A Linguistic and Ethnohistoric Approach to Bella Coola Prehistory
APPROVAL
Name : James W. E. Baker
Degree: Master of Arts
Title of Thesis: A Linguistic and Ethnohistoric Approach to Bella Coola Prehistory.
Examining Committee: Chairman: KarlPeter
ali . Hobler) Examining Committee
(Neville Lincoln) External Examiner Assistant Professor Simon Fraser University
~IIEI:ACE
Thc archaeological field work that focused on the problem of the
anomalous psitien of the Bella Coola iias iniiiatt-d by iir. Caris011 and
Professor Hobler of Simon Fraser University. Dr. Carlson and Professor
Hobler provided me with the opportunity of taking part, as an undergraduate
student, in the 1968 survey of the Bella Coola region under Professor
Iiobler's directorship. In the summer of 1969 I conducted excavations, as a graduate student, at a large midden site in the Bella Coola region, again under Professor Hoblerfs directorship. I would like to thank both Dr.
Carlson and Professor Hobler for their inspiration, guidance and discussions which resulted in the following study.
Funds for the archaeological research were provided by Simon Fraser
University through the Archaeology Department's Field School Programme.
Library research was conducted under a Simon Fraser President's Committee
Research Award (1969) and graduate stipends arranged by Dr. Carlson. I am grateful to these funding agencies.
As this is primarily a library research paper I would like to acknowledge the many helpful librarians I have dealt with during the course of this study. Particularly helpful and efficient were those working in the Northwest Room of the Vancouver Public Library, the Special Collections
Library of the University of British Columbia and the Provincial Archives.
I would like to thank especially Mr. G. A. Mintz of the B.C. Studies
Library at Langara for the many fruitful discussions on Northwest Coast ethnohistory, and for his invaluable assistance in obtaining obscure ethnohistoric material.
I am extremely grateful to Mr. Bruce Ball for his kind assistance on the map work, and to Mrs. Barbara Maestri for her long and arduous job of typing the final draft of this paper. iv
present position of the Coast Salish in British Columbia;
2. That the Bella Coola were at one time contiguous with other Coast Salish;
3. That a later Wakashan intrusion from the north isolated the Bella Coola in their present position.
The First proposition deals with a topic that has been much discussed, Smith, Boas, Kroeber, Drucker, Borden and a number of others have all dealt with the origins of Northwest Coast culture. Archaeo- logical and linguistic evidence will be offered in support of the above proposals. Linguistic evidence best substantiates the second proposition. Ethnohistoric sources have been used to offer support for the third proposal.
Territory
The ahnriginsl territsry of the ikiia Zooia Indians included villages of the Dean and Kimsquit rivers at the head of Dean Channel, on the Bella Coola river at the head of North Bentinck Arm, on South
Bentinck Arm, and at Kwatna Bay off Burke Channel. This territory lies approximately between 52-53' north latitude, and 126-127O50 ' west longitude. The Bella Coola had as neighbours to the north, west and south, various branches of the Kwakiutl, and to their east, were the
Athapaskan speaking Carrier and Chilcotin.
Boas (1898:48) records 29 villages of the Bella Coola, in the territory outlined above. MacIlwraith who worked with the Bella Coola in the 1920's lists the following 45 villages as Bella Coolan:
(1) Qarneix: on the west bank of the Necleetsconnay about three-quarters of a mile from the sea.
., , 7. - . *
villages) uefe7bi 1 irigual (Mac I lwraitfi 1948-: $9) . + k , ,. - - - ". Kwatna ~ay approximately fortyL I , , . is ,-- mile_s_srqm-B~lla+C_oola, but , , -- . , ' C \ . > ,, . ; MacIlwraith may. have 'been wrong in considering, it Be0l.laBella
I r territory. As indirect evidence of Kwatna being Be1.6' a Coola territory, ,
-t . Tolmie says: w . . , . 9 ' . . some .of the BilliChoola tribe here today, qraded * . , -from them somk cakes made, from the inner bark of the , hemlock . .'This branch ,of .BiPlichoola ar'e called 1 i . . . ,Kummuchquetoch Ei their vilrage is,one night distant-
L. - . [19s70 :292). - L , 7 , ," ------B
, . . ' ' The above quote is •’rgm'~olmi~;sjournal kept' while he wil at Fort 4 46 . . ~c~ou~hlin(the present town bf Bella Beila) land =s.dated+loiember. - Z 4 21'"; 1834. . Later whiIe he, was still at Fort'McLoughlin, -in-his entry , . - .
dat& J.anuary 14, 1835 he says : - I.
busywith the ~illichoblaall day. They. call thkm- 6 silves Srom their river (Nowhal ick) Nowhalikim'ieh - t , those here under the comnand .of Nooshimadh inhabit - .. the entrance of the river md are cBlled Koomkotash'.,. .. * - ...
- January 16 ------, . . . . Before departing they requested me. ta make the
. weather moderate for the period of their ensuing I - -- - - voyage - two days! ' (Tolmie 1970:301) . . ' Tolmie in the above quote is most &finitely referring to the-people
. . bf the Bella ~oolavalley, .called halh by ~ac~lwr~ith[1948:jl], 3 * and Nookhalk by Palmer (1863:s). ~o&&otaihmust be ~om~otsof'. -..
, ' . , . . ,. , MacIlwraith (1948:ii) &nd.Ko+orn-kp-otz of Palmer [1863:5'), both'who , I.
. * place this ,village near the mouth aE the Bella Coola River.
- L - - f -A/- - L- -+---+ -- L - - + - ---*------3 L.- - " There*~-abk iittle 'doubtrthat Tqlmie was .able to recognize the - . LL- -- - +-- - = --- , Bella coola as'djstinct. fip the Kvakiutl, or'more, specifically, .thek>
t i ' - Bella Beyla. hepeople called-' Kmmuchqueto& by Tolmie must have -,
3. .. - a.
, . . , afier TOIMIE and DAWSON
Figure 2. (after Tolmie and Dawson 1884) been the inhabitants of the Dean River. Olsen says:
. . .Long aka iiie 3eiia hula iiveci only along the Dean River, the Kwakiutl at the mouth of the river. In Kwakiutl the Dean River is called Kimxaku ("Canyon") , and the Be1 la Coola people Kimxakwidox (1955 :321) .
The Kummuchquetoch of Tolmie lived one night distance, and the
Koomkotash two days, or one overnight camp, which may be taken as approximately equidistant from Fort McLoughlin, which the Bella Coola and Dean Rivers are. Tolmie can be considered correct in placing the
Bella Coola on both the Dean and Bella Coola Rivers. It is therefore significant that on a map published in 1884, Tolmie includes Kwatna
Bay in Bella Coola territory (see figure 2).
