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Home , Abraham Staats, Almshouse, Beverwijck, Counterscarp, Fort Casimir, Hudson Valley

t is sometimesdifficult to rememberthat Fort Grange secondphase of planned town development during the and were two different establishmentsunder 1650sand 1660s.Qneof theearliest developmentsin this the . Fort Grange was the period was the construction of and the town trading center built by the Company in 1624,and Bever- of New Amstel on the beginning in 1651 and wijck was the town laid out by the Company in 1652 1652. At Fort Grange, meanwhile, an illegal cluster of some distance to the north but within a cannon shot of houseshad grown up on the norehside of the fort that, by Fort Grange. As establishments of the West India 1652, was said to number about 100 structures. Unlike Company primarily intended to facilitate and control these illegal houses of Rensselaerswijck immediately trade, Fort Orange and Beverwijck were separatefrom outside the fort, other houseshad been built beginning in the Colonie of Rensselaerswijck which entirely 1647 inside Fort Grange by private traders with the surrounded them. permission of the Company and of Stuyvesant himself. Fort Grange became a crowded, enclosed, small Fort Orange in 1624 and Bevcrwijclc in 1652 belong community. Stuyvesant was determined to eradicatethe within two distinct phases of colonial settlement and illegal housesbuilt close to the fort outside, and in 1648 urban development that occurred before 1664.Predated his soldiers beganto tear someof them down. Finally, in by the settlements of Jamestown in 1607 and by 1652, Stuyvesant laid out the town of Beverwijck, Plymouth in 1620 and located far inland on a tidal river, consisting of lots along two main streetswhich are today Fort Grange was a third isolated of European Broadway and StateStreet in Albany, located at what he civilization in what later became the thirteen original considereda safedistance north of Fort Orange.” colonies. The construction by the Dutch of Fort Amster- dam on in 1626 included the laying out of Other planned towns in soon streetsnearby which becameNew Amsterdam. In New followed Beverwijck. Nieuw Utrecht was laid out in England, other modem cities also survive today from 1657, and Nieuw Haerlem and Wiltwijck (Kingston) their beginnings assmall compact,nucleated settlements followed in 1658. Still later, in 1662, Schenectadyand establishedand laid out in a remarkable per&l between Nieuw Dot-p (Hurley) were established. If and when 1630 and 1639. These include Cambridge, , archeological remains of someof thesecommunities are Hartford, Providence, New Haven, and Newport, for excavatedand then carefully studied and if comparisons example. On ChesapeakeBay, however, compactsettle- with the evidence from Fort Orange and Beverwijck can ments such as Jamestown and St. Mary’s City (1634) be made, it may yet be possible to identify cultural survive today only as archeological sites. Fort Orange behavior patternswhich are distinctly urban in character was abandoned in 1676 and also did not survive as an and to test the hypothetical classification of 17th century integral part of a modem city. While technically not a communities. The basic challenge for archaeologistsas compact, nucleated settlement of the same type as the well as historians in studying urban sites is to consider other examples,Fort Orangewas directly acrossthe river the problem of defining the terms “urban” and “city,” or from a village of Rensselaerswijck tradesmen and “town.” As early as 1961 Eric Lampard called attention mechanicsat Greenbush which Van Rensselaerordered to the problem of inadequatedefinitions of “urban” and to be established in 1639 and which began in the early “rural” asterms usedby historians who had not carefully 1630sas a farm, mill, and guard housein need of protec- considered the question. All too often non-urban tion from the f0rt.l communities had been lumped together arbitrarily as “rural,” while distinctly “urban” traits had been very Following this initial period of settlement planning loosely defined. Lampard observedthat and establishment before 1640, New Netherland under Scholars have been preoccupied with biographies of particular the directorship of Petrus Stuyvesant experienced a communities, with case studies in urban rivalry, or the general 327 328 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS

impact of the city on society, rather than the study of urbanization where deep filling occurred or where the later buildings as a societal process. We know little beyond a bare statistical have shallow cellars. But in a city, as the process of outline of the secular phenomenon of population concentration, demolition and new construction steadily continues and the multiplication of points of concentration, or of relations among concentrations of different size and density in various parts of the as the old utilities are replacedby new ones’,little by little country at different times in our history. the earliest archeological tracesdisappear until they, too, are gone entirely. Perhaps the archeological analysis and comparison of fauna1remains as dietary evidence, of ceramic types as Most of the archeological information about Fort evidence of statusand wealth or of acceptanceof change, Orangeand Beverwijck that survived was lost in the 19th of structural remains as evidence of construction and early 20th centuries in the absenceof archeologists permanence,or of other forms of cultural behavior from with modem methods of data retrieval. The still visible various “urban” and“rural” siteswill help in determining remainsof Fort Orange,however, cameto be appreciated (according to Lampard) as an historic site after the Revolutionary War, and . . .what is generically ‘urban’ or otherwise in the experience of historical observanceswere held there.4But soon Albany particular communities . . . Phenomena that are found in cities are began to expand its boundaries southward.,and in 1790 not necessarily ‘urban’ per se, and yet this is precisely what many Simeon Dewitt, as surveyor of the new blocks of city scholars have implied. land, laid out Broadway to extend directly acrossthe east It is, of course,necessary to continue the careful study of part of the visible Fort Orange site. Dewitt then land records and other documents to develop a better purchasedtwo lots of land in 1793 and 1794 on the west knowledge of early urban development. The Dutch side of Broadway. With Dewitt’s apparent sense of settlements on such as Midwout, history,it wasno coincidence that thesetwo lots included Amersfoort, and Breuckelyn, for example, should be much of the remainder of the Fort Orange site west of the carefully considered in terms of their origins and early street. Dewitt immediately commencedconstruction of growth as “village” communities. Many early towns, a large new house on the two lots, thereby destroying particularly in , began not as compact, much of the site.5 In 1848, this house wa,sburned in a concentrated village settlements but as groups of great fire which devastatedthis part of Albany, but the enclosed lands and relatively isolated farmsteads. area was soon rebuilt. One wonders, of course, what artifacts were recovered by Dewitt, or by the builders after 1848. It is quite possible that many Dutch yellow Early Archeological Evidence of 17th- clinker bricks appearedat the site, for which it may have Century Fort Orange and Beverwijck become known. A writer in Buffalo, , about The walled town of Beverwijck, which became 1847 reported that the modem yellow bridks then made Albany in 1664, continued to be enclosed by a wall for in Wisconsin were harder and better than any others he another century. The city experienced one major expan- had ever seen, “unless it be those little yellow bricks sion in the 175Os,when the stockadewall was movedand which are imported from Holland, by the Dutch of Fort enlarged (Figure #56). Fort Orange remained outside the Orange to build their houses with.“6 town, to the south and close to the river bank, until it was replaced in 1676 by a new fort at a different location, Many other discoveries, meanwhile, evidently which was on the hill at the head of State Street in occurred in Albany in the areathat had been Beverwijck, Albany. Unfortunately, the above-ground structures but only a few records of these have survived. In from the 17th century have entirely disappearedfrom the September1866, Patrick McCarty, a builder, presented modern city, but the 17th-century street plan has to the Albany Common Council some relics that he had survived asa tangible, visible reminder of Albany’s long found with remains of the wall which he history. This historic street plan has remained relatively uncovered in a lot on Hudson Avenue belonging to Hose iiilaltered until only recently. Company No. 7. Early in the 1870s,anotherstockade line was uncovered during excavation of the basementfor a Someof the most important archeological deposits in building at the southwestcomer of North Pearl Streetand Albany still exist under these streets, despite the Sheridan Avenue. Joel Munsell recorded that “the numerous utility lines that have been installed under workmen uncovered a row of stumps of a stockade, them. Elsewhere, 19th and 2Otb century buildings have which ran comerwise across the lot, and a crowd of obliterated most remains from the’colonial period, except persons unacquainted with these ancient defenses was ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 329

