WORD RECOGNITION SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
FOR PRIMARY READING
Majel Grace Bliss A. B., Seattle Pacific College, 1931
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
AT THE
SACRAMENTO STATE COLLEGE
Approved:
Mildred Agnes Dawson, Chair Walter Thomas Petty
I -; L. ~ 1-7 Date ~ - r.- · u - ~ TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED 1
Statement of the Problem 1 Deliminations of Problem 2 Hypothesis . 2 Sources of Data 4 Procedures in Collecting a nd Organization of Data 5 Terminology 7
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . 11
III. TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS IN WORD RECOGNITION 24
Level I or Reading Readin ess. 25 Level II or Pre-Primer 26 Level III or Primer . 28 Level IV or First Reader 32 Level V or Second Reader, Level I. 37 Level VI or Second Reader, Level II 43 Level VII or Third Reader, Level I 47 Level VIII or Third Reader, Level II 53
IV. FUN IN PHONICS, RHYMES, AND GAMES 59
Rhymes 61 Games 66
V. SUMMARY OF THE STUDY 70
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 76
CHART . 80 CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
In the past decade theory and practice have combined to strengthen and encourage word recognition techniques and skills in primary reading.
Authorities in the field of education are more and more convinced that independent reading can be achieved largely through many and varied learning experiences that help a child to figure out unfamiliar words for himself.
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It is the purpose of this study to make a survey of analytical word recognition skills and techniques used in primary reading grades. The survey covers the following phases of word analysis: auditory perception and visual discrimination - separately and in co-ordination - phonetic and structural analysis, and the methods of using these various tech niques. It is hoped that this study will be of assistance to all primary teachers in the Rohla School District of Sacramento County in that it presents a program of word analysis that will be simple, useful, concise, and yet comprehensive for the use of these teachers. During thirty years of special interest in this field and much practice in private teach ing, this investigator is convinced that there is a great need among teachers for help in conducting lessons dealing with word analysis.
1 II. DELIMITATIONS OF PROBLEM
There are scores of sources from which materials in word anal- ysis may be derived. Ina:smuch as the Rohla District uses, for the most part, the Ginn Series of readers and the Ginn Phonetic Chart
(see chart), it has seemed advisable to base much of the survey on manuals accompanying the Ginn readers. For purposes of comparison and possible supplementation, the Reading for Living Series, Develop mental Readers, a nd Learning to Read manuals were also surveyed for each of the eight levels. The latter sources yielded relatively few additions to the notations from the Ginn manuals and teaching aids.
Chapter Two in a thesis is typically a summary of related research.
However, this present project consists of a survey of instructional ma terials and does not include any experimental research. In this report, therefore, the second chapter summarizes seven books a nd two publica tions that include a systematic program of word analysis and/ or a state ment of underlyin g principles in such instruction. There seemed to be no point in reviewing research as such for the following reasons: ( 1) this study is concerned with a survey, not an experiment; and (2) the authors of the various teacher's guides which the survey has utilized had based their word recognition program on the findings of related research.
III. HYPOTHESES
Ginn Company furnishes a summary chart for the word-analysis
2 techniques that are included in its complete program of reading instruc tion. Because a considerable amount of analysis of supplementary series of manuals has yielded few additional exercises in word analysis, it is assumed that the coverage of the Ginn Chart is sufficiently complete and that its content and organization can be used as a basis in this study.
According to the Ginn program, there are five main techniques for studying word analysis: (1) listening or auditory perception; (2) seeing or visual discrimination; (3) phonetic analysisi (4) structural analysis; and (.5) methods of using word analysis.
Skills that are emphasized in general through the eight levels of reading are:
a. Listening to, identifying, and perceiving the location of sounds
b. Recognizing likenesses and differences of objects; identifying
reversals; observing configuration of objects and words; kin
esthetic activities of drawing, cutting, or tracing
c. Learning to identify and to sound the consonants and vowels in
different positions and combinations
d. Using structural analysis in compound and hyphenated words,
plural forms, variant endings and beginnings
e. Utilizing context clues; recognizing words alike except for
initial or final endings; identifying words commonly confused,
rhyming endings, and digraphs; recognizing little words in large
ones.
3 IV. SOURCES OF DATA
The main source of this survey was the Ginn Readers according to levels as follows:
Level I: Fun with Tom and Betty; Games to Play
Level II: Ride with Us; My Little Red Story Book; My Little
Green Story Book; My Little Blue Story Book
Level III: The Little White House; Under the Apple Tree
Level IV: On Cherry Street; Open the Gate
Level V: Down Our Way; We Are Neighbors
Level VI: Around the Corneri New Friendly Village
Level VII: Finding New Neighbors; New If I Were Going;
New Through the Green Gate
Level VIII: Friends Far and Near; Along Friendly Roads;
Over Hill and Plain
Other supplementary sources were manuals from the following companies:
Learning to Read Series published by the Silver Burdett Company
Level II: Bill and Susan
L evel III: Through the Gate
Level IV: Down the Road
Level VI: In New Places
L evel VII: From Sea to Sea
Developmental Series published by the California State Department
4 of Education
Level II: Three of Us; Play with Us; Fun with Us
Level III: Many Surprises
Level IV: Happy Times
Level V: Down Our Way
Level VI: Just for Fun
Level VII: Stories from Everywhere
Level VIII: Once Upon a Story Time
Reading for Living Series published by California State Department of Education
Level III: Days of Fun
Level IV: Our Happy Ways
Level VIII: Our Good Neighbors
The suggestions for pictures that are included in Chapter III were taken from Eye and Ear Fun Books, work books related to the Ginn Series,
Highlights (The Monthly Book for Children), spellers, and a few work books from other series. (See bibliography ! ~
V. PROCEDURES IN COLLECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF DATA
From the Sacramento County Schools Primary Reading Record, the investigator checked readers by publishers, then inquired from teachers at each level which books were most used in the Rohla District according to the eight levels of reading. As each manual, reader, or
5 work book was surveyed, a card was made for each technique or skill and labeled as either visual, auditory, phonetic, textual, or word anal-:- ysis. The following is a sample of a card indicating an auditory skill.
