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Home , Black Hand (Serbia), Treaty of Berlin (1878), Treaty of London (1913), Treaty of London (1915), Weltpolitik, Young Bosnia

Bill of Rights Constitutional Rights in Action Foundation FALL 2014 Volume 30 N o 1 cc A FIRE WAITING TO BE LIT: THE ORIGINS OF ON JUNE 28, 1914, AN ANGRY YOUNG MAN OPENED FIRE ON A CAR GOING THROUGH THE STREETS OF SARA - JEVO, THE CAPITAL OF BOSNIA. HIS TARGETS WERE TWO PASSENGERS IN THE OPEN CAR: FRANZ FERDINAND, HEIR TO THE THRONE OF - HUNGARY, AND HIS WIFE, SOPHIE. THE ATTACKER SUCCEEDED IN KILLING THEM. THE MURDERS SPARKED A CON - FLICT THAT EXPLODED INTO A WAR ENVELOPING MUCH OF THE WORLD, CAUSING MORE THAN 16 MILLION DEATHS, AND LEAVING 20 MILLION PEOPLE WOUNDED OR MISSING. s

WORLD WAR I LASTED FOUR YEARS n o

AND BROUGHT DESTRUCTION ON A m m o

SCALE THAT NO ONE HAD IMAGINED. C a i

WHY AND HOW DID THE WORLD GO TO d e m i

WAR IN 1914? k i W For about 100 years, from The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, as depicted in a drawing on the 1815 to 1914, the great powers of front page of a 1914 Italian newspaper. Europe had managed to avert a in economic power. In 1870, Britain himself to making Germany into full-scale Europe-wide war. The had 32 percent of the world ’s man - a global power through aggres - British Empire dominated the ufacturing capacity, but by 1910 sive diplomacy and the acquisi - world. With its dominions and Germany had 15.9 percent and tion of overseas colonies. colonies, the empire held sway Britain had only 14.7 percent. (The over about 450 million people and Actions in Morocco U.S. had also boomed, with 35.3 almost a quarter of the Earth ’s One instance of the kaiser ’s percent.) And Germany, now in - land area. In 1850, Britain led the aggressive diplomacy was in dustrialized, began to develop colo - world in industrial manufacturing. North Africa. In 1905, he disem - nial ambitions, which caused Britain was producing about two- barked from a German warship in conflicts with Britain, France, and thirds of the world ’s coal and more the Moroccan port of Tangier and other European countries. than half of its iron and cloth. spoke in favor of Moroccan inde - In an 1897 debate in the Ger - The brief Franco-Prussian War, pendence. Germany had no real man Reichstag, its parliament, which ended in 1871, led to a shift interest in Morocco, but France the foreign secretary stated, “In in Europe ’s balance of power. Prus - did. The kaiser ’s goal was to sup - one word: We wish to throw no sia, along with other German port the sultan of Morocco and to one into the shade, but we de - states, quickly defeated France. The impress others with Germany ’s mand our own place in the sun.” German states formally united as power and prestige. The head of the , the nation of Germany, and Ger - Germany called for an inter - Kaiser Wilhelm II, committed many began to catch up to Britain national conference to consider