Village number 38 of MacIlwraith as listed above is called
Axeti, located one mile from the sea on the Dean River. The name
(which translated from the Bella Coola means tlOccupied Mound") is derived from the small mound on which it was built (MacIlwraith 1948:lS).
In Kwatna Bay where MacIlwraith lists 7 villages assigned to the Bella
Bella, the second village on his list is called Axeti, "Occupied Mound",
(MacIlwraith 1948:20).
NacIlwraith accepts the Axeti of Dean River as being a Bella Coola village, but assigns the Axeti of Kwatna Bay to the Bella Bella. There is no evidence that Axeti is a Kwakiutl word adopted by the Bella Coola and applied to both villages in different areas. The sixth village in
MacIlwraithts list for the Kwatna River is Wakwas, he says: "the meaning is unknown, and it is thought the name, Wakwas, is in the Bella
Bella language ." (Mac1 lwraith 1948: 20) . No such explanation is given for Axeti.
Salish Dialect
Groupings of
the Late
19th Century
Figure 3. (after Boas and Haeberlin 1927)
iieiia LooLa Coast Ti1lamook Coast Division .. . . 4.5-6.5 Tillamook ...... 6.0 4.5-6.0 Interior Division .. 5.0-6.8 3.9-6.9 4.6-5.5
Table 1. (after Swadesh 1950)
Linguistic distance is indicative of physical and cultural separation. From the above data, it would appear that the Bella Coola have been isolated from other Salish speakers for a considerable length of time. The extreme ranges of linguistic distance favour, slightly closer affinities with the Coast Salish over the8InteriorSalish, but the difference in range in Swadeshls data alone is not significant enough to state unequivocally that the Bella Coola are an isolated pocket of Coast Salish.
More recent studies of the Salish language (Diebold 1960; Suttles and Elmendorf 1963; Jorgensen 1969), tend to confirm Bella Coola as a 4% : Coast dialect. Jorgensen (1969:lO) says:
Bella Coola has been demonstrated to be distant from all other groups, but more closely related to the northern- most Coast languages than to those of the Interior. On the basis of synchronic linguistic materials alone it is reasonable to think that Bella Coola moved north into their area from a more southerly homeland.
Diebold (1960:lO) using Dyenls language Migration Theory sees the probable homeland for proto-Salish in the Gulf of Georgia region and the
adjacent Interior. He postulates intrusion or migration as the two most probable hypotheses to account for the separation of Bella Coola
from that area.
in the survivors moving to the Bella Coola Valley. Indeed, palmer (1863:7) remarks on the devastating effects of a smallpox epidemic which had just begun amongst the Bella Coola when he arrived.
~f a smallpox epidemic was sweeping the Bella Coola territory at the time of his visit, Palmer's estimate may have included people who had moved to the Valley from outlying areas. Thus, Palmer's estimate for the two villages may have been a close count of the entire Bella
Coola population, but it can only have been made after the population had been very drastically reduced. Perhaps an accurate estimate of the entire Bella Coola population, prior to the introduction of devastating diseases cannot be made. Whatever the case, by the early
1900's most of the Bella Coola Indians resided at their present
location in the Bella Coola Valley.
Climate, Flora and Fauna
The Bella Coola territory is included in the ~ittoralof Kendrew 1 and Kerr (1955), which is the coast, west slopes and uplands of the
Coast Mountains. The coast i&remarkable for its long narrow fiords, some of which reach nearly a hundred miles into the uplands. The out- standing feature of the climate is the mildness and humidity of the winters.
The climatological table for Bella Coola (Kendrew and Kerr 1955:
116) shows that the Bella Coola territory falls within the Cfb classi- f ication of Koppen , where :
C - warm temperate rainy climates (mesothermal). Average temperatures of coldest month is less than 64.4OF, but more than 26.6O~.
6 c .. I 'i <, . .. t *. I , - '. . . I.. . . I1 (*. , c., 3 ' v- . . ..- - I /- .
c -' EWOHISTORY, - - . ------, lLd-LL-- .--
% , There are two piincipal definitip& of ethnohiskor;: , ' .re - 1) The us6 of written historical materials in.
preparing an ethnogrqphy or the use.of historical J - materials to show mlfural -chwge. ,Either a syncfironic or diachronic study. ,
. 2) Use of a people's oral literature in recmstructing-. their own' history (Lantis 19705), , .
L 1 - +- , - - Ttre fo~l&ng mat&riat' wi1.1- be a shchronic study of the gella
8 . , coola IndiAm, using histoiical materia1 for an ethnographic- , , I, , , * . , description of a past. stage of their cul~ure.- As Stu~tevant(1966 :7) * L . remarks on the use of historical ethnography:'
.. . The Am is to 'produce ,a description 'paralleling
'as closely as possible %hat would be pssible in I $. field ethnography, even though the evidence is not what the anthropologist has himeif observed, over: . heard and *been told; bE-rather what '&hers, ' nonanthropologists , have learned- and written down. I. ., For the 0ella Coola, a coo construction of an ethnographic ', - L - - - A -- . . , 'description o,f a past stage of dulture must include sone data recordkd .
. , '.by recognized ~thropologists. Ther historical material &itten by 1 nonantfiropologists is somewhat Limited especially when atternit s are
made to infer soeial oiganizatiod or. religion: The r,&etse -is tm'e '
I when attempting to recofistmct an ethnographic description of material
culture 'using data 3recorded by early anthropologists. By 'combining , ,. . . . data from both, it, should be possible to recoiistruct an ethnographic , x. ------+- .--- LL-- description of -the 3eGa Coola for the time just prior' tecontact,
-A *. z - , Tke justification •’of this synchronic approach in ethnohistory- - is simply that not enough is known af the Bells Coola culture to apply 't - . . . . the diachronic approach. It must: first be established what the.Bslla :
1 ., ' Coola culture was, 'at. a.given point in.tirne,.before changes in the- - - . I . 7 I r -,9 -,9
" I, 21 \, .\ - < ,. a\. ., -. . \\, a culture,' from that poTnt in time can 'be show. ~ikkerson.(1970:7) 2 - L _"I_ L __ ___ -_ &Ai-- _--. . \ . y,
. . 'says: '. . \, I , " , 3 3 . . h '
'~thnohistorians,then, appiy the pethods of ' A r to in 'I hi$torio&aphy the gultures which they are ,' &I interested in the light .of ' their general , - I' I' anthropof ogidal axperien,ce; to gauge change .. . that. has taken place in them and to comprehend , historical factors involved in and determining , ,theh, sub- . J . . . , change . .. Ethnohistory, is.that branch ~f ethnology which e&tloys tristoriograph- 1. /#* ' to ,f ,/ . --- L-L-+ :. -, ic3L: nfethods -lay- a f'odation or the. f - Lu.u - ulatf on of general 'laws : in a word,, ideographic I,,/ , ..mews to nomothetic ends. , . , 9, . . , , - * ~ombtheticends cannot be reached fiom a vacuum. The pdrpose df . ,
this paper. is, to lay the fouqdation, or toat least partially fill
1 , ,
'that-vacuum in regards to Bells Coola,. culture. subsequent fornlatidns - , of genersl laws may result,. but they are outside the scope 'of this
. . study .