Note that the left corner was cut off so as t o e n able easy and swift class-
LEVEL III
B in b i rthday, book, big, ball, bunny, box
l The Little White House Story - A Ride for Pony I I Ginn and Company San Francisco 1948 I l_ _·-- -·-·-·------·----·-··· -.. --.. -·---·-----·"·'»-·- -·--,-·J. For identification of visual discrimination cards the upper right corner was cut off: r-- -·· · -· -···· ·----~------·" ---~---"\ LEVEL VII "'"' Suffix: ly added to slow-slowly J ed added to climb-climbed ( ing added to bring-bringing ) er added to farm-farmer
t Stories from Eve rywhere
)____ _ De._yel_
To identify cards for phoni cs a capital ~ was plac ed i n the cent e r of card at the top, for textual identification a capital T was used at the
6 top, and for word analysis the card was left plain. A different corner was cut off for each classification so that sorting all the cards might be facilitated.
The final organization was made according to the Ginn Phonetic
Chart. (See chart; .) Chapter III is an expansive and detailed discussion organized on the basis of rhymes, or whatever objectifying way a sugges- tion might be made.
VI. TERMINOLOGY
In the professional literature that has been reviewed and in the following chapter there are a few special terms used that are related to word recognition. (Two sources of definitions were consulted: ( 1) pro- fessional book by Bettsl and (2) Webster 1 s Collegiate Dictionary. 2)
Those especially associated with word recognition in the primary grades are described as follows:
1. Phonetics or phonics (interchangeable) is a science of speech
sounds and the use of special symbols to represent these sounds.
It deals not only with sounds of spoken words but with the letters
of our conventi onal alphabet. (Betts: 621)
1Emmett Albert Betts, Foundations of Reading Instructions, San Francisco: American Book Company, 1950.
2Noah Webster, Collegiate Dictionary, Fifth Edition, Springfield: I. E. McLaren and G. & C. Merriam Co., 1943.
7 2. A vowel is a speech sound uttered with voice or whisper and
characterized by the resonance form of the vocal cavities; also,
a letter representing such a sound. The vowel letters are a, e,
i, o, u, and sometimes~ and y_. Often they are spoken of as the
"open" sounds or free from obstruction with the tone passage
open. (Webster: 1127)
3. A consonant is a speech sound characterized in enunciation by
constriction in the breath channel as distinguished from a vowel;
also, a letter representing such a sound. The consonants are b,
These letters are voiced as b, v, w, d, th (hard), z, zh, j, g (hard);
or voiceless (breathed) as p, f, wh, t, th (soft}, s, sh, ch (soft),
and k. (Betts: 634)
4. A blend is two or more sounds, blended rapidly together without
loss of iden tify of the sounds. Examples of initial blends are bl, dr,
stri of terminal blends, nd and rt. Blends can be either initial or
final. (Betts: 623)
5. A digraph is a group of two vowels or two consonants represent-
i n g a sin gle spe ech sound. Neither on e n e eds the special attention
of th e other. Examples of digraphs are ch, sh, th, wh; ai, ay, ea,
oa, ie, ow, ue, and ew. (Webster: 282)
6. A diphthong i s a speech soun d chan ging c ontinuously from one vowe l
to another in the same syllable. Words with diphthongs are: out,
8 now, dew, aisle. (Betts: 626)
7. A phonogram is a word element; a letter or group of letters
forming a single speech sound. It can be made up of vowels,
consonants, or a combination of each. Examples of phonograms
are~ in pat, ight in sight, blo as in blow. (Betts: 621)
8. A syllable means one or more speech sourids constituting an un-
interrupted unit of utterance and forming either a whole word or
a division of a spoken wordi also, one or more letters represent-
ing a spoken syllable. Examples: can - one syllable, a/cross -
two syllables, yes/ter/day - three syllables. (Webster: 1010)
9. A derivative is a word derived from another by any process of
word development, as by adding a prefix or suffix. Examples of
derivatives are: beautiful from beauty, remind from mind,
walking from walk. (Webster: 272)
10. A compound word is formed from two or more distinct words such
as good-for-nothing, policeman, by-stander. (Webster: 207)
11. A prefix means one or more letters or syllables combined or united
with the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. Examples:
astride, preview, untie. (Webster·: 782)
12. A suffix is an abstract element at the end of a word serving a
derivative, formative, or inflectional function as ly in manly, ness
in sweetness. (Betts: 660)
13. Stem is the main part of a word to which various endings may be
9 attachedi that part of a word that remains unchanged throughout
a given inflection. Examples: winding, tonight, conservation.