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The first of its kind, the British navy’s powerful became the standard for battleships of the era. whether France ’s actions in Mo - meddle with its colonies, Britain which long had enjoyed naval su - rocco had violated an interna - drew closer to France, leading the premacy, became alarmed at Ger - tional treaty. A conference took two cou ntries to make a naval many ’s intentions. place the next year in the Spanish agreement. Britain ’s Royal Navy Those intentions were clearly town of Algeciras to discuss is - promised to protect the northern stated in the naval laws, which sues of in the coast of France from German at - the German Reichstag passed be - African colonies. But the outcome tack, and France promised that ginning in 1898. The first Naval was not particularly positive for her fleet in the western Mediter - Law set a large number of ships Germany, because Britain voted ranean would protect British in - to be constructed by 1904. A sec - with France, as did , and only terests there. ond Naval Law, passed in 1900, Austria backed the kaiser. Control of the Se as doubled the size of the fleet and The kaiser made a second try Rivalry among the great pow - made clear that the German navy at demonstrating Germany ’s ers grew during the early years of would become a serious rival to power in Morocco. In July 1911, a the 20th century. France was de - the British Royal Navy. Britain de - German gunboat, the Panther , ar - termined to restore its prestige pended on its navy to shield it rived at Agadir, a large city on the and power and to regain the from invasion. The British be - Moroccan coast. The Germans provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, lieved that the new plans for ex - stated that they had come to pro - which it had lost in the Franco- panding the German navy were tect Morocco from French troops, Prussian War. The kaiser in Ger - designed for a possible conflict which had entered the city of Fez many, jealous of Great Britain ’s with the British fleet. to put down rebels. But Ger - empire, implemented , From 1902 until war broke out many ’s true goal was to get ac - “world policy. ” The aim of Welt - in 1914, the British and Germans cess to territory in the Congo. politik was to transform Germany engaged in a naval arms race. Negotiations between France and into a global power through ag - Britain designed a powerful new Germany resulted in Germany ’s gressive diplomacy, the acquisi - battleship, the Dreadnought , obtaining a small parcel of terri - tion of overseas colonies, and the which it launched in 1906. The tory in the French Equatorial development of a large navy. The Germans immediately copied the African colony of Middle Congo kaiser believed that Germany ’s Dreadnought , and the British Ad - — a marshy area where sleeping greatness depended on her be - miralty decided to maintain as sickness was widespread. coming a naval power. “We have many ships as Germany plus an The kaiser ’s “gunboat diplo - fought for a place in the sun, ” the additional six. The British also re - macy” damaged Germany ’s relations kaiser said, and won it. “Our fu - distributed their ships so the with Britain. Fearing Germany might ture is on the water. ” And Britain, biggest and most powerful ships

©2014 Constitutional Rights Foundation / www.crf-usa.org / A Fire Waiting to Be Lit: The Origins of World War I Page 2 s n o m

were situated to fight the Ger - m o C a mans. The effects of this race put i d e m

a huge financial burden on both i k i

countries. But the naval race con - W tinued as the two powers strug - gled to dominate the seas. Agreements in Case of War The struggle for imperial power was not confined to North Africa. The Russians and Japanese, com - peting for territory in Korea and Manchuria, went to war in 1904. The Russians also had imperialist goals in Persia and on the border - lands with India, which created tension with Britain. India was part of the British Empire, and the British were also heavily invested in Persia, which they saw as an im - portant source of oil. To address A 1909 cover car - the rivalries for foreign investment toon on the Ameri - and territory, the European powers can magazine Puck began to join together in agree - included two non- European players in ments, or alliances, which would the naval arms race. guarantee them support from other push to acquire new colonies and the older faced a nations in case of war. secure foreign trade. Britain decided new , composed of Under the guidance of the that it should forge greater ties with France, Russia, and Britain. The German Chancellor Otto von Bis - European powers. Britain and major European powers had di - marck, Germany and Austria- France had previously competed vided into two opposing groups. Hungary formed a military over who would control the Nile alliance in 1879. Three years later, The Balkan Crise s River as well as Egypt and Mo - Italy joined in what became the At the same time as the great rocco. But in 1904, the govern - Triple Alliance. The terms of the powers ’ conflict over Morocco, a se - ments settled their dispute. The alliance were, in brief, that if any ries of crises erupted in the . French recognized the British occu - member became involved in war Slavic-speaking peoples known as pation of Egypt, and the British rec - with another , its al - — Bosnians, Bulgari - ognized the French penetration of lies would come to its aid by force ans, , Macedonians, Mon - Morocco. Britain and France did not of arms. The Triple Alliance tenegrins, , and Slovenes — have a specific alliance and did not lasted until the First World War. lived in the Balkan region located state clearly what would happen if In response to the Triple Al - south of Austria-Hungary and north they were attacked, but it was a liance, the French decided to form of . and close understanding that came to its own alliance with Russia. had gained their independence in be known as the . Signed in 1894, the Franco-Russian 1878 under the , an Three years later, Britain and Rus - Alliance provided that if one of the internat ional agreement between sia put aside their differences over countries of the Triple Alliance the European powers and the Ot - Persia and India. In an Anglo-Russ - (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and toman Empire. Millions of other ian convention, the British recog - Italy) attacked France or Russia, its South Slavs lived nearby in parts nized a Russian sphere of influence ally would attack the aggressor. of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the north of Persia and the Britain meanwhile was increas - (such as ) and in the Euro - Russians a British sphere in the ingly concerned about Germany ’s pean part of the Ottoman Em pire south and the east. Thus, by 1907,

