Wii Like to Play Too: Computer Gaming Habits of Older Adults
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Wii Like to Play Too: Computer Gaming Habits of Older Adults Hannah R. Marston A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Teesside for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2009 School of Computing Teesside University Middlesbrough, UK Declaration No part of the material in this thesis has been submitted for any degree or other qualification at any other institution by the author or, to the best of her knowledge and belief, by any other person. The thesis describes the author‘s original work. ii Wii Like to Play Too: Computer Gaming Habits of Older Adults Hannah R. Marston ABSTRACT This thesis introduces the innovative idea of the use of computer games and interactive entertainment by second-and third-age adults, specifically in the area of game content and interaction. This form of entertainment and technologies has become varied recently, with increased and widening participation of groups such as older adults of differing ages. The purposes of using technology involve well-being, intergenerational relationships and learning; these are some aspects primarily associated with the study of gerontology and game studies. This investigation encompassed two phases. Phase One examined the type of computer games older adults would like to play relating to hobbies, dreams and interests. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected in a step-by-step approach enabling participants to design their own game idea in an informal, jargon-free environment allowing for ease of understanding and coherence. Phase Two of the investigation involved older adults playing one of two consoles (Wii and PS-2). The games chosen were from the sports genre (golf, tennis and boxing) and were required to play for 15 minutes each. Results from Phase One indicated that participants were able to devise and design a number of game genres, and having prior knowledge of gaming did not necessarily aid when trying to design a game concept. Results from Phase Two indicated participants‘ playing on the Wii was easier due to the nature of the console pad, rather than the traditional game pad used on the PS-2. Qualitative and quantitative data analysis interaction mechanism was far more influential on participants‘ experience of flow than content. Extensive technological developments have enabled audiences in recent years to interact with gaming platforms easier than before, using motion sensor and natural body movement during game play. Preliminary design guidelines established from this investigation stipulate a multitude of aspects relating to interaction and content to enhance the experience of gaming for older adults. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis was carried out at Teesside University, School of Computing, during the years of 2005 – 2009. This thesis could not have been written without the invaluable assistance of my supervisors, Dr. Clive Fencott and Professor Paul van Schaik. I acknowledge my appreciation to both of them for their constructive input, support and encouragement. I express my gratitude for guidance and assistance during this study. I am grateful to fellow academic staffs that have supported me during my studies at the university and during completion of this thesis, without their support and friendship this would have been far more difficult to achieve. I would also like to thank all participants who took part in questionnaire studies, experiments and provided data. I would like to express my appreciation to fellow gerontology research students of ERA and ESPO who without their support and encouragement the study of gerontology would have been far more difficult to comprehend and for their guidance through this process one of which has been made easier with their support. And finally I would like to give special thanks to my parents Paul and Ann who without their encouragement and support throughout my education and more so in recent years I would not have been able to complete and submit this thesis. iv ABBREVIATIONS ADVENT Adventure ACRS Age Concern Research Services ATL Assistive Technology Lab ASA American Society on Aging BBC British Broadcasting Company CD Compact Disk DIGROS Digital Gerontechnology Opportunities, approaches and State of the Art DS Dual Screen DSi Dual Screen interactive DVD Digital Video Disk ESA Entertainment Software Association FADT‘s Formal Abstract Design Tools FPS First Person Shooter FSS Flow State Scale GAD Government Actuary Department GEQ Game Evaluation Questionnaire GEQ Gaming Engagement Questionnaire GITQ Gaming Immersive Tendency Questionnaire ICT Information Communication Technology IDSA Interactive Digital Software Association M Mean MUDs Multi-User Dungeon NCOA National Council on Aging NES Nintendo Entertainment System NHS National Health