(Betts: 649)
14. A root word is an uncompounded word or element, without prefix,
suffix, or inflectional ending; primitive word that cannot be reduced
to a more simple form in the language from which it was taken.
Examples: one, room, bad. (Webster: 865)
10 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Chapter II reviews publications which present principles that should underlie such programs. Two of these are entire books, one by Durrell and Sullivan including a comprehensive set of exercises for teaching phonetic analysis and the second by W. S. Gray, giving a com plete and research authenticated program of word recognition and the principles which support it.
In addition, relevant chapters in five professional books on the teaching of reading are reviewed. The books, whose chapters on word recognition have been included in the reviews, are as follows:
Children Learn~ Read by David H. Russell
Teaching Elementary Reading by Miles A. Tinker
Guiding Growth in Reading by Margaret McKim
Teaching Every Child to Read by Kathleen B. Hester.
The book dealing specifical~y with word analysis is:
Teaching Primary Reading by Edward William Dolch.
References are made to two publications. One article, "When
Should Phonetics Be Taught?", written by Dr. Roma Gans in Grade
Teacher, September 1956, was on word analysis; the other article was on word recognition by William Edward Dolch, 11 Teaching Primary
Reading, 11 in Illustrator, p p . 17-18, 21, 123 for 1950.
11 Review of complete books
According to Durrell and Sullivan 3 in their book, Building Word
Power in Primary Reading, early confusions arise in the reading process
because children lack the ability to discriminate among word elements
and to note differences in words. As soon as each child has become
conscious of his own speech sounds, it is time to take advantage of pho-
netic discrimination of letter and letter-combination sounds. It should
not be drill as a separate process but rather it should be fused with read-
ing; that is, words that are introduced in reading lessons should be dealt
with in interesting games, rhymes, stories, or exercises.
4 The so-called "dean of authorities on reading11 is William. S. Gray
In his book, On Their Own in Reading, he gives a history of reading from
1900 to 1948. During this time teachers utilized a wide variety of tech-
niques, ranging from undue emphasis on learning the form and sound of
separate words to 11 guessing from the context" with little attention to the
visual form of words. Gray believes that skill in phonetic analysis is
essential for independence in identifying new words and that this skill
should be based on fundamental understandings of how sounds and their
letter symbols function in our language. The use of phonetic understand-
- \ 3Durrell and Sullivan, Building Word Power in Primary Reading, Yonkers, New York: World Book Company, 1945.
_...... ' 4 William S. Gray, On Their Own in Reading, Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1948.
12 ings and skills should be geared into the total process of word perception and recently, according to Gray, educators have begun to develop valid
·practices of teaching word perception in its proper relationship to the total reading program. There is an ever-growing emphasis on practice in applying word-analysis skills in genuine reading situations where the child is called upon to associate meaning as well as sound with the new words that he encounters.
The roles of word perception include recognition of words and meaning background, comprehension of the ideas expressed, integration of the ideas gained, and the reaction to these ideas. In carrying out these roles, activities in word perception utilize the following methods: analysis of words with familiar word forms, use of strong meaning clues with a new word (if such there be), study of visual form of appear- ance, use of structural and phonetic clues, and reference to the diction- ary.
If word forms are going to be recognized and remembered, there must be careful scrutiny and visual memory supplemented with the mean ing of each word. When there are various meanings for one word or different words with identical forms, the context will have to be carefully scrutinized.
There are times when a teacher or another adult is not present to tell a child a new word; so he should have skil,ls enabling him to attack new words. If he masters a sight vocabulary and can attack new words
13 independently, reading should become a truly useful tool of learning.
Selected chapters in authoritative books
In Chapter X of the book Children Learn to Read, David H. Russell 5
outlines a plan for developmental word-recognition skills, simply classi-
fied in three categories: perception abilities, ass.ociation abilities, and
the analytical ability. In general, the successful reader in the elementary
school is one who can combine several of these methods to figure out the
word he wants to know. Children rely on auditory clues before they use
visual modes of a nalysis of words, but they bring to first grade certain
abilities in both auditory and visual perception; a nd it is the task of the
teacher to sharpen and direct these potentials in auditory and visual per-
ception to enhance reading abilities.
The use of analytical methods in word recognition has always been
a highly controversial topic. The great teacher, Pestalozzi, devised an
extreme form of word analysis and applied it to reading in his schools
about 1800-1825. It was adopted in the United States programs and flour-
ished in the 1900' s and 1910' s and was known as the ABC method of reading.
In the late 1920' s, a natural reaction set in.· Silent reading was then en-
phasized until phonics methods of word recognition languished and were
eliminated in many schools. The last half of the 1940's saw a swing of
the pendulum back to a moderate use of phonetic a nalysis, but there has
~j 5David H. Russell, Children Learn to Read, Boston: Ginn and Company, Chapter X, pp' . 206-220, 1949.
14 been no disposition to restore emphasis upon phonetic analysis as the
one basic method of teaching reading.