©2014 Constitutional Rights Foundation / www.crf-usa.org / A Fire Waiting to Be Lit: The Origins of World War I Page 3 From the New York Time s of October 7, 1908 of an international conference. ’s AUSTRIA TAKES TWO PROVINCES unexpectedly restrained policy mini - annex the two provinces, which Bosnia and Are mized the possibilities of war, which legally still belonged to the Ot - Annexed and a Liberal now is considered out of the question. Constitution Granted. toman Empire. Austria had in - A conference of the powers is ex - vested heavily in these provinces SERVIAN ARMY MOBILIZED pected to be held within two or three and did not want them returned Leaders of All Parties Angered by months if it can be arranged, but no Austria and War Talk Is Popular. one imagines that it will undo this to the Ottoman Turks or to be - CONFERENCE ON week’s work. Austria declines even to come independent. It felt it could Britain, Framers, and Russia Acting discuss the matter of its annexation of placate the Ottomans by giving Together — Bulgarian Minister Explains the provinces, and the most that is ex - up all claim to the Novi Pazar, a the Declaration of Independence. pected is some arrangement that will Turkish region that separated Ser - , Oct. 6. — The second and cul - save Turkey’s pride. Before the powers bia from Montenegro. minating step in the Austro- Bulgarian agree to enter upon a conference, they Russia thought Austria-Hungary programme for the aggrandizement of probably will be obliged to define its had agreed to call an international themselves at the expense of the sta - scope, which will be a hard task. British conference. At the conference, Aus - statesmen suggest that compensation tus established by the Treaty of Berlin tria would support opening the was consummated to-night when Em - be made to Turkey, and that guarantees Aegean to Russian warships. It peror Francis Joseph formally pro - be given against further disturbance of claimed the practical annexation of the status quo. Sir Edward Grey, the would also back Russia in allow - to the dual Foreign Secretary, will address his con - ing Serbia to expand its borders monarchy, with a pledge of a Constitu - stituents tomorrow evening, when it is (into areas controlled by the Ot - tion guaranteeing civic rights and a expected he will explain the attitude of tomans) and in granting inde - representative assembly. the British Government. pendence to Bulgaria, which was The present situation is as follows: The English paper s unite in praising a self-ruling province in the Ot - Turkey calls upon the powers to pre - Turkey’s moderation and in denounc - toman Empire. In return, Russia serve to her what they guaranteed by ing Austria. The Standard, in a typical would support Austria ’s annexa - that treaty: Austria and Bulgaria utterance, says: ”We are sorry for the tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina. strongly declare their determination to aged Emperor. We regret that so late Austria never called for an in - in his long and honorable career he keep what they have taken. Servia is ternational conference. Instead, protesting belligerently against being has chosen to sully his name with a hemmed in more strongly between two deed which will go down in history in October 1908, Bu lgaria declared unpopular neighbors and against hav - alongside of the of Poland.” its independence. The next day, ing the Servians in Bosnia absorbed Several of the London newspapers Austria announced its an nexation into the Austro-Hungarian nationality. question whether or not Emperor Fran - of Bosnia and renounced any The other powers concerned in the cis Joseph is acting against his will. claim to Novi Pazar. Berlin Treaty are discussing the holding The Serbs erupted in a frenzy. The Serbian press lashed out at (such as Bosnia, Bulgaria, and the Sea of Marmara, and the Dard - Austria, demonstrators filled the Macdedonia). As the Ottoman anelles), which connect the Black streets of (the capital of Empire began to break up, a and Aegean seas. Control of the Serbia), and Serbia mobilized its sense of was growing straits would give the Russian navy army. War became a real danger. among these people. By 1900, access to the Aegean and the Austria ’s annexation of Bosnia many radical South Slavs decided Mediterranean. According to an ex - also angered other European that Austria-Hungary should be isting international treaty, however, powers and the . broken up and that they — the the straits would be closed to all The annexation violated the South Slavs — should either unite warships in time of war, which Treaty of Berlin. Countries called in one independent state ( Yu - meant the Russian fleet would be for an international conference to goslavia , meaning “South bottled up in the . revise the treaty. Slavia ”) or form a number of in - Russia entered talks with Aus - Austria ignored the calls, and dependent states. tria-Hungary. Under the 1878 Germany backed Austria. Austria The first crisis began in 1908. Treaty of Berlin, Austria occupied did pay Turkey more than 2 mil - Russia was trying, as it had and administered the Ottoman lion British pounds in compensa - throughout history, to get control of Empire ’s provinces of Bosnia and tion. Ultimately, the Treaty of the Turkish Straits (the Bosporus, Herzegovina. Austria wanted to Berlin was amended without a