,-
- - Ethnographic fiegcription - , . I . The large plank 'house, typical of the Northnest. Coast qulture 1'
area; was the characteristi=,habitation of the Bel la Ccola Indians .*- . 6
Mackenrie gives"a lengthy des&ipion of a ~el'la*a house: . = , . ,- /,
I now made the toui of the village, vhi&*consisted',of built. . . four elevated houses,, and seven on the ground, besides- a 6on,siderd&le nmber of other buif dings or. < sheds, which me.used only as kitchens ,. and .places for 1 I curing their fish, Tfre fomer are constructed by , '. fixing a certain rider of posts in'the, earth, on some -, + 3 of whit& are IaiZt, 5ncK topGthGs f Sfe%ectfLfke-~'ipOr't-~ . -erg of. the fIoor, at about twelve feet abpye the - , surface'~ofthe g&md; thefr. f mgth froa-an fiundrecf - - - - $0'a+ h&dred and twenty feet, and they are abwt -farty -.'inbreadth, Alang thd cmtre are'built three, four or . . I. five hearths, for the ~o-foldpurpose of giving warmth, , and 'drw'sing theiz fish, The-whole,length of the building bn either side is divided By c&ar planks, into . '
. . . , /
j, . .
L t . . . , , ,
23' , ,
F A .. On the eastern s2deidf this canal,near the he& of a -2 - small 'rivulet, they had-noticed on he pmceding evening . . . , a' hwse of very ar -eonst~&hn-; ;-These-were--- ., -- --- . . - /, . , found to be of a different eonstiuctioa from any otfiey , had before Seen; they we& .erected-un a platforip similar to that seen in my last excursion, and mentioned as being
raised md supported nea+ thirty' f&t from the ground by ,' , , perpendicular sp&s of n very large ,si,ze . . . each baving a Separate access Eormed.by a long tree in qn inclined -' , position .from the p1,atform to the ground, with notches at in .by wai of steps; about a foot and a half asunder [Vancouver, 1967 :I1 -274,) . -
' ' ,The above quoted passages fram .volume, two of Vancower's -jomat . I_I-IX__i-li ,-. - 4" _ yield, in relation.fo house construction; 'The construction of these ; '
, was very cu*ious ...'; 'of very singulp constmction ...I; and 'a . 9.
ai5ferent construction,, -fro@ any they had befork seen . . . , 1 con'c&n- , - i
.9 ing' housks in what has, been est,ablished as being Bella Coola territory. , ,
It.should be ob;ious. from the above thqt neither Vancouvir, nbr any of . . ''
I. - .------.------.- --. -. -- -- his*crew, had previously encountered pileb&it dwei~in~s. q
' as Despite the evidence quoted, Niblack (1970) .mistakeniy 'inciudes , . , -I . I. 9 , the .~wakiutl,among those dn houses. He says : ,- ,-' . . * ' kcording to Yqcokver, amongst the KWaki~tSof I Johnstone Strait, there were dwellings ft$ai~ed-and supported near 30 feet from the~~i%?dby perpendicular ', , *.- spars of a very large sizeTfwith "access formed by a . long tree ,in an imzlin'ed* position .from the plaifo'm to the' ground, with notches. cut in *itby way of steps about . a, fd& &d a half assunder.": .(Nibl&k,- 1970:305). , 4- I. . I ,,--%iblack gives as his source; 'Yatcouver, Voyage, vol. 11, p.274" /, +' miblack 1970 :305). He has indeed quote3 hi; Source co'rrectly, but he . . \ ------& ------_ I is incoTrect 2s 'to Vancouverls position-. ~ancouverdescribes the - - - - Johnstone ~traitregion in,vqlume I, Cape Mudge to Nimpkish River, pages 331 to 355, yisited in July 1792. Dueing that time Vmcouver . , I' . ,/ ., ,, I* , . -, A' .( 7) 425 ' ' , , I- , . , . 1- .", 1. - . . - , . I,,- . , y . his ~wexainformant was incomet inreplying in the 'negative. Wikeno 2, ------A_- , f , . and XaisIa &&iiitl, &dLtw~Afk&i~hianinfbrmants replied. that pile :. - dwe,l lings were sometimes' used. . All others' replihd in the negati;e. ..- . . 'Xn a later *publ4cation, when discussing houses, Drucker says ~ that . , . . ' - - among Bella Coo,la, .Kvakii&l=, Coarit ~simshianand possibiy Tlingit,, < . , " . ;. a specialized &&ant' fo~of house was mad; .. . Thege were pile . . b= dwellings, built partly or entirely over waterJ. Alexander .Mackenz ie - I -+AL Lu --.. ------describes in some detail the Bella Coda houses o'f this type . . .tf .' (Drucker 1955a:69), - ,, , Wckenzie does indeed describe pile dwellings for the Bel1,a 'C~ola, , * I r but most certainly does not describe ,them as being built br ' ., - - entirely over. the water." The pile built dwellingk described by . . - I I I r------_ -_ __------MacKehrie in the Bella. coola vallley ,are all reqched only after a-walk , '., . , . - of some distance through the woods. After. being transported by canoe ' i a I - the leiigth of the ~eilaCooia valley, pot once mentioning houses built ' ,- -- - over ' the watkr , ~ackknziedesciibes a ;illage near the mouth cf the , . ' Bella Coola Riter: . I. . , . , . we left our canoe, and caqied our luggage along a road through a wood for' sob hundred yards; when we came to a village, consisting o•’ six very l.&ge houses; ,erected' on pallisades, rising twentyfive fe& from the grPund, which differed in no *one cireuinstance from those already described, but zhe-heikht of their ! ele~ation .' If 1 were to judge by the heaps ,df filth L ' .. , . beneath these buildings, they must haye. been, -erected at a mre distant period than any which de had passed -, Qbckenzie 1971.:339)+ --. -, . ------? - -. ------. ' . .'The &ye quore pmbgtrly describes the third VSlage. on -, - - A- . A- >h 5Mac~lwraithrslist of Bella Coola toms, the. tr-lation bf the n*e of , , which he gives as "'The ~enced om'^, so called because it was * t . - - t I. >. . , to culture during the period being described. 1 > . - . I *( . I .' 1 , , '. . - -37 *. r. - -I ' - 1. I --,. above omatnenf s are made of, but copper, brass, iron, bone and s&ll - r, . * -+* -L- A , - -+ ------ are all mentioned.' (1971:37@] ' wedge Mackenrie , , says they have head;. (. - , The men wear their hair long, %oms. keep it well combed, and let it , ' I hang arrange loose overa.their shoulders, . . .. others its plaits and , . > e.bedawb it with bro'kn earth, the ,women wear their hair >hortV1(197.1: . , . 8' . 370:71). 