DOCSLIB.ORG

Review Questions DNA Part I

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Review Questions DNA Part I Review Questions DNA Part I 1. What are the functions of the nucleic acids? The nucleic acids are used by cells for information storage, specifically DNA and RNA. Another nucleic acid, ATP stores chemical energy for the cell. 2. What is the monomer of the nucleic acids? The monomer of the nucleic acids is the nucleotide. A nucleotide is composed of three parts: a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. 3. What is the polymer of the nucleic acids? The polymer of the nucleic acids is the polynucleotide. A polynucleotide is a chain of nucleotides covalently bonded to each other. 4. What is the function of DNA? DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is a spiraling pair of polynucleotides found in all cells. The shape of the molecule is described as a “double helix”. The DNA carries the information for building proteins. The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide of a protein. A DNA molecule is a collection of recipes for making proteins. Since proteins are the machinery of life, DNA is the recipe for making an organism. 5. What is the function of RNA? RNA is ribonucleic acid. RNA is a single polynucleotide chain. RNA builds the proteins based on the recipe in the DNA. RNA is the builder of organisms. 6. What is the function of ATP? Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleic acid molecule that remains a single nucleotide. Unlike a DNA or RNA nucleotide, the ATP nucleotide has three phosphate groups attached to its ribose sugar. All living beings run their cells on ATP. The universal battery, ATP is an energy-storing molecule. All the food an organism consumes (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) are degraded into their individual monomers. The monomers are then broken apart atom by atom. The chemical energy freed from the reaction is stored in ATP as chemical bonds between the phosphate groups. An individual ATP molecule doesn’t hold a lot of energy. What makes ATP useful as an energy bank is that the energy can easily be accessed and released by a cell. 7. Describe the ATP cycle. ATP is not made from scratch every time it is needed. ATP is recycled. When a cell needs a burst of energy, it will break off a phosphate group from ATP. Now the molecule is ADP (adenosine diphosphate). ADP is converted back to ATP by the cell adding energy and a phosphate group. The energy for reattaching the phosphate group comes from the energy extracted from the chemical bonds of food. 8. Where is DNA located in a cell? Within the cells of animals, plants, fungi, and protists, DNA is stored in the nucleus. Bacteria lack a nucleus and so store their DNA in a portion of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid region. 9. What is a chromosome? A chromosome is a very long piece of DNA. A typical chromosome contains hundreds of genes. 10.What is a gene? Technically, a gene is a length of DNA that codes for a polypeptide. Later in the semester, we will modify this definition. 11. Describe deoxyribose, the pentose sugar subunit in the nucleotides of a DNA molecule. Deoxyribose is a five-carbon monosaccharide. Biochemists have mapped the molecule by numbering each carbon in the sugar. Next to the number, there is also what looks like an apostrophe. For example, the first carbon in ribose is called the 1’ (one prime) carbon. The term “prime” refers to the apostrophe. The apostrophe represents that the carbon is part of a carbohydrate. For every kind of nucleotide, the nitrogenous base is always attached to the 1’ carbon, the phosphate group is always attached to the 5’ carbon, and the 3’ carbon always holds a hydroxyl group (–OH). 12.Explain the formation of the sugar-phosphate backbone. The DNA molecule looks like a twisted rope ladder. The sides of the ladder are called the sugar-phosphate backbone. Each nucleotide is attached to the one above by means of a covalent bond between the phosphate group and the 3’ carbon. The repeating pattern of sugar hooked to phosphate hooked to sugar gives the backbone its name. Just like other organic compounds, the sugar-phosphate backbone is built by dehydration synthesis. 13.Explain how the DNA molecule is anti-parallel. A DNA molecule is described as “anti-parallel” because one polynucleotide is oriented in the opposite direction to the other. A DNA molecule kind of resembles a divided highway with traffic moving in opposite directions. 