International Society for Iranian Studies

Iranian Studies in Author(s): Bernard Hourcade Source: Iranian Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2/4, Iranian Studies in and Japan (1987), pp. 1-51 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of International Society for Iranian Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4310580 . Accessed: 27/02/2014 00:15

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This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BernardHourcade

Iranian Studies in France

I. The State, University Traditions and Awareness of the "IranianWorld" in France There is, in France, a pronouncedawareness of an "Iranian world"that can be identifiedin termsof cultural,linguistic, ethnic (Aryan peoples) or geographic (highlands, cold winters) characteristicscommon to the civilizationsof all Iranian-speaking peoples living in , , Kurdistanor south central USSR, in particular,Tajikistan. This "world"stands in contrastto the Arab, Indian and Turkishones. The notion of a extending from Casablancato Kabul does not exist in French. Newspapersusually refer to the Moslemlands to the southand east of the Mediterraneanas the "Arabworld," as if Turkish- and Persian-speakingpeoples were peripheral minorities therein. Owing to its colonial and military heritage, France has long given special importanceto the Maghrib (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria),the (Lebanonand ,in particular)and, as a resultof the Napoleoniccampaigns and Champollion's expeditions, Egypt.In contrast,France has neverplayed a major,lasting political role in Iranor Afghanistan.As a consequence,Iranian Studies were for a long time classified under Arab Studies, which, by comparison,benefited from the favorsof successivegovernments. Not being in favor with politicalauthorities did, however,make it all the easier to develop culturalrelations between France and Persia duringthe past century.Whereas the English obtainedthe monopoly over petroleum,and the Belgians over customs, France received the monopolyof archeologicalexcavations! Thus may be

Iranian Studies, VolumeXX, Numbers2-4 (1987)

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2 Hourcade understood the concentration of French scholarship upon the originalidentity of the Iranian--Aryan,or Indo-Iranian--peoplesand the origins of their culture. Thus may, in turn, be explained the slight developmentof historicalor social studies concerningthe modem period. The prioritythus given to pre-Islamiclanguages, literature,history and artsleft but a secondaryplace for other,more contemporaryaspects of Iranianculture, aspects that were of greater interest to scholars from countries with sustained economic, commercial,and political relations with the Persiankingdonm In orderto markthe identityof the Iraniancivilization in contrast with the Semitic or Turkishones, emphasis has often, in France, been placed upon the Aryancharacter of the Iranianpeoples. It was not by chancethat Montesqwueu chose a Persianinstead of a Turkor an Indianto symbolizethe independentforeigner. Certain nineteenth century authors, for instance de Gobineau (1859) and Renan, ideologically used this characterto support their belief in the superiorityof Aryansover Semites. As Keddie (1972) has shown, Renanattributed the intellectualqualities of Jamalad-Din al-Afghani to his being Aryan,and not Arab.Of course,scholars specializing in Aryanculture and Indo-Iraniancivilizations pursued their inquiries at a very differentlevel. In France,they form a venerablelineage thatgoes backto Anquetil-Duperronwho, in the eighteenthcentury, "discovered"the Avesta, and comes up to Dumezilwho, beforehis deathin 1986, revealedto us the mythologiesof the Indo-European peoples. Anotherpillar of IranianStudies in France,for reasonsthat the readermay now understand,is archeology.From 1894 to 1931, the French Ministry of Public Education had the monopoly on archeologicalexcavations in Persia. In charge of uncoveringthe past, of unearthingthe splendors of the pre-Islamicera, French archeologists thus helped embellish the image of a prestigeous Iraniancivilization distinct from the Muslim, and mostly Arab, Middle East. In 1921, France obtained a monopoly over archeologicaloperations in Afghanistan,too, whereresearch would follow behindthat in Iran. The Frenchgovernment provided decisive supportby settingup permanentresearch centers in Afghanistanand Iran. The Ministryof PublicEducation was at the originof de Morgan'sscientific mission to Persia in the 1890s; the same holds true for the French archeologicaldelegations in Iranand Afghanistan. After the Second World War, French culturaland scientific activities abroadwere transferredto the Office of CulturalRelations under the Ministryof

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Foreign Affairs, which, in 1947, founded the French-Iranian Institutein .These cultural initiatives were the only "political" response--and quite limited at that--to the intense military and commercial involvement of the British and Americans in Iran. Isolated and insufficiently backed up by commercialor political relations, these culturalcenters led a precariousexistence. Their activities often dependedupon energeticand respecteddirectors-- Jacques de Morgan, ,Gustave Schlumberger, and HenryCorbin--who, from a scientificpoint of view, were quite independent.In fact, the stakesin IranianStudies were not as high as in disciplines concentratingon the Arab Near East or North Africa,where the Frenchgovernment was muchmore involved. Nowadays, however, Iranian Studies in France, centered in Paris, have never been as sound and diverse--despitethe current politicalcrises in Iranand Afghanistan. Approximately forty persons are employed full-time in seven teams at the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS), at the National Instituteof Oriental Languages,at the Univesity of Paris III, at a researchinstitute in Iran,and on threejournals, Studia Iranica,Abstracta Iranica and Les Cahiers de la DAFI. How has such an initially dire situation becomeso full of promise?A chronologicalapproach will be used to examne this development. I. Before WorldWar II: Diplomats,Travelers, Archeologists and the FoundingFathers Although eighteenth century French philosophers often commentedupon Persia, their knowledge of this land was slight indeed (Francis Richard 1987). When Anquetil Duperron,after studying the Pahlavi language, publishedpasages of the Avesta, Voltairewas, it is said, disappointed.La Fontainedid not drawthe inspirationfor what he wrote about Persiain the Fables from the first French printed translationof parts of Sa'di's Golestan by Andredu Ryer de Malezairin 1634, nor fromTavernier's (1676) or Chardin's(1686) traveltales. Not many Frenchembassies or travelersmade the tripto Persia before the nineteenthcentury (Chaybani1971). The first serious mission was undertakenby GeneralGardane, whom Napoleonsent to seek supportagainst Russia and Great Britain (de Voogd, 1981). Although the Treatyof Tilsit in 1807 ended Frenchambitions in Persia,Gardane's mission did open the Qajarkingdom to relations in certain fields, notably education.Besides the CapuchinFriars who had been operatingthere since the seventeenthcentury, the

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Lazarist Order was permittedto open French-speakingschools, particularlyin Kurdistan(Chevalier 1985) and amongthe Assyro- Chaldeans (de Maurois, 1978); and the French branch of the Alliance Israglite Universelle was later authorizedto do likewise in Jewishcommunities Comprehensiveknowledge about the Persianlanguage initially advancedthanks to religious orders and diplomats.Augustinians from Indiain 1603, and Carmelitesand Capuchinsfrom Francein 1628 travelledto Isfahan.They foundedthere several convents and learned and taught Persian. Raphael du Mans was the Shah's translator,and Davud Said Esfahani Louis XIII's. Jean-Fran9ois Petis de la Croixzz, teacher of Persian in the Royal College, translatedmany famouspersian texts, andremained famous for his translationof One Thousandand One Nights. From that period onward French diplomats had to translate Persiandocuments coming from Persia or India,so in 1669 Colbert, minister under Louis XIV, set up the Youth Language School (Ecole des Jeunes de Langues) to initiate embassy secretariesin Orientallanguages. In 1795, the Conventioncreated out of this legacy the National School of Living OrientalLanguages (Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales Vivantes, in short "Langues 0"') the cornerstoneof "Oriental"Studies in France.Arabic, Turkish and Persianwere basic to the trainingof embassy secretariesand interpreters,many of whom would achieve renown as scholars. Among the membersof the first permanentembassy, headed by Count de Sercey in 1839, was de Biberstein-Kazirmirskiwho drafted a French-Persiandictionary (1884). Desmaisons (1908) publishedwhat would long remainthe authoritativePersian-French dictionary,and Nicolas did severaltanslations. Barbier de Meynard (1861) translatedYaqut's geographicaldictionary of Persia into French.De Gobineau,a diplomatwho did not know Persianvery well, was one of the first Frenchmen to be interested in contemporaryPersian and to spreadknowledge, though not always correct,about this land. Thanks to the School of Oriental Languages and these embassies, a generationof numerousand bnrlliantscholars could study the Persiaof theirtimes as well as its languageand literature. They helped carry out the projects undertaken by famous Orientalists,many of whom were teachingat the School of Oriental Languages or at the College of France.From his position at the College, Silvestrede Sacy would dominateFrench Oriental Studies for a long time. Jules Mohl (1838) did a masterlytranslation of