Fig. 57. Dutch Reformed Church at the intersection of Broadway & State Street. (Joel IvIunsell, Mep1anQ Things in Alb~~ayTwo Centuries Ago, p. 25.) gathered there inquisitive regarding the origin of the The burial ground occupied but little mom space than the ground phenomena.” The stockadeposts at this location would now enclosing the Middle Dutch Church. The street was narrower, have been from the expanded town wall of the 1750s. and graves were extended beyond the present north line of the lot. Human burials also soon attracted attention when they In November 1882, as construction on Beaver Street were uncovered at the foot of State Street at the site of continued, burials and 18th century tombstonesof the the old Dutch Church built in 1656, enlarged in 1715, Quackenbush and Vanderheyden families were dis- and demolished in 1806(Figure#57). lvlunsell explain& covered. Two of the tombstones dated from 1770. A that small iron cannon was also found, probably becauseof . . . in digging a trench on the north side of State street in 1875, it the close proximity to the stockadeline of Beverwijck on perforated the old foundation still remaining there, and human the south side of the cemetery.7 bones were thrown out. The dead were borne on the shoulders of men from the church to the cemetery on Beaver street. Although Despite SimeonDewitt’s construction work, tracesof a trite subject to many of you, I will venture to mention that in Fort Qrange had remained visible until 1812. In 1886, process of time this ground on Beaver street was completely buried over; when a foot of sand was added to the surface, and a new tier the Albany Bicentennial Commission erected a bronze of coffins placed upon the first, each coffin required to be square, tablet on the site of the northeast of Fort Orange and to be placed against the previous one. in Broadway. In addition to erection of this marker, which was unveiled on July 22, 1886, the Bicentennial The coffins had been discovered when the basementof also resulted in the recovery and preservation of an a houseat the northeastcomer of the Beaver Streetburial artifact from Fort Qrange. The Albany Institute of ground was excavated. Munsell further lamented about History and Art still has a g-pound cannon ball marked this site that “Dug up at Fort Orange site July 22nd 1886.” The date These relics have been frequently disturbed by the improvements is peculiar, since that was Bicentennial Day, and it is not constantly going on. After the lot was abandoned as a place of known that excavations occurred exeept perhapsfor the burial, the new church yard was located south of the Capitol park marker. It is possible thatin thosedays Dutch documents in the vicinity of State street. The graves weremany feet above the survived which describedin detail Fort Qrangebut which surface of the lots, as they now are, vast excavations having been made in that pan of the city. perished in the 1911 fire. A description of Fort Orange published in 1902 in the County records index volumes The StateStreet remains were supposedlylater moved to is very exact, noting that the Dutch records “give some Washington Park, but the Beaver Streetburials were not idea of the location, construction, and general featuresof moved. Munsell also wrote old Fort Orange.” The detailed information that followed 330 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS

is not found in any translatedDutch documentscurrently tions revealed what is believed to have been a section of available.8 the cobblestone-facedsouth and stonecounterscarp or wall and, inside the fort, a part of the Hendrick Unfortunately, Broadway was altered early in the Andriessen van Doesburgh house, parts of the founda- 1930swith construction of the Dunn Memorial Bridge. tion of a brewery built by JeanLabatie in 1647,a pebbled The bronze tablet was moved from its 1886 location and pathway leading from the east entrance of the fort, and was placed in a pedestrian underpass below the D&H small sectionsof cellars of the housesof Railroad tracks. In 1971,after archeological excavations and Hans Vos. The Van Doesburgh house evidently had revealed part of Fort Orange during the arterial collapsed about 1664 or 1665, and the Staats house highway construction, this tablet was once again moved. burned in 1668.A scatteringof wood chips near the south It was mounted on a new concrete wall on the site of Fort wall toward the southeast bastion area may date from Orange, but far from the northeast bastion. In light of repairs attemptedearly in the 167Os,while soil strata in present knowledge it would perhaps be appropriate to the south moat evidently continued to build up from mount a second tablet there to explain and record the repeatedfloods before and after the fort was abandoned discrepancy, as well as its present location in relation to in 1676.The concretecrash wall of the 1930shad unfor- the actual site of Fort Orange. tunately destroyed the entire east curtain wall and bas- tions, but despite the effects of damageand destruction Excavations at the Site of Fort Orange from this and other development, the excavations Until the first test hole at the site of Fort Orange was produceda vast number of artifacts of interest. The initial excavatedon October 20,1970, diagnostic 17th century analysis of this material is now only partially completed Dutch artifacts had not been discovered and identified but is continuing; conclusions are necessarily still from sitesin the Albany areadespite the many published preliminary. translations of Dutch records and the extensive research of historians on the Dutch period. While previous Although a complete fauna1analysis of the garbage excavations in other sites in or near Albany had produced bone remains has not been conducted, it appearsthat the numerous 18th century or later materials, it had become number of deer that were consumed for food at Fort clear that an improved understanding of cultural Orange greatly outnumbered other sourcesof meat.Pigs behavior and material from the 18th century British were evidently the secondmost commonly slaughtered, colonial period and the process of Anglo-Dutch after deer. Fish, of course, were also commonly acculturation would depend heavily on archeological consumed.In deposits dating probably before 1648, the evidence from the 17th century Dutch and early English greatest number of fish bones and scales were found periods. That initial test hole was dug in what had been buried in a pit about twenty feet south of the entrance the cellar of Simeon Dewitt’s house of 1794 and the path. A few pieces of sturgeon plate also appeared,but street immediately in front. It was found that the 1794 sturgeon remains were infrequently found in the later cellar had obliterated all traces of 17th century occupa- 17thcentury depositsin Fort Orange.The number of deer tion, but under what had been the surface of Broadway is not surprising, however. In terms of survival, the trade in front of Dewitt’s house there were abundant 17th with the Indians for venison and other food was as vital century artifacts. These included brass Jew’s harps, as the fur trade. On the Rensselaerswijck map of about marked tobacco pipe fragments, glass trade beads, a 1630 it is noted that

piece of Rhenish stoneware with the date 1632, and From the Maquaas (especially in the winter) plenty of venison can pieces of Dutch majolica and delft? bc obtained that is fat and fine; about 3.4, or 5 hands of seawan for a deer. They would be glad to exchange a deer for milk or butter. The excavations, conducted by the New York State The meat is fit for smoking orpickling. . . In the fou& are pike and all sorts of fish. The sturgeon there is smaller than at the Historic Trust in cooperation with the Department of . One can be bought from the savages for a knife.” Transportation, continued steadily until March 1971. A large triangular area was carefully exposedbetween the Eating and drinking utensils included lead-glazedred- 1930sconcrete crash wall for the D&H tracks on the east, bodied and white/buff-bodied earthenwares,tin-glazed the facade line of the late 18th century houses along earthenwares,Rhenish stonewares, Chinese porcelain, Broadway on the west, and the location of a 1960sgas glass roemers, spechter glasses, and facoln de Venise station to the south. The entire area had been under glassware.The lead-glazed earthenwares,mostly clear ‘Broadway from the 1790suntil the 1930s.The excava- glazed but sometimes green glazed on the: white/buff- ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 331

Fig. 58. SelectedDutch majolica sherdsexcavated at Fort Orange. Similar examples from the 17th century, decoratedwith this central star pattern in blue, have been excavated in the at Haarlem, Leiden, Harlingen, and elsewhere. bodied specimens, were generally utility wares. The stonewarefragments with parts of medallions identical majority of the decorated tin-glazed earthenwares, at to those excavated at Fort Orange have come from least in the deposits dating before 1650, were glazed numerous Indian sites; examples have been found in white and decoratedon front, while the reverse or back westernNew York at Senecasites such as Power House side was glazed with a semi-clear lead glaze. These (ca. 1635-1655). Dann (165%1675), and Gannagaro charactcrfstics identify these tin-glazed wares as Dutch (1670-1687).1” majolica, as distinct from Dutch delft (faience). Dutch delft was a type of ware glazed white on front and back Porcelain was uncommon at Fort Orange, and only a and which was developed during the 17th century, few sherds were recovered from 17th century contexts. gradually replacing Dutch majolica. A study of the Someporcelain rim sherds,however, have a blue pattern decoratedDutch majolica at Fort Orangereveals remark- and are identical in form and pattern to an existing able similarities with the patterns on the various ex- Chinese porcelain mustard pot with 17th century Dutch amples of 17th century Dutch majolica excavated in the silver mountings.13 Netherlands, and in many instances the patterns and workmanship are identical (Figure #58).” Glasswaresincluded many broken roemer fragments. These drinking glasses consisted of a conical base Rhenish stonewareswere generally lesscommon than formed by coiling a string of molten glass, with a the tin-glazed earthenwares or the lead-glazed utility cylindrical hollow stemabove decoratedwith raspberry- earthenwares. These salt-glazed stonewares included shaped,plain, or pointed buttons called prunts, and fin- large “Belhumine” jugs decorated with bearded faces ally with a thin, plain globular glassbowl above the stem. and oval medallions molded on the body. A secondtype Roemer glassesfrequently appear in the still life paint- of Rhenish stoneware was from the Westerwald and ings of Dutch artists such as Peter Claesz, although the consistedof vesselsdecorated in cobalt blue on a gray or glassesat Port Orangewere typicaRy of smaller size than buff body. It was often ornamented with elaborate those commonly shown in 17th century still life paint- molded decoration, including medallions. Westerwald ings. The roemers at Fort Orange were also extra- 332 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS ordinarily thin and delicate; the glassof the bowl portion Beakersidentical to specimensfrom Fort Orange with was frequently no thicker than that of a modem light simple spiral decoration in white threads have been bulb. excavated in Antwerp and in Amsterdam. The Antwerp example dates from the secondhalf of the 16th century, A second type of glasswarecommon at Fort Orange while the Amsterdam pieces were in glasshouserefuse included beakers of clear glass spirally decoratedwith dating before 1610.t4 Other beakers similar to those at threads of colored glass (Figure #59). Originating in Fort Orange decoratedwith single blue threads separat- Venice, this type of glassin Dutch sites demonstratesnot ing groups of white threads have also appeared in only the close trade connections with Italy but also the Amsterdam at a site on the Waterloop18einwhere they presencein theNetherlands of glassmakersfrom Venice. were discardedbetween 1593 and 1596 alndat the glass- ThefaGon de Venise glass at Fort Orange was decorated house refuse deposit from before 1610. Other Amster- with threads of white, blue, and red glass in various dam sites from the second quarter of the 17th century combinations. Somebeakers had only a spiral of closely have also included fragments of these beakers; one placed white threads, while others had a blue thread authority has attributed an intact example in a museum betweeneach group of four or five white threads.A third collection, however, to Liege about 1650.15Finally, the type had groups of white threadsseparatedalternately by third type of decoration, consisting of white, blue, and blue and red threadsof glass.On other beakersthe single red threads,is relatively uncommon in Amsterdam or in white and blue threads were separatedfarther apart and other places in the Netherlands. Fragments have formed ridges on the glass surface.It is now known from appearedin the Amsterdam glasshouserefuse predating archeological evidence that all of thesetypes offaEon de 1610 but evidently not elsewhere. In , Venise glasseswere being manufactured in at least one fragmentsof thesetypes, including that with white, blue, glasshouse in Amsterdam by 1610. It is believed that and red decoration, have also been found in other 17th such glass was also being produced in the secondhalf of century sites such as in the lot adjacent to the site of the the 16th century in Antwerp and in Middelburg, although West India Company warehouse at Manhattan. Frag- this is not yet verified through archeological evidence in ments of the white and blue type have been excavated at thoseplaces. St. Mary’s City in .16