Service ONS Office for National Statistics PC Personal computer PS Play Station PSP Play Station Portable N Nintendo SAGA SNES Super Nintendo Entertainment System SPA State Pension Age SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SD Standard Deviation UTOPIA Usable Technology for Older People: Inclusive and Appropriate VE Virtual Environment VR Virtual Reality Wii Pronounced – wee v Definitions Immersion Immersion is the mental state of one, ceasing to be aware of physical self. This term is widely used amongst computer/video game playing environments, focusing upon an alteration of sense of time and action. Arousal Arousal is how intense the feeling is, i.e. low intensity or high intensity. Valance Valance is whether the feeling is positive or negative, or good or bad. http://www.uclic.ucl.ac.uk/distinction-projects/2007-boguslawski.pdf vi Table of Contents Title i Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Abbreviations v Definitions vi Table of Contents vii List of Figures xi List of Tables xiii Appendices xv Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.0 General 2 1.1 Structure of Thesis 2 1.2 Research Questions 6 1.2.1 Research Question One 6 1.2.2 Research Question Two 8 1.2.3 Research Question Three 9 1.2.4 Research Question Four 11 1.3 Summary 12 Chapter Two: Gerontology 13 2.0 Overview 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 What is Ageing? 15 2.3 CODEWORKS Project 18 2.4 Retirement, Leisure and Learning 27 2.5 Conclusions 30 Chapter Three: Game Sector 32 3.0 Overview 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Game Theory 37 3.3 Computer Game Sector 44 vii 3.3.1 The Early Years 44 3.3.2 The 1970s 46 3.3.3 The 1980s 50 3.3.4 The 1990s 55 3.3.5 Gaming in the New Millennium 59 3.4 Ageing and Persuasive Technologies 63 3.5 Conclusions 73 Chapter Four: Older Adults and Computer Games 75 4.0 Overview 76 4.1 Introduction 76 4.2 Statistics of Gaming by Older Adults 76 4.3 Relevant Research Conducted in this Field 84 4.4 Why do Older Adults Play Games? 87 4.5 Why should Older Adults and Seniors Learn to Play Computer 92 Games? 4.6 Conclusions 111 Chapter Five: Workshops 113 5.0 Overview 114 5.1 Introduction 114 5.2 Outline of Workshop One 115 5.2.1 Research Method 115 5.2.2 Survey Design 115 5.2.3 Procedure 116 5.2.4 Workshop Design 118 5.2.5 Materials for Workshop 121 5.2.6 Data Analysis 121 5.3 Survey Results 122 5.4 Computer Game Play 126 5.5 Conclusions (Survey) 137 5.5.1 Reflection 138 5.6 Workshop Results 139 5.6.1 Hobbies and Dreams 139 5.6.2 Important Times 140 viii 5.6.3 Imbalances and Game Themes 140 5.6.4 Verbs and Imbalances 141 5.6.5 Pleasures and ―What is the Point (aim)?‖ 142 5.6.6 Game Space and Communication 143 5.6.7 Genres 144 5.7 Conclusions 145 Chapter Six: Experimental Investigation, The Use of Computer Games 147 by Older Adults 6.0 Overview 148 6.1 Introduction 148 6.2 Method 162 6.3 Participants 163 6.4 Materials and Apparatus 163 6.4.1 Computer Games and Consoles 164 6.4.2 Questionnaire Design 165 6.4.3 Other Materials 167 6.5 Procedure 167 6.6 Data Analysis 168 6.7 Results 168 6.7.1 Demographic Results 168 6.7.2 Flow 171 6.7.3 Observations Per Game 173 6.8 Qualitative Results 181 6.8.1 Observations Results for the PS-2 181 6.8.2 Observation Results for the Wii 183 6.8.3 Reflection 186 6.9 Discussion 187 6.10 Conclusions 191 Chapter Seven: Game Content, Interaction and Technology 193 7.0 Overview 194 7.1 Introduction 194 7.2 What do We Know Already? 194 7.3 Correlations between Phase One and Phase Two 199 ix 7.4 Current Trends in the Computer Game Market 208 7.5 What is the Future of Gaming and Interactive Entertainment 234 7.6 Guideline Principles for Future Interactive Entertainment 237 7.7 Conclusions 249 Chapter Eight: Conclusions 253 8.0 Overview 254 8.1 Introduction 254 8.2 Summary of Main Findings 256 8.2.1 Research Question One: What is important to older adults, 256 computer game content or game interaction? 8.2.2 Research Question Two: What is the effect of the 259 interaction design of gaming platforms on older adults‘ experience and behaviour of playing computer games? 8.2.3 Research Question Three: What gaming facets and 262 requirements do older adults require from computer games? 8.2.4 Research Question Four: What are the implications for the 264 design of computer games/ interactive entertainment based upon the data collection in this investigation as preliminary design guidelines 8.3 Contribution to Knowledge 267 8.4 Limitation of the Study 268 8.4.1 Use of Equipment 268 8.4.2 Questionnaire Design 269 8.5 Future Research 269 8.6 Conclusions 272 Bibliography 274 Appendices 299 Appendices Contents Page 300 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.3.1 Life expectancy between 1901-1021 (CODEWORKS ATL, ACRS, 2006) 22 Figure 2.3.2 Age profile of UK population 1961-2041 (CODEWORKS ATL, 23 ACRS, 2006) Figure 2.3.3 Increase in Life Expectancy,