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Firdousi's Shahnameh. Among the founding fathers of Iranian Studies shouldbe mentionedLangles, the first teacherof Persianin "Langues0'," from 1796 to 1824; Quatrem6re(1844); Scheffer, who have edited severalPersian manuscripts (1891); and especially Burnouffor his decisive contributionto decipheringPahlavi and the Avesta (1829). Whereas,throughout the nineteenthcentury, Bnrtish officers in the armyof Indiawrote for the Journalof the Royal Geographical Society and even broughtout the well-known Village Gazetteers aboutPersia and Afghanistan,no comparablesources are available in French. Few Frenchmen, apart from Feuvrier (1900), d'Allemagne(1911), Aucher-Eloy(1843), and some armyofficers sojournedin this part of the world or wrote valuable reportsfor publicationin, for instance,La Revuedu MondeMusulman (1906- 1926); important travel accounts in French were written by foreigners(Rabino, 1917). Officially backed scientific researchwas, however, important, above all in archeology.At the behest of NapoleonIII and of the Shah, two architects,Flandin and Coste, traveledin Persiabetween 1843 and 1854 and published (1851-52) the first scientific description of the principal arecheological sites (Persepolis, Pasargadaeand Takht-e Bostan). Anothermission by Dieulafoy in 1884-1885 undertookthe first excavationsat , which had been located and identifiedin 1851 by Lotfus, a Scot. Jane Dieulafoy's Persia, Chaldea and Susiana (1887) was one of the first general accountsof Persiaand its pastin French. In 1890, the Frenchgovemment sent a scientificmission under de Morgan,a mining engineer,to investigatefrom every scientific standpoint--geological,botanical, anthropological and archeological- -the western areas of the realm. One result was the discovery, for the first time in the Middle East, of a petroleumdeposit at Kand-e Shirin. This mission's report, the first global scientific study of Iran,is a monument:nine volumes between 1895 and 1905. Owing to his achievements,de Morganwas appointedin 1897 the first GeneralDelegate in chargeof the interestsof the FrenchMinistry of Public Educationin Persia. The governmenthad obtained from Naser ad-Din Shah in 1894 the monopoly of archeological excavationsin the kingdom.From the start,work concentratedon Susa. To provide both lodgings for his expedition and protection fromthieves, de Morgan,who arrnivedat the Susa site on December 16,1897, had built, in six months, a stronghold in a European

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 6 Hourcade medievalstyle thatwould durablysymbolize the preponderanceand authorityof Frencharcheologists in Persia(Jequier, 1960). Knowledgeabout and the Achaemenianperiod progressed considerably because of the digging at Susa. Noteworthy discoverieswere made. For example,the Code of Hammurabiwas unearthed by Jequier in 1901 and deciphered by J. Scheil, a specialist in Elamite epigraphy. For more than thirty years, the French,under de Mecquenem,who headedthe mission from 1912 to 1947, continued to devote nearly all their efforts to Susa and lower Mesopotamia,while the monopolyforbade scholars of other nationalitiesfrom undertaling excavations elsewhere. Findings were reportedin the joumal of the FrenchArcheological Delegation in Iran (D6lggation Arch6ologique FranSaise en Iran, henceforth DAFI), at that time called M6moiresde la MissionArchdologique FranSaise en Perse. In 1931, Reza Shahdenounced the monopoly,and archeologists fromother countries, especially the UnitedStates, started, at last, to explore systematicallythe Iranianplateau. Young Frenchmen,like RomanGhirshman, began digging at new, exceptionalsites such as Bishapurand, following Contenau,Tepe Sialk (1933-1939). At the lattersite, a rigorousand precise stratigraphy was, for the firsttime, established.It still serves as a benchmarkfor periodsgoing backto the fifth millennium.Archeological operations would, thenceforth, be carried out more scientifically and methodically,and be less turned toward the discovery of objects and treasures for the museums, as had previously been the case as one learns from reading Jequier (1960) or de Mecquenem (1980). French preeminencewas preservedthrough the creation,in 1936, of the first journal of Iranianarcheology publishedin French,Athar-e Iran, and through the foundation, in 1928, of the new Iranian Service of Archeology which would be headed, until 1960, by AndreGodard, founder of the IranBastan Museum in Tehran. Frenchresearch in Afghanistanfollowed a similarpath, but with a time lag of fifty years. In 1922, a treaty granted France archeologicalresearch rights in thatcountry. Foucher then founded the French ArcheologicalDelegation in Afghanistan(DglMgation Archiologique Frangaise d'Afghanistan, henceforth DAFA). Attentionwas directed mainly towardeastern Hellenism and the "Silk Route." In 1924, the site of Balkh was identified and explored,and the first excavationswere made in the Bamyanarea. Findingswere publishedin the collectionM6moires de la DAFA.

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During the first half of the twentiethcentury, Iranian Studies also advanced into the universities, thanks, in particular,to the Practical School of Higher Education (Ecole Pratiques des Hautes Etudes, henceforth EPHE). This institution, founded under NapoleonIII, had a flexible organizationthat could makeroom for disciplines not yet allowed into the learned Sorbonne. In the EPHE'sFourth Section (languagesand linguistics),ancient Iranian languages--Avesta,Pahlavi, Old Persian,Ossetic and Sogdian--have been taught by eminent scholars, of whom Darmesteter, unquestionablyone of the most brilliant,significantly contributed to the advancementof Iranianlinguistics and knowledge of Pahlavi.In 1892 he publishedthe first completetranslation of the Avesta. His successors were, in order: Gauthiot, Meillet, Benveniste and Lazard. Although before the Second World War archeologists and linguists interested in ancient Iran dominated Iranian Studies, scholars with other interests are worthy of mention. Massignon, who from 1932 on taught Islamic Studies in the EPHE's Fifth Section (religioussciences), initiatedscholarly inquiry into Iranian Islamand Shusm.Henri Masse, who held the chairof Persianat the School of OrientalLanguages from 1927 until 1958,published short ethnographies(1938) about the Iran of Reza Shah and translated severalPersian literary works into French.

III. From 1945 to 1970: The Institutionalization of Iranian Studies After the Second World War, Iranian Studies entered the Universityof Paris at the Sorbonne,benefited from the supportof the Ministryof Foreign Affairs, and developed within the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (henceforth CNRS). From 1945 to 1947 the majorinstitutions that still backthis discipline were foundedor reorganizedby outstandingscholars: Roman Ghirshman headedDAFI, and Daniel Schlumberger,DAFA; HenryCorbin set up the IranologyDepartment at the French-IranianInstitute; Louis Massignoncreated the Instituteof IranianStudies at the Sorbonne; and Ren6 Labatdeveloped Elamite studies at the College of France (College de France), where Emile Benveniste held unquestioned sway over Iranianlinguistics. In Belgium,too, noteworthyprogress was beingmade in researchon Iraniancivilizations. The Archeological Delegations in Iran and Afghanistan: Ghirshmanand Schlumberger

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R. Ghirshmanreplaced R. de Mecquenemin 1947 as directorof DAFI, which had been incorporatedin the CNRS in 1939 and was now placed underthe Ministryof ForeignAffairs. He methodically investigatedSusa andestablished, as had been done for Tepe Sialk, a rigorousstratigraphy extending from the secondmillennium to the thirteenthcentury AD. He finished a study of the Achaemenid palace, the acropolis,and the Royal Town and devotedmuch effort to excavating, from 1951 to 1962, the Elamite zigguratat Choga Zambil and the Sasanian site of Eyvan Karkha.The wealth of findings from these excavations greatly advancedlearning about ancientIran. Ghirshman conveyed this new understandingin Iran from Its Origins to Islam (1951) and Parthians and Sassanids (1962). Personnelwere recruitedto DAFI'sscientific staff, to which the epigraphist Steve belonged. However, few projects were undertakenoutside Susiana, apart from the 1959-1960 rescue operationon KhargIsland. Under Ghirshman,French archeology would be identifiedwith the singlemajor site of Susa,dominated by its medievalstronghold. Isolatedindividuals pursued the archeologyof IslamicIran, or workedat small scatteredsites. Godardpublished his mainwork on the Art of Ancient Iran in 1962. Siroux, an architect,had been submittingarticles to Athdr-eIran aboutfire altarsand small Islamic monumentssince the 1930s, but his majorwork (1949) had to do with Safavidcaravansaries. In Belgium,archeological research on Iranwas especiallyactive during this post-war period. Vanden Berghe, professor of Near Eastemhistory and archeologyat GhentUniversity since 1957, has published most of his results in French. Under his direction, Belgian archeologistslaunched projects in Luristanand at Posht-e Kuh. Vanden Berghe was one of the first scholars to ponder the bronze producing civilization of Luristan. His Archeology of Ancient Iran (1959) has gone throughseveral editions and been translatedinto many languages.In 1961, along with Ghirshman,he founded Iranica Antiqua, a journaldevoted to the archeologyof ancientIran and runningarticles in Frenchor English. Since 1965 he has headedthe Belgian ArcheologicalDelegation in Iran.Along with Haerinck,he edits the ongoingArcheological Bibliography of Iran. In Afghanistan,in 1945, Schlumbergerassumed the position held by a remarkableline of predecessors(Foucher, Ackin and Ghirshman),that of directorof DAFA, a positionhe wouldhold for morethan thirty years. During that period sites fromvarious periods