Fig. 59. Fqon-de Venise glassfragments from Fort Orange,decorated with red, blue, and/or white threadson clear glass. The first, second,and~thirdfragments from the left in the lower row areprobably all from the same,beaker,spirally decorated with groups of whitethreads separatedalternatelyby single blue and red threads.They were associatedwith a soil stratum dating perhapsbetween 1624 and 1640.The lower right fragment is from the baseof a beaker decoratedwith groups of white threadsseparated by single blue threads.The upper row consistsentirely of fragmentswith white and/or ‘blue thread decoration. ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 333

More than 300 glass beads were excavated at Fort Children’s Games of 1560. There is less documentary Orange, representing many of the varieties and types evidence of the use of marbles for adult gambling, but in usedin trade with the Indians. Small round beadsof clear 1617 G.A. Bredero in his play De Spaaplschepl glass with a white middle layer were most common, Brabander in Amsterdam criticized those who threw while blue tubular beads were second most common. away money “playing among themselves at cards and Many other beads were decorated with or made of skittles, lobbing marbles, flipping coins, guessing heads combinations of blue, red, green, yellow, white, and or tails.” Gambling in New Netherland had becomesuch other colors of glass. Such beads could have been a problem by 1656, for example, that passengerswho imported by the Dutch from Venice, but the glasshouse sailed for New Amstel were strictly warned not to “bring refuse deposit in Amsterdam shows that many such or make on board any dice, cards, or any other imple- beadscould have been made there even before 1610.17 ments of gaming.“lg

The large number of glass beadsuncovered at the site of Fort Orange and the even much larger numbers of Excava&ionsin Bwerwijck these beads at Iroquois sites of this period extending a. Broadway, State Street, South Pearl Street westward seem indicative of the intensity of trade activity at this site and of the far-reaching influence of Extensive excavations for trenches to install power the Dutch. In contrast, for example, it hasbeen noted that line conduits occurred in Albany under Broadway, State by comparison English colonial sites in New England Street, and South Pearl Street in 1972 and 1973, and and elsewherein this period often produce relatively few archeologists with the Historic Trust (subsequently the glassbeads.‘* It appearsthat the presenceof glassbeads StateBoard for I-Iistoric Preservation)carefully observed may be equally sparse at 17th century Dutch sites in this work in an effort to record historical information and Rensselaerswijck,outside Fort Orange and Beverwijck. artifacts. Two of the streets,State Street and Broadway What seemstypical of many 17th century Dutch sites, north of StateStteet, were original streetsof 17th century however, is the large number of clay tobaccopipe frag- Beverwijck with the namesJonker Straat and Handelaer ments. At Fort Orange, the pipes were also used as trade Swat, respectively. South Pearl Street, however, was items, and the dual function of pipes for personal use and not openedto its full width as a street until 1798,requir- for trade apparently resulted in consumption of a variety ing demolition of a house which Philip Pietersen of pipes imported from an immensenumber of different Schuyler had purchased and remodeled in 1667. The pipe makers in the Netherlands. The makers often house adjoining next to the east had been purchasedby marked their pipes with stampedinitials or some other Schuyler before 1659 and remained standing on the mark on the heel or baseof the pipe bowls; at Fort Orange corner of South Pearl and State Streets until it was 73 different makers’ marks have been found occurring demolished in 1887. It was the birthplace in 1733 of on a total of 245 markedbowls. Many other 17th century General Philip I. Schuyler.20 pipe bowls have no makers’ marks at all. The conduit trench followed a route that had remained Also frequent at Fort Orangeand at other 17th century largely undisturbed by other parallel utility lines that Dutch sites were small clay or stone marbles. They are were under the streets.South of State Street. the trench not usually found, however, at 17th century English sites under South Pearl Streetrevealed the original north slope in America or in England, at least before 1650, after of the Wutten Kill ravine, located behind the Schuyler which a few examples are reported. The marbles are houses. The profile cross section of the soil layers nearly perfect spheres. One example dating probably exposedby this north-south trench revealed not only the before 1648 has a diameter that varies only from .562 to sloping ground surface but also remains of wood-lined .574 inch, while another example from a deposit dating privies and stratified layers of earth fill which had been about 1648 to 1657 has a diameter of .561 to .574 inch. dumped into the ravine during the colonial period. Of A third marble from a deposit dating about 1657 to 1664 particular interest in this area were numerous small varies in diameterfrom .507 to .515 inch. The remarkable scraps of thin bark that apparently had been cut and spherical precision and similarity in size of such marbles stitched by Indians to make small baskets or other suggeststhey were more than children’s toys. Indeed, utensils. Similar pieces of worked birch bark have been many Dutch paintings and drawings show children excavatedfrom 17th and 18th century Indian siteson the playing gamesof marbles, from as early as Brueghel’s upper Great Eakes.21 334 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS

The excavations under State Street and Broadway making of wampum from clam shells at this site suggests revealedadditional information about the urban environ- one way in which the idle soldiers there profitably passed ment of colonial Albany and Beverwijck. Under Broad- their time. Traces of wood-lined cellars ‘werefound not way in front of Union Station, for example, an early only under Broadway north of StateStreet but also under corduroy street surface was discovered, consisting of State Street above North and South Pearl Streets. The logs of small diameter laid side-by-side. Lying close to wood-lined feature under Broadway may have been part the river in the lowest part of town, Broadway was of the British stablesand magazineof 1756 or 1757, but evidently subject to frequent flooding and serious mud identity of two wooden cellars found in upper StateStreet problems, in addition to the nuisanceof deepdeposits of above North and South Pearl Streetsremains uncertain. garbage, manure, and trash that accumulated in the streets. Study of the conduit trench excavations under The deep, rich deposits of debris and fill under State Broadway and State Street revealed the presence of Street below North and South Pearl Streets were in extensive deposits of trash, particularly on the slope of complete contrast to the absenceof such strata farther up State Street from South Pearl Street down the hill to the hill. The upper hill had been graded down, and this, Broadway. Wood shavings, fragmentsof wooden casks, combined with the filling at the foot of the hill, had leather cuttings, and trimmings of window glass resulted in a greatly decreasedslope. This major change indicated some of the various trades practiced by evidently occurred in the early 19th century. Before then, residents of the town. Remains of wooden water pipes, the State Street hill apparently rose steeply to the site of consisting of slender logs cut flat on one side and Fort Albany, perhaps as indicated by an 18th century grooved to form a channel which was covered with a view of this area(Figure #60). The regrading of the State plank nailed down, probably representthe water system Streethill wasjust one of the many changeswhich led to which was installed in Albany in 1678.22 the transformation of Albany in the 19th century. Lamenting thesechanges, Gorham A. Worth in the 1840s The trench also uncoveredevidence of structuresthat recalled that Albany in 1800 had once stood in State Street and Broadway. At the foot of the State Street hill was found a wall of the Dutch . . . struck me as peculiarly naive and beautiful. .All was antique, Reformed Church which stood at the center of the junc- clean,andquiet.There wasnonoise,nohuny,noconfusion.There tion of State Street and Broadway until 1806. At the was no putting up, nor pulling down; no ill-looking excavations, nolevelling of hills, no filling up of valleys: in short, none of those junction of StateStreet andNorth and South Pearl Streets villainous improvements, which disfigure the face of nature, and was evidence of the colonial British which exhibit the restless spirit of the Anglo-Saxon race. 23 had stood in the center of the street, and debris from the