14.Describe the 5’ strand and 3’ strand. Since DNA is anti-parallel, one polynucleotide is oriented with the 5’ end of the ribose sugars pointing up and the 3’ end pointing down. This is the 5’ strand. The other polynucleotide is oriented in the opposite direction with the 3’ end pointing up and the 5’ end pointed down. This is called the 3’ strand. 5’ strand 3’ strand 15.So what is the leading strand? lagging strand? A synonym of the 5’ strand is the leading strand. The 3’ strand is also known as the lagging strand. 16.Describe Chargaff’s Rules. Back in the 1940’s, Edwin Chargaff, an Austrian American biochemist, examined the relative amounts of adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine in the DNA of a variety of organisms. Chargaff compared the amounts of these bases in everything from bacteria to humans. What stood out was that for each species, the amount of adenine always equaled the amount of thymine. Likewise, the amount of guanine was the same as cytosine. The pattern is constant regardless of the species, and so it is known as “Chargaff’s rules”. Later, in the early 1950’s, James Watson and Francis Crick concluded from Chargaff’s rules that in the DNA molecule every adenine binds to thymine and every guanine always binds to cytosine forming rungs of the double helix. 17.Describe the complementary bases. Adenine and thymine are complementary, meaning they go together. The same goes for guanine and cytosine. Adenine and guanine are both purines (nitrogen bases composed of double rings). Cytosine and thymine each are single-ring bases so they are pyrimidines. You may notice that in each complementary pair of bases there is one purine and one pyrimidine. This arrangement insures that the DNA molecule maintains a constant width down the length of the molecule. If complementary bases were two purines, the molecule would be too wide and with two pyrimidines it would be too narrow. Why does A only bond to T? The bases are bonded to each other by weak hydrogen bonds. A is bound to T with two hydrogen bonds. G is bound to C with three hydrogen bonds. If A tried to bond with C, C would fall off because it needs three hydrogen bonds. If G tried to bond with T, G requires three hydrogen bonds and so won’t stay attached to T. This difference in the number of hydrogen bonds for each complementary pairs keeps them A-T and C-G..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A Guardian of the Development of Diabetic Retinopathy
    Diabetes Volume 67, April 2018 745 Sirt1: A Guardian of the Development of Diabetic Retinopathy Manish Mishra, Arul J. Duraisamy, and Renu A. Kowluru Diabetes 2018;67:745–754 | https://doi.org/10.2337/db17-0996 Diabetic retinopathy is a multifactorial disease, and the molecular mechanism of the development of diabetic reti- exact mechanism of its pathogenesis remains obscure. nopathy remains to be established. Sirtuin 1 (Sirt1), a multifunctional deacetylase, is impli- Sirtuin 1 (Sirt1), a member of the silent information cated in the regulation of many cellular functions and in regulator 2 family, is a class III histone deacetylase that gene transcription, and retinal Sirt1 is inhibited in di- interacts with target proteins and regulates many cellular abetes. Our aim was to determine the role of Sirt1 in the functions including cell proliferation, apoptosis, and inflam- development of diabetic retinopathy and to elucidate the matory responses (6–8). Sirt1 is mainly a nuclear protein, Sirt1 molecular mechanism of its downregulation. Using - and its activity depends on cellular NAD availability (9). It is overexpressing mice that were diabetic for 8 months, Sirt1 expressed throughout the retina, and upregulation of COMPLICATIONS structural, functional, and metabolic abnormalities were protects against various ocular diseases including retinal investigated in vascular and neuronal retina. The role of degeneration, cataract, and optic neuritis (10). Our previous epigenetics in Sirt1 transcriptional suppression was inves- work has shown that Sirt1 expression and activity are de- tigated in retinal microvessels. Compared with diabetic wild-type mice, retinal vasculature from diabetic Sirt1 mice creased in the retina and its capillary cells in diabetes (11).