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Iranian Studiesin France 9 were excavated,notably Lashkar-e Bazar, where pieces of Bactrian and Gandharanart were discovered. This led to the first major excavationhaving to do with the Islamic era--theGhaznavid royal residence. Sukht Kotal, a Kushan site, was probed from 1953 to 1974. Henry Corbinand the Departmentof Iranologyin Tehran. In 1947, a Departmentof Iranologywas createdin Tehran'snew French-IranianInstitute, established after the model of the famous French Instituteof OrientalArcheology in Cairo. Henry Corbin wantedthis centerto combineits effortswith thoseof the Instituteof IranianStudies, which hadjust been set up at the Sorbonne,for, as he later declared (1968), "We can no longer imagine trainingan Iranologisttoday withoutliving contactwith the things and beings of the Iranianworld." Closely cooperatingwith Iraniancolleagues (Seyyed J. Ashtyani,Mohammad Mokri and especially Mohammad Mo'in), Corbin found and edited important religious and philosophicaltexts whereinIslam and the Iraniantradition existed symbiotically. The Department'sBibliothUque Iranienne series counted twenty-two volumes of Persian and Arabic texts with introductionsand comments in French.Authors were uncovered who had been unknown,or nearly so, in Europeor even in Iran. With his assistantsand colleagues,Corbin turned to theosophyand IranianIslam as formulatedby philosophers(Sohravardi, Avicenna and Molla SadraShirazi), Ismaili thinkers(Abu Ya'qub Sejestani and Naser-e Khosrow), and Sufis (RuzbehanBaqli Shirazi and Semnani).Corbin and his followers believe in a specific school of Iranianislam, permeatedby mysticism,gnosticism, and a particular philosophicalcontent, mainly Zoroastrian,which, in some ways, reflectsboth Iranian and Westem beliefs in Iranianexceptionalism. The Departmentof Iranologysoon built up a substantiallibrary in philosophy and Islamology with a noteworthy collection in Persian.It welcomed newcomerssuch as GilbertLazard, Marijan Mol6, and JeanAubin. After succeedingMassignon in the chairof Islamology at the EPHE in 1954, Corbinbased his courses upon recentlydiscovered texts. His analyseshad beenregularly published in EranosJarhbuch (Zurich) since 1949 andhad appeared in several books: Celestial Earth and the Resurrection Body, From Mazdaist Iran to Shiite Iran (1961), Man of Light in Iranian Sufism (1971a), History of Islamic Philosophy (1974), and his masterpiece In Iranian Islam (1971b). The Department of Iranologyremained strictly devoted to Shiite philosophyafter 1953 anddid not takein youngresearchers working on othersubjects.

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Corbin was well-known in Iran. He often met leading theologians (for instance, AllamehTabatabai) and had many, and prestigeous, students and disciples (among them: S. H. Nasr, K. Mojtahedi, D. Shayegan, Ch. Jambetand H. Landolt). In 1951, Mossadegh exempted the Departmentof Iranology from being closed down like the otherforeign cultural centers. "It is doingwhat we shouldbe doing,"he said. Corbin'sposthumous works--he died in 1978--wereedited and publishedwith the help of his wife Stella (1981), DaniushShayegan, and the Parisbranch of the Institutefor Ismaili Studies. The works and life of Corbinwere presentedin a special issue of Cahiersde l'Herne(Paris, 1980) editedby Jambet. The Institute of Iranian Studies (IEI): Massignon, Benveniste and Lazard The creationin 1947 at the Sorbonneof the Instituteof Iranian Studies (Institut d'Etudes Iraniennes, henceforth IEI) was intended to make up for what this discipline lacked, namely, a libraryand a centerfor offeringcourses and undertakingresearch. By comparison, Arab and Turkish studies were already solidly established.Apart from Persianlanguage courses at the School of Oriental Languages, there was no possibility of specializing in Iranian culture. Courses at the EPHE were broader (Islam, linguistics) or narrower,depending upon the professor.With the agreementof Levy Provengal,who presidedover Arab,Turkish and IranianStudies in France, Massignon was appointedas the first directorof the LEI.Nonetheless, this instituteremained for the time being an administrativeshell without any offices, employees or library.Back from Tehranin 1951, GilbertLazard started teaching coursesleading to a "Certificateof IranianStudies" at the bachelor's level; he was laterjoined by Mold andde Menasce.The latter,who taught the history of religions at the EPHE, would greatly help develop the IEI, in particularits library,by acceptingthe personal collections of Darmesteter,Mass6, Mole and otherIranologists. In 1962 Benvenistesucceeded Massignon as directorof an institutethat was still not muchmore than a shell. Thanksto the supportof Pellat and Brunschvig,who wereprimarily interested in Arabcivilizations, the Universityof Parisfinally createdthe chairof IranianStudies at the Sorbonnein 1966. Lazard,who in 1958 had succeededMasse at the School of OrientalLanguages, was the firstperson to fill it. The IEI now began growing. The events of May 1968 hastened this process. After the University of Paris was brokenup, Lazard,who had become, in addition to his other duties, directorof the IEI in 1969, had this

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Instituteaffiliated with the Universityof ParisIII, the so-calledNew Sorbonne.The IEI thusobtained a recognizedadministrative status. Lazard later, in 1971, associated the IEI with the CNRS, thus increasing its material means and staff. The library now had a worthycollection. In 1977, the IEI was at last installedin definitive offices in the LatinQuarter. Courses were offeredat the bachelor's, master'sand doctoral levels.

In Belgium, ancient Iran was also under study. At Liege University, Duchesnes-Guilleminhad been teaching Indo-Iranian courses since 1938, includinglinguistics, the Avesta, Pahlavi, and ancientIranian religions. This universitybecame a majorEuropean center for studies of the Sassanid epoch. Since Duchesnes- Guillemin'sdeparture in 1983, budgetrestrictions have prevented any majorresearch program in Iranologyfrom being carriedout at Liege. In the Brussels universitiesIranian Studies are a matterof individualinterest and is centeredon the pre-Islamicera.

In Eastern Europe, several orientalists published their most importantstudies in French:The history of Persian literatureby Machalski(1965) in Poland;numerous papers in the journalActa Orientalia in Budapest (Hungary).The most famous scholar of EasternEuropean birth was the Russian-bornVladimir Minorsky whose works on the historyof medievalIran (1932), and historical geographyof Iran (in Journal Asiatique and La Revue du Monde Musulman)are basic.

IV. Since 1970: The Present Organization of Iranian Studies in France IranianStudies entered a thirdphase of developmentafter 1968. New personswere recruitedto the discipline: on Iranian archeology;Charles-Henri de Fouchecour,Philippe Gignoux and JeanAubin on classical Iran;Paul Vieille andJean-Pierre Digard in the social sciences. New organizationshave been set up and new methodsapplied. Research is no longerthe endeavorof outstanding, isolated scholars who lack the material means to expand their activities;it is now carriedout in teams thatbring together several generationsof researchersfrom variousspecialities. Most of these teamsare organized within or with the help of the CNRS,which has

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 12 Hourcade decisively stimulatedthe studyof Iranian--and,in fact,of all major-- civilizations. The Universities The InstitutNational des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (INALCO)--therenamed School of OrientalLanguages--is, above all, an educationalinstitution. During a three-yearprogram, students can study Persian, Kurdish, Pushtu or Urdu as well as Iranian civilization. From 1973 to 1984, de Fouchecour, Lazard's successor,headed the Departmentof Persian.The Institute'slibrary is world-famousfor its collection, which has been assembledover the centuries,in literatureand linguistics. The Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (EPHE) in the Sorbonne'sbuilding is still a majorcenter where Iranian Studies are taught. Its library has an importantcollection of books about classical and pre-Islamic Iran. In the Departmentof Religious Sciences, Gignoux, de Menasce'ssuccessor, teaches the religions of ancient Iran;Guy Monnot teaches Koraniccommentaries; and Michel Tardieuteaches Manichaeism.In history,Jean Aubin has taughtthe history of islamic Iran since 1964, mainly the Mongol periodand the Portugeseinfluence in Iranand Indianocean. In the Departmentof Linguistics,Gilbert Lazard succeeded Benveniste in 1971. At the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) here is no permanentteaching on the Iranianworld, but several scholars hold regular graduateseminars on modem and contemporaryIran: Calmard on Qajarhistory; Roy on the political problemsof Afghanistan;Digard on ethnology;and Hourcadeon geography. The Institut d'Etudes Iraniennes (IEI) at the University of Paris III - Sorbonne is the only center in France that offers a graduateeducation in "classical"Iranian culture. There are thirteen thousandvolumes in its specializedlibrary. The IEI publishestwo series of books--The Works of the Institute (Travaux de l'IEI) and Reference Works (Documents de R6frence)--both devoted mainly to Iranianliterature, linguistics, and antiquity.The "Iranian Languages,Literature and Culture"research team associatedwith CNRS since 1971 is includedin IEI. Charles-Henride Fouchecour, who replacedLazard in 1984 as professorof Persianstudies in the Universityof ParisIll, has been directorof IEI since 1987. Nearly all scholars,researchers and graduate students specializing in Iranian

