The Localisation of Video Games Miguel Ángel Bernal-Merino A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Translation Studies Unit Imperial College, London 2013 Copyright Declaration The copyright of this thesis rests with the author, Miguel Ángel Bernal-Merino, and is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial - No Derivatives licence. Researchers are free to copy, distribute or transmit the thesis on the condition that they attribute it, that they do not use it for commercial purposes and that they do not alter, transform or build upon it. For any reuse or distribution, researchers must make clear to others the licence terms of this work. ii THE LOCALISATION OF VIDEO GAMES TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii ABSTRACT viii DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY Ix LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF GRAPHS xii LIST OF ACRONYMS xiii CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1 1.1- About video games 4 1.2- About the goals of this research 6 1.3- About the structure of this PhD 7 CHAPTER 2- GAMES, MARKETS AND TRANSLATION 11 2.1- Towards a classification of terms relating to video game products 14 2.1.1- Comprehensive terms 14 2.1.1.1- Game 15 2.1.1.2- Electronic game 18 2.1.1.3- Digital game 19 2.1.1.4- Multimedia interactive entertainment software 19 2.1.1.5- Video game 21 2.1.2- Narrow terms 24 2.1.2.1- Location of play 25 2.1.2.2- Gaming platform 28 2.1.2.3- Mode of distribution 33 2.1.2.4- Type of market 35 2.2- The penetration of video games in today’s world 36 2.2.1- Mainstream games 37 2.2.2- Serious games 51 iii 2.2.3- Casual games 57 2.3- Game interactivity and translation 59 2.4- The link between playability and translation 67 CHAPTER 3- THE TRANSLATION OF MULTICHANNEL TEXTS 73 3.1- Translation beyond the written text 77 3.2- The legacy of previous media 83 3.2.1- Children’s books and video games in translation 84 3.2.2- Comic books and video games in translation 92 3.2.3- Films and video games in translation 100 3.2.3.1- Film and video game subtitling 103 3.2.3.2- Film and video game revoicing 110 3.2.4- Utility software and video games in translation 116 3.3- A terminological maze: talking about language transfer 121 3.3.1- Localisation 123 3.3.2- Game localisation 127 3.3.3- Transcreation 129 3.3.4- Rewriting 133 3.3.5- Adaptation 136 3.3.6- Transadaptation 138 3.3.7- Audiovisual translation 140 3.3.8- A term for the translation of video games 141 CHAPTER 4- THE TRANSLATION OF MULTIMEDIA INTERACTIVE ENTERTAINMENT SOFTWARE 143 4.1- The internationalisation and mass production of video games 147 4.2- The multitextual reality of a complex product 152 4.2.1- In-game text 157 4.2.2- Voice-over and cinematics 162 4.2.3- Art 182 4.2.4- Glossaries and TMs 183 4.2.5- Packaging and promotion 186 4.3- In a class of its own 192 iv 4.3.1- Story-building interactivity 192 4.3.2- The fragmentation of interactive text 196 4.3.3- The translation of linguistic variables 205 4.3.4- The localisation of voice commands and gestures 214 CHAPTER 5- THE INDUSTRIAL PROCESS OF GAME LOCALISATION 217 5.1- The development of game localisation as an industry 220 5.1.1- 1970s: The birth of digital entertainment 221 5.1.2- 1980s: Establishment of the game industry 228 5.1.3- 1990s: The fight for the markets 232 5.1.4- 2000s: The professionalisation of game localisation 235 5.1.5- 2010: Deep localisation 243 5.2- Game development and localisation 246 5.2.1- Weaving localisation into the game development process 249 5.3- National sensitivities and age rating boards 257 5.4- The dilemma of localisation, of what and for whom 263 5.5- The game localisation kits 268 5.6- QA: Linguistic play-testing 274 5.7- Some of the obstacles preventing quality translation in games 279 5.8- Simultaneous shipment 284 5.9- Tools used in game localisation projects 288 5.10- Game localisation roles 295 5.11- Fan-translation: Players and localisation 299 5.12- Strategies from the game localisation to the game development industry 303 5.13- Towards a better game localisation practice 308 CHAPTER 6- TRAINING AND RESEARCH 313 6.1- Professional training 317 6.2- Higher education 321 6.2.1- The content of university game localisation modules 333 6.2.2- The practical exercises included in university game 336 localisation modules v 6.2.3- The assessment component of university game localisation 341 modules 6.3- Translation theory and game localisation 343 6.4- New research: Industry and academia 350 CHAPTER 7- CONCLUSION 359 Bibliography 365 Gameography 403 Filmography 408 Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms and Acronyms 411 Appendix 2: List of Additional Resources 423 Appendix 3: UI Script Fragment