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University of Southampton Research Repository University of Southampton Research Repository Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis and, where applicable, any accompanying data are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis and the accompanying data cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content of the thesis and accompanying research data (where applicable) must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holder/s. When referring to this thesis and any accompanying data, full bibliographic details must be given, e.g. Thesis: Author (Year of Submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University Faculty or School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. University of Southampton Faculty of Arts and Humanities English Nature and Humanity: A Comparative Study between the Regional Novels of Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) and Shen Congwen 沈从文 (1902-1988) by Yuejie Liu 刘月洁 ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5266-8083 Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2020 University of Southampton Abstract Faculty of Arts and Humanities English Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Nature and Humanity: A Comparative Study between the Regional Novels of Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) and Shen Congwen 沈从文 (1902-1988) by Yuejie Liu 刘月洁 This thesis adopts a Taoist approach to a comparison of the representation of Nature in Thomas Hardy’s Wessex novels and Shen Congwen’s West Hunan novels. In these definitively regional novels, Hardy and Shen demonstrate that they share a belief in the fluidity of the distinctions modern society has imposed between humanity and Nature. A Taoist metaphysical conception of Nature provides models for understanding the holism in their works. The comparisons in this thesis address the uniqueness of Hardy’s and Shen’s representations of Nature, explore how the links between such representations create interesting dialogic reverberations, and demonstrate how a Taoist frame can illuminate the connections between Nature and humanity in their imaginative literature in new ways. My three chapters select three pairs of novels from Hardy and Shen to which the relationship between Nature and humanity is central. In Chapter 1, a comparison between Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) and Fengzi (1932-1937) explores the holism in the reciprocity between the human and non-human worlds in Wessex and the fetishist representation of local religion in West Hunan, and here I suggest that the Taoist conception of ziran can better capture the metaphysics of Nature in these novels. Chapter 2 explores The Woodlanders (1887) and The Border Town (1934), arguing that they show Taoist aesthetics of inaction (wuwei) in their narratives and their characters’ interactions with the environment, and this shows that a comparison between these two novels can delineate a dialectic between Nature and culture which expresses both writers’ literary tenet of ‘meaning beyond words’. In Chapter 3, a Taoist analysis of The Return of the Native (1878) and Long River (1938-1945) dissolves the dichotomy between Nature and culture existing in previous criticisms and offers a Taoist observation of the ‘return’ to holism through atavistic representations of Nature in the face of the dualism of modernity. Overall, the thesis aims to demonstrate the potential of applying a Taoist literary method to comparative literary studies. Through original translations into English of some of Shen’s little- known work, and the use of primary archive material held in both the UK and China, it offers bold new adjustments to previous scholarship on both Hardy and Shen. Table of Contents Table of Contents Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... vii Definitions and Abbreviations .......................................................................................ix Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 I. Literary Reverberations between England and China ................................................ 1 II. Nature as a Novel Interest ......................................................................................... 3 III. Ziran: a Taoist Conception of Nature ......................................................................... 8 IV. The Comparative Methodology: Potential and Principle ......................................... 19 i. The Potential of a Parallel Comparison ............................................................ 19 ii. The Principle of a Foreignising Translation ...................................................... 31 V. Ecocriticism and Taoism ........................................................................................... 37 Chapter 1 The Relational Self in Symbiosis: A Comparison between Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) and Fengzi (1932-1937) ........................................ 49 1.1 Novels of Character and Ziran .................................................................................. 50 1.2 A Relational Self and the Secularised Religion of Nature ........................................ 55 1.2.1 A Religion of Nature in Fengzi ............................................................................ 56 1.2.2 A Symbiosis in Far from the Madding Crowd ..................................................... 61 1.3 A Reconceptualisation of Pastoralism ...................................................................... 70 1.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 76 Chapter 2 The Aesthetics of Silence: A Comparison between The Woodlanders (1887) and The Border Town (1934) .................................................................... 79 2.1 Relative Silence of Speech ........................................................................................ 80 2.2 Novelistic Lyricism? .................................................................................................. 82 2.3 The Seasonal Tempo ................................................................................................ 86 2.4 Nature-Witnessing ................................................................................................... 95 2.5 Qualities of Silence ................................................................................................... 99 2.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 103 i Table of Contents Chapter 3 The Taoist Return: A Comparison between The Return of the Native (1878) and Long River (1938-1945) ..................................................................... 107 3.1 Resistance to an Alienation from Ziran ................................................................. 108 3.2 Scepticism towards the Institutional Power .......................................................... 115 3.3 Literary Impressionism ........................................................................................... 120 3.4 A Dialectic between Nature and Culture ............................................................... 129 3.5 A Return to Literary Autonomy.............................................................................. 141 3.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 142 Conclusion: Toward a Taoist Literary Method ............................................................ 145 Appendix A Maps and Pictures .................................................................................. 153 Appendix B Synopses of the Novels ........................................................................... 157 B.1 Fengzi 《凤子》 .................................................................................................... 157 B.2 The Border Town 《边城》 ................................................................................... 158 B.3 Long River 《长河》 .............................................................................................. 158 B.4 Far from the Madding Crowd ................................................................................ 159 B.5 The Woodlanders ................................................................................................... 160 B.6 The Return of the Native ........................................................................................ 161 Appendix C Timelines of Hardy and Shen ................................................................... 163 Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) ............................................................................................. 164 Shen Congwen (1902-1988) ............................................................................................ 164 Glossary of Terms ...................................................................................................... 173 List of References ...................................................................................................... 179 Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 191 ii Table of Figures Table of Figures Figure 1 Shen's sketch of the Diaojiao
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