Of the many reasons for teaching a method of phonetic analysis,
perhaps the following five are the most important: ( 1) it increases in-
dependence in recognizing words previously learned; (2} it aids in un-
locking new words by giving the pupil a method of sound analysis; (3) it
encourages correct pronunciationj (4) it improves the quality of oral
reading; and (5) it develops habits of close attention to words and word
parts and tends to have a favorable influence on later spelling achievement.
Dr. Russell believes that such guiding principles as the following
should be used in teaching children to recognize words: Do not teach iso-
lated vowels or phonograms or even initial consonants but teach the word;
do not overuse similarities in the way of families unless comments are
contributed by the children; do not distort a word by over-emphasis upon
a syllable or consonant; and do not teach a lesson in phonetic analysis for
a period lasting longer than ten to twelve minutes.
Miles A. Tinker6 states in Chapter VIII of Teaching Elementary
Reading that progress in learning to read requires the acquisition and
the use of word recognition skills. Interpretation of the printed symbols
demands skill in word recognition or identification which might also be
called association of the sound and meaning with the visual form .
.J 6Miles A. Tinker, Teaching Elementary Reading, New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Chapter VIII, IX, p .p. 129-172, 1952.
15 Immediate recognition occurs only with well-known or sight words, while less familiar words need a closer inspection with the recourse to one or more of the word-recognition clues. Usually contextual clues will come first if the meaning is clear but, if it is vague, auditory and visual association will assist.
Training in techniques of word identification and recognition is necessary. Mastering a list of sight words is not sufficient for satisfac tory progress in reading proficiency, which also requires additional tech niques for identifying and recognizing words. Mastery of these skills is
necessary if the child is to achieve independence in his reading. When
skills are mastered, the thinking side of reading can be stressed.
In the early stages of reading, word recognition is concerned only
with the meaning vocabulary of the child but, as he advances, he can
learn the skills of pronunciation and meaning beyond his direct experience and his customary oral usage. Dictionary work is an example of this
supplementary learning which must be a closely associated part of the
reading program.
The program of skills will start in the first grade. When children
begin to read at each new level, new skills will be taught and old ones
reviewed through the sixth grade (and even later if the need is evident),
Since comprehension in reading depends upon the coordinated development
of word meanings and of word recognition, these skills should be learned
as early as possible.
16 Edward Dolch, 7 a widely recognized authority on teaching reading
and especially word a nalysis, says that no child in beginning reading
I should be taught by sounding letters, for it is too slow and laborious a
method; but on the other hand, it is imperative that he should have skills,
techniques, a n d devices so he can be an independent worker.
Sounding begins when a word cannot be recognized by the "look-say"
method, as when it looks too much like a similar one; for instance his or
has, like or look. There must be a readiness for phonics as well as for
reading; and all children who are to receive training in phonics should be
mature enough to benefit by the training. Fortunately phonics readiness
may be developed by "ear training ." Rhymes are used first, then names
with similar beginning sounds. This ear train ing may start in the first
weeks of school and, because any training takes time, it should be included
in any planned schedule.
All sounding is based upon one principle, that parts of words which
look alike tend to sound alike. While some of the children discover this
principle for themselves, teachers need not wait for all to discover it
but may help the others to find it. Children should not learn too many
principles or skills at once; so any single skill should be practiced through
many devices before a new one is introduced. Thus may confusion be
avoided. For instance, if the short a is being taught, only words with
_J 7Edward William Dolch, Teaching Primary Reading, Champaign: The Garrard Press, Chapter XIII, p:p . 278-318, 1951.
17 that letter should be used in introducing lessons; for instance, such as cat, man, bad, can, hat.
The more interesting and sure plan for teaching phonics is to teach it as needed in reading, with attention first to easy consonants in order of frequency, then digraphs, later certain short vowels. Phonics always calls for generalizing on known words; so words that are unnecessary for use should not be included.
Phonics is not a body of information to be learned but a skill to be acquired through use. It is a practical method which is gradually learned, step by step, as it is used. In teaching this skill, three things are involved:
( 1) knowing what sound corresponds to certain letters under certain circum- stances; (2) habit of thinking of these sounds when a new word appears;
(3) skill in combining the sounds to get the right word. Dolch recommends the following thirteen steps in learning sounds: ( 1) sounds of the single consonant; (2) sounds of the consonant digraph; (3) short soun ds of the vowels; (4) long sounds of the vowels; (5) final~ rule for long sound; (6) double vowels; (7) diphthongs; (8) sound of vowels with_E; (9) soft~ and _g_ before J:. and~; (10) taking off prefixes and suffixes; (11) findin g at least as many syllables as vowels; (12) division of syllables between two con- sonants or in front of one; (13) vowels in open syllables long and closed syllables short.
It is usually advisable to practice on phonics as a part of a reading lesson, particularly as a follow-up. Sometimes the exercises may come
18 at a separate time. Short periods are better than long ones.
When a new word is sounded for recognition, part is sounded and
. the rest guessed. Sounding is the chief means by which a child can in-
dependently build up his ability to figure out words; but, when sounding
cannot help, other means such as the context can be used.