    [Show full text]
  • ATP—The Free Energy Carrier
    ATP—The Free Energy Carrier How does the ATP molecule capture, store, and release energy? Why? A sporting goods store might accept a $100 bill for the purchase of a bicycle, but the corner store will not take a $100 bill when you buy a package of gum. That is why people often carry smaller denominations in their wallets—it makes everyday transactions easier. The same concept is true for the energy transactions in cells. Cells need energy (their “currency”) to take care of everyday functions, and they need it in many denominations. As humans we eat food for energy, but food molecules provide too much energy for our cells to use all at once. For quick cellular transactions, your cells store energy in the small molecule of ATP. This is analogous to a $1 bill for your cells’ daily activities. Model 1 – Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) NH2 N N O– O– O– CH OP OP OP O– N N O 2 ADENINE O O O TRI-PHOSPHATE GROUP OH OH RIBOSE 1. The diagram of ATP in Model 1 has three parts. Use your knowledge of biomolecules to label the molecule with an “adenine” section, a “ribose sugar” section, and a “phosphate groups” section. 2. Refer to Model 1. a. What is meant by the “tri-” in the name adenosine triphosphate? 3 PHOSPHATES b. Discuss with your group what the structure of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) might look like. Draw or describe your conclusions. SAME AS ABOVE, BUT WITH ONLY 2 PHOSPHATES IN PHOSPHATE GROUP. ATP— The Free Energy Carrier 1 Model 2 – Hydrolysis of ATP H2O NH2 NH2 Energy N – – – N – – N O O O N O O O– CH OPOPOPO– CH O P O P OH HO P O– N N O 2 N N O 2 + O O O O O O Inorganic OH OH OH OH Phosphate (Pi) 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Use of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria to Leach Rare Earth Elements from Monazite-Bearing Ore
    Minerals 2015, 5, 189-202; doi:10.3390/min5020189 OPEN ACCESS minerals ISSN 2075-163X www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals Article Use of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria to Leach Rare Earth Elements from Monazite-Bearing Ore Doyun Shin 1,2,*, Jiwoong Kim 1, Byung-su Kim 1,2, Jinki Jeong 1,2 and Jae-chun Lee 1,2 1 Mineral Resources Resource Division, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM), Gwahangno 124, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-350, Korea; E-Mails: [email protected] (J.K.); [email protected] (B.K.); [email protected] (J.J.); [email protected] (J.L.) 2 Department of Resource Recycling Engineering, Korea University of Science and Technology, Gajeongno 217, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-350, Korea * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-42-868-3616. Academic Editor: Anna H. Kaksonen Received: 8 January 2015 / Accepted: 27 March 2015 / Published: 2 April 2015 Abstract: In the present study, the feasibility to use phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) to develop a biological leaching process of rare earth elements (REE) from monazite-bearing ore was determined. To predict the REE leaching capacity of bacteria, the phosphate solubilizing abilities of 10 species of PSB were determined by halo zone formation on Reyes minimal agar media supplemented with bromo cresol green together with a phosphate solubilization test in Reyes minimal liquid media as the screening studies. Calcium phosphate was used as a model mineral phosphate. Among the test PSB strains, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. putida, P. rhizosphaerae, Mesorhizobium ciceri, Bacillus megaterium, and Acetobacter aceti formed halo zones, with the zone of A.
    [Show full text]
  • Prebiological Evolution and the Metabolic Origins of Life
    Prebiological Evolution and the Andrew J. Pratt* Metabolic Origins of Life University of Canterbury Keywords Abiogenesis, origin of life, metabolism, hydrothermal, iron Abstract The chemoton model of cells posits three subsystems: metabolism, compartmentalization, and information. A specific model for the prebiological evolution of a reproducing system with rudimentary versions of these three interdependent subsystems is presented. This is based on the initial emergence and reproduction of autocatalytic networks in hydrothermal microcompartments containing iron sulfide. The driving force for life was catalysis of the dissipation of the intrinsic redox gradient of the planet. The codependence of life on iron and phosphate provides chemical constraints on the ordering of prebiological evolution. The initial protometabolism was based on positive feedback loops associated with in situ carbon fixation in which the initial protometabolites modified the catalytic capacity and mobility of metal-based catalysts, especially iron-sulfur centers. A number of selection mechanisms, including catalytic efficiency and specificity, hydrolytic stability, and selective solubilization, are proposed as key determinants for autocatalytic reproduction exploited in protometabolic evolution. This evolutionary process led from autocatalytic networks within preexisting compartments to discrete, reproducing, mobile vesicular protocells with the capacity to use soluble sugar phosphates and hence the opportunity to develop nucleic acids. Fidelity of information transfer in the reproduction of these increasingly complex autocatalytic networks is a key selection pressure in prebiological evolution that eventually leads to the selection of nucleic acids as a digital information subsystem and hence the emergence of fully functional chemotons capable of Darwinian evolution. 1 Introduction: Chemoton Subsystems and Evolutionary Pathways Living cells are autocatalytic entities that harness redox energy via the selective catalysis of biochemical transformations.