Fig. 60. 18th century view of StateStreet looking west above North and South Pearl Streets.(Joel Munsell, Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago, p. 23.) ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 335

b. Key Carp (Almshouse) Site centuries. At least one 17th century artifact was recovered, however: a tobaccopipe bowl marked EB. It The Rutten Kill ran down to the river in a ravine which was in a mixed deposit, in association with 18th, 19th, cut through Beverwijck south of and roughly parallel to and 23th century materials?” Further excavations were State Street; it disappearedduring the 19th century as it not conducted until early in March 1986, when amateur was channeled underground through a culvert, and new archeologistsdiscovered that remains of a wooden plank land was createdon fill above it, Large lots were laid out floor in association with additional pipe fragments and along the south side of the Rutten Kill aspart of the town other diagnostic 17th century artifacts had been partially of Beverwijck in 1652, and two of theselots (granted to uncovered during the construction work. Construction Anthony de Hoogesand Volkert HansenDouw) represent work was halted, and the developer provided time for the land that is today boundedon the eastby GreenStreet, archeological rescueexcavation of the feature.The work on the south by Beaver Street,and on the north by Norton was done by a Hartgen Archeological Associatescrew street. assistedby archeologists from the Division for Historic Preservation of the New York State Office of l%rks, During its development of this block with new build- Recreation and Historic Preservation. ings, Key Bank’s developer contracted with Hartgen Archeological Associatesto conduct archeological test- The excavationscontinued throughout March and into ing in a portion of the block selectedas the future site of early April, and wooden floors at two levels were its new corporate headquartersbuilding. The testing was revealed, together with fragmentary evidence of stone conducted in November 1985,revealing mixed deposits cellar walls. These remains had been preserved under a that included artifacts mostly from the 18th and 19th 19th century building at 18 Norton Street which

Fig. 61. Floor beamsuncovered in March 1986 in the north part of the Key Carp site, probably from the almshouseof ca. 1685-1686. 336 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS fortunately had been constructed without excavation of sequentlayers of soil separatedby thin layers of rotted a new cellar underneath. The lot was part of the land wood boardsrepresented later periods of occupation and south of the Rutten Kill originally granted to Volkert a seriesof wood floors extending in time through the first Jansen Douw in 1652. An immigrant who arrived in half of the 18th century. 1642, Douw was charged an annual ground rent as early as 1647, and he may have occupied the property at that The original, previous Beverwijck almshouse had time. His house is referred to in 1655 in a deed from stoodevidently just one block to the east,on land granted Anthony de Hooges, and it is possible that the area of to the Deaconsof Beverwijck in April 1652 at the same floor that was at the lower level and in the south portion time the other town lots were granted. to various of the site was part of Douw’s house of ca. 1650. The individuals. The reasons for establishing a new orientation of structural elements indicates the gables almshousefarther to the west in 1685 are not clear, but were probably at the east and west ends, meaning the by 1697 the number of poor had decreasedso that the house faced either east or west.25 salary of Doctor JacobStaats, physician to the poor since 1690,was reduced.In 1698 the almshousewas rented to Volkert Jansen Douw was active in the Indian trade Robert Barrett, a soldier serving for pay in Colonel and in the early administration of the town of Bever- Richard Ingoldesby’s Company. Barrett’s four children wijck. Together with his businessparmer, Jan Thomas- had beenbaptized in the Reformed Church between 1689 senWitbeck, he also acquiredextensive, very fertile farm and 1696, and a fifth was baptized in January 1699. The land on islands extending southward along the east side widow of Gerrit Swart, “the last of the church poor,” died of the in the 1650sand 1660s.In 1662 he in February 1700,but it is not clear whether :sheoccupied and Witbeck were among the petitioners for estab- the almshouse. On May 1, 1700, Robert 13arrettagain lishment of Nieuw Dorp (Hurley) near Kingston. In 1680 rented from the Reformed Church for one year “the Douw sold the west part of his property in Albany along western part of the almshouse with half the farm the Rutten Kill to Gerrit Bancker, and in 1681he sold the occupied by it.” In 1707, Jacob Staatswas paid rent by eastpart of his Rutten Kill property to Harmen Rutgers. the church for the half of his small houseoccupied by the Douw died in 1683, and in 1685 his widow and son sold widow of Patrick McGregory. McGregory, like Robert the remainder of the lot “with the old house” to the Barrett, had been a soldier and had married a Dutch wife, deaconsof the Reformed Church.26 but in 1704 he and his family were suffering in poverty. It is not known why the church chose to pay rent for The Church evidently rebuilt this “old house” in 1685, McGregory’s widow rather than to lodge her in the and the building became the new Reformed Church almshouse, since it seemsunlikely the almshouse was almshouse.Little is presently known about the history of filled to capacity. Even later in the 18th century, the structure, however. It required extensive repairs in apparently so few were the needsof the poor that in fact 1715,anda century later, in 1815, theReformedChurch the Reformed Church borrowed from the church poor divided and sold the almshouse property to individual fund in 1760 the money to pay the expensesof bringing owners.27The archeological excavations revealed floor over ReverendEliardus Westerlo.2g beams(Figure #61) in the north part of the site that had supporteda cellar floor at a higher level than in the south With the apparently decreasing number of poor and areaand were probably from the almshouseconstruction the relatively few destitute individuals such as widow in 1685.The structure would have stood in the northwest McGregory, there may have been little actual need for comer of the almshouselot of 1685. The’orientation of the almshouse.Indeed, in the 165Os,orphan children and these beams indicates the gables were at the north and young adults were sent from the almshouse in Amster- south endsof the structure and that the building probably dam to New Netherland to increasethe population of the faced northward, on Norton Street.The stone side walls colony. While orphans from London, for example, were of the cellar had been heavily disturbed by later construc- also sentto New England to serve asapprentices and then tion, and a north-south central partition wall probably of becomeself-sufficient, in New England, South Carolina, stone had been entirely salvagedand removed. Soil and and , unlike New Netherland and New artifacts deposited between the floor beams seem to York, care of the poor and the need for almshouses representevidence of occupation at thealmshousebegin- becamea seriousand demandingproblem in the late 17th ning soon after 1685.The floor boardsthat had restedon century. Outside the , only these beams were missing, but above that level sub- Newport in Rhode Island had relatively few paupers, ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 337

Fig. 62. The Horwood Almshouse in Church Lane, , Devon, England. founded and endowed by Thomas Horwood, merchant snd twice mayor, and finished in 1658. Each of the individual apartmentsopensintoasmallcommoncourtyardintherear withasinglepumpforwater.

Fig. 63. Almshouse and central courtyard in Haarlem built in 1608 by Lieven de Key, now the Frans Hals Museum. It was the Old Men’s Home and is one of at least 25 old almshousesaround the Church of St. Bavo in Haarlem. (Echte foto). 338 SELECTEDRENSSELAERSWIJCKSEMINAH PAPERS once the Indian War of the 1670s was ended. A or house units facing an enclosed central courtyard and significant factor in creating the problems of pauperism a pump or spring for a common source of ‘water.In the in the 17th and 18th centuries in other cities was undoub- Netherlands, charitable institutions grew steadily in tedly the existence of populated settlements on an number and in specialization, with separate estab- exposedand vulnerable frontier. In 1696Reverend John lishmeats for children, elderly men, elderly women, the Miller reported that the burdensof the French war in New sick, and other persons in need of assistanceor care.31 York “have made 2 or 300 families forsake it, and Workhousesin England accommodatedincreasing num- remove to Pensilvania and Maryland cheifly and some bers of the poor in addition to “idle and disorderly to New England.“29 Albany as well as persons.” In the 18th century the town poor of and were perhaps unique before the 1680s Barnstaple, Devon, were set to work in a workhouse in relying upon the church as the source of charity, but established in 1615 at “spinning, carding and weaving after 1685,New York City and Philadelphia were forced [wool] into proper cloth for cloathing the poor.” to rely in part also on government funding for . Archeological excavation of the building :siterevealed In England, the 16th century dissolution of monasteries rough, depressedareas in the floor, a row of holes for and the enactmentof poor laws madethe parish as a unit wooden posts,possibly for a large loom, and a sump and of local government responsible for care of the poor, drain which wasprobably for washing fleeces.The local many generous individuals, however, bequeathedhuge poor taken into the workhouse established in Padstow, sums for charity or built almshouses,particularly in the Cornwall, about 1768 were employed in knotting rope 17th century (Figure #62). It was the Netherlands which yarn, picking rope to produce oakum for caulking ships, becamea source of surprise and admiration to English carding wool, knitting stockings, spinnmg yarn, and and other foreign visitors who observed the advanced making linen clothing for other poor persons.Their lives and elaborate system of care for the poor in cities such were strictly regulated. In the Netherlands, the estab- as Amsterdam and Haarlem (Figures #63 & 64). The lishment of work-housesfor the poor becamewidespread various churchesorganized charitable institutions, while after 1790 in cities such as Haarlem, where, in 1806, a additional institutions were supervised by individuals large almshouse was turned into a workhouse for the appointed by the governing burgomastersof the city.3o poor as an experiment.32