One of the rec.ent authors on reading is Margaret G. McKim9 who
believes that definite help should be given primary children in developing
word recognition. This can be done through group reading, on-going
classroom activities, and providing special practice and review activities
in word recognition. However, children will often guess; but, since
practice on a wrong word will be harmful, supervision by the teacher is
required until children are well acquainted with isolated words. The best
devices are those most simple for the teacher to prepare and flexible
enough so that children get many hours of use from them. Word games
of every kind are very helpful and enjoyable.
The time to start developing skills in word analysis is the first
time a child tells two words apart by noting difference in the letters.
From then on, skills in breaking words into elements, noting reaso.nable
sound equivalents, blending sou nds, and.analyzing unfamiliar words as
he meets them in the context are most important. Dictionary use cannot
be successful until early techniques in locating words are well learned;
J 9Margaret G. McKim, Guiding Growth in Reading, New York: ,. The MacMillan Company, Chapter IX, p p . 260-308, 1955.
19 subsequently it can be a tool for independent word recognition.
All training must be guided by the teacher who must make it easy
to see and hear sound elements, to use context clues, encourage inde-
pendence, and make' it fun to work with words. Added fun can be for
children to help each other and play word games in groups.
"Most educators today believe that a broader approach to vocab-
ulary development is needed" says Kathleen Hester in Teaching Every
Child To Read.1 O Reading is talking in print; so a rich meaningful
vocabulary is important for success in reading. Reading includes not
alone a mastery of skills but also serves to convey the thought of a
writer. Therefore, effective skills and habits are a means to an end
rather than an end in themselves. During the 1930's and early 1940's,
there was overemphasis on the scientific control of the vocabulary
load in reading textbooks. This was the period of "pallid primer",
when learning and retention of vocabulary depended almost entirely
upon frequent repetition of words in rather meaningless stories.
Many children, when they enter school, can express themselves
in clear, direct sentences and some can even use complex sentence
structure. This means that they have a good hearing vocabulary though
their speaking vocabulary is smaller. To build up an extensive speak-
ing vocabulary requires recognition of visual symbols and understanding
J lOKathleen B. Hester, Teaching Every Child To Read, New York: Harper and Brothers, Chapter XI, pp. 136-193~955.
20 or appreciation of the meaning that the symbol in the text conveys. In beginning reading, a child must learn to recognize rapidly the words he is asked to read so that he is free to center his attention upon the meaning. In the preprimer level the "look-say" or visual method is dominant but as the child reaches more advanced levels, some other method is absolutely necessary to keep up speed and to reveal meaning.
The first requisite for acquisition of an extensive vocabulary is a strong desire to have one. The child must be eager to learn; his curi osity about words must be aroused. Speaking, listening, reading, and writing should be organized into a program that will contribute to his growth pattern. The study of words should fulfill a real need. It should not be a mechanical procedure but there should be real interest in special devices, games, and challenging exercises which serve to sharpen attention.
Smooth, rhythmical reading is the result of quick recognition and perception of the words. In addition, meaning must be derived by asso ciation with actual objects, situations, and experiences. Many experi ences, excursions, and visual aids are needed; then the child will associ ate experience with the appropriate symbol or word. Concepts for ab stract words should also be developed; for example, words like shimmer, dingy, gray, pitter-patter. Opposites are helpful for teaching meaning: hot, cold; high, low. Activities that give pleasure in developing recogni tion and perception give the highest results.
21 Reference Material
Dr. Roma Gan s 11 in the Grade Teach er for September, 1956,
asserts that a good school includes ph onics in all grades and that be-
ginnin g phonics should be mastered in the first a nd second grades.
Phonics is essential for skill in helping children to read, spell, and
speak well. No one method should be used and there should be no un-
necessary drill or rules to make it unpleasant. Whatever techniques
helps a child to learn is a skill that should make his work more enjoy-
able as well as help him to a happier, abler citizen .
In the Illustrator for 1950, Edward William Dolch 12 says in his
article "Teaching Primary Reading" that the "need for exact word rec-
ognition is one of the important reasons which causes beginning readi ng
to be oral reading for the most part. '·' Not guessing words nor memor-
izing them but a knowledge of recognition is the basis for successful
readers in primary grades and even in the upper grades where reading
is predominantly silent.
Summary
Most of the authors on primary readin g agree that word recog-
nition techniques a nd skills should be taught as early i n the r eading pro-
-] 1 1Roma Gans, "When Should Phon etics Be Taught", Grade Teacher, September, 1956.
12Willia m Edward Dolch , "Te a ching Primary R eading", Illustrator, pp. 17-18, 2 1, 123, 1950.
22 gram as the need arises, provided that the child has sufficient maturity.
Most of them agree on the skills to be taught at the same level and that
these should be learned not by a separate process but fused with the
reading program in an enjoyable way. All think that there is a need for
readiness for phonics as there is in reading; but all do not agree that
introductory training should be emphasized rather than wait for matu-
ration.
Dolch 13 made one statement that 11 all sounding is based upon one
principle, that parts of words which look alike sound alike . '~ This
statement is open to question for a word like bow might mean the ribbon
on a girl's hair or it might mean to bend low to someone. Also has
looks like gas and the ~does not sound the same. Authors in general
say that principles are "usually true" so that a margin of understanding
can be left up to the teacher •
.J 13Edward William Dolch, Teaching Primary Reading, Champaign: The Garrard Press, Chapter XIII, p p . 278-318.