    [Show full text]
  • Pentose PO4 Pathway, Fructose, Galactose Metabolism.Pptx
    Pentose PO4 pathway, Fructose, galactose metabolism The Entner Doudoroff pathway begins with hexokinase producing Glucose 6 PO4 , but produce only one ATP. This pathway prevalent in anaerobes such as Pseudomonas, they doe not have a Phosphofructokinase. The pentose phosphate pathway (also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a biochemical pathway parallel to glycolysis that generates NADPH and pentoses. While it does involve oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. There are two distinct phases in the pathway. The first is the oxidative phase, in which NADPH is generated, and the second is the non-oxidative synthesis of 5-carbon sugars. For most organisms, the pentose phosphate pathway takes place in the cytosol. For each mole of glucose 6 PO4 metabolized to ribulose 5 PO4, 2 moles of NADPH are produced. 6-Phosphogluconate dh is not only an oxidation step but it’s also a decarboxylation reaction. The primary results of the pathway are: The generation of reducing equivalents, in the form of NADPH, used in reductive biosynthesis reactions within cells (e.g. fatty acid synthesis). Production of ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), used in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids. Production of erythrose-4-phosphate (E4P), used in the synthesis of aromatic amino acids. Transketolase and transaldolase reactions are similar in that they transfer between carbon chains, transketolases 2 carbon units or transaldolases 3 carbon units. Regulation; Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is the rate- controlling enzyme of this pathway. It is allosterically stimulated by NADP+. The ratio of NADPH:NADP+ is normally about 100:1 in liver cytosol.
    [Show full text]
  • Cytosine-Rich
    Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 93, pp. 12116-12121, October 1996 Chemistry Inter-strand C-H 0 hydrogen bonds stabilizing four-stranded intercalated molecules: Stereoelectronic effects of 04' in cytosine-rich DNA (base-ribose stacking/sugar pucker/x-ray crystallography) IMRE BERGERt, MARTIN EGLIt, AND ALEXANDER RICHt tDepartment of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139; and tDepartment of Molecular Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611-3008 Contributed by Alexander Rich, August 19, 1996 ABSTRACT DNA fragments with stretches of cytosine matic cytosine ring systems from intercalated duplexes (Fig. 1A). residues can fold into four-stranded structures in which two Second, unusually close intermolecular contacts between sugar- parallel duplexes, held together by hemiprotonated phosphate backbones in the narrow grooves are observed, with cytosine-cytosine+ (C C+) base pairs, intercalate into each inter-strand phosphorus-phosphorus distances as close as 5.9 A other with opposite polarity. The structural details of this (5), presumably resulting in unfavorable electrostatic repulsion if intercalated DNA quadruplex have been assessed by solution not shielded by cations or bridging water molecules. NMR and single crystal x-ray diffraction studies of cytosine- The close contacts between pairs of antiparallel sugar- rich sequences, including those present in metazoan telo- phosphate backbones from the two interdigitated duplexes are meres. A conserved feature of these structures is the absence a unique characteristic of four-stranded intercalated DNA. of stabilizing stacking interactions between the aromatic ring Indeed, the unusually strong nuclear overhauser effect signals systems of adjacent C-C+ base pairs from intercalated du- between inter-strand sugar Hi' protons and Hi' and H4' plexes.