©2014 Constitutional Rights Foundation / www.crf-usa.org / A Fire Waiting to Be Lit: The Origins of World War I Page 4 conference as each of the powers agreed to the annexation. Among the last to agree were Serbia and Russia. The Serbian gov - ernment looked to Russia for sup - port. Russians, eastern Slavs, saw themselves as natural allies of Ser - bia. Too weak to back Serbia mili - tarily and pressured by Germany, the Russian government reluctantly agreed to the annexation. The Russ - ian government felt humiliated by Germany, betrayed by Austria, and exposed as being willing to make a deal at Serbia ’s expense . The crisis brought Germany and The Balkans in 1907 Austria closer, and military leaders from these two countries began to meet. The Germans committed themselves to Austria, and the Aus - trians began a more aggressive pol - icy against the Slav threat. Serbs responded by organizing radical nationalist societies. Naro - dna Odbrana (“National De - fense ”) formed right after the annexation. It spread propaganda favoring South Slav independence and enlisted volunteers into para - military units. , a group of like-minded student rev - olutionaries, sprang up in Bosnia itself. Most dangerous was a secret The Balkans in 1914 group called Unification or Death, commonly known as the Black the countries that had fought to - in Bulgaria (which became an Hand. Linked to the head of Ser - gether during the war still con - ally of Austria). bian Military Intelligence, the tested territory, and two months Tension over the Balkans re - generated propaganda later, Bulgaria attacked its former mained high. All the contestants and advocated terrorism against allies, Serbia and Greece. Turkey still desired more land. The Ot - Austria-Hungary, which it re - joined the war as well. In August toman Empire wanted its land garded as a deadly enemy. 1913 the ended back, and Austria-Hungary con - War did break out in the with the Treaty of Bucharest. tinued to control large popula - Balkans in 1912 and again in 1913. As a result of the , tions of South Slavs. In both wars, the Balkan states the Ottoman Empire lost almost In the words of one historian, fought to divide up the parts of the all its land in Europe. Greece, Ser - the next Balkan crisis proved to Ottoman Empire located on the Eu - bia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro ex - be a fatal one. It was fatal, be - ropean continent. Serbia, Bulgaria, panded their borders. The cause the other crises before it Montenegro, and Greece joined non-Slavic Balkan nation of Alba - had left “feelings of exasperation forces with support from Russia, nia gained its independence. And in Austria, desperation in Serbia, and the first war ended with the Serbia and Russia (which had and humiliation in Russia. ” And in . But sided with Serbia) lost a key ally soon after, in , the heir