23 CHAPTER III
TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS IN WORD RECOGNITION
Arthur I. Gates 13 in his pamphlet, Teaching Reading, says that
11 superior learners profit by continued guidance in word recognition throughout the elementary grades. Techniques such as simple visual observation and auditory perception combined with phonetic analysis are processes that start with introduction of reading and should not be forgotten at any time. 11 If the skills of word recognition are to be the result of a continuous process of learning, each teacher must know what skills and techniques are to be taught at each level of reading. There should be constant review because newcomers in the grade might not have the foundation of skills. Also much repetition is needed to ensure mastery.
Many teachers with crowded classes and programs have felt a need for a simple handbook or expanded chart that shows the word recognition skills to be taught at each level. Because of this need, the Word Analysis
Chart in the Ginn Basic Readers (see chart) was carefully surveyed, com- pared with oth er reading series, and then expanded under levels and sub- divisions. The same outline has been followed for Auditory Perception,
Visual Discrimination, Coordination of these two, and Phonetic Analysis.
13Arthur I. Gates, 11 What Research Says to the Teacher", Teaching Reading No. !• National Education Association, p!. 15, June, 1953.
24 LEVEL I or READING READINESS
Auditory Perception
First, let us take the Auditory Perception in reading readiness.
At this level, much work is done with listening before there is any
specific trainin g with auditory perception. For example, the children
are taught to listen to animal noises such as "Moo- moo," "Bow-wow,"
"Mew-mew"; then to identify these noises with the animal either by
means of a picture, toy animal, or by film. For further listening ex-
ercises, the location of the sound can be perceived as children close
their eyes as someone makes the sound. Identifying rhymes and rhym-
ing words is helpful. The following is a n example taken from Speech
Is Fun:l4
Solo: Three little kittens put on their mittens To eat their Christmas pie.
Children : M·eow, meow, meow, meow, To eat their Christmas pie.
Visual Discrimination
Second, let us give examples of Visual Discrimination. Recogniz-
ing likenesses and differences of objects is a technique that promotes
reading readiness.
Same ,----·-i Different -~ 1 -~···-~ Ct, [~~ L --.:L.- t,_____..J...... : J 14c. E. Mo~ris and Joan Laufgraben, Speech Is Fun, Sacramento County Society for Crippled Children and Adults, Inc., 2116 - 18th Street, Sacramento, t> . "M".
25 Identifying reversals develops sharp eyes such as: h rl.
Discrimination in observing picture details is helpful:
Configuration of words is probably the most used technique in this level: _//1 11~-JJ c __ a ___in et . Ip f c/ y J Tracing, cutting;,.and drawing are kinesthetic-visual aids that coordinate eye and muscular movement.
_ , / \ f ; I ! •,\,- ' ' . ' ...... " .~
LEVEL II or PRE-PRIMER
Auditory Perception
At Level II, or the pre-primer level, auditory perception consists
of three skills: listening for sounds, iden tifying sounds, and reproducing
sounds.
At this level definite work is done on the following initial consonant
sounds:
·f1 b ball s sing § ii\ ~
~ - - -~ .£ C'-.. ~1/ . ·/ cat f fish \..., ·~ __,.___? ~~')
h !:-=;;; house m mother ~'---· i ~-- J (~-tJ'
26 (;"~~ I l _!.a ugh t table ;~ - ~ ~ p pail w- window €1~ ID
g ///ill/I 11 gate
These sounds can be taught in many ways; for instance, through
spoken or pictured words and in jingles. The preceding exercise illus-
trates the use of spoken words in connection with pictures. The follow-
ing are illustrative jingles: 15
''Moo! Moo! Moo!" mooed the muley cow One Monday morning in May. "Mary, may I have a mug of milk, May I have a mouthful of hay?"
"Pop-pop-pop" says the pop-corn in the pan; 11 Pop-pop-pop you may catch me if you can! 11
Tip-tap-tap your tongue. Tip-tap, the T's will come.
Children should also learn rhymin g words like duck, luck, or did,
lid. They can clap or stand upon hearing rhyming words; also they enjoy
making up simple rhymes.
Visual Discrimination
At Level II, children should be trained to have sharp eyes; for
_J 15Alice L. Wood, The Jingle Book, New York: E. P. Dutton 8t Co., 1954, p . 18. - --
27 instance, to be able to recognize basic vocabulary. @ spoon ~ mother ~
knife e::- .,.,, ..-~-:;; father ~ ~ b:::::::.,- '): ' brush 111t7ilff7-U-f.'jp- yard £!••]
glass ~ train ~ rtV "~ plate @ jump n
Other skills in visual discrimination should include:
Observing capital and small letter forms of the· same word: Mother, mother; Father, father Observing double-letter configuration: ball, little, pretty Discriminating between words easily confused: ~-~, on-no, big-pig Re'cognizing likenesses and differences in words: r~-ran, went want, come-came Recognizing plural forms: cat-cats, car-cars, doll-dolls Kinesthetic-visual activities: word blocking, or framing and tracing.