    [Show full text]
  • DNA Microarrays (Gene Chips) and Cancer
    DNA Microarrays (Gene Chips) and Cancer Cancer Education Project University of Rochester DNA Microarrays (Gene Chips) and Cancer http://www.biosci.utexas.edu/graduate/plantbio/images/spot/microarray.jpg http://www.affymetrix.com Part 1 Gene Expression and Cancer Nucleus Proteins DNA RNA Cell membrane All your cells have the same DNA Sperm Embryo Egg Fertilized Egg - Zygote How do cells that have the same DNA (genes) end up having different structures and functions? DNA in the nucleus Genes Different genes are turned on in different cells. DIFFERENTIAL GENE EXPRESSION GENE EXPRESSION (Genes are “on”) Transcription Translation DNA mRNA protein cell structure (Gene) and function Converts the DNA (gene) code into cell structure and function Differential Gene Expression Different genes Different genes are turned on in different cells make different mRNA’s Differential Gene Expression Different genes are turned Different genes Different mRNA’s on in different cells make different mRNA’s make different Proteins An example of differential gene expression White blood cell Stem Cell Platelet Red blood cell Bone marrow stem cells differentiate into specialized blood cells because different genes are expressed during development. Normal Differential Gene Expression Genes mRNA mRNA Expression of different genes results in the cell developing into a red blood cell or a white blood cell Cancer and Differential Gene Expression mRNA Genes But some times….. Mutations can lead to CANCER CELL some genes being Abnormal gene expression more or less may result
    [Show full text]
  • Nucleotide Degradation
    Nucleotide Degradation Nucleotide Degradation The Digestion Pathway • Ingestion of food always includes nucleic acids. • As you know from BI 421, the low pH of the stomach does not affect the polymer. • In the duodenum, zymogens are converted to nucleases and the nucleotides are converted to nucleosides by non-specific phosphatases or nucleotidases. nucleases • Only the non-ionic nucleosides are taken & phospho- diesterases up in the villi of the small intestine. Duodenum Non-specific phosphatases • In the cell, the first step is the release of nucleosides) the ribose sugar, most effectively done by a non-specific nucleoside phosphorylase to give ribose 1-phosphate (Rib1P) and the free bases. • Most ingested nucleic acids are degraded to Rib1P, purines, and pyrimidines. 1 Nucleotide Degradation: Overview Fate of Nucleic Acids: Once broken down to the nitrogenous bases they are either: Nucleotides 1. Salvaged for recycling into new nucleic acids (most cells; from internal, Pi not ingested, nucleic Nucleosides acids). Purine Nucleoside Pi aD-Rib 1-P (or Rib) 2. Oxidized (primarily in the Phosphorylase & intestine and liver) by first aD-dRib 1-P (or dRib) converting to nucleosides, Bases then to –Uric Acid (purines) –Acetyl-CoA & Purine & Pyrimidine Oxidation succinyl-CoA Salvage Pathway (pyrimidines) The Salvage Pathways are in competition with the de novo biosynthetic pathways, and are both ANABOLISM Nucleotide Degradation Catabolism of Purines Nucleotides: Nucleosides: Bases: 1. Dephosphorylation (via 5’-nucleotidase) 2. Deamination and hydrolysis of ribose lead to production of xanthine. 3. Hypoxanthine and xanthine are then oxidized into uric acid by xanthine oxidase. Spiders and other arachnids lack xanthine oxidase.
    [Show full text]
  • Dna the Code of Life Worksheet
    Dna The Code Of Life Worksheet blinds.Forrest Jowled titter well Giffy as misrepresentsrecapitulatory Hughvery nomadically rubberized herwhile isodomum Leonerd exhumedremains leftist forbiddenly. and sketchable. Everett clem invincibly if arithmetical Dawson reinterrogated or Rewriting the Code of Life holding for Genetics and Society. C A process look a genetic code found in DNA is copied and converted into value chain of. They may negatively impact of dna worksheet answers when published by other. Cracking the Code of saw The Biotechnology Institute. DNA lesson plans mRNA tRNA labs mutation activities protein synthesis worksheets and biotechnology experiments for open school property school biology. DNA the code for life FutureLearn. Cracked the genetic code to DNA cloning twins and Dolly the sheep. Dna are being turned into consideration the code life? DNA The Master Molecule of Life CDN. This window or use when he has been copied to a substantial role in a qualified healthcare professional journals as dna the pace that the class before scientists have learned. Explore the Human Genome Project within us Learn about DNA and genomics role in medicine and excellent at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural. DNA The Double Helix. Most enzymes create a dna the code of life worksheet is getting the. Worksheet that describes the structure of DNA students color the model according to instructions Includes a. Biology Materials Handout MA-H2 Microarray Virtual Lab Activity Worksheet. This user has, worksheet the dna code of life, which proteins are carried on. Notes that scientists have worked 10 years to disappoint the manner human genome explains that DNA is a chemical message that began more data four billion years ago.
