macro- and and common voids. The mesovughs, mesoplanar a axes voids have crude long parallel orientation with the vessel margins are and generally single- to double-spaced. The elongate aplastic inclusions a axes have crude long parallel orientation with the vessel margins, but the micas within the have a random orientation. groundmass
Groundmass
the sections. The color varies from Homogeneous throughout orange brown to mid-brown in PPL and from red-orange to red-brown in XP (x25). The micromass is optically active to optically moderately active.
Inclusions
= ca. c:f:v10 30:65:5 = mm to mm Coarse fraction 3 0.2 (granules to fine sand) = Fine fraction 0.2 mm or less (fine sand and below)
coarse The inclusions appear to have a bimodal grain-size distribution; the are a are inclusions set in finer-grained groundmass. Inclusions poorly sorted. * The below follow Coarse Fraction descriptions Whitbread 1986,1989,1995. Common abbreviations are as follows: a = to angular; Dominant = = frequent c:f:v coarse:fine.'void ratio; PPL to rock mainly very low r = Metamorphic fragments: low-grade, plane polarized light; rounded; There are a sa sr = very rarely medium-grade metamorphism. =subangular; subrounded; wr = = variety of different types: clinozoisite-rich rock fragments, well rounded; XP crossed polars. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES l6l
epidote-biotite quartz schist, amphibole-biotite-clinozoisite quartz schist, biotite-clinozoisite-quartz schist, clinozoisite biotite-opaques-quartz schist, biotite-rich rock fragments, amphibole-biotite-opaques-clinozoisite-quartz-titanite rock or fragment, chlorite anthophyllite-biotite schist (some possibly with accessory tourmaline?), chlorite biotite schist, clinozoisite feldspar rock fragment, altered feldspar-titanite-biotite replaced amphibole-clinozoisite rock fragment, amphibole-rich rock fragments, and garnet-banded biotite quartz rock fragment. to sa-sr. = Generally elongate slightly elongate, Size <2.5 mm; = mm mode 1 long dimension.
to Common few a Polycrystalline quartz: inequigranular, sometimes with sheared = appearance and/or sutured grain boundaries. Size <3 mm; = mm mode 0.8 long dimension. Monocrystalline quartz: equant to slightly elongate, straight = = mm extinction. Size <1 mm; mode 0.4 long dimension. Muscovite mica: laths. Mode = 0.3 mm.
Few = mm. Chlorite: laths and pseudomorphs. Mode 0.2
Veryfew = mm. Opaques: mode 0.2 = mm Biotite mica: lath, possibly replacing amphibole? Size 0.5 long dimension.
Rare
Siltstone: composed of rounded grains of monocrystalline quartz a set in clay-rich matrix. Some hematite staining present. = mm Slightly elongate, sr. Size <0.9 long dimension.
rare to Very absent sa. = mm Orthopyroxene: approximately equant, Size 1.05 long dimension. Poikilitically enclosed small, rounded grains of Some alteration. garnet. marginal some are Plagioclase feldspar: laths, heavily saussuritized and are others fairly fresh; polysynthetic twinning still visible, = mm slightly bent. Size 1.3 long dimension. Amphibole Epidote Alkali feldspar
Fine Fraction
Frequent sa-sr. Monocrystalline quartz: approximately equant, Straight common. = mm extinction Mode 0.04 long dimension. = mm Muscovite mica: laths. Mode 0.1 long dimension. l62 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
Few Biotite mica: laths. Mode = 0.1 mm.
Clinozoisite: equant. as = mm Metamorphic rock fragments: above. Mode 0.1 long dimension.
Few to rare
Opaques: equant.
Rare
Chlorite: pseudomorphs and laths. Epidote Amphibole Polycrystalline quartz Titanite (sphene) Plagioclase feldspar
rare to Very absent Microsfossils: calcareous. Foraminifera, shell fragments. Calcimudstone (micrite) Alkali feldspar
Textural Concentration Features (Tcfs)
or are rare Textural concentration features, tcfs, few to in these samples. are in They dark brown in PPL and dark red-brown XP (xlOO), with sharp to to diffuse boundaries, high optical density, subrounded rounded and discordant with the micromass, although the aplastic inclusion range ap pears to be very similar. The aplastic inclusions comprise monocrystalline = mm quartz and/or clinozoisite and epidote. Mode 0.3 long dimension. are They probably clay pellets.