1 . Ceremonial. dress is not mentioned by kckenzle, obviously he was, + L -. +- L- , " 2 li limitkLinhis observ&io& by'the time of year he visited, and by .' . . - the short length bf his stay., : . o x ' , , Social Qrganization Mackenzie -is .of cautse not explicit with regards to Bella Coola . , social organization, but it is possible 't~make some inferences in this , regard on the basis bf his observations on Bella Coola government. He Q says : . , a a- , - -- -- . ... It is in this river alose that one man.appears to have an excusive and.hereditary right to what was necessary to , athe existence of those who are associated with him., I alluae to the salmon weir; >orfishing place, the :sole . . right to which confers on the chief an arbitrary power. Thqse embankments -could not have been formed .without a' , > very2great and associated labour; and, as might be I' , supposed, on the condition that those who assisted in + = " constructing it should^ enjoy a pwticipati -- -I advantages to be, derived fro& it. Nevert - evidently appeared to me, that the,chiMpowey over. it, arid the people, was unlimited, without control. No' one could fish wi$hout hi$ pewissi=% xi* or carry home a ' larger - porriori of wbG be kad caught-,*kart was-se~apart- - - - for him. 'NO on~-couldbuild an house without,his consent; and ' ail his rods.appeared to be folloved-with imp~&it - . - -L _ _ ,- obedience.' The pk~leat large seemed to be on a perfect . , -- equality, while the strangers among tha were obliged to obey the.commands of the nhtives in general, or quit th'e 'village (Mackenzie 1971 :3?4-3,751. The above quote gives the total explicit remarks deby kckenzie , , . , . &. . , . !" -. , , 'with zegards to Bella Coola social organization. A rmaber of - LA +--- - -AL- / ? + 1 -. - - L ------ I / inference? c& be drawn ,other remarks in B&ickewiets jburna~. Mackenziefe first encounter with the ~hlaCoola was whenshe walk+ ' . , unikbounced into a village where he shookehands with'a number of . 3...... inhabitants who soon conveyed to him by sips that he should'go tq A ' a ' . * tlie laigest 'hdusk in the billage. There ~ack;nzie met 'the chief of I4 the'viTlage. After spending some time at this. village, mckenzie was L -+ -- *- * A -. ,*' - , - .... 1 /_ - - " .- t~Zmsp0rtedby'cwe downstream to another village. He was greeted by A &other village chief.&id .%asintroduced tp the latter s two sons, the I %. ^. . f -, I eldest. of whom presented Mackenzie with ', a r be; ", ' ., \. I insta&ly stepped .f&Ard to et him, and presented -i . .. hand, d my whereupon he broke the string of a very h'andsome robe af sea otter skin; which he had on, and covered me " with it. This wqs as flattering a reception as I could passibly receive, especially as $ considered him $0 be the eldest son of the chief (I971:326). * After this- reception- Mackenzie- was' entertained in a hou-se of , - . , greater dimension and built of better materials t?qn any he had . ' pf eviously encountered. The entf re Gillage.stayed at the. reception for Mackeazie, "sxckptP a party of ten or twelve ,of them, .wh& the chief ordered to go &d, catch fish," i1971:327) .. q I-* ... .e Mackenzie' was then conveyed by !canoe down the valley with ?he '\ "-.. chief Fs son--.+s guide. The chief' of each village visited was i r ' thoroughly infarmed beforehand ,of all particulars concerning , ------? A -- - -- , L - - - - - Mackenziets party. The settlements encountered by Hackenzie on his. , . - -- - -L------journey.dawnriver, varied in size ~fromvillages consisting of , , 0 5' several hundred inhabitants, to single ~&sesites, He was made tb ' 7. stop and visit at me spot fiere there were only two house?, as he . , . , was info- the owner of the h&sqs was "a person of consideratioiP 1 .-.+ to stop at a village of only two'houses asethe-cbi$f,d&ere,.,-+ A, [email protected]*--. 3 as ,,,, -\1 r3 of meconsideration. I; laight be inferred from &is thaf the Bella 4 ' 3. b. . <6- d h d 6. 42 , .. there is no fixed structure of anon;, thB *Bells, : ('I Cooia. The of a etef orme ,open tp: ' + , ~ -, , - position--- - 3s _ ihdividal defin'ition and initiative than among other ~orthwestCoast tribes .. . (1971 :112) . .. . , - But within t& household do:&n and R+el say the authority if 3 : t .. , . < a& , V chief head of *.the hous6hold was' clear-cut (1971 :115) . , I, The lack of exkerrial ranking, or any sort bf central aqthority ~ . >. wed ill fo*~theBella Cooli in time of war. MacIlnaith considered , . .A i . . - ,- - , the Wlla'~e&aunlikely-to have engaged in' aggressive war, ran ' A -a-L" enterprise; ":. . forwhich they bere unfitted both on ac,count of their . . military attitude and their lack of central authorityvr:(194811:339). ' . + .- , . ~ac~iwraithis most ,emphatic in stating thech&acteristic military *+ attitdde oE the Bef la hula and their lack' of central authority that . , '. made . it difficult for them to wage 'war. . I , * - - The following .le&thy quote frflln kcllwraith will' sWe to -- - delineat'e Bella Coola warfare: * , - -, .. . .Lack of ~a strong government was 'a serious handicap t6 the Bella Coola. After being assailed, the members , of the town would discuss retailiatiun, .and if 'unanimity of opinion was' reached, that c&se was decided tipon.. Public opinion alone selected the leader, usually a man . who had .given a number of potlatches, especialIy one whose+position had been made stronger by previous , , (I validation as a wqior. Svch a chief had no command over his followers. If he were a & pf great prestige, \ . L nany wuald be dlling to serve under him, Mt,he could . . not coerpel the services of anyone except his om slaves. A few individuals often iIec1ined:to folfow .. their fellows to war, altbugh the force of public . . upifion usually peventd a too individtdistic coluse. z*-i z*-i of-er.--& *ai*DWIT&-* ------wftetkr or not to jo'in the party, if sane of their zpf aives bd&een sf Gp in-*@ -prevlaus- eta&-- - - ' - - - ,- - revenge influ&ced them to share in the retaliation, -- otherwise only the prestige of a mighty chief cduld attract them. EiIo case is,known +iiwhich all the Bel.la Coola villages joined in a single expedi.tion; ther& r. -. P . I . , ' a , 4. * -.