Almshouses of the 17th century in both England and When the Board of Trade in the 1690s began to the Netherlands varied in style from plain to very fancy. suggestthe construction of workhousesin Maryland, the They consistently included a number of small apartments colonial assembly rejected the idea, explaining “the

Fig. 64. The JanPesijnshof in Leiden built in 1683 for the useof the elderly. Including about a dozen small housesfacing a square courtyard, it was built on the site of the housepurchased in 1611by John Robinson and other English Separatists.(D. Plooij, The PilgrimFathers, opp. 8.) ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 339

Province.wantsworkman, . . .workemanwant not work.” become known as a place of wampum manufacture as Only a very few places in the American colonies erected early as 1690,when in January of that year at Onondaga, workhouses, and those did not establish strict disci- representativesfrom Albany met with Ottawa Indians plinary or punitive routines. The Boston workhouse who expressed a desire “to learn understanding from became little more than an adjunct to the town them & the Christians. . . [and] go quite to Albany to see almshouse.Colonial almshouses,it is believed, general- . . . where the Wampum pipes [beads] are made.” A ly resembledfamily householdsin structure and routine. Scottish visitor to Albany in 1744noticed the “manufac- David Rothman has found, moreover, that they “lacked torys for wampum” in the city, where the beads were both a distinctive architecture and special administrative madefrom clam shells as well as from conch shells from procedures.” The 18th century ahnshousesof New York the West Indies. The scale of this manufacture is indi- and on the outside resembled ordinary catedby the order of Cornelius Cuyler, an Albany trader, residencesor other neighborhood buildings, and the resi- in 1753 for 40,000 clam shells and 500 conch shells to dents lived as they would in a family.33 be sent from New York. Many people in Albany made wampum to supply the trade, according to Kalm, and A careful study of the artifacts excavatedin 1986from William Smith in 1757 observed “There are always the stratified sequenceof soils that accumulated in the severalpoor families at Albany, who support themselves Albany almshousecellar may reveal more definite infor- by coining this cash for the traders.“35 mation about whether the structure was used for its intended purpose. One of the most outstanding charac- Careful study of the archeological evidence may teristics of these deposits was perhaps the immense reveal to what extent, if any, the almshousebegan to be amount of shell debris from the making of wampum. usedas a wampum factory during the 169Os,particularly Bach stage of the manufacture of the small wampum after depletion of the church’s wampum stock by 1696. beads was represented in the archeological evidence: Romer’s detailed map of Albany in 1698 shows a build- there were steel drills and abrading stones, unfinished ing in the north part of the almshouseproperty identified beads broken during manufacture, and thousands of as “The Indian Praying House.” It wasprobably a part of purple or white clam shell fragmentsand piecesof conch the almshouseor adjoined it to the east.With the begin- or whelk shells. ning of war with in 1689, conversion of the Indians had become vitally important to the church in Becauseof its great value to the Indians, wampum had Albany and its membership. Thus, not only was there becomeessential for trade and servedas a basic medium evidence of the making of wampum in the almshouse of exchange in the 17th century. It is possible the site, but numerous items typical of the Indian trade were almshousein Albany also functioned asa workhouseand also found: an iron trade axe, Jew’s harps, scissors,glass wampum factory beginning late in the 17th century, beads, iron knives, and “gaming pieces*’ made from representinga significant shift in the sourceand value of sherdsof tin-glared earthenware(Figure #65). In 1689, wampum. Very little, if any, distinct evidence of the Reformed Church collected 252 guilders from wampum making, for example, appeared in the 17th various donors “for gunpowder at the almshouse;” one century soil layers at Fort Orange dating before 1676. can easily imagine that Indians coming to Albany and The Dutch Reformed Church hired a person for sixteen staying at the almshouseor the “Praying House” were days to string wampum in 1669, while careful inven- eager to be given gunpowder, whether as charity or in tories of the sacksof wampum and speciein the church exchange for furs. treasury were recordeduntil 1696,when the treasury was depleted from the expenses of improvements to real Reverend Godfrey Dellius was Reformed Church estateand new construction?4 minister from I683 to 1699,and hebecamevery influen- tial with the Indians. Not only did he teach them Chris- The use of conch or whelk shells to make wampum, tianity but he also endeavoredto maintain their alliance in addition to the more commonly used hard shell clams with the British after 1689 during the difficult and of Long Island, is reported as early as 1653 by Van der dangerous time of war which followed. French attacks Donck, who observedthat wampum was madeonly near left many Mohawk Indians homelessearly in the 169Os, the seashoresand that conch shells were washedashore and it is easyto understandhow the almshousemay have twice a year. By 1659barrels of conch shells were being become a temporary refuge for homeless Indians. shipped to from Curacao. Albany had Immediately west of the almshousewas the land which 340 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS -

Fig. 65. Dutch delft sherd excavated at the Key Corp site, from a lobed dish, reworked to form a circular disc pendant or gaming piece.

Fig. 66. Pewter spoon from the Key Corp site, recovered from between the almshousefloor beams. ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 34-l

Gerrit Bancker had purchasedin 1680 and which he left to his son Evert after his death in 1691. ReverendDell&s and Ever-t Bancker became close associatesin Indian trade and in negotiations to maintain the alliance of the Indians against the French. Dellius reported in 1693that sixteen Indians had taken communion and become membersof his church and that he had “translated into the Indian language severalprayers, the Ten Command- ments, the Confessionof Faith, and eight or ten Psalms.” The Psalms were set to the church’s music, which the Indians sang “with sweet melody.” In May 1696 the Lords of Trade noted that it was essential to maintain alliance with the Iroquois by renewing the covenant chain at Albany and giving gifts to them, “who are now very poor, becausethe Warr has disturbed and prevented their Beaver hunting.” Governor Fletcher appointed Peter Schuyler, Dirck Wessels,and Domine Dellius to be a board of commissioners for Indian relations at Albany. Soon afterward Evert Bancker becamea fourth commissioner.

Fig. 67. Detail with a pewter or wood spoon from an engraving, In September1696 Dellius acquired an immenseland “Shrove-tide Fool.” by Comelis Bloemaert, after a painting by patent along the eastsides of the upper Hudson River and Abraham Bloemaext, who died in 1651. , and, with Bancker and others, in 1697 acquired a vast tract in the Mohawk Valley. The Indians 67, 68). The ceramic sherds, however, most clearly soon claimed the purchase was fraudulent; Dellius was reveal the heavy impact of English manufacturedgoods held responsible for deluding the Indians, and in 1699he and trade. Sherds of brown slip-combed and decorated was forced to vacatehis ministry. ReverendJohn Miller, yellow glazed buff earthenwarewere abundant in some in fact, asearly as 1695had commentedthat conversions of theselevels, representing a type of ceramic ware that of the Mohawks by Dellius were “by a method not so beganto be massproduced in the 1680sin England. This exact and prevalent as might be ~sed.“‘~~ ware obviously becamea very significant item of export c -- to New York. It must have seemedparticularly new and It appearsthe almshouse,established at this site in the strange to the Dutch, who were accustomedto the blue 168Os,soon came to serve more the needs of Indians or polycbrome tin-glazed earthenwares, red earthen- distressedby warfare on the frontiers than those of the wares,and Rhenish stonewaresthat had beencommonly Albany poor, who were diminishing in number and for used for the past century, but the Dutch apparently whom the church cared by other means. By the later acceptedit rapidly. 1690sit not only becameperhaps a wampum factory but also the home of Robert Barrett, a soldier, until after English delft also replacedDutch delft, and both types 1700. The artifacts from these occupations document were found in the site. One particularly interesting Dutch some significant changesin material culture during this delft sherd (Figure #65) had beencarefully ground on the critical period. The sequenceof soil layers beginning edgesto form a circular disc a little more than 2% inches with the stratum deposited between the floor beams of in diameter. Other, smaller discs, were recovered at the the almshouse, for example, revealed late 17th century site, and they are generally believed to have been made Dutch pipe bowls which representthe continuing evolu- and used by Indians as gaming pieces. Many other tion in form and style beyond that of the pipe bowls at smaller exampleshave been found on Indian sites vary- Fort Orange dating before 1676. This indicates the ing widely in time and place from 16th century sites on continued importation of Dutch pipes to Albany after the California coast to 17th century New York Iroquois 1676 and into the 1680s. Pewter spoonsclosely resem- sites and sites in Florida, to 18th century village sites in bling examples shown in 17th century Dutch paintings the Midwest, to late 19th century Plains Indian village were also found betweenthese floor boards(Figures #(is, sitesin North Dakota. Occasionally the discs at such sites 342 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS