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Iranian Studies in France 13 literature,linguistics, and history of the arts,sciences or pre-Islamic era belong to this team and Institute,which is the real centre for classicalIranian studies in France. In Aix-en-Provenceand in Strasbourg,Iranian studies have been taughttemporarily by guest professors,but there is no permanent academic institution devoted to Iran in these cities. However, courses about Iran and Afghanistanare offered at various other Frenchuniversities: de Planholand Ballandteach geographyat the Universityof ParisIV (Doctoratein geographyof the MiddleEast); Briantteaches Achaemenidhistory at Toulouse University;Bazin teaches geographyat Reims University;and Brombergerteaches ethnologyat Aix-en-ProvenceUniversity. The National Center of Scientific Research (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique(CNRS) As we have alreadyseen, this institutionhas playeda majorrole in developingresearch on Iraniancivilizations. Created in 1939, the CNRS sought, at first, to hire young scholarsbefore they entered the universities.In the 1960s this role was enlarged.The CNRS' National Committee,half of whose membersare elected by and from among its personnel, defines and controls, along with the General Administration,the programsproposed by researchers, who are encouraged to form teams or laboratories.Besides the aforementionedteam associated with the IEI, CNRS teams have been formedto work on the comparativehistory of the East (under Aubin and Calmard),on Indo-Europeancultures in the (GeorgesCharachidze), and on the social sciences of contemporary Iran (Digard and Bromberger).The only CNRS team installed in this partof the worldwas the PermanentMission in Afghanistan.Its goal was to study Afghanistan'sgeology and botany, but it also advancedour knowledgeof the country'shuman geography. From its creation in 1974 till its closure in 1982, it was headed successivelyby de Lapparent,Carbonnel and Balland. In archeology, field researchis no longer possible in Iran or Afghanistan,but several CNRS teams, heirs of DAFA and DAFI, are still pursuingpublication of the resultsof previousexcavations (G.Dollfus and F.Vallat on SouthernIran), and doing researchin the Iranianworld throughout Central Asia, Pakistan(Jarrige on the prehistoricperiod in Baluchistan),India (P.Francforton irrigation systems), and the USSR (P. Bernard on eastern Hellenic civilizationsin Bactriana).

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The Ministryof Foreign Affairs The French Archeological Delegation in Iran (DAFI) was directed, after 1969, by Jean Perrot,who used modernresearch methods and considerably developed research in Susiana in cooperation with Iraniansand the increasing numberof French archeologicalteams, most of whose memberswere fromthe CNRS: Dollfus, Boucharlat,Kervran, de Miroschedji,Le Brunand Vallat. Severalexcavations around Susa were startedat the same time.The last mission at Susa took place in 1980; thereafter,operations could not be continuedbecause of the war, the Iraqi invasion, and the political situationin general. Findingshave been publishedin the Cahiers de la DAFI. Outside of Susiana, Deshayes and J.C.Gardinwith Roland Besenval, Remy Boucharlat,and Serge Cleuziou,were conducting excavations, from 1961 on, mainly on remote periods at Tureng Tepe in the easternCaspian plain. In Tehran,the Departmentof Iranologywas directedafter 1974 by de Fouch6cour,who madeit into a full-fledgedresearch institute. This change, which was supportedby many scholars, notably Benveniste,had been in planningsince 1965. In 1980 it was finally effected thanksto the perspicacityand energyof a top civil servant in the Office of Cultural Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In a few years, the social sciences would find a place alongside Islamic philosophy. Thus, after 25 years of waiting, young scholars--Richard, Hourcade, Balay and During--were welcomed into what was called, after 1980, the Institut FranVais d'Iranologie de T6h6ran(henceforth IFIT). A new building was erected; and a new journal, Abstracta Iranica, created for publishing a selective, critical bibliography of Indo-Iranian civilizations. Replacing de Fouch6couras directorin 1979, Hourcadehas pursuedthe policy of developingIranian Studies particularly in the social sciences. IFIT'sBibliotheque Iranienne senes now accepts research of all kinds and no longer only studies ancient Iran or Shi'ite philosophy. What comes out in French is translatedand broughtout in Persian as well. In January1983, DAFI and IFIT were combined into the French Institute of Research in Iran (InstitutFranVais de Recherche en Iran, IFRI), which, however, Iranianauthorities closed down in November of the same year. Managedfrom Paris by B.Hourcade,IFRI is still busy publishing

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Iranian Studies in France 15 books in France and Iran and giving fellowships to scholars workingon Iraniancivilization in Indiaor . The dynamicpace of researchon Iransince 1974 is partialsolace for the difficultiesthat have arisenfrom the political situation.The unifying role of Abstracta Iranica, to which nearly all French scholarsin IranianStudies contribute, should be emphasized.This journal'sannual general meeting is often the only occasionwhen all Iranologists,regardless of theirspecialities, meet. Studia Iranica and the Association for the Advancement of Iranian Studies Whereas Arab Studies are supported by numerous and influentialassociations and institutionswith appreciablefinancial resources (for instance, the Institute of the Arab World newly createdin Paris), IranianStudies receive little backing apartfrom governmentalinstitutions. Unlike other countries,France did not profitmuch from the subsidiesthat the Shahgranted for publishing academicjournals and fundingteaching positions. Almost the only activity of the Association pour l'Avancement des Etudes Iraniennesis StudiaIranica, foundedin 1972 by Gignoux, Aubin, Lazardand Ghirshman. Though mainly devoted to ancientIran and linguistics,this academicjournal--the only Frenchone fully devoted to Iraniancivilization--does run articles on history, literatureand cultural anthropology.Since 1983, the Association has charged Gignoux with bringing out a series of books (Les Cahiers de Studia Iranica). Iranian Studies in France have been marked by the predominanceof archeologicaland linguistic research on pre-Islamic Iran. Research organizationsconcerned themselves very little-- scientifically speaking--withthe mass media attentionpaid to Iran and Afghanistan.Paradoxically, since the IslamicRevolution, Arab Studies have been expanding while the resources given over to IranianStudies have been contracting.Significantly, for the first time since it was createdin 1797, the professorshipof Persianat the Instituteof OrientalLanguages was abolishedfor threeyears. This paradoxicalsituation shows how absurdit is, in the social sciences, to insist upon an ethnic and political cleavage between Arab, Turkish, and Persian civilizations in the Middle East, as French academictradition has done. V. Since 1970: Researchand Publicationsin French

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Having noted the milestones in IranianStudies, let us now delineate the researchundertaken since 1970. Summariesof the ensuing publications,whether in Frenchor other languages,have come out yearlyin AbstractaIranica since 1978. Pre-IslamicIran and Archeology. French ArcheologyAbroad (L'Archgologie... 1986) presentsin briefbut in detailthe majorfindings of Frenchexcavations at sites of all periods and throughoutthe world with many maps and color plates. Gardin'schapter on the Iranianworld is noteworthy. Nearly all the results garneredfrom archeologicaloperations around Susa have been published annually since 1971 in the Cahiers de la DAFI, edited by Perrot;and an overall accountof Susiana is being preparedin the aftermathof two international conferences(Susa, 1977; Bellevaux, 1985), preliminaryreports of which were made in Palgorient (1978, 1985). The Susa project covers a very long period, from the fifth millenniumBC to the Seljuks. A systematic stratigraphy has provided a sound chronology. Owing to Dollfus' study (1983) of proto-Elamite villages aroundTepe Ja' farabad,breakthroughs have been madein understandinghow Susianawas settled seven thousandyears ago. The Achaemenidpalace was explored during the first years and later, by chance, a monumentalfull-length statue of Darius was discoveredthere in 1976. Excavationswere also conductedin the city of crafstmen,the acropolis,and in the Islamic levels of Susa, especially in the mosque, the first built in Persia. Thanks to specialists in Elamite epigaphy, particularlyM. J. Steve, who publishedmainly in the Mgmnoiresde la DglMgationArch6ologique Frangaise en Iran, and Vallat (Le Brun and Vallat 1978), the history of the invention of writing at Susa has been carefully reconstructed,and hypotheseshave been formulatedlocating Elam to the east of Susiana(Vallat, 1980). The compilationin honorof M. J. Steve (Meyer et al., eds., 1986) provides an account of current research based upon the study of Elamite epigraphy. Fran9oiseGrillot also used archeologicalsources from Susianato study the Elamite language (1983a) and the historyof the period (1983b) The first resultsof the pre-Islamicexcavations in TurengTepe were edited by Deshayes (1977); comprehensivereports on this importantsite inhabitedfrom fifth millenniumto Sassanianperiod will be editedby SergeCleuziou. Among other important surveys of archeology in Iran and neighbouringlands are: Besenval (1984),