LEVEL III or PRIMER LEVEL
Auditory Perception
Level I and Level II should be reviewed and also the following new skills are added:
1. Recognizing initial consonants:
\ \ ~( d n~~I \..,\ .__·· "
28 I I, I ~ 1\ · ~ f I I ~ I 1 l p_ .~1.i::4-V..,, ~ ~ /__ -rn=--~ r .... ~~ ,, ~~·~ ...... / " "'~~~; "''' '\\ m / /\' I I J. / ~· / I ( . I
2. Recognizing ending consonants:
l d I I k'~ m @ p_ () n 7;Yjf: -t ) 1'\ ~ 3. Recognizing consonant digraphs: th 66 6 three wh 0 wheel th (soft) the
The digraph WH can be learned with fun by a jingle like the follow
ing from "The Jingle Book" by Alice L. Wood: 16
WH Which and Whether, What and Why Went to call on When and Where; But there were so many questions asked That they never did get there.
Visual Discrimination
At Level III, one should continue to train sharp eyes in recogniz-
ing basic vocabulary words such as am, an, and, are, at, can, go, and
- 1 -- l6Ibid, p'. 29, The Jin gle Book, New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1954. ------
29 jump. Skills from Level II should be reviewed and the following addi- tional skills taught:
Quick recognition of all alphabet letters but not in order Observe compound and hyphenated words: today, good-by, bow-wow Observe verbs endings in ed·: play-played, jump-jumped, skip- -- skipped - - - Practice on word blocking or framing words that belong together: A big dog ran into the yard. The little boy jumped over the ball. (Place hand around the phrase as teacher repeats it.) Tracing over large manuscript writing also trains the eye in discrimination.
Co-ordinating Auditory Perception and Visual Discrimination
Beginning with this level, there can be definite work done on
seeing and hearing the consonants or knowing the sounds of certain letters. No drill is done in isolation on words not associated with read- ing; but observation a nd hearing can be trained as frequent attention is
called to a letter at a time, with constant review. The following initial and ending consonants are to be learned:
Initial consonants: b as in ~aby, ~oy, ~ird, ~lue c as in can, cat, corn, coat -- - d as in dog, do, door,- drum f as in fish, fun,-face, four -- - - £ as in £ate, £0, £ame, £arden h as in house, horse, hurry, hit f as in _!et, _!a ugh, _!ike-:-]unch- m as in man, mother, milk, mouse --- £_ as in _pig, _pan, paint, _put r as in ran, run, rabbit, rain s as in sing, ~it, ~ister, ~ong t as in _!able, _!alk, _!iger, _!o w as in went, we, window, wet.
If pictures accompany each letter as -b in -ball ~'0, __, , visual skills are not only more enjoyable to learn but are remembered more easily in
30 both initial and ending consonants.
Ending consonants.; d as in lid, slid, did - - - .e. as in li2, Fli2 1 whi.e_ k as in stick, lick, sick - t as in hit, sit, hat.
Review digraph wh: where, when, why, what, which, and whether.
Words from reading lessons can be found containing digraph wh such as whistle, whittle, wheel, wheat, and while. Association of the word with meaning always helps to impress whatever is being stressed. Children at this age enjoy drawing and coloring pictures to illustrate a digraph or letter as a drawing of a whistle, wheel, or wheat illustrates wh. At each level more and more attention can be given to rhyming words and making up rhymes.
Phonetic Parts
At Level III no special work is accomplished on vowels as long or short sounds but words can be perceived with similar phonetic parts containing vowels; for example, sing, thing, ring; is, his; other, mother, brother.
Structural Analysis
Attention should be brought to the technique of visual discrimina- tion by observing compound words, plural forms by adding~· and verbs ending in ed.
Methods of Using Word Analysis
Just two technique s are used most often at this leve l: ( 1) Recogniz-
31 ing words alike except initial consonants - day, lay, may, say. (2)
Using context clues to check analysis - The (sun, son) was bright. A
little (bird, boy) was in th e (tree, three).
LEVEL IV or FIRST READER
As each level advances in difficulty, a review of the previous
levels should precede the in troduction of new learnings. To each new
skill and technique much practice in every device must be given.
Auditory Perception
Careful listening a nd attention to sounds enable the pupil to dif- ferentiate between letters. The following initial consonants used in
sight vocabulary w ith known meanings may be taught:
j 0 jar ( J jump t 6 O _!wo I .. k L{-?! kite w ~ i walk I ~ .; I '· ' r--, " \ ./ )TJ y Bi fl yard g 4? girl OOtW gate
Th~re are no new ending consonants to be taught in this level but
carefulness in saying the final letters cann ot be stressed too much. Chil-
dren especially are careless i n dropping the endin g of words so various
techniques can be used to speak clearly the final t, p, d, k, m, or n.
32 Consonant digraphs used in words or sentences help to increase
auditory perception. The previous digraphs th and wh should be re-
viewed in new words as they appear in new stories. Ch is introduced
as a new digraph in familiar words like children, chirp, and cheep.
If sentences can be used from stories or made up, children like to re-
peat them many times. Examples follow: "Cheep-cheep, 11 says the
chicken. "Chug, chug, chug, 11 chugged th e motor ·boat.
Special attention can now be given to the ending of ing. To many
familiar words this ending will increase auditory perception. Noting
this ending on such words as runni n g, jumping, seeing, and looking is
enjoyable for it has a musical tone that pupils enjoy.