Fig. 68. Detail with a pewter spoon from The Dancing Couple by Jan Steen, 1663. A leather shoe similar to the one shown was also excavated from the Key Corp site, in the south portion that probably predates 1685. (Widener Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.) were bored through to make pendants. In England, early English products are similar and probably indistin- similar discs fashionedfrom delft sherdsand dating from guishable from much that was made in the Low the late 17th or early 18th centuries have beenexcavated Countries. A dated lobed dish made probably at from a cellar on the south side of Aldgate in London.37 Brislington, near , in 1683is also decoratedin blue This specimen from the almshouse site is from a 17th and purple and has a rim pattern that is clearly derived century lobed dish, madeprobably in Delftbetween 1640 from that of the almshousespecimen and the other Dutch and 1660. It is simply decoratedwith figurative flowers examples3’ in blue and dark purple. The repetitive pattern around the rim and the lobed shape match a complete example Another blue-decorated delft sherd :is from a plate excavated in Delft. Another complete, closely similar originally about 8th inches in diameter. It was found in example is in the collection of Museum Het Princessehof the soil betweenthe almshousefloor beamsand is clearly at Leeuwarden. A third example of a lobed dish, ex- English in origin (Figure #70). Its shapeand its distinc- cavatedfrom a 17th century privy in Antwerp, also bears tive concentric pattern of blue rings and a band around a repetitive flower pattern on the rim from which the the rim indicate that it is a product of the:delft pottery at pattern on the almshousesherd was clearly derived (Fig- Lambetb, in London, probably from as early as ca. 1710. ure #69). A fourth example was excavatedin Virginia at Dated examples of this rim pattern are from 1712 and a plantation site occupied from about 1670 to 1730. As 1719. Many existing examples commlemorateQueen many thousands of these dishes were produced and Anne or King George I. The shapeof the plate is typical decoratedby hand, elements of such patterns naturally of Lambeth from as early as 1690. ‘This plate was evolved or were reduced to simplified but still recog- decoratedin the center with swags surrounding a floral nizable forms. The technology of making tin-glazed pattern, and part of this swag decoration closely majolica and delft spreaddirectly from the Netherlands resembles that on the rim of a Lambeth delft plate to London and Norwich, and since the workmen and excavated in St. Olave’s Parish in Soutlhwark,London. even the raw materials were often of Dutch origin, the Another London delft dish with a similar or closely ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 343

Fig. 69. Lobed delft dish excavatedfrom a 17th century privy in Antwerp. The diameter is 8% inches. Courtesy of the Afdeling @gravingen, SFadAntweqen.

Fig. 70. English delft rim sherd from the Key Corp site. The original diameter was 8U inches. 344 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS related swag pattern was found at Aldgate in London in soil levels, much will be learned from this material as a a deposit dating ca. 1700 to 1720. The swag pattern manifestation of the processof transition from Dutch to clearly was derived from a swag pattern that was usedon English culture. The transition from Dutch to English Dutch majolica and delft rims mostly between 1650 and artifacts appearspossibly to coincide with a watershed 1700. A complete Dutch majolica plate with this swag of industrialization, commercialization, and new social pattern on the rim wasrecovered from a shipwreck dating attitudes in England in the 1690s:’ about 1665 in the Noordoostpolder of the IJsselmeer (Zuider Zee) in the Netherlands. In Norwich, Norfolk, Directly to the south of the Key Carp site and across the pattern appearson the border of a Dutch majolica dish Beaver Streetis the Key Corp Garagesite,. Testing of this dating about 1680 and excavatedat a site on Upper King area by Hartgen Archeological Associates has revealed Street. The brush work and technique of a part of the the presencethere of burials from the Dutch Reformed floral pattern on the almshouse site specimen is also Church burial ground that was described by Joel identical to the leaves and petals on a flower on a Munsell. This burial ground is shown on the Miller map probable Lambeth plate commemorating The Act of of 1695 (Figure #71, at location #5), alnd it was men- Union in 1707; the plate is in the Ashmolean Museum at tioned in the sale contract for the almshouseproperty in Oxford. Another example of a central floral or fruit December 1684. Hartgen Archeological Associates in design painted in similar style and technique is on a delft testing the site discovered evidence of wood coffins and dish made in London probably between 1700 and 1725 human burials stackedone on another, in tiers.41Much and found at a building site on Swan Lane in Norwich in might be learned from these burials about health, diet, 1933.39 religious behavior, and other aspects of life in the colonial period if they areproperly excavatedbefore they When and if the archeological artifacts and excavation are destroyed by the new construction and then thor- records from the almshouse site can be thoroughly oughly studied. For example, the bones may reveal to studied to determine artifact origins and the dating of the what extent people suffered from lead poisoning due to

PLA’PI OF ALBAST, 1635. 1. The fort. (l. S1:dhuis 01’ Cify’Hali. 2. Dulch &WC!,. 7. . 3. Lntherau church. 9. Great guo to cknr * gulley. 4. Its burisl place. 11. Stockndes. 6. Dutch church do. 11. City gates 0 io 011. - ARCHEOLOGYOFFORTORANGE 345 the frequent use of pewter utensils and of lead glazed Archeologists have hardly scratched the surface in ceramics.Historic burials such as theseshould at least be termsof making a significant contribution of datatoward treated with respect rather than be bulldozed. In his the study of 17th century urbanization or of urban and addressto the Albany Institute on April 18, 1876, Joel rural cultural patterns. Enough carefully documented Munsell said of this site urban sites have not yet been excavatedby archeologists to produce contmlled samplesof artifacts with which to The ancient denizens of the city still repose there in three layers, and I wish every one of their descendants could be thoroughly make meaningful comparisonsbetween sites. Too many imbued with a filial sentiment of the impropriety, to say the least, sites are instead being lost, while time and funding for of ever parting wirh that ground; but that the church edifice now excavation projects areusually not available or sufficient standing upon it might be preserved as a monument to the to enable completion of analysis of the artifacts and other venerated dead beneath. The bones of Anneke Janse being sup- dataat a meaningful historical and anthropological level. posed to rest there, and so great a multitude claiming descent from her, what adverse influence might arise from a mercenary aliena- tion of those bones, should give us pause1 Smaller cities are sometimes reluctant to require developersto pay for the archeology that is necessaryas The church that stood there was the Middle Butch a consequenceof their new construction, even when Reformed Church, a beautiful structure built in 1806 by irreplaceable information on a city’s earliest history will Philip Hooker and vacatedin 1881 .42 be lost forever. In European cities such as London and Amsterdam,extensive urban archeology is successfully Preservation Priorirties and Planning conducted at no charge to developers by the full-time The archeological remains from the colonial period archeology departmentof a city historical museum.The that have survived in Albany are a pricelessresource that excavations are planned in advanceof construction, and must be carefully managed.The location and extent of developers usually grant permission. The developers, archcologically significant deposits must first be however, pay the costsindirectly through higher tax rates identified, and decisions should be made during the that would be unacceptable to many large American process of planning for new development whether a businesses.43Thus, it becomesa social responsibility for specific site can be preservedor, if not, whether it should the American private sector to mitigate any harmful be excavated for its research value. Except for limited effects of new development which may be initiated. sampling to answerspecific researchquestions, it is often Whether private support for mitigation of the adverse best to leave non-threatened sites as resources for the effects of new developmenton cultural resourceswill be future, when there will be not only greatly improved sufficient to sustain archeological work. of quality techniques of excavation and analysis but also more without the need for government regulation in the public refined researchquestions. interest remains to be seen. 346 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS