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Vault Technology in the Ancient Orient and Boucharlat (ed., 1984), EasternArabia, Mesopotamiaand SouthernIran from the Iron Age to the Start of the Islamic Period. The history of the is mainly studied in France by Pierre Briant, who has used archeologicalfindings as well as Greek and Elamite sources to write two valuable books, Central Asia and Near Eastern Realms of the First Millennium BC (1984) and State and Herders in the Ancient Middle East (1972); and by ClarisseHerrenschmidt who has publishedon royal power (1979) andreligion (1980) in this period. The Sassanidepoch, Zoroastrianism,and the beginningof the Islamic era are fields where considerableprogress has been made thanksto Moldand de Menasce,who have alreadybeen mentioned. The latter'sprincipal publications are Fire and Pious Foundations in Sassanid Law (1964) and The ThirdBook of Denkart (1973). This periodof the historyof Iranhas a place of greatimportance in FrenchIranian studies. Philippe Gignoux, along with Rika Gyselen and CI.Herrenschmidt,has completelyreframed the historyof this period by using primary sources and studying Sassanid coins, bullae and seals, which have been describedand analyzed in Studia Iranica and in the first volumes of the series (Cahiers) of books publishedby this journal.Gignoux, who, like Lazard,is interested in Pahlavi and in Middle and Old Persian, has transcribedand translatedThe Book of Arda Viraz(1984). In addition, at the University of Li6ge, Duchesne-Guillemin, assisted by Lecoq, a linguist and dialectologist,has been editing, since 1973, Acta Iranica, which publishes scholary studies in English,French, or German.This sumptuouscollection of scientific renown comprises, to date, twenty-nine volumes, mainly about Sassanid history, language, coins, and seals; Zoroastrianism;and pre-IslamicIran in general. From 1974 Frencharcheological activities in Afghanistanwere managed by Paul Bernard. After the discovery in 1963 of Ai Khanum,the easternmostGreek city, Frenchresearch concentrated upon this exceptionalsite until DAFA's in-countryactivities were terminated in 1982. Findings were regularly brought out in Memoires de la DAFA, a series now edited by Gardin, and in several separatepublications, for instance, Grenet's (1984) and Pottier's books about funeral practices in Central Asia, and Gentelle's (1980) study--the first of its kind--of the historical geographyand irrigation system of the Greekcolony at Ai Khanum.

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W. Ball (1982) publishedin Frenchand English an Archelogical Gazetteer of Afghanistan.The Frenchtranslation and updateby Bernardet al. (1986) of Staviskij'sBactria underthe Kushanshas made accessible the work done by Soviet and Frenchhistorians on Cental Asia The Languages,Dialects and Literatureof ModernIran Researchon modernIranian languages and literaturehas been undertakenat the LEIin Paris.Besides his well-knownGrammar of ContemporaryPersian (1957), which is still the best of its kind, Lazard has published on Iranianlinguistics and the old literary Persian language (1963) ) and has made translationsof Persian literarypieces (1964). He has compiled a contemporaryPersian- French dictionarythat should come out in 1988. For courses in Persian,de Fouch6cour'snew Persian grammar(1981) is widely used. The works of DjavadMoinfar (1970) are closely focused on statisticallexicography. Dialectologyis not well developpedin Iran:Lecoq deals with the dialectsof centralIran in a forthcomingbook in ActaIranica. Bazin (1980), while studying the Talesh and Gilan vernaculars,used dialectologicalmeasurements to differentiateethnic groups. Morestudy has been madeof the dialectsof Afghanistanthan of Iran. Fussman (1972) drew an atlas of the Dardic and Kafir vernaculars;and scholars in Switzerland,under the leadershipof Redardat the Universityof Berne, are draftinga linguisticatlas of Afghanistan. Kieffer, who is participatingin this project, has already written about the eastern Persiandialects of Ormuriand Paraci(1977, 1978) andpublished the linguisticmap of Afghanistan (1984) in the TAVO series. As for Persian literature,Boulvin and Chocourzadeh(1975) have dealt with the folkloreof Khurasan.Following Lazard's study of the first Persianpoets (1964), classical literaturehas been the subject of de Fouch6cour'sDescription of Nature in Eleventh Century Persian Lyrical Poetry (1969) and Moral Notions in Persian Literature from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century (1986), which is destined to become a reference work. Marina Gaillard's analysis of the story of Samak-e Ayyar (1987) strengthenedunderstanding of the ideological frameworkof this famous text. In Persian Encyclopedias, Ziva Vesel (1985) has used Persian writings to ponderthe historyof the sciences under Islam.

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Althoughlittle researchhas been carriedout on contemporary Persian literature,this situationis rapidly changing owing to the modernanalytical methods used in comparativeliterature. Seeking the origins of the Persiannovel, ChristopheBalay has been led to assess the influenceof foreignliteratures, whether in the originalor in translation, upon contemporaryliterary circles. Along with Cuypers, he publishedAt the Origins of the Persian Short Story (1983) aboutthe writingsof Jamalzadehand Dehkhoda in particular. Studiesin Kurdishlanguage and literaturehave advancedsince 1970 following the appointmentof Joyce Blau to the National Instituteof OrientalLanguages. Kurdish courses were introduced there in 1945 by Roger Lescot, who surveyedthe Yezidis of Syria and JabalSinjar (1938). Lescot, along with Bedir Khan (who soon replacedhim at the Institute)and Emir Djeladet, drew up a grammar of the KurmanjiKurdish dialect (1970). Besides her handbookof Sorani Kurdish (1980) and her studies of the Amadiya dialect (1975), Blau has also compiled an anthologyof oral and written Kurdishliterature (1984). ContemporaryKurdistan and the Kurdishnational question have been the subject of numerous publications in France, notably: Rambout(1947), Kurdsand the Lawl Nikitine (1956), The Kurds, A Historical and Sociological Study; Kutschera (1979), The Kurdish National Movement; and Chaliand (ed., 1978), The Kurdsand Kurdistanwith a chapterby Ghassemlouabout lIanian Kurdistan. Mohmad Mokri, a CNRS researcher, has studied traditionalKurdish culture, music and mysticism, and edited the majorwritings of the Ahl-e Haqq sect, in particular,The Book of the Kings of Truth (1966). In 1983, Nezan Kendal founded the KurdishInstitute of Paris (InstitutKurde de Paris); it publishes StudiaKurdica in severallanguages and Hevi in Kurdish. The History and Philosophyof the Islamic Period. After Corbin'sdeath in 1978, studiesabout Iranian Islam began changingfocus. Along with posthumousworks of Corbin,several studies have been publishedin reference to Sufism and Corbin's ideas on "IranianIslam". Pierre Lory (1980) from Bordeaux University published on esoterism;Herman Landolt (1980) from McGillUniversity in Canadawrote on Esfarayeni,and Guy Monnot (1974), a professor in EPHE, worked on tafsir and on Shi'ism. Manichaeismis studiedin EPHEby Michel Tardieu(1981) along with mysticism and gnosis. Research on contemporaryIslam,

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 20 Hourcade particularlyits social dimensions,has advancedthrough the efforts of social scientists,as we shall see fartheron. Little work has been done in French-speakinglands on the historyof Iransince the introductionof Islam, and no one is doing researchon Afghanhistory. The article"History of Afghanistan"in Encyclopaedia Iranica was written by a geographer, Daniel Balland (1983). Jean Aubin, after 1964, was the first historian chargedwith teachingthe historyof islamic Iranin Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (IVth section). He has masteredthe use of a variety of primarysources in his works on economic, social and politicalhistory, mainly of the Mongolperiod (1971); but he has not yet had genuine successors.Since 1969, along with Jean Calmard, Francis Richard and other historians, Aubin has been working, within a CNRS team, on the comparativehistory on European-- especially Portugese--relationswith PersianGulf states from the 16th to the 19th century. Several issues of two journals, The Iranian Worldand Islam (Le Monde Iranien et l'Islam),andThe Middle East and Indian Ocean (Moyen Orient et OcdanIndien), have carriedthe resultsof theirinvestigations, which often have to do with Iran. Francis Richard, who is in charge of Persian manuscriptsin the NationalLibrary in Paris,has studiedChristianity in Persia, mainly during the Safavid and Zand periods, through original unpublished texts and travel reports (1981, 1984). Concerningthe Qajarperiod, Calmard (1974, 1977) has dealt with the Ta'ziehand religious theater. On Iranin the end of Qajarperiod, HomaNategh-Pakdaman has been conductingresearch on Christian missionairesin Persiafrom Frenchsources, following her studyon Jamaled-Din Asadabadi(1969); and Y. Richardhas been working on the historyof ideologies. The artand archeology of the Islamicperiod have received more attention:A. S. Melikian-Shirvanion metal-working(1973, 1982) and on the history of Iranianart during the Seljuk and Mongol periods (1970). After delving into the historyof Damghan(1972) during the first centuries of the hijra, ChahryarAdle undertook research on the mausoleum at Bastam near Shahrudwhere he discovered some very importantinscriptions in 1980. His main interestis in the historyof Islamicart (1982). MoniqueKervran has carried out archeologicalresearch on the Islamic levels at Susa (Cahiers de la DAFI, 14, 1984) and on the funeraltowers of the Mongolperiod Jean Duringhas studiedIranian folk and classical music from the standpointof Corbin'sview of Sufism. In his book on Iranian