>*. >' Ii . % , 43 .. -, . . '# - were often temporary allianc6s 'bhen neighbur& ' , ' , settlements., but complete lack sf central organiz- . - - --- . . --- -atixm .. . The so-caHect"-iwckr h&-TitxTe autlrorhy- -- , a$ over his mefi, *aL could desert adreturn home at +. qy tine. . Lack uf martial ability among their own - ., , , chiefs sowtimes Led the Bella Coola to pl&e thegn- ' . selves under the authority of a Bella Bella in a way ' which would: be iapbssihle for a war-like people. Frequently such 6diVided leadership led to disaster, &d;is the surest proof that the Bella Coola were , . ndf as aggressive or bellicose as other coastal tribes (194811 :340-342) . t' . '* - . .A Though the &!la Coola+, as Aekidencedin the ab~vs.''~uota,.were -- - -- . , not.. rnil5tarlly organized to wage war, their geographiC,al position '- , ?. , - > prevented them from being 'annihilated by more aggressive coastal . . tribes. MacIlwraith says ; :The narrow el la' Coola valley, however, ' I far reiuoikd from the opqn sea, and densely was difficult to -attack (19481'1 :339), Such' was the case for'the villages in the ' ------A .. Bel-la-Coo1 TvKI rey-prtipe~ ,- bm the mtlykrrg B&Ja €poh -viMage s w0re subject to quite f&que*t raids by the ~wakikland Tsimshian. MacIlwraith mhtions specifics .'for the recourse t&en by one. . , - - - 9 ' , such outlying Bella Coola village,. He says: ', k . . . Belliz coola itself wd too hifficu~tof gFcess. . ' and too densely pqklated to be successfkl2y attacked, but Talio was sUWject to constant raids The raid- ... . 3 ers became sa 'bold- that the inhabitgnts of one of fhe , Talio villages decided to defend th~glvesby build-' ing a stockacfe. Everyone assisted in the task, so that the fortif.ication w& soan completec). 2t --,- - - -+- -%. consisted of o-fence of vertical logs with a, platform naming around near the. top, on the inner side, on which the defenders could stand, and a wat,er-gate &rough whia qumm coficL eWr at,I_high-tide I_t: *- -, ----L-_. - su-oundeq-five as six %ousas and wep1amed.a~ a place of rgfbge- for all the tali^ villaes ,, ,1/194_811:_342), . + - + -- --- , . Apparentiy MacIlwraith is speaking of-a more recent time than Vancouver for 'no stockaded villages &re mentioned by Vancouver in.South Bentinck . . .b I. .. 4. D , . . , . b considers the 0id ~otdillekmcult& to be manifest. These ks: 2. - :\ /. : . . , L. 4 b I - r *. from 6060 to 2506 B.C. Of this he says: 8; *. . . - I the Cascade Phase which existed during that time represents . . 1. -. # * I, . . . . , - 2' , , ,p' 5zr. I1 )+ - . , . ' B * T ' seas&; This is the &slential'coasfal spattern * fl!k0:7l). _ _ - -- 4 +- - - __ _ _ -- a*, , The sites describkd from the, Ccllrmbia Plateau: included in ~utler?~ . -, . - (1961) Old Cordilleran Culture are given wider geographical distribution 5: . by Boraen (1969) he sees them occuring 'also in Nevada, California and. Mexico. Of these borden says : -. "7 ' - .. . Though regional and lacs1 sptzcializatf ons are. often . I apparent, such assemblages commonly feature .large biface , . knives ad leaf-shaped points, scrapers in a wide range - " . -- 2 -<-,- - . af- she hd: type, oe6a~llaiialIycrude.. or 'even Gel'l-made . bIades, but.never microblades. Varying quantities of -, pebbld^pools are usually present. One example of such --anassemblage is .that of the Milliken phase in south- 0 - western British Columbia, dated at 7100 .to 6200.B.C. ... 6, Undoubtedly of earlier more southerly origin, the , 7. Milliken culture is at present the northernmost exponent'+ of these cultural manif estatidns. Farther south, Cres~rnan's c1960) Early I ,component at Fivemile Rapids, dated at 7800 B.C. .. . probably represent earlier mani@estations of thid tradition (1969:8). 6. I ' 1- ' , . , These widespread gepgraphically distributed sites which Borden sees as dating to as mu& 6s ZO,QOO years ago i* their most southern reaches - . . , - .' have been nambd by him the ~rotoveit&rncultkal tradition (I969:9). ' . The nonhward movement of conveyors, of the Protoweste3n tradition brought ' , . + :. i ' F,' thkm into British Columbia irhorrly after' the ares had been deglaciated. J. Of ,,, this Borden says: $. -A . . . It is significant gin this context that 8,000 to . 9,000.years ago the Iwer valley of the Fraser still was ' , depressed from the last and recently terminated local 'glaciation and $hat a long inlet extended from the Gulf ' ' .of Georgia to the vicinity of Hope .. . Thus;-the Indians - --- - who Afished iii flie FrZ3er Canyon st tfikt-time were little , mre than twenty miles from the muth ~f the ~iv,erqd, - + ------7 , %U salt water . .. f 196T:lT). . . From the above it is evident that the earliest inhabitants on the C~ast , . , , arrived from an area ta the south and east. The problem rfow remains to - 1, . - . .- , . ' 55 , ' 3. +. . > d. 6 - .. ., shdu tttat.these first inhabitants &e indeed the progenitors of the ethnographically keam Salish,-. -and 'that -theirn&qvf-b-k------+ I ? . . , . . , - i . them along the coast toyat least. as, far as the Bella Coola territory. f . i .. - , * A .- T+e culture continuity at the Milliken site in,the-lower Fraser + .b . Cayon from ,7500 B.C: 'to 4500 B.C, -does not appear to be in question. - . ~ * , . I > . . . , , ' This time-period-encompasses two phases i Milliken Ca. 750&6060: B .C ; . r " and bfaz&aa Ca. 6000-4500 B.c.~:The Milliken phase is diseribed above. . < Bord& says of the. Mazamzr Phase: . ; ' .J -7 + - - _ -, , -- A -L - - ".2. he anifact collection of this phabe is not large; and in-general pa marked change from the preceding phase is > < indicated (1968': 14) . r . ,- However- the succeeding phase, Eayem Ca, 3500-1500 B.C., shows an intro- 3. , - - . . duction of a ?numbeT of ' new tra'its. The .phase . is described by ord=n: b. . . - I Certain important terhnological advances occurred in th~se' tl period. Projectile points provided with stems. to . facilitate hafting make their appearance. Drills of vajrious types are added~to~thetool kiS ... A small fragment of thin siltbtone plaque decorated with Incised ? c cross-hatching was recovered, as well as two small _ - - - spindle-shaped .steatite,-objects 9ith en'circling lines. Possibly the latter are gaing pieces used in slahal, ", a guessing gae still passionately' played by the Indians 6f today. bong the most strikiqg developments bf this phase was the beginning of the ground slate industry .. E . . 