Notes

‘A.J.F. van Laer, trans. and ed., Bowier Munsell, 1854),258; Albany Institute of History and Art, Manuscripts (Albany: University of the State of New catalog number X1940.775.3; Index to the Public York, 1908), 298,454-55; A.J.F. van Laer, trans. and Records of the County of Albany, I (Albany: The Argus ed., Minutes of the Court of Rensselaerswyck: 1648- Company, Printers, 1902): x-xi. The 190:2reference was 1652 (Albany: University of the State of New York, noted by John R. Wolcott. 1922), 21-22; David Grayson Allen, “‘Vacuum ‘“Find Artifacts at Fort Grange,” De Halve Maen, XLV/~ Domicilium’: The Social and Cultural Landscape of (January 1971): 15. The date on the Rhenish stoneware Seventeenth-Century New England,” New England sherd was indistinct and at first was thought to be 1612 Begins: The Seventeenth Century (Boston: Museum of rather than 1632. “Further Finds at Fort Orange,” De Fine Arts, 1982), I: 4-6, 28-29; Henry M. Miller, A Halve Maen, XLVI/~ (April 1971): 2. Searchfor the “Citty of Saint Maries” (St. Mary’s City: loVan Laer, Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts, 35- St. Mary’s City Commission, 1983), 1; Garry Wheeler 36,212. Stone, “Manorial Maryland,” Maryland Historical Magazine, 82/l (Spring 1987): 3, 11-12. “Charlotte Wilcoxen, “Dutch Majolica of the Seven- teenth Century,” American Ceramic Circle Bulletin, 3 2CharlesN; Glaab and A. Theodore Brown, A History of (1982): 17-26; Dingeman Korf, Nederlandse majolica Urban America (New York, London: Macmillan Com- (I-h&em: De Haan, 1981). 172-73 andpassim. pany, 1968), 7; Charles T. Gehring, trans. and ed., New York Historical Manuscripts: Dutch. Volumes GG, HH, & 12CharlesF. Wray, “The Volume of Dutch Trade Goods II: Land Papers (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Receivedby the SenecaIroquois, 1600-1687 A.D.,” New Co., 1980), 93; Van Laer, Minutes of the Court of Netherland Studies: Bulletin KNOB, 8412-3 (Juni 1985): Rensselaerswyck, 18,151;A.J.F.va.nLaer,trans.anded., 111. Minutes of the Court of Fort Orange and Beverwyck: 13T.Volker, Porcelain and the Dutch East India Com- 16.52-16.56(Albany: University of the State of New pany (L&den: E.J. Brill, 1971), 240, pl. XI (18). York, 1920), 8; Paul R. Huey, “Archaeological Excava- 14J.M. Baart, W. Krook, and A.C. Lagaweij, “Herstel- tions in the Site of Fort Grange, a Dutch West India lung und Gebrauch von Trinkglas in Amsterdam (1580- Company Trading Fort Built in 1624,” New Netherland I&IO),” Spechtergliiser: Austellung im Glasmuseum Studies: Bulletin KNOB, 84/2-3 (Juni 1985): 73. Wertheim, I986 (Wertheim: Glasmuseum Wertheim, 3EdmundB. O’Callaghan, Calenaiar ofDutch Historical 1986), 55-56, 59-60; Tony Oost, Van nederzetting tot Manuscripts, (Ridgewood: Gregg Press, 1968), 134, metropol (Antwerp: Oudheidkundige :Musea, 1982), 180, 191; Eric E. Lampard, “American Historians and 118. the Study of Urbanization,” The American Historical “Baart, Krook, and Lagerweij, 56-58.64.69; E. Bar- Review, r~v11/1 (October 1961): 50, 54, 56; Allen, rington Haynes, Glass Through the Ages (Baltimore: “‘Vacuum Domicilium’,” 29. Penguin Books, 1966), pl. 25(b). 4Joel Munsell, The Annals of Albany, I (Albany: Joel ‘hart, Krook, and Lag erweij, 55-56, 85; Joel W. Munsell, 1869), 235; Joel Munsell, The Annals of Grossman, ed., “The Excavation of Augustine Albany, II (Albany: J. Munsell, 1850). 195. Heermans’ Warehouse and Associated 17th Century ‘Munsell, The Annals of Albany, I: 257; Albany County Dutch West India Company Deposits” (unpublished Deeds, Book 61: 249,263; George Dexter, ed., Journal draft) New York: GreenhouseConsultants Incorporated, of a Tour from Boston to Oneida, June, I796 by Jeremy 1985,m-3 1; Henry M. Miller, A Searchfor the “Citty of Belknap (Cambridge: John Wilson and Son, 1882), 11. Saint Maries”, 101-2. 6H. Russell Zimmermarm, “Milwaukee: Cream City 17PaulR. Huey, “Glass Beadsfrom Fort Orange (1624- Brick,” Historic Preservation, 22/3 (July-Sept. 1970): 5. 1676), Albany, New York,” Proceedings of the 1982 7Joel Munsell, Collections on the History of Albany, III Glass Trade Bead ConjIerence (Rochester: Rochester (Albany: J. Munsell, 1870), 928; Joel Munsell, Men and Museum & ScienceCenter, 1983), 87-90; Baart, Krook, Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago (Albany: Joel and Lagerweij, 62,66,74-75,77-78. Munsell’s Sons,n.d.), 6,35; Joel Munsell, The Annals of “Henry M. Miller, Dennis J. Pogue, and Michael A. Albany, I: 130-3 1; S.V. Talcott, Genealogical Notes of Smolek, “Beads from the Seventeenth Century New York and New England Families (Baltimore: Chesapeake,”Proceedings of the 1982 Gl~assTrade Bead Genealogical Publishing Co., 1973), 269-70,443-44. Corgference,131; JamesW. Bradley, “Bhue Crystals and *Joel Munsell, The Annals of Albany, v (Albany: J. Other Trinkets: Glass Beads from 16th and Early 17th ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 347