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Iranian Studiesin France 21 music (1984), which is one of the first overall accounts of this subjectin a Europeanlanguage, he has analyzedmusical techniques, practicesand trends; their origins; the influencesaffecting them; and theirinfluence upon Iranian culture. Despite the workundertaken by suchindviduals as these and the progressrecently made, there is no importanttradition in Franceof historical study of Islamic Iraniancivilization. This is one of the majorshortcomings of Frenchresearch, swayed as it has been by a preoccupation with pre-Islamic Iran. Social studies, too, have sufferedfrom this situation. The Social Sciences and the ContemporaryIranian World Among social scientists, geographerswere the first and most numerousto work in Iran.The CNRS mission led by Jean Dresch in 1958 madethe firstin-depth study of the naturalenvironment and wrote up its observations concerning the Tehran piedmont, the centralAlborz, Damavand and Alam Kuh (Bout et al., 1968). This mission owed its success to the cooperationof Iraniangeographers, led by Mostowfi, from the Universityof Tehran.It was followd by a multi-yearprogram, which ended in 1973, on the Lut Desert. Publicationsin Persianhave come out of this program,as well as Dresch's articles in French. In anthropology, Vincent Monteil surveyedthe nomadsof Fars (1966) and wrote the best shortbook on Iranas a whole (1957). The first to study the humangeography of Iranwas de Planhol in his workon Azerbaijan(1960). As a memberof Dresch'smission in 1958, he preparedhis Research on the Human Geography of NorthernIran (1964), which concentrateson the ruraleconomy of the central Alborz and the growth of the Tehranarea. His ideas about the culturalgeography of Turkishand Iraniancivilizations have been worked out in several articles as well as in the well- known GeographicalFoundations of the History of Islam (1968), which emphasizedthe medieval "Bedouinizations"following the Turkish-Mongolianinvasions and highlighted the historical and culturalfactors that still affectthe geographyof thisregion. Althoughtheir methods and ideas arevery different,Dresch and de Planholhave stronglyinfluenced Iranian geographers, many of whom have published in French: Sahami on Gilan (1965), Fesharakion the oases of Bam (1975), Pour-Fickouion herdingin Gilan (1978), and Papoli-Yazdi on the Kurdish nomads of Khorasan(1983).

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Of course, these influences have also been felt by French geographers. De Maurois (1978) has dealt with the Assyro- Chaldean community and its migration to Tehran. Bazin, after studyingErzurum in Turkeyand then the developmentof Qom,both as a place of pilgrimage(1973) andas an agriculturalregion (1974), devoted his dissertation to a monographon Talesh (1980) that showed how ethnic identity enters into the definition of a geographical zone. Bernard Hourcade, in his research on the geographyof the centralAlborz (1979) and of migrations(1983), delved into urbansociety and economy. The creationin 1972 of a CNRSresearch team on contemporary Iranwas a landmarkevent in the applicationof the social sciencesto contemporaryIanian civilization.From the startit includedyoung ethnologistsand geographers.Headed by an anthropologist,Jean- PierreDigard, this teamis effectivelyworking as a group,with new themes and original methods based on extensive fieldwork. It is especially strongin discussingthe geographicaland materialbases of social life, offeringoriginal approaches to areashitherto ignored. The first research conducted was an ethnic map program in cooperationwith the Centerfor Ethnologydirected by Mahmoud Khalighi in Iran.These maps, along with detailed commentaries, were publishedsimultaneously in Persianand French in the Iranian journal Mardomshenasi va Farhang-e 'Amme-ye Iran and, afterwards,in books.The followingregions were covered: the zone of the Lori-speakingnomads (Digard and Karimi, 1974); the central Alborz (Hourcadeand Tual, 1978); Gilan and easternAzerbaijan (Bazin and Bromberger,1982); and Hamadanand Arak (Desmet and Fontaine,forthcoming, 1988). As new scholarshave beenrecruited to this team,the subjectsof inquiry have graduallydiversified to include: the socioeconomic development of rural--nomad or peasant--societies; urban demography and development; and social movements and ideologies. These themes requireextensive fieldwork.The team, which since 1985 has borne the name "Social Sciences of the ContemporaryIranian World," groups nearly all researchersin France working on modernIran and Afghanistan,as the IEI has done for ancientIran. Digard has studiedthe social anthropologyof the nomadicZagros tribes (1973 and 1987) and, following Leroi- Gourhan'smethods, the relationbetween the technologyand society of the nomadicBakhtiyari (1981), a subjectwith whichFontaine has also dealt with respect to carpet-making in the Arak area (forthcoming,1988). Culturalidentity has been at the centerof the inquiries undertaken by Nouchine Yavari (1986). Using a

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Iranian Studies in France 23 structuralistapproach, Bromberger has studiedrural contructions (1979a and 1986b) and popularjokes in Gilan (1986a), as well as the IslamicRevolution (1979b and 1980). In 1985 this team held a colloquiumentitled "Ethnicevents in Iranand Afghanistan"--thefirst suchevent ever organizedin France about contemporary Iran--that sought to analyze how ethnic identities are pertinent to understandingthese societies. The proceedingsare to be publishedin 1988 by the CNRS. Yann Richardis directing a researchprogram on the relation between traditionand modernityin Iran. It will treat the army, production techniques, ideologies, and the press, among other subjects.Publications should be forthcoming. As a consequenceof the IslamicRevolution and the Afghanwar, much work has been done in political sociology and ideology. Several French journalists (Balta, 1979; Anquetil, 1979; and Kravetz, 1981) have done first-ratereporting on these events. As early as 1979, the economic andpolitical system underthe Pahlavi dynasty was critically analyzed in The Weak Link edited by Behrang.At first, attentionturned toward the way in whichreligion was forging identities. After Digard's survey, "Anthropological Perspectiveson Islam"(1978), Richardpublished (1980) the first book in Frenchabout the relationbetween Islam and society in Iran. Out of his research on the history of ideas in Iran since the constitutionalrevolution have come severalarticles: "Contemporary Shi'ite Thought"(1981) and "Fedaiyan-eEslam" (in Carre and Dumont,eds., 1985, which also containsan articleby YavaAiabout Ali Shariati).Bromberger (1979b and 1980) has insisted upon the identity-makingsymbols and myths of Shi'ism whereasDowlat et al (1983) have pointedto the low profileof the peasants.Hourcade, who lived in Iranduring the Islamicrevolution, tumned his attention to the social transformationsunder way there,especially in big cities (with Khosrokhavar,1983) and underlinedthe role that young people from urbanareas are now playing (1980), just as in other Third-worldcountries (1985). Outsidethese academicinstitutions, the journalMediterranean Peoples (Peuples Mgditerran6ens),edited by Paul Vieille, has publishedseveral valuablearticles on the sociology of the Islamic Revolution(Vieille, 1979). Iraniansociety has also been analyzed from the inside by Iranianscholars (for instance, Khosrokhavar, 1980, on migrantsin Tehran).A special issue entitled "Iran1984"

This content downloaded from 132.204.3.57 on Thu, 27 Feb 2014 00:15:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 24 Hourcade ran articlesof an ideological stampthat insist upon the continuing dependencyof Iran,in spiteof the Revolution. Paul Vieille has left his markon sociological studies of Iran. Havingplayed an importantrole from 1955 to 1965 in the Institute of Social Studies and Researchcreated by Ehsan Naraghiat the University of Tehran,Vieille helped trainthe first generationof Iraniansociologists (among them: Morteza Kotobi, Majid Harcheno and even A. H. Bani Sadr).Attention was first focusedupon urban areas(Abadan, Tehran and the bazar,Vieille et al 1969 a,b), andon new social structuresin Iraniancities (Naraghi, 1957). Vieille's masterpiecehas certainlybeen his investigationof land speculation in Tehran(1970). Afterreturning to France,he elaborateda Marxist dependencytheory type of approachin several books containing solid social, economicand political analyses of Iranunder the Shah, notably:Feudality and State in Iran (1975) and Oil and Violence (1975). In Afghanistan,the permanentscientific mission that the CNRS set up in Kabulin 1974 accordedgeographers a privilegedstatus, as had been the case in Iran.Humlum, a Dane, had broughtout in Frenchthe first Geographyof Afghanistanin 1959; andin 1972, D. and V. Ballandpublished a new analysisbased upon fieldwork.D. Balland (1982) also analyzedthe resultsof the preliminarynomad surveyfor the 1978 generalcensus. Regardingsocial anthropologyin Afghanistan,the foloowing should be mentioned:Blanc's (1976) discussion of the country's peoples, Duprde's(1973) survey, and Dupaigne'sarticles (1974) aboutcrafts. In-depthanthropological studies were undertakenby Rao (1982), concerning the itinerant Jat, and by Dor (1977), concemingthe Kirghizin the AfghanPamirs. Moreover, Afghanistan has been the subject of a general presentationin Etienne (1972) and in special issues of Les Temps Modernes (1980, just after the Soviet invasion). Concerningthe present day situation, M. Barry insists on historical backrounds (1984); and Olivier Roy, who has spent much time with the muja hedin, published in 1985 an original analysis of how community and religious factors affect the organizationof the resistanceagainst the USSR and how state, Islam, and modernity arelinked together. In Switzerland,research, undertakenby various independent individuals,often in associationwith programsin Franceor West

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Germany,has turnedmainly towardanthropology, and more often Afghanistanthan Iran. Pierre Centlivres from the University of Neuchatelhas studiedtraditional bazar society in Tashkhuran(1972) and published several pieces about ethnic reality in Afghanistan. MargueriteReut (1979) has examinedsilk-production in Herat.And Micheline Centlivres-Demont, who is now concentrating on Afghanistan, published in 1971 a renowned book about the communityof pottersin Meybod,Iran. Studies of the contemporaryIranian world have considerably progressedin Franceduring the past fifteen years, while research has continuedon the classicaland pre-Islamic civilizations. Because there is no tradition of research in contemporaryhistory, this progresshas mainly come about throughintensive fieldwork.The difficulties of working in Iran and Afghanistan, and now the impossibility of doing so, have hindered but not stopped this progress. However, this research still suffers from the lack of permanentteaching positions in the social sciences.