Sample 431 vi Acknowledgements I would like to thank my parents for their constant support and encouragement. I would also like to thank: my supervisor, Dr Jorge Díaz-Cintas, for always setting the best example; the community of professionals and players who first contributed to L4G, for their help in establishing a great network of contacts which made possible all subsequent initiatives within Localization World International Conference and the Game Developers Conference; Ulrich Henes and Donna Parrish, organisers of the Localization World, for supporting the Game Localization Round Table when it was only an idea; the Game Developers Conference board and Jennifer Steele in particular for contacting me about becoming an advisor to the first ever Localization Summit within GDC and allowing Kate Edwards and myself to shape its content and structure. It is worth noting that, in some cases, I have been unable to reference and illustrate all the details involved in the localisation of video games due to the legal constraints constantly emphasised by the professional business contacts who have made this research possible. In deference to them, I have had to maintain a high degree of confidentiality. vii Abstract The present thesis is a study of the translation of video games with a particular emphasis on the Spanish-English language pair, although other languages are brought into play when they offer a clearer illustration of a particular point in the discussion. On the one hand, it offers a descriptive analysis of the video game industry understood as a global phenomenon in entertainment, with the aim of understanding the norms governing present game development and publishing practices. On the other hand, it discusses particular translation issues that seem to be unique to these entertainment products due to their multichannel and polysemiotic nature, in which verbal and nonverbal signs are intimately interconnected in search of maximum game interactivity. Although this research positions itself within the theoretical framework of Descriptive Translation Studies, it actually goes beyond the mere accounting of current processes to propose changes whenever professional practice seems to be unable to rid itself of old unsatisfactory habits. Of a multidisciplinary nature, the present thesis is greatly informed by various areas of knowledge such as audiovisual translation, software localisation, computer assisted translation and translation memory tools, comparative literature, and video game production and marketing, amongst others. The conclusions are an initial breakthrough in terms of research into this new area, challenging some of the basic tenets current in translation studies thanks to its multidisciplinary approach, and its solid grounding on current game localisation industry practice. The results can be useful in order to boost professional quality and to promote the training of translators in video game localisation in higher education centres. viii Declaration of Originality I, Miguel Ángel Bernal-Merino, declare that this thesis is my own work and is based on the research that I have conducted during 2007-2013, and that it has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at any other university. The information derived from the published and unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in full and exhaustively referenced in the bibliography, gameography, filmography and list of additional references and resources compiled in the final sections of this thesis. ix List of Figures Chapter 2. GAMES, MARKETS AND TRANSLATION Page Figure 1. Time spent by gamers on leisure and entertainment (ISFE 2010: 44) 12 Figure 2. Global video game sector revenue forecast (PWC, 2010) 13 Figure 3. From the movie to the video game 38 Figure 4. From the video game to the movie 39 Figure 5. Popular children’s books which have become video games 41 Figure 6. Games based on literary classics 43 Figure 7. Popular comic books and cartoons have been made into video games 43-44 Figure 8. Children’s toys made into playable characters in video games 44-45 Figure 9. Sports and international competitions have always been popular with gamers 46 Figure 10. Singers and musicians expand their influence through games 47-48 Figure 11. Many television game shows have been successfully turned into video games 49 Figure 12. Television series and sketch shows have been successfully turned into video games 50 Figure 13. Training soldiers with game-like applications 52 Figure 14. Game-like applications used as a complement to professional training 53 Figure 15. Game applications with a conscience 54 Figure 16. Video games utilised for their therapeutic value 55 Figure 17.