GROUP 2: ACID IGNEOUS ROCKS
Kavousi 93/5 (goddess 24), 93/14 (cooking vessel)
Microstructure
are common There are very few voids in these samples. There mesovughs rare rare The and planar voids, and macroplanar voids, and very megavughs. are a voids open- to double-spaced. They have crude orientation with their axes to as long parallel the vessel margins, do the aplastic inclusions.
Groundmass
Homogeneous throughout the sections. The color varies from orange-brown to in PPL, to red-brown to orange-brown mid-brown inXP (x25). GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 163
Inclusions
= ca. 30:65:5 c:f:vin 10nm = mm mm Coarse fraction 2.7 to 0.25 (granules to medium sand) = Fine fraction 0.25 mm or less (fine sand and below)
The inclusions appear to have a bimodal grain-size distribution, with a coarse inclusions set in fine-grained groundmass. Generally a-sa, and poorly sorted.
Coarse Fraction
Dominant
Acid igneous rock fragments: composed of quartz, alkali feldspar, or plagioclase feldspar, and occasional muscovite/and biotite texture mica, amphibole, and microcline. Interlocking igneous to or is evident. Medium coarse-grained, possibly granite sa. = microgranite. Generally slightly elongate, Size <2.5 mm; = mm mode 0.5 long dimension. Feldspars tend to be partially some saussuritized. Rare myrmekite in grains.
to Common few = = mm Biotite mica: laths. Size <0.8 mm; mode 0.4 long dimension. some Plagioclase feldspar: laths with polysynthetic twinning; show as cases. simple twinning well. Partially saussuritized in most = = mm Size <0.5 mm; mode 0.3 long dimension. sa. = Monocrystalline quartz: slightly elongate, Size <0.6 mm; = mm mode 0.3 long dimension.
Few sa-sr. Pofycrystalline quartz: inequigranular. Slightly elongate, = = mm Size <0.8 mm; mode 0.5 long dimension. sa-sr. Alkali feldspar: approximately equant, Partially saussuri some = tized; grains show simple twinning. Size <0.75 mm; = mm mode 0.5 long dimension.
rare Very sa. = mm Anti/perthite: approximately equant, Size 2.7 and mm 0.55 long dimension.
rare to Very absent Garnet(?): high relief, pale brown and isotropic, in sample 93/5. Amphibole: green with altered margins (biotite), in sample 93/5. Limestone: sparite with sparse monocrystalline quartz inclusions, irregular shape, in sample 93/5. Chlorite pseudomorphs: rounded, amorphous, in sample 93/5. Opaques: in sample 93/5. 164 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
Fine Fraction
Frequent a-sr. = mm Monocrystalline quartz: equant, Mode 0.1 long dimension.
Common = mm Plagioclase feldspar: laths. Mode 0.1 long dimension. = mm Biotite mica: laths. Mode 1 long dimension.
Few
Opaques: equant.
to Few very few Amphibole: green. Alkali feldspar
Rare r. Chert: slightly elongate, Epidote: equant. Limestone: equant and rounded. Calcite Muscovite mica: laths.
rare Very Myrmekite Titanite (sphene) Chlorite
rare to Very absent Clinozoisite
Garnet(?): in sample 93/5.
Textural Concentration Features
are are There very few tcfs in these samples. In sample 93/14 there rounded a are areas with different clay particle orientation, visible in XP. They to orange-brown in PPL and red-orange inXP (x40), with clear merging usu boundaries, neutral optical density, concordant with the micromass, a ally well rounded, with range and spacing of aplastic inclusions similar seen = mm. are to that in the base clay. Mode 1.25 They probably clay are areas pellets. There also irregular longitudinal of finer-grained clay, are seen are which also in sample 93/5. There amorphous concentration are features in sample 93/5 that dark red-brown in PPL and XP (x40), are with clear boundaries and high optical density; they discordant with no sa-sr. are the micromass and have aplastic inclusions. Equant, They probably clay mineral concentrations. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 165
GROUP 3: COMMON SAND INCLUSIONS
Kavousi 93/1 (goddess 7), 93/3 (goddess 2), 93/7 (snake tube 1), 93/10 (plaque 1), 93/12 (snake tube 13)
Microstructure
are common to rare are There voids in these samples. They commonly meso- and rare to absent macro- and and rare to microvughs, megavughs, macro- are to absent and mesoplanar voids. The voids double- open-spaced a axes and have crude long parallel orientation with the vessel margins. a axes The aplastic inclusions have very crude long parallel orientation with the vessel margins.