    [Show full text]
  • REDUCTION of PURINE CONTENT in COMMONLY CONSUMED MEAT PRODUCTS THROUGH RINSING and COOKING by Anna Ellington (Under the Directio
    REDUCTION OF PURINE CONTENT IN COMMONLY CONSUMED MEAT PRODUCTS THROUGH RINSING AND COOKING by Anna Ellington (Under the direction of Yen-Con Hung) Abstract The commonly consumed meat products ground beef, ground turkey, and bacon were analyzed for purine content before and after a rinsing treatment. The rinsing treatment involved rinsing the meat samples using a wrist shaker in 5:1 ratio water: sample for 2 or 5 minutes then draining or centrifuging to remove water. The total purine content of 25% fat ground beef significantly decreased (p<0.05) from 8.58 mg/g protein to a range of 5.17-7.26 mg/g protein after rinsing treatments. After rinsing and cooking an even greater decrease was seen ranging from 4.59-6.32 mg/g protein. The total purine content of 7% fat ground beef significantly decreased from 7.80 mg/g protein to a range of 5.07-5.59 mg/g protein after rinsing treatments. A greater reduction was seen after rinsing and cooking in the range of 4.38-5.52 mg/g protein. Ground turkey samples showed no significant changes after rinsing, but significant decreases were seen after rinsing and cooking. Bacon samples showed significant decreases from 6.06 mg/g protein to 4.72 and 4.49 after 2 and 5 minute rinsing and to 4.53 and 4.68 mg/g protein after 2 and 5 minute rinsing and cooking. Overall, this study showed that rinsing foods in water effectively reduces total purine content and subsequent cooking after rinsing results in an even greater reduction of total purine content.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 23 Nucleic Acids
    7-9/99 Neuman Chapter 23 Chapter 23 Nucleic Acids from Organic Chemistry by Robert C. Neuman, Jr. Professor of Chemistry, emeritus University of California, Riverside [email protected] <http://web.chem.ucsb.edu/~neuman/orgchembyneuman/> Chapter Outline of the Book ************************************************************************************** I. Foundations 1. Organic Molecules and Chemical Bonding 2. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 3. Haloalkanes, Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines 4. Stereochemistry 5. Organic Spectrometry II. Reactions, Mechanisms, Multiple Bonds 6. Organic Reactions *(Not yet Posted) 7. Reactions of Haloalkanes, Alcohols, and Amines. Nucleophilic Substitution 8. Alkenes and Alkynes 9. Formation of Alkenes and Alkynes. Elimination Reactions 10. Alkenes and Alkynes. Addition Reactions 11. Free Radical Addition and Substitution Reactions III. Conjugation, Electronic Effects, Carbonyl Groups 12. Conjugated and Aromatic Molecules 13. Carbonyl Compounds. Ketones, Aldehydes, and Carboxylic Acids 14. Substituent Effects 15. Carbonyl Compounds. Esters, Amides, and Related Molecules IV. Carbonyl and Pericyclic Reactions and Mechanisms 16. Carbonyl Compounds. Addition and Substitution Reactions 17. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 18. Reactions of Enolate Ions and Enols 19. Cyclization and Pericyclic Reactions *(Not yet Posted) V. Bioorganic Compounds 20. Carbohydrates 21. Lipids 22. Peptides, Proteins, and α−Amino Acids 23. Nucleic Acids **************************************************************************************
    [Show full text]
  • Alternative Biochemistries for Alien Life: Basic Concepts and Requirements for the Design of a Robust Biocontainment System in Genetic Isolation
    G C A T T A C G G C A T genes Review Alternative Biochemistries for Alien Life: Basic Concepts and Requirements for the Design of a Robust Biocontainment System in Genetic Isolation Christian Diwo 1 and Nediljko Budisa 1,2,* 1 Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Berlin Müller-Breslau-Straße 10, 10623 Berlin, Germany; [email protected] 2 Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, 144 Dysart Rd, 360 Parker Building, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada * Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]; Tel.: +49-30-314-28821 or +1-204-474-9178 Received: 27 November 2018; Accepted: 21 December 2018; Published: 28 December 2018 Abstract: The universal genetic code, which is the foundation of cellular organization for almost all organisms, has fostered the exchange of genetic information from very different paths of evolution. The result of this communication network of potentially beneficial traits can be observed as modern biodiversity. Today, the genetic modification techniques of synthetic biology allow for the design of specialized organisms and their employment as tools, creating an artificial biodiversity based on the same universal genetic code. As there is no natural barrier towards the proliferation of genetic information which confers an advantage for a certain species, the naturally evolved genetic pool could be irreversibly altered if modified genetic information is exchanged. We argue that an alien genetic code which is incompatible with nature is likely to assure the inhibition of all mechanisms of genetic information transfer in an open environment. The two conceivable routes to synthetic life are either de novo cellular design or the successive alienation of a complex biological organism through laboratory evolution.
    [Show full text]