'Fhe Eayem deposits at Es'ilo have yield-ed a series of , chipped and partia1,ly ground slate p~intsand fragments of exceedingly well-made gromid and golished knives ' 61968:14): ' , . . . The dates tEat bracket this. - ,also bracket tde earliest dated sites . in the Fraser Oelia and Gulf of Georgia regiip, Thesesites are I1 -- -- .p---L , st. Mgo ~anneryifatedto 2300 0.C. and .%yne island datL& at%00-~x~- -* . . - -- -' I Of the material at St.' Mgo Calvert says,: ' '. b - . .. The bdsic ecinec reliance on fish, molluscs and 4 w@ wfFich is so characteristic of later ~orthwegt"Coast , cultures is well-defined, in the e&llest l+evels . .. me , . - - . . , . '. , \ d , 'C 1 I ii . , I. '2 / ' 54 ,+ - - < -- +- . :',i,,.,,* , . , ' lowest teveld of the-aeposif show affl~ktie$~o--th&!aYem-~-; - Phase of the F~asef"Cmyon,with which- they are' roughly cpntemporary. The pe~plewere. apparently kell acquainted , - with wood working techniques and depended on riverine, ifiter-tidal and land resources for food .. . This ee~nomic. . . . - ' patteh see*, to persist with. little change. It is ' &ccompanied by a gradual cultural .dev&lopment, marked by , . an increase in &ticular .decorative forms and the first slight 'indications of a inore marit+me or5;ented way of - >, life .. . . . As. a final remark,, one might paint*out that the presence of 'a Frasezr Delta -wmponent.bf the Eayem Phase suggests ' ------'that other early Canyon Phases may be just as wide-spread and that the cultural similarity found along the lower Fraser in moreVreceqttimes has a great antiquity. 8 - [Calvert 1970 t 74-75). . . : The material from Mape Island is represented by three phases. The pearliest bf these hiss-beeeLnamed by Carlson (1970) the Mayne Phase, . . , . , and consists of: , . . Flaked basalt artifacts and debitage in I , shaped basalt points, stemmed &id shouldexed basalt ~oint3, a scrapers and knive-s, pebble choppers, "thilkyquartz and quartz - crystal flakes and nticrobhies ,obsidian flakes and -. -- - __ I '. mic'roblades , ground slate points and knives present but - rare, chipped slate points', bilater~lly.barbed ,harpoci.n heads . of antler, unilaterally barbed antler points with lashing .' . - gropves; antler wedges, sandstone abrading slabs and whetstones, labrets and other polished stsne ornaments, bone . pendants, long, upbarbed, bone paints, red ochre, extended burials, ci~cular;@earths,sock slab features (1970 :115). I , *If - The &me F'hise material. as described &we constitutes the first , - )I *. reco;ded ?vidence for such.' an assemblage on the Northwest Coast. , I # Carlson (1970: 1173 sees similarities between - - - - - ~eninsula,dated between, 2500. and' 1OOO 0 .C, . Wlt ~ar'lsbn.also says : ,, %re are some similarities between the Mayne phase A projectile points and those frm the Gayam phase at ., Yale and at the St. Wgo site .. . The St. Wgo site . . also yiel'd& one bilaterally barbed harpoon head of a ,. different style ,.. A Fraser River site which~might I * . n , b d sites, Schooner Passage at the mouth of Rivers Inlet, was test says : The midden follows an irregular shoreline around three coves and out on the western point of the island for 1,050 feet ... In width it averages at present about 60 feet, except in one place near the north and where it cuts back across a narrow neck to a cove on the shore for 150 feet ... The extent of actual deposit varies from 10 to 17 or 18 feet, 15 feet probably being the average external height (1943:lOO). The artifact yield from the test trench was moderate, but the composition of thc midden deposit is of interest. Drucker says: At 108 inches a block 5 feet long (from the inner face) was left, and the trench walls were brought in slightly so that at the bottom the cut was 2 feet wide. At this level seepage prevented further excavation, although depth tests put down 36 inches showed the midden material to continue (i.e. 227 inches). The bottom of the trench, at 191 inches, was 47 inches below high-tide line. Several depth tests were dug at low tide down the beach front of the slde, In an effort to determine the extent of the midden material ... The upper 10 inches consisted of fine particles of white shell (apparently crushed clam and barnacle), overlying a thick bed of mussel shell with fragments of white shell. Both layers contained some ash, and in the lower layers bits of charcoal and burnt stones were noted. At 60 feet from the datum (by eye, 4 feet below the beach line) shell material was found to extend to a depth of 36+ inches. At the surface was a layer of beach gravel, followed by a 9- inch layer of mussel shell with clam and/or barnacle fragments and considerable ash and charcoal. Inferior to this was a very compact layer of broken mussel shell 8 inches thick, which overlay a bed of mussel shell with ash (lighter in color than the preceding) which continued to the bottom of the hole (Drucker 1943:lOO & 102). The midden composition shows a very heavy reliance on mussel as a food resource, which is typical of midden deposits in the Salish area at an early level. The possibility of the Schooner Passage site being Salish does exist, but a more thorough excavation of the site is necessary before anything can be said with assurance. A major excavatioii has bcei~conducted at the iarge midden site at Namu by members of the Anthropology Department of the University of Colorado. Radiocarbon estimates indicate considerable antiquity for the site but data concerning the cultural sequence is not yet available. It may be significant to note that large chipped-stone points were recovered from the early levels. Until more information is available regarding the excavations at Namu, it is not possible to determine if the early age estimates date a Salish occupation. Archaeological excavations in Bella Coola territory consist primarily of those done in the Kwatna Bay region. A site survey conducted in Bella Coola territory in 1968 revealed a number of sites which promised to offer important archaeological data (Hobler 1970). Two sites in Kwatna Bay were chosen for subsequent excavation. In 1969 