Groundmass
some Varies from being homogeneous in samples (93/1 and 93/7) to heterogeneous with evidence for clay mixing in others (93/3, 93/10, and 93/12). The color varies from red-brown in PPL to dark red inXP (x25). The micromass is optically slightly active.
Inclusions
= ca. 15:80:5 to 20:75:5 c:f:vlnlOpim = mm to mm to Coarse fraction 4 0.25 (granules medium sand) = Fine fraction 0.25 mm or less (fine sand and below)
The inclusions have abimodal grain-size distribution. Coarse, well-rounded are set a are inclusions in very fine grained groundmass and moderately sorted.
Coarse Fraction
Common
Phyllite: composed of biotite and quartz. Rarely with chlorite some (greenschist). Crenulation cleavage is visible in grains. Approximately equant to slightly elongate to elongate, sr-wr. = = mm Size <1.8 mm; mode 0.75 long dimension. Slate: sr-r. Size = <3.5 mode = 0.8 mm dimen elongate, mm; long seen sion. Can be to grade into partially metamorphosed siltstones.
Few to very few Schist: composed of biotite and quartz, and chlorite and quartz (greenschist); schistocity iswell defined, and sometimes seen. sr. = = mm folding is Elongate, Size <1.9 mm; mode 1.75 long dimension. Sandstone: composed of monocrystalline quartz, both framework and matrix supported varieties, with a small amount of i66 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
clay-rich and/or quartz-rich matrix. Fine-grained sandstone, quartz arenite. Some is partially metamorphosed; quartz a porphyroclasts in partially recrystallized and aligned some matrix and boundaries of of the quartz porphyroclasts are some breaking down. Also stretched quartz grains, indi cating deformation during metamorphism. Sandstones mostly a well sorted, few poorly sorted. Some grade into litharenites with chert and plagioclase feldspar clasts. Equant and well = = mm rounded grains. Size <2.6 mm; mode 0.75 long dimension.
Siltstone: partially metamorphosed. Original sedimentary lamina tion still visible and contains inclusions of monocrystalline r. = = mm quartz. Elongate grains, Size <1.3 mm; mode 0.5 to long dimension. Packing of the grains varies from sparse well packed. sa-sr. Polycrystalline quartz: inequigranular, generally elongate, a = Usually exhibit stretched, metamorphic texture. Size = mm <1.25 mm; mode 0.75 long dimension.
Few to very rare sa-sr. Size = <1.6 Monocrystalline quartz: generally equant, mm; = mm mode 0.3 long dimension.
Few to absent
Fine-grained igneous rock fragments: possibly volcanic, basalt? Texture varies from decussate to porphyritic. Variable alteration; in some, the groundmass has been devitrified. Elongate = = mm to equant. Size <1.25 mm; mode 0.5 long dimension. Calcimudstone (micrite): generally equant and fairly well rounded, often with a dark rim around the outside (reaction rim?). to = Often optically inactive due high firing. Size 0.75 mm; = mode 0.3 mm long dimension.
rare to Very absent Mudstone: brown
Alkali feldspar Bright red mineral: clay concentration?
Fine Fraction
Predominant
sa-sr. Mode = 0.02 mm. Monocrystalline quartz: equant,
Few Biotite mica: laths. as Phyllite: above. Opaques Calcimudstone GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 167
Rare
Polycrystalline quartz
rare to Very absent Chlorite: pseudomorph. Muscovite mica: laths.
Textural Concentration Features
are common to rare one Tcfs in these samples. The majority is of type, which is gray in PPL and optically inactive, dark gray in XP (x40), with clear to merging boundaries, low optical density, equant and well-rounded to are irregular, elongate shapes. They discordant grading into concordant are with the micromass; inclusions very fine-grained monocrystalline are quartz. Some merge into the micromass, suggesting that they clay are are seen pellets, and partially mixed into the base clay. These in all the
samples.