VI. Conclusion To conclude, four main charactersticsof Iranian Studies in Francecan be distinguished: 1) Diversity.Thanks to the CNRS, a relativelylarge numberof researchersare workingin variousdisciplines--the limited number of teachingpositions in the universitieswould not have permitted this. From the origins of humanity in Zagros to the Islamic Revolution,a varietyof questionsare understudy. This is the basis of the internationalnetwork of scholars who write for Abstracta Iranica, which seeks to summarizeall scientificpublications about this partof the world. 2) Permanentrelations with Iran and Afghanistan. French researchhas involvedfieldwork and close cooperationwith Iranian and Afghan scholars, whence the permanent archeological delegationsand the FrenchInstitute of Researchin Iran,institutions thatnow workout of Parissince they have been closed down in the countriesconcerned. Since 1986, in spiteof politicalproblems, new researchhas been undertakenon some limitedsubjects in assocation with host-country institutions in Iran or the Soviet Union; for instance,the new projectwith the Instituteof CulturalStudies and Research in Tehran to analyse the 1986 Iraniancensus, or the program with the Academy of Sciences in Tashkent for archeologicalresearch in Bactriana.

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3) The importanceof scholarshipon ancientIran and in literary disciplines. This long, prestigioustradition has devolved upon the Instituteof IranianStudies and the journalStudia Iranica, which cooperates with the European Association for Iranian Studies (Societas Iranologica Europeae). 4) The modestbut now unquestionedplace of the social sciences in researchon the Middle East and the Islamic world, domainsof which Iranand Afghanistan are now recognizedto be parts.

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Mole, Marijan 1963 Culte, Mythe et cosmologie dans l'Iran ancien. Le probleme zoroastrien et la tradition mazd6enne (Worship, Myth and Cosmology in Ancient Iran: The ZoroastrianProblem and the MazdaistTradition), Paris: PressesUniversitaires de France,599p. Monnot,Guy 1974 Penseurs iraniens et religions musulmanes: Abd-el Jabbar et ses devanciers (Iranian Philosophers and Islamic Religions: Abd al-Jabbar and his Precursors.),Paris, Beirut, Cairo: Inst. Dominicain Orientaldu Caire,349p. (EtudesMusulmanes 16) Monteil,Vincent 1957 Iran. Paris, Seuil, 192p.(PetitePlanete 13). 1966 Les tribus du Fars et la sgdentarisationdes nomades (The Tribesof Farsand the Sedentanizationof Nomads.), Paris/DenHage: 156p. Montesquieu,Charles-Louis de 1721 Lettrespersanes (PersianLetters), Amsterdam: P.Brunel. (Reeditedseveral times since.) Morgan,Jacques de 1895-1905 Mission scientifique en Perse (Scientific Mission in Persia), Paris: E. Leroux, 10 volumes, for certain of whichde Morganis only the editor. Naraghi,Ehsan 1957 "Les classes sociales en Iran"(Social classes in Iran.), Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, XXII pp. 156- 173. Nikitine,Basile P. 1956 Les Kurdes. Etude sociologique et historique (The Kurds: A Historical and Sociological Study), Paris: Klincksieck,361p. Pakdaman-Nategh,Homa 1969 Djamal-ed-DinAssad Abadi dit Afghani (Jamal al-Din Assad Abadi, Called Afghani), Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose,387p.

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Papoli-Yazdi,Mohammad-Hossein 1988 Nomadisme et semi-nomadisme dans le nord du Khorc2ssan.Etude de g6ographie humaine (Nomadism and Semi-Nomadismin NorthernKhorasan: A Study of Human Geography), Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, (BibliothequeIranienne 34). Planhol,Xavier de 1960 "Un village de montagne de l'Azerbaidjan iranien, Lighwan(versant nord du Sahend)"(A MountainVillage in Iranian Azerbaijan:Lighwan, the Northern Sahend Slope), Revue de Ggographie de Lyon 35, 4, pp. 395- 418. 1964 Recherches sur la g6ographie humaine de I'Jran septentrional (Research on the Human Geography of Northern Iran), Paris: Editions du CNRS, 78p. (Memroireset Docwnents IX 4) 1968 Les fondements g6ographiques de 1'histoirede l'islam (The GeographicalFoundations of the History of Islam), Paris:Flammarion, 442p. Pottier,Marie-H616ne 1984 Matgriel fungraire de la Bactriane miridionale c l'dpoque du bronze_(FuneralMaterials in Southern Bactrianaduring the Bronze Age), Paris:Ed. Recherches sur les Civilisations,232p. Pour-Fickoui,Ali andBazin, Marcel 1978 Elevage et vie pastorale dans le Guildn (Iran septentrional) (Animal Husbandryand Pastoral Life in Gilan, NorthernIran), Paris: Publications du D6partement de G6ographiede l'UniversitEde Paris-Sorbonne,138p. Quatremere 1844 Extrait de l'histoire des Mongols de Rechid ed Din (Historyof Mongolsextracted from Rashid al-Din.), Paris: FirminDidot. Rabino,H. Louis 1917 Les Provinces caspiennes de la Perse. Le Guildn (The CaspianProvinces of Persia:Gilan), Paris: Leroux, Revue du Monde musulman 32. Reprint, 1979, Nendel, Lichtenstein:Kraus.

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Rambout,Lucien 1947 Les Kurdes et le droit, des textes, des faits (Kurds and the Law:Texts andFacts), Paris: Editions du Cerf, 160p. Rao, Apama 1982 Les Gorbat dAfghanistan. Aspects 6conomiques d'un groupe itin6rant "Jat" (The Gorbat of Afghanistan: Economic Aspects of an Itinerant Jat Group), Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 259p. (BibliothequeIranienne 27). Reut,Marguerite 1979 "La productionde la soie A Herat"(Silk Productionin Herat),Studia Iranica, 8, pp. 107-116. Richard,Francis 1981 "Unlectionnaire persan des Evangilescopi6s en Krim6een 776H/1374"(A Gospel in Persiancopied in the Crimea), Studia Iranica, 10, pp.225-245. 1984 "UnAugustin portugais relegat, apologiste de l'islamchiite au debut du XVIIe si6cle" (A Renegade Portugese AugustinianApologist for Shi'iteIslam at the Beginningof the XVIIth Century),Moyen Orientet OcdanIndien, 1, pp. 73-85. Richard,Yann 1980 Le Shi'isme en Iran. Imam et Revolution (Shi'ism in Iran: Imam and Revolution), Paris: A. Maisonneuve, 138p. 1981 "ContemporaryShi'i thought"in N. Keddie, Roots of Revolution. An Interpretive History of Modern Iran. New Haven and London:Yale UniversityPress, pp. 202- 228. 1985 "L'organisation des feda'iyan-e eslam, mouvement int6griste musulman en Iran (1945-1956)" (The Organization of Feda'iyan-e eslam, a Fundamentalist MuslimMovement in Iran,1945-1956) in 0. Carr6and P. Dumont eds., Radicalismes islamiques Vol. 1: Iran, Liban, Turquie.Paris: L'Harmattan, pp. 23-82. Roy, Olivier 1985 L'Afghanistan, Islam et modernit6 politique (Afghanistan:Islam and PoliticalModernity). Paris: Seuil, 322p.

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Sahami,Cyrus 1965 L'6conomierurale et la vie paysanne dans la province sud-caspiennede l'Iran.Le Guildn (RuralEconomy and Peasant Life in the South Caspian Province of Iran, Gilan),Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,83p. Scheffer,Charles 1891-1893 Siasset Nameh; Traits de gouvernementcompose pour le SultanMelik Chahpar le vizir Nezam oul Moulk (SiyasatNameh: A Treatiseon GovernmentComposed for SultanMalek Shah by Nezamal-Molk), Paris: Leroux. Siroux,Maxime 1949 Caravans6rails et petites constructions routieres en Iran (Caravansariesand Minor Road Constructionsin Iran), Cairo: Institut Franqaisd'Arch6ologie Orientale, 153p. 1971 Anciennes voies et monuments routiers de la r6gion d'Ispahan (Ancient Routes and Their Monumentsin the Isfahan Region), Cairo: Institut Franqaisd'Archdologie Orientale,317p. Staviskij,Boris J. 1986 La Bactriane sous les Kushans.Problemes d'histoire et de culture (Bactrianaunder the Kushans: Problems of History and Culture),Translated from Russian, revised and enlarged by P. Bernard, M. Burda, F. Grenet, P. Leriche.Paris: Jean Maisonneuve, 322p. Tardieu,Michel 1981 Le manicheisme(Manichaeism), Paris: Presses Univ. de France, 126p.