a large midden (FaSu 2) was test trenched and a water-logged midden (FaSu 1) was tested. FaSu 2 revealed cultural deposits to a depth of 2.8 m. Of these deposits Carlson says: The earliest deposit is a layer of crushed shell, primarily mussel, which lies directly over the sterile glacial till below, Above this is a compact, black, organic soil with numerous large and small granite boulders. Resting on this deposit is a well defined house floor indicated by a 5 cm. thick layer of clay. Above the house floor is a layer of floor debris, and above this and partly filling the house depression is a massive deposit of crushed shell into which are intruded a series of stake holes. A friable deposit containing many lenses of sand and charcoal as well as shell forms the fill above. Twenty cm. of soil disturbed by gardening covers the site above this (l97Ob : 1). Carlson distinguishes two cultural phases at this site: . , , . . . . < 6 2 , , - I) an earlieiphase lacking the hiavy pound stone tool I- complex typified by the hammerstone grinders and cirwlar ' - stones, and 25 the Kwama ph-te in which there -is a ,'- a - - -7 coritinuiry of a.i-ti,fa ,,-- ', ' I' : . . '~neven earlier phase which :not found at F~SU2 is manifest at foui is >. . ' . .I. , sites in tAhearea. ~arlsonhas named this earlier phase'll~athedxalu-. . > and sats: * ' I. The geological picture suggksts &at .the sites of this A phase belong i~ a period .of time. when sea level was 4 - - -* -- fowec than it is tdday, h least in the KWatna 1ocallt)i. . . . The sif;e locations' themselves .are,strongly indicative , , of a maritime coastal oriented culture with.wa.f,ercraft , . and- ultilizatiqn of sea resources (1972 :43). .- The Cathedral ghase material is described by Carlson'as-probably the . 9- earliest in the localit$. It differs from the later material, in that a r ;. tools of the Cathedral phase were made by chipping ,or .flaking 'stone. , . a , , P Carlson says of this phase: .- 7, Typical tools from Cathedral phase sites a& all made of- flaked stane and consist ~f.~rujectilepoints, large core - scrapers, debt &culat&s, retouched flake's, notches, &-if$- . r - p forators. One de'fknite microblade fragment 'and several poh s le ones were alqo recoukred. In addition to thesk artifacts >quantit'ies of struck flakes and a number of very-ap)l made, . prepa?ed flake cores were found fl972:43-44). . One rqdibcarbon .estiiate from the type site at,~athedral?b.jnt yielded a date of appi-oximately 300 B.C., but Carlson feels' thelCathedral , phase Will eventually be shown td date between 4000-1000 B.C. , a . . P (CarlsolrG.andHobf er 1972 :4). -- - _ , - - -- The artifact assemblages for'ihe two subkequenr phases in the - 1J -- - -- , - _ , - ______--__-- *, Kwazna rkgiona are typologically dissimilar to the cathedral phase -- - 7 -. materiai but are very similw to each other: ~srlsoi(1972). , , . - differen;i?tes th;..earli& Anutcix phase f om the &tna phase sinplx %'> a dk- L- 71 .+ on the basirs of heavy ground Stone materia1,'such as hverston$ . . . , grinders and circulq ' $ones,. perforated, and ~perforated, appearing . 5 * ' . , The developmental sequence as outlined by Marian Smith (1950, 1952, 1956) is sorncwi~ai more compiicatea than that proposed by Drucker. The chart drawn up by Smith includes a magnificent array of local developments and regional climaxes (1956:284). One of her local developments is the proposed "Prehistoric Foothill Province.'' This Province extends from the Columbia river in the south, north along the Cascade mountain range well into British Columbia. Having recognized such a Province Smith says: If the Foothill province extended north through parts of the Lillooet drainage, an easy route was available for the emergence of the Bella Coola. The Bella Coola would thus represent the northernmost extension of the province, the people having arrived at their present location by a process directly paralleling the slow down-river infiltration which marked the western advance of more southern Foothill groups (1956 :289) . In proposing the above, Smith elaborates on the earlier contention of Swanton (1904) that the Bella Coola arrived at their present position via an interior route. Swanton's article deals with the origin of the clan system and secret societies on the Northwest Coast. He comes to the conclusion that matrilineal clans originated among the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian; but that secret societies began among the Kwakiutl, probably in the Bella Bella area. Swanton's final comment is of interest in regard to the position of the Bella Coola. He says: Morice tells us, however, that the Athapascan Chilkotin, who now separate these people from their congeners in the interior, once occupied but a single village back of the Bellacoola and have driven the Shuswap eastward out of the valley of Chilkotin river quite recently. If this process has been going on for some time longer the interior Salish must have bordered on the Bellacoola at no very distant day ... It would seem more likely, therefore, to suppose that some interior Salish at that time effected a lodgment near the heads of the long inlets just mentioned, and have gradually pushed seaward, while the Chilkotin meanwhile cut them off from the rest of the linguistic stock to which they belong ... (Swanton 1904:485). Lvidence will be presented to show that the Bella Coola most likely reached their position via a coastal route. The working hypothesis that has been the basis of this paper incorporates the earlier theories of Boas, Kroeber and Drucker. It is formulated as follows: The development of the characteristic Northwest Coast culture has taken place during an approximate 10,000 year time span. The initial inhabitants of the coast arrived in recently deglaciated British Columbia from the south and pursued an undifferentiated hunting- fishing-gathering economy that was becoming riparian. As they gradually spread northward along the coast, they came into contact with a developing maritime oriented Eskimo-Aleut culture which considerably influenced the Northwest Coast culture developmental sequence. The chronology of events that occurred on the Northwest Coast during the archaeological, ethnographic, ethnohistoric and linguistic data, does provide some elucidation. The linguistic data is most consistent with our hypothesis. The Mosan theory that Salish, Chimakuan (Quileute-Chemakum) and Wakashan (Nootka-Kwakiutl) all have a common origin, can be used to explain a number of events. The time when the speakers of Salish, Chimakuan and Wakashan shared a common language has been calculated by Swadesh (1953:42) to be approximately 9000 years ago. This date so closely approaches those assigned the earliest archaeological assemblages presented in the previous chapter that we may consider the first people on the coast were Mosan speakers. As to their subsequent dispersment we must keep in mind Swadesh's admonition to linguists and prehistorians. He says: * P 'I I, . .. . "* , . x . - ' ;r , w * 3. -. ** - i 76. , . . 