GROUP 4: GRANODIORITE INCLUSIONS IN A CALCAREOUS MATRIX
Kavousi 93/6 (goddess 17)
Microstructure
are meso There very few voids in this sample. Rare macrovughs, and few rare a vughs, with very macroplanar voids. The voids have very crude long axes are parallel orientation with the micromass and open-spaced. Aplastic inclusions have a random orientation.
Groundmass
Homogeneous throughout the section. The color ismid-brown in PPL and red-brown inXP (x25). The micromass is optically slightly active.
Inclusions
= ca. c:f:vin 25:70:5 = mm to mm to Coarse fraction 2.25 0.1 (granules very fine sand) = mm or Fine fraction 0.1 less (very fine sand and below) a are The inclusions have unimodal grain-size distribution and poorly sorted.
Coarse Fraction
Frequent Acid igneous rock fragments: probably granodiorite. Composed various of proportions of plagioclase feldspar, alkali feldspar, i68 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
to to quartz, amphibole altered biotite mica. Coarse- medium = sa-sr. Size <2.25 mode = grained. Generally equant, mm; mm 0.5 long dimension.
Common a-sa. Plagioclase feldspar: tabular. Polysynthetic twinning, = = mm Size <0.75 mm; mode 0.25 long dimension.
Few
Alkali feldspar: tabular. Sometimes with simple twinning, usually sa-sr. = = mm partially saussuritized, Size <0.6; mode 0.2 long dimension. are Biotite mica: some laths, others replace amphibole (pseudo sa-sr. = mm morphs); Mode 0.15 long dimension. Pleochroic dark brown to brown-green. sa. Monocrystalline quartz: straight and undul?se extinction, Mode = 0.15 mm.
Rare
Opaques Mudstone: brown and gray varieties. Amphibole: pale brown to pale yellow.
rare Very Siltstone: composed of monocrystalline quartz and biotite mica a sr. grains in clay-rich matrix, fairly well packed, elongate, = mm = mm Size <2 long dimension; mode 0.75 long dimension.
Fine Fraction
Common sa-r. = mm Biotite mica: laths and equant grains, Mode 0.04 long are an dimension. Some alteration product of amphibole. sa-r. = mm Monocrystalline quartz: mainly equant, Mode 0.02 long dimension.
Few = Plagioclase feldspar: laths. Polysynthetic twinning. Mode 0.08 mm long dimension.
Rare
Opaques Alkali feldspar
rare Very Muscovite mica: laths. Chlorite GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 169
Textural Concentration Features
are rare are Tcfs in this sample. They dark brown in PPL and dark red brown in XP (xlOO), with clear to diffuse boundaries, very high optical a activity, discordant with the micromass, sometimes with surrounding sr-r. = mm. void, aplastic inclusions of quartz, usually equant, Size <0.32 are They probably clay pellets.
GROUP 5: PHYLLITE GROUP
Kavousi 93/2 (snake tube 3), 93/4 (plaque5), 93/8 (goddess 16), 93/9 (snake tube 17), 93/13 (cooking vessel), 93/25 (horned kalathos)
Microstructure
are to common common There few voids in these samples, including macro- mega- and macroplanar voids, and very few and mesovughs. The a axes voids have crude long orientation with the vessel margins in some a of the samples, and random orientation in others. They are single- to a double-spaced. The elongate aplastic inclusions have crude long axes parallel orientation with the vessel margins.
Groundmass
Homogeneous through the sections. The color varies from orange to or ange-brown in PPL and from red-orange to orange-brown in XP (x25). to Optically active slightly active.
Inclusions
= c:f:vin ca. 20:75:5 to 25:65:10 = mm mm Coarse fraction 4 to 0.25 (granules to medium sand) = Fine fraction 0.25 mm or less (fine sand and below)
a The inclusions appear to have bimodal grain-size distribution, with coarse a moderately well-rounded grains set in finer groundmass. Overall are the inclusions poorly sorted.
Coarse Fraction
to Dominant frequent Phyllites: varying in grain size and composition, from mica-rich to (biotite and muscovite), mica- and quartz-rich, sometimes with chlorite. Some display crenulation cleavage; all have a phyllitic alignment of the platy minerals. Generally elongate, sa-r. = <4 = mm Size mm; mode 1 long dimension. Original sedimentary lamination is sometimes still visible. 170 PETER M. DAY ET AL.