Century New England,” ibid., 29. 1809 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., “GA. Bredero, The Spanish Brabanter translatedby H. 1978), pt. I, 29,49,56,65,73,75,80,83; Third Annual David Brumble III (Binghamton: Center for Medieval h Report of the State Historian of the State of New York, Early Renaissance Studies, 1982), 86; Charles T. 1897 (New York and Albany: Wynkoop Hallenbeck Gehring, trans. and ed., New York Historical Crawford Co., State Printers, 1898), 467; Joel Munsell, Manuscripts: Dutch. Volumes XVIII-XIX, Delaware The Annals of Albany, IV (Albany: Joel Munsell, 1871), Papers (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1981), 176-77. 92. 2gKennethScott, “Orphan Children Sent to New Nether- “Kristin L. Gibbons and Peter H. Stott, Schuyler land,” De Halve Maen, XLIX/~ (October 1974): 5-6, Mansion: A Historic Structure Report (Albany: New Constance Ross Ulrich, “Mathys Coenradtsen Hough- York StateParks and Recreation, 1979), 4. taling of Coxsackie, New York, and His Descendants,” The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record, “‘George Irving Quimby, Indian Culture and European 101/4 (October 1970): 193-94; William J. Hoffman, Trade Goods (Madison: The University of Wisconsin “Random Notes Concerning Settlersof Dutch Descent,” Press, 1966), 156-57; W.A. Kenyon, The Grimsby Site: New World Immigrants edited by Michael Tepper, I A Historic Neutral Cemetery (: Royal (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., 1980), Museum, 1982), 62,71. 129;Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness (Oxford: “2Paul R. Huey, “Dutch Sites of the 17th Century in OxfordUniversity Press,1971), 7885,232-38,391-98; Rensselaerswyck,”The Scope of Historical Archaeology W.K. Jordan, The Charities of London: 1480-1660 edited by David S. Orr and Daniel G. Crozier (Phila- (Hamden, Ct.: Archon Books, 1974), 170; John Miller, delphia: Laboratory of Anthropology, Temple Univer- “A Description of the Province and City of New York,” sity, 1984), 67,74-75, Historic Chronicles of New Amsterdam, Colonial New 23Gorhama. Worth, Random Recollections of Albany, York and Early Long Island edited by Cornell Joray (Port from 1800 to 1808 (Albany: J. Munsell, 1866), 23. Washington, N.Y.: Ira J. Friedman, Inc., 1968), 91. 24HartgenArcheological Associates,Inc., Archeological A New England writer as early as 1622 suggestedthat in Investigations at Key Corp Plaza (Troy: Hartgen contrast to the need for almshouses in England, in Archeological Associates, Inc., 1985), 12, Appendix I America, with its spacious land, there would be oppor- (517-100). tunity for all. Yet, with its almshouselot of 1652,Bever- “Van Laer, Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts, 814, wijck may have been the first town to establish an 826; Van Laer, Minutes of the Court of almshouse in North America. The deacons of New Rensselaerswt$k: 1648-1652,136; A.J.F. van Laer, ed., Amsterdambuilt an almshousein 1653,and Boston built Early Records of the City and County of Albany and its almshousein 1662. See Edward Arber, The Story of Colony ofRensselaerswyck, II (Albany: The University the Pilgrim Fathers (London: Ward and Downey of the State of New York, 1916), 91-92n; Joel Munsell, Limited; Boston and New York: Kraus Reprint Co., Collections on the History of Albany, IV (Albany: 3. 1969), 503, Seealso Bridenbaugh, 81,84, and David J. Munsell, 1871), 231. Rothman, The Discovery of the Asylum (Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1971), 39. [Ed. 26Van Laer, Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts, 826; note: Jansje Venema, research assistant with the New Berthold Femow, trans. and ed., Documents Relating to Netherland Project, completed in 1990 a transcription of the History and Settlements of the Towns Along the the Deacon’s Account Books pertaining to the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers (Albany: Weed, Parsons almshouse and used this new information for a and Company, 1881), 219-21; Van Laer, EarlyRecords SUNY/Albany master’s thesis on poor care in Bever- of the City and County of Albany and Colony of wijck.] Rensselaerswyck, II: 91, 126-27, 331-32; A.J.F. van 3%idenba ugh, 84-85; Jordan,24,159; G.M. Trevelyan, Laer, trans. and ed., Correspondence of Maria van History of England, II (Garden City: Doubleday & Rensselaer: 1669-1689 (Albany: University of the State Company, Inc., 1952), 32-33, 124; George B. Adams of New York, 1935), 125. and Robert L. Schuyler, Constitutional History of 27JoelMunsell, Collections on the History of Albany, I England (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1956), (Albany: J. Munsell, 1865), 4547,57; Albany County 262; Marjorie and C.H.B. Quennell, A History of Deeds, Book 38: 51. The latter reference was provided Everyday Things in England, II (London: B.T. Batsford, by John R. Wolcott. Ltd., 1950), 110-l 1; Renee Kistemaker and Roelof van *sJoel Munsell, The Annals of Albany, VII (Albany: J. Gelder, Amsterdam: The Golden Age, 1275-l 795 (PJew Munsell, 1856), 232-34, 239; Munsell, Collections on York: Abbeville Press, Publishers, 1983), 108, 171; the History of Albany, I: 48,51-53, 55; Records of the Bredero, 133; Ronald W. Herlan, “Relief of the Poor in Reformed Dutch Church of Albany, New York: 1683- Bristol from Late Elizabethan Times until the Restora- 348 SELECTED RENSSELAERSWIJCK SEMINAR PAPERS tion Era,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical 1087, 11166,1169, 1181; Munsell, Annals of Albany, I: Society, XXVI/ 3 (June 8, 1982): 227-28. 95; John Miller, “A Description of the Province and City 31D. Plooij, The Pilgrim Fathers from a Dutch Point of of New York,” 52-53. View (New York: New York University Press, 1932), 8; 37EdwardP. von der Porten, “Drake andi Cermeno in F.W.J. Koom, DC. van der Maaml, et al., “750 jaar California: Sixteenth Century Chinese Ceramics,” Haarlem,de Haarlemmersen hun armenzorg,“Ach Lieve Historical Archaeology, VI (1972): 15; Kathleen A. Tijd (Zwolle: Uitgeverij Waandersb.v., 1984), see text Deagan,“Fig Springs: The Mid-Seventeenth Century in for illustrations on 200-3,208-9,211-12; R. J. Spruit, North-Central Florida,” ibid., 38.; Mary Elizabeth Good, “Zeven eeuwen Hoom, zijn bewoners en hun zieken en Guebert Site: an 18th Century, Histor.ic Kaskaskia armen,” Ach Lieve Tijd (Zwolle: Uitgeverij Waanders Indian Village (Wood River, : The Central States b.v., 1986), text for illustrations on 23-25; Barry Cun- Archaeological Societies, Inc., 1972). 179; G. Hubert liffe, The City of Bath (New Haven and London: Yale Smith, Like-a-Fishhook Village and Fort Berthold, University Press, 1987), 101. Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota (‘Washington: 32An Excavation at North Devon Area Library Site, , U.S. Department of the Interior, Barnstaple: Summary Report Number 1 (Barnstaple: 1972), 77-78, 173-74; James W. Elradley, The North Devon District Council, 1985). 1, 7; Donald R. Onondaga Iroquois: 1500-16.55 (Ann Arbor: University Rawe and Jack Ingrey, Padstow and District (Padstow, Microfilms International, 1979). 221; Alan Thompson, Cornwall: Lodenek Press,1984), 59-61; Koom, Van der Francis Grew, and John Schofield, “Excavations at Maarel, et al., 205-06. Aldgate, 1974,” Post-MedievalArchaeology, 18 (1984): 118-19. Most of the above referenceswere collected by 33Lois Green Carr andRussellR. Menard,“Immigration JosephE. McEvoy. and Opportunity: The Freedman in Early Colonial Maryland,” The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century 38J.D. van Dam, Geleyersgoet en Hollants Porceleyn, edited by Thad W. Tate and David L. Ammerman (New Mededelingenblad Nederlandse Vereniging van Vrien- York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1979), den van de Ceramiek, 108 (1982/4): 52,75,92; Michael 216; Rothman, 37,41,42,55. Archer, “Delftware from Brislington,” The Connoisseur, 171/689 (July 1969): 152,157,158; Frazier D. Neiman, 34Munsell, Collections on the History of Albany, I: 31, The “Manner House” Before Strarford (D,iscovering the 44,51. Clifts Plantation) (Stratford, Va.: Stratfor~dHall, 1980). 35Adriaen van der Donck, A Description of the New 44. The delft dish from Antwerp is in the Oudheidkun- Netherlands (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, dige Musea of Anhverp. 1968), 93; Charles T. Gehring and J.A. Schiltkamp, 39F.H. Garner and Michael Archer, English Delftware trans. and ed.,New NetherlandDocuments, VO~U~~XVII, (London: Faber and Faber, 1972). 80, pls. 66A, 66C; Curacao Papers: 1640-1665 (Interlaken: Heart of Lakes Michael Archer and Brian Morgan, F,air as China Publishing, 1987), 138-39, 169, 213, 218; Daniel K. Dishes: English DeFtware (Washington: International Richter, “Rediscovered Links in the Covenant Chain,” Exhibitions Foundation, 1977), 78.81.126-27; Michael Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 9211 Archer, English DelftwarelEngels Deljts Aardewerk (April 1982): 71-72; Carl Bridenbaugh, ed., (Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum, n.d.), 35, fig..80; Ivor Noi? Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Hume, Early English Delftware from London and Alexander Hamilton, 1744 (Chapel Hill: University of Virginia (Williamsburg: The Colonial Williamsburg North Carolina Press, 1948), 73; Thomas Elliot Norton, Foundation, 1977), 99, 100; Anthony Ray, English The Fur Trade in Colonial New York, 1686-1776 D&ware Pottery in the Robert Hall Warren Collection, (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press,1974), 90; Ashmoleon Museum, O#ord (Boston: Boston Book & Munsell, The Annals of Albany, I: 57; William Smith, Jr., Art Shop, 1968),~1.7; Thompson, Grew, and Schofield, The History of the Province of New-York edited by 35.56, 57 (no. 118); Korf, 56 (fig. 107, type 127), 240 Michael Kammen, I (Cambridge: Belknap Press of (fig. 710); SarahJennings, Eighteen Centuries of Pottery Harvard University Press, 1972), 51n. The Smith refer- from Norwich (Norwich: University of East Anglia, ence was provided by JosephS. Sopko. 1981), 192,194 (fig. 1381), 209,210 (fig. 1490). 3%Iap of A 1ba n y b y Wolfgang Romer, 1698, CO7OO/NewYork 3, Public Record Office, London; 4oNeil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J.H. Plumb, The Lois M. Feister, “Indian-Dutch Relations in the Upper Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of ,” Man in the Northeast 24 (Fall 1982): Eighteenth-Century England (Bloomington: Indiana 93; Munsell, Collections on the History of Albany, I: 51; University Press, 1985), 13-15,265,268,271,287. E.T: Corwin, ed., Ecclesiastical Records: State of New 4*Hartgen Archeological Associates, Inc., Dutch York (Albany: James B. Lyon, State Printer, and The Reformed Church Burial Ground, c. 1656-1882 (Troy: University of the State of New York, 1901-1916), 799, Hartgen Archeological Associates,Inc., 1986). 5. - ARCHEOLOGY OF FORT ORANGE 349

42Munsell, Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Maen, XLVIII/~ (April 1973): 1l-12. Ago, 35-36; seealso George 0. Zabriskie, “The Found- 43Martin Biddle and Daphne M. Hudson, The Future of ing Fathers of New Netherland, Nos. 5 and 6: The London’s Past (Worcester: Rescue, a trust for British Roelofs and Bogardus Families, Part III,” De Halve Archaeology, l973), 8,28,47-49.