2 ' - '* 7 1 pulations - - , . ., *south ahd the Betla 'Bblla, Kwakiutl and Nsoxka, d- - .. - 'were,displaced ,with. their tmritorias &fect.;L\~aL~-fsducmL -- - ,IL-- . . ---_ to location$ they inhabit today (F4nnegan EWZ: 11). . . , , s . >. The abdve migration model", subs , tatiat& the hypotheitsis p~opored.at the d i t , , . beginning af this chapter. \ *. 2. A. gradual"northward spread of grato-Wakashan and proto-Salish , . g, ' spiking people 'soems best supported 6y the arch$eologicsl , .li,npistic, . * I, . - (I cthnois&phic and ethnohis taric dhta. The archaeological ovidonco from , L-+ - a + - t - L< ..A -A . - i .- * - . - , large middh sites, ail howvan cnrly -hea%y reliance on ntusscl as e major' source of subsists~cc.= Such is. in keeping with the early *, - : + recoknition ofLriporianpcop~a of river plussol as a spurce of fooii. . ell-' nrchaeologiwl repotiB shiv mus.sel shell to bo the main stratub in tho >, oar1 icst lava1 of the sit'e. hy new tcchni{ucs of exp1oiiration~werc . dcv~.l;~cdor ncguirod they diffusad thiough fho tit ire. area. ~ochni~ucs , * IcprneJ in ttic north ware cvcr~tuall~man.ifest in thc South,, Contact . , between> Eskimo-Aleut- arrd Wakasj~an would-- maw n diffusion of -cultural , - L elcmcqts *to .&he more 'squthcr-ly Sal ish without 'd'irect, contact betwoen * ,. - , . . kskima and S,alistr'. . h 'Tho continuity m&ef of'~litchcl1(1969) ha5 merit in $'erms of. a . . . * , - rolativeiy ' stable population, hut it ir daubtful that.'~orthvkst Coast . . I, * I culture du&lopod iq sir?, withgut 'considcrablo diffusiorl of cultural cl cmcnts from the, ~skim-~1eut'.' Tho toggling hurpoon , ulu , .mid the . " '?' ' . whatin8 cm~lexof the Noo-tka qrc too closcly rclotod to-northern mclrktimb ------A - -- 7------traits ta be eiploincd by fndcpendoht dovelapment. Cultural cXchange , 3= -- r, ---*- must have taken placc bctwccn Eskimo Indian, and'it is.bast .crylelncd by a more nortlwrky. territory for e&ly Wakashan peoplo who . wcrc at the :;me tiid in contact with ~~lisbspeakcrs to the south. . , . I t ". . - I .t '78 ' . . i ', d i , . (1898). eoas ;epo$ts that the fir& family to kettle Nuqleblst qbs ' - ' m *4 . A- - - -PC- overland from Riis ni+kingcowu Inlet. ' Pie~~~~t3~rOUtL6~EOu~6- have been via ,the ~lipik1in.i'Riyer to Knot creek to Knot Lake to the I. . . . I. , ~tnarkoRiver and thence to the'Bclla coola vall&. Such a rwte Ls - f oasible, 'but is ~ithoutsupporting evidence. ,' The third proposition is. that suggested by swanion (1904) but hoes . . . -, nor ;,&m feasibl< ii view of Cold?anrs report regqrding the acculturation ' a La A- L --- e ~tkaicho~arrfar; GoTdman says: * c, 07 . .i , . At what period jn their history the,hlk&dho Carrier . we cstablisfid contact with the.,~ellaCoola do not know. , , Alkatcho informants claim that.in the "old dsys" they used to winter at ,~eilaCoala, for two-ma5n rgasons - first, beqause they frequently ran short of fwd during the winfaf -months,. -and ' second, because ihe Beila Cooia furnished a market for-their furs ... Tho Bella Coola - welcomcd tho ~&ricr,a1 though, despising them, because ., the 'fur trdde was profitable and bccauso it them, '. to h~vcstrangers presdnt at '-their winter ceremonies as *. awe-stricken guests oldma man' 1940:339), . , 3 . I,' . , r , An awe-struck*pcoplc hardly seem have likely to wrested their territory , , , 0 ------by force. I'uythl'r &ui&encc of the unlikolihoal of thc ~srricras I Y' C canqu&rors 1s cotiGincd in ~oldrn&'s iGpart. Lie says i - . 4 33'.~uforctho introduction of steel traps, and horses - " r * the carrier-ceefiornic cqvironmcnt -could k4y-~u$taiR the -- L --- -- , population. Famines wsre''not ,uncommon, and most winters . . , wcrc.spent with the Bclle Coola (Goldman 1941):351]. *. * , And in finnl refutation of the Csrrior disl&lging contiguous Salish , > . pcaplc from tho BcIla Copla; Coldman stutas: , . .. - The phiarric system in its particular rearisntstiap -L - A -. - - A -+ -- . - which dafinitaky diffuscd from the Coast; did not reach tho Shuswap unt i 1 1850 _from tho Upper Carxier L194Q7:3401 . . -L - 'i . - .L : ?' , ' Th'ls last statement presupposes n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~distance betwben Interior " L 1. , . > JH J5 {I. Salish and Bella Coola and i; scorns unlikely that that disranco could I ' have been created by the Carrisr fo~cingtheir way batwoon the Interior . . ' r !< I , $ . 9 I 1 - 1 . I, . , ?, - .. , '. 82 I , - b . , , , 6. . . -+ - . ~r&rbn,n:~. et 'ar -. + A -. - -_ - . A ------A PL ---A-d ---- 1969 Blood Groups, Red Cell Enzymes, 'and Cemen Types of Ahousat " . (N~otka)Inct'ian~. - American Journal of Physical Anthropology 31 :591-398. 4 . ' , 1970 Blood Groups. phosphog luconet es. and Cerumen Types of the Anaham (ChiLcotinnndisns*. American Journal 0-f Phpical - Anthropology 32:329-336, I \ "I d sfltishp , co~ urn la, . 1965 The Lwer Coast Bulletin. Area. Victorla. . * "$ , - A * +. - . , -- - Bryan, A: t, . 1963 An Archaeological Survey of Northern Puget Sound. Otcasional Papers of the ldaho state College Museum, Nb. 11. .. . Pqc,atsllo, Idaho. . , 1965 Daleo-American ~rehiktory. Qccasionai Papers of the tdaho State:University !+faspawn, No. 16. Pocatello o - , . . . , . I. 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