Few to rare
Sandstone: grading into quartz-rich greywacke. Moderately sorted set a quartz grains in clay- and quartz-rich matrix, mostly sa-r. = = mm fairly equant, Size <1.7 mm; mode 0.5 long dimension. Some show evidence of being partially metamor phosed (biotite rims around the quartz grains). Some sandstone fragments contain chert. Reactionary grain boundaries indicate a are partial metamorphism to psammites. Some quartz grains elongate from stretching during metamorphism. a Siltstones: variable quantities of quartz grains in clay-rich matrix, sr-r. = = mm generally equant, Size <1.3 mm; mode 0.5 long dimension.
Few to absent sa-sr. = Polycrystalline quartz: inequigranular, fairly equant, Size = mm are 1.7 mm; mode 0.5 long dimensions. Boundaries either or consertal. straight
to rare Veryfew very a-sa. = Monocrystalline quartz: approximately equant, Size 2.7 mm; = mm mode 0.4 long dimension.
to absent Veryfew Calcimudstone (micrite): some have quartz inclusions within them. sa-sr. = mm Generally equant, Size <2.45 long dimension. = = Chert: sa-sr. Size <1 mode 0.4 mm approximately equant, mm; long dimension.
Rare to absent
Schists: quartz-biotite mica schists; schistocity is developed. Elon sa-r. = mm. seen gate grains, Size <2.6 Only in samples 93/2 and 93/13.
rare to Very absent Altered igneous rock fragments: fine-grained. Feldspar laths a sa. within devitrified groundmass. Approximately equant, = mm Size 0.62 long dimension. Decussate texture. = mm Shell fragment voids: in samples 93/13 and 93/25. Size 0.7 long dimension. some Alkali feldspar: laths with simple twinning and euhedral grains. Orthoclase? In samples 93/4 and 93/13. Chlorite: pseudomorph. Fibrous grains of chlorite.
Fine Fraction
to common Frequent a-sr. Monocrystalline quartz: generally equant, Straight extinction = mm mainly. Mode 0.04 long dimension. GODDESSES, SNAKE TUBES, AND PLAQUES 171
Few Polycrystalline quartz: inequigranular to equigranular. Usually = sa-sr. Mode 0.1 mm dimension. equant, long
Few to rare Muscovite mica: laths. Biotite mica: laths.
to rare Rare very Plagioclase feldspar: laths with polysynthetic twinning. Alkali feldspar: laths sometimes showing simple twinning. Chert
Quartz biotite phyllite rock Clinozoisite-epidote group minerals Opaques Amphibole
rare to Very absent Chlorite: pseudomorphs, fibrous. Sandstone: well-rounded grains.
Textural Concentration Features
are rare to Tcfs very absent in these samples, with two different types. Sample 93/13 displays both types. The first is very dark brown in PPL to and dark red-brown inXP (x40), with sharp clear boundaries, very high optical density, elongate, discordant with the micromass, aplastic inclu sr-wr. sions of quartz, biotite, and metamorphic rock fragments. Generally = mm a Size 1.75 long dimension. Probably clay pellet. The second type is red-orange in PPL and dark red in XP (xlOO), with clear to diffuse boundaries, fairly high optical density, slightly elongate, concordant with the micromass, aplastic inclusions of monocrystalline quartz, titanite (sphene) r-sr. a seen and opaques, Probably clay pellet. This type is also in sample are 93/2. Tcfs absent in samples 93/4, 93/8, 93/9, and 93/25. 172 PETERM.DAYETAL.
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Peter M. Vassilis Day Kilikoglou
University of Sheffield NCSR Demokritos
department of archaeology INSTITUTE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE
northgate house LABORATORY OF ARCHAEOMETRY
west street AGHIA PARASKEVI
SHEFFIELD S? 4ET 153-IO ATHENS UNITED KINGDOM GREECE
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G?raldine C. Gesell Louisejoyner
Cardiff University University of Tennessee
school of history and archaeology department of classics
humanities building tennessee knoxville, 37996-o413 colum drive [email protected] cardiff cfio 3eu united kingdom