©2014 Constitutional Rights Foundation / www.crf-usa.org / A Fire Waiting to Be Lit: The Origins of World War I Page 5 to the Austro-Hungarian Empire Britain would go to war. The coun - David Lloyd George, who was made a fatally bad decision to tries of Europe had long promised a member of the British cabinet visit Bosnia with his wife, Sophie. to respect Belgium ’s independence in 1914, and prime minister from and neutrality. Britain had signed a 1916 to 1922, wrote in his mem - The World Goes to War treaty committing it to protect Bel - oirs that in 1914 no one had Franz Ferdinand was assassi - gium if it were invaded. wanted a European war, no one nated on June 28, 1914 in Sara - expected it, and that the “nations jevo, the capital of Bosnia, by an had slithered over the brink.” 18-year-old Bosnian named World War I lasted Certainly no one expected that . Part of a team of the war would last four years; assassins in that day, four years and most soldiers left home expecting Princip belonged to the Young to be back by Christmas. And Bosnia group, and the Black Hand brought destruction probably no one expected that terrorist group had trained the the alliance system, which was team. Rounded up by Austrian au - on a scale that no designed to protect the great thorities, the assassins eventually one had imagined. powers from harm, would in fact named three leaders of the Black propel them into war. Hand as the planners of the attack: War did not break out immedi - Chief of Serbian Military Intelli - ately. The great powers made mili - DISCUSSION & WRITING gence Dragutin Dimitrijevic, his tary plans and issued ultimatums. 1. What were the great powers close associate Serbian Army On July 23, 1914, Austria sent a before World War I? Which do Major Vojislav Tankosic, and Milan note to Serbia accusing the Serbs of you think was the most pow - Ciganovic, a Bosnian Serb. “inciting its people to hatred of the erful? The weakest? Why? The Austrian government was Monarchy” and making 10 de - already determined to crush the 2. In 1897, the German foreign mands, with a 48-hour ultimatum. South Slav movement. The assas - secretary stated, “In one word: When Russia learned of the note, it sination of the heir to the empire We wish to throw no one into announced that it would mobilize set a war against Serbia in motion. the shade, but we demand our its army if Austria invaded Serbia. Because of the two alliances, own place in the sun. ” What And when Serbia did not agree to the war would not be limited to did he mean? How might his all of Austria ’s demands, the great Austria and Serbia. Fearing that statement be considered fair? powers went down a slippery slope Russia would support the Serbs, How might someone today to war. On July 28, Austria declared Austria looked to Germany for criticize the statement? war on Serbia. Russia ordered par - support. The German chancellor 3. What were the alliances tial mobilization of its troops on called a meeting in Potsdam on July among the great powers be - July 29. Germany warned Russia to 5, and with the backing of those at - fore World War I? Why did the demobilize, and when it refused, tending, he agreed to give Austria alliances exist? Why didn ’t began its mobilization the same full military support. Knowing of they prevent the war? day. On August 1, France ordered the alliance between France and 4. Why do you think losing Bul - mobilization, and two hours later Russia, Germany had a war plan garia as an ally was a loss for Germany declared war on Russia. that called for military action on Serbia and Russia? The final step, which brought two fronts: against Russia in the Britain into the war, came on Au - 5. Why were the Balkans such a east and France in the west. Ger - gust 3 when Germany invaded Bel - problem area in Europe? Do many did not know whether Britain gium and declared war on France. you see other areas of the would join its allies if war broke Britain issued a 24-hour ultimatum world today with problems out. But to achieve a quick invasion demanding that Germany with - similar to those that existed in on the western front — against draw its forces from Belgium. the Balkans? Explain. France — Germany planned to in - Germany refused, and on August 6. What was the annexation cri - vade France through Belgium . 4, 1914, Germany and Britain sis of 1908? How important do An invasion through Belgium, were at war. you think it was in leading to however, would make it likely that * * * * * World War I? Explain.

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