Vallat,Franqois 1980 Suse et l'Elam(Susa and Elam),Paris: Ed. Recherchesur les Civilisations,18p. VandenBerghe, Louis 1959 Archgologie de l'Iran ancien (Archeology of Ancient kan), Leiden:E.-J. Brill. VandenBerghe, Louis et al. 1979 Bibliographie analytique de l'archgologie de l'Iran ancien(Archeological Bibliography of Ancient Iran) Leiden:E.-J. Brill, 2 vol. SupplementI, 1978.

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Vezel, Ziva 1985 Les encyclop6dies persanes. Essai de typologie et de classification des sciences (Persian Encyclopedias:An Essay on Typologyand the Classificationof the Sciences), Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 65p. (BibliothequeIranienne 31). Vieille, Paul 1970 Marchg des terrains et socigti urbaine. Recherche sur la ville de Tehran (Land Marketand Urban Society in Tehran),Paris: Anthropos, 316p. 1975 La flodalit6 et l'ftat en Iran (State and Feudalism in fran),Paris: Anthropos, 305p. 1979 "Transformationdes rapportssociaux et revolution en fran"(Transformation of Social Relationsand Revolution in Iran),Peuples Mgditerrangens,8, pp. 25 -58. Vieille, Pauland Bani-sadr,Abol-Hassan eds. 1975 PNtrole et violence. Terreur blanche et r6sistance en Iran, (Oil and Violence. White Terrorand Resistancein fran),Paris: Anthropos, 349p. Vielile, Pauland Hagcheno, M. 1972 "Le bazar et le tournant6conomique des ann6es 1954- 1960"(TheBazar of Tehranin the Economic Events of 1954-1960), Studia Iranica, 1 pp. 55-88. Vieille, Pauland Kotobi, Mort6za 1966 "Familles et union de familles en Iran."(Familiesand MatrimonialUnions in Iran), Cahiers internationauxde sociologie, 61, pp.93-104. Vielle, Paul;Ardalan, Zafardokht; Bani-sadr, Abol-Hassan 1969a "Abadan:tissu urbain, attitudes et valeurs" (Abadan: Urbanism,Behaviour and Values).Revue GCographique de l'Est 9, 3-4, pp.361-378. Vieille, Paul and Mohseni,K. 1969b "Ecologieculturelle d'une ville islamique:Tehran" (The Cultural Ecology of an Islamic City: Tehran) Revue Geographiquede l'Est 9, 3-4, pp. 315-359. Voogd, Ch. de 1981 "Les Frangais en Perse (1805-1809)" (The French in Persia, 1805-1809), StudiaIranica 10, 2, pp. 247-268.

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Yavanr-d'Hellencourt,Nouchine 1985 "Le radicalisme shi'ite de 'Ali Shari'ati" (The Shi'ite Radicalismof Ali Shariati.),in 0. Carr6and P. Dumont eds., Radicalismes islamiques Vol. 1: Iran, Liban, Turquie.Paris: i'Harmattan, 83-118. 1986 "Rejet de l'Occident et strat6gie identitaire en Iran" (Rejection of the West and Search for Identity in Iran) Revue franVaise de science politique 36, 4, pp. 528- 545.

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APPENDICES I. Main Sources and Bibliography on Iranian Studies in France Abolhamd,A. and Pakdaman,Nasser 1972-1974 Bibliographie fran aise de la civilisation iranienne (FrenchBibliography on IranianCivilization), Tehran:Tehran University Press, 3 vol. Annuairesde l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (Yearbooksof EPHE),Paris 4th department(linguistics and history) 5th department(philosophy and religion.) Arch6ologiefrangaise d l'6tranger.Recherches et d6couvertes 1986 (FrenchArcheology Abroad: Research and Discoveries), Paris:Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. Archeology 1986 sv. EncyclopaediaIranica, vol II, 3 : 231-325 Balland,Daniel 1981 "Rdflexions d'un gdographe sur une ddcennie de recherches frangaises en Afghanistan (1968-1978)" (Relections of a Geographeron Ten Years of French Research in Afghanistan) in Rathjens ed., Neue Forschungenin Afghanistan,Opladen, Leske: 163-177. Bio-Bibliographiede 134 savants 1979 (Life and works of 134 scholars)Acta Iranica, vol.20, 4e s6rie, 1. Leiden:Brill. Cinquanteans d'orientalismeen France (1922-1972). 1973 (Fifty years of Orientalismin France), Special issue of Journal Asiatique. Contributionsby Ch. de Fouch6cour and Ph. Gignoux. Cent-cinquantenairede l'Ecole des Langues Orientales 1948 Histoire, organisation, enseignements (One Hundred and Fifty Years of the School of Oriental Languages: History, Organization, Teaching) Paris: Imprimerie Nationale,409p.

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Corbin,Henry 1968 "Dela BibliothMqueNationale a la BibliothequeIranienne." (From the National Library to the Iranian Library). HumanismeActif 309-320: M6langesofferts AJ.Cain. Dupaigne,Bernard 1976 "Cinquantenouveaux livres en frangaissur l'Afghanistan" (Fifty new Books in French on Afghanistan)Objets et Mondes 16,2, pp. 79-88. Ghirshman,Tania 1970 Archeologuemalgrg moi, vie quotidienned'une mission archeologiqueen Iran (Archeologistin Spite of Myself: The EverydayLife of an ArcheologicalMission in Iran), Neuchatel:La Baconniere/ Paris:Albin Michel. Hourcade,Bernard 1984 "Lageographie humaine et regionaledans le mondeturco- iranien"(Regional and humangeography in Turkey,Iran and Afghanistan)in Comit6National de Geographieed. La recherche g6ographique frangaise, themes, structures,perspectives, Paris, 164p.,pp.250-251. Jequier,Gustave 1968 En Perse 1897-19021(InPersia, 1897-1902). Neuchatel: Ed. de la Baconniere,205p. Mecquenem,Roland de 1980 "Les fouilleurs de Suse" (The Excavators of Susa), P. Amiet ed. Iranica Antiqua,15. Richard,Francis 1987 "Auxorigines de la connaissancede la languepersane en France"(The Originsof Knowledgeof PersianLanguage in France),Luqman 3,1, pp. 23-42. Obituarieschronicled in JournalAsiatique and StudiaIranica. II. Main French-speaking Academic Organizations and Journals on Iranian Studies Institutd'Etudes Iraniennes (IEI) Universitede ParisIII, 13, rue de Santeuil, F.75005 Paris.

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CNRS, Sciences Socialesdu MondeIranien Contemporain 27, rue Paul Bert, F.94204 Ivry. CNRS, Iran-Sud(Archdologie). 10, rue de Quatrefages,F.75005 Paris. Ecole Pratiquedes HautesEtudes Sorbonne,l rue VictorCousin 75005 Paris.

InstitutFrangais de Rechercheen Iran(IFRI) POB 15815 3495 TehranIran, and Universit6de ParisHI, 13 rue de Santeuil 75005 Paris. InstitutNational des Langueset CivilisationsOrientales 2, rue de Lflle F.75006 Paris AbstractaIranica Bibliographicaljournal for Iranianstudies. Since 1978. Yearlysupplement to StudiaIranica. Editor:Bernard Hourcade InstitutFranqais de Rechercheen Iran,Tehran/Paris. Publisher:EJ Brill, Leiden. Acta Iranica Permanentencyclopedia on Iranianstudies. Since 1974, irregular. Editors: Jacques Duchesnes Guillemin, Pierre Lecoq, JeanKellens.Centre International d'Etudes indohraniennes. Li6ge(Belgium) Publisher:EJ.Brill, Leiden NL. Cahiers de la DAFI Since 1971, annual. Editor:Jean Perrot, Secretaxy Genevieve Dollfus. D6l6gationArch6ologique Frangaise en Iran(IFRI) andPal6orient POB 5005, F.75222 PariscedexO5. (follows indirectlyMdmoires de la MissionArchgologique FranVaise en Perse, vol 1, 1900.) Memoires de la DAFA since 1929 Editor:Jean Claude Gardin c/o CNRS 23, rue du Maroc,F.75020 Paris.

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Moyen Orient et Ocean Indien: Middle East and Indian Ocean, XVI-XIXthc. Since 1984, irregular. Editor:Jean Aubin Soci't& d'Histoirede l'Orient, 11, rue de Reims F.75013 Paris. Studia Iranica Since 1972. 2 vol. per year. Editors:Philippe Gignoux and Gilbert Lazard c/o Institutd'Etudes Iraniennes. publisher:E.-J. Brill, Leiden. Translatedfrom French by Noal Mellott, CNRS,Paris. Bibliographyby Marie-MagdeleineB6riel, CNRS,Paris.

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