Continue to find rhyming words in poems and stories and encour-
age children to compose poetry, for this exercise trains the ears to
listen carefully for sounds that are alike. Words like blue, knew; won,
sun; for, more and others will be learned first by sound, then by sight.
Visual Discriminati on
The p recedin g levels are reviewed according to ( 1) basic vocab-
ulary; (2) words easily confused; (3) likenesses a nd differences ~n
w o rds; (4 ) compound words; (5) letter form s (alp habe t) n ot in order;
(6) capital and small letter forms; (7) plural form by adding~; and (8)
verbs ending i n ed and ing.
Coordinatin g Auditory Perception and V i sual Di scrimin ation
Coordinating mean s both seeing a nd hearing consonants; however,
3 3 it is not advisable to coordinate them in the same words.. More learn- ing will be achieved from varying techniques than from using the same ones all the time. Even though no new initial or ending consonants are taught at this time, the review of previous ones in new ways will give added skill. These initial consonants should be reviewed: b, c, d, f, g, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, and y. Ending consonants such as d, k, m, n, and t can be reconsidered in old words for both hearing and seeing identification. Others can be substituted as the maturity of the children warrants additions.
Review previously learned digraphs by drawing-picture method, as follows:
shine, shut, shot, shout SH -- - ;St( The sun will shine -after the shower. She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
three, throw, through, thick, thin TH;:1~~~ Throw the thistle away.
TH (soft) the, then
when, where, what, why, which, whale, whethe~ while~whirled, whir, wheel - I will wheel- the wheelbarrow- -- whereever you wish. The wheel said.: "Whir,- --whir, whir. " CH ~~~church, cherry, chug, cheep, child, chief ) The children chose the stair for the church. · "ChoO, choo,-11-says the engine. - ~'\:> -- Under the study of consonants, the blends are now introduced. A consonant blend consists of two letters with distinct sounds that mix well.
34 It differs from a digraph where two letters produce a single sound un- like either of them separately. Eight of the common easy ones are studied first. Suggested words are used with each blend but many more can be found frequen tly in reading lessons.
br as in brush, brook, broke, break - - - fr as in -Fred, fry, freak, Eight gr as in gray, green, grip, grin tr as in tree, trim, trip, tray fl as in fly, Flip, flat, flap bl as in blue,blea"'t, black, blow pl as in plum,plow, plume,plug sl as in slat, slim, slug, slate.
Phonetic Parts
At Level III words with similar phonetic parts are perceived.
Besides the review of familiar vocabulary, harder words can be found almost daily where the same letter or two letters are observed. The letter or letters can be noticed in any position in th e word as ~ in
~ouse, so~e, the~; ~as in drum, bump; or it might be the different sound of a vowel by adding final ~as in pin-pin~, cap-cap~.
Thus far at every level, the rhyming of words has been a technique to assist in word recognition. Partly as a review of the other levels and partly as a guide to know what should be accomplished at the end of
Level IV, the following suggestions are given for rhyming endings:
at as in flat, that, slat, blat - -- - ay as in gray, lay, say,- may, pay, way an as in can, tan, ran, man , pan ed as in red, fed, led, bed, sled -- -- ook as in took, -book, look, nook- cl as in get, let, met, net, wet, set
35 ill as in fill, till, pill, hill, mill ow as in cow, bow-wow, bow ow as in bow, so:;, low, slow, flow out as in about, shout-:--spout, stout en as in hen, pen, ten, men, den, when ate as in hate, late, gate, mate, date ox as in box, fox, flo;z- -- ing as in sing, sling, ring, wing og as in hog, tog, egg-nog, flog ound as in--;ound, sound,found other as in mOther, brother, bother, another.
Structural Analysis
At the Primer Level, compound and hyphenated words are recog- nized as a distinct technique; but more and more skill should be acquired as children learn to recognize harder words independently; for example, tomorrow, policeman, sometimesj good-morning, good-by.
In the review of plural forms formed by adding ~· use more new vocabulary words than at previous level. The same practice is advisable for verbs ending in ed and ing. Another skill is changing y_ to 2:_ as in beautiful and berries.
Methods of Using Word Analysis
At Level Ill, two methods are suggested: (1) recognizing words alike except initial consonant like ::iouse, ~ouse; (2) using context clues to check analysis as i n : "Can you (hear, hurry) the bell ring?" These skills should be practiced to increase cornpentency.
Simple prefixes can now be used with understanding as inside, a- round, u ntie, rewin d. Atten tion can be drawn to substituting initial con- sonants as car, far, bar; or substituting the final consonant as in sweep,
36 sweet, or in seen, seem.
The faster children learn to use analogy in attacking new words, the easier it will be for them to work independently and to have the joy of helping others. (This is practice in skill:.. ) Everyday words that are seen or heard in speech, radio, TV, or in reading can be attacked for analogy.. Simple examples are shown here: man-manner, an-than, a nd-hand, money-~key.
Structural analysis is another method used to recognize words.
This method can be constantly correlated with spelling and language as the examples show: hear, hearing, heard; side, inside, outside, side- walk, siding, sideways.
LEVEL V or SECOND READER, LEVEL I
Auditory Perception and Visual Discrimination
Beginning at the second reader level, auditory perception and visual discrimination can be co-ordinated. In other words, special attention can be drawn to either or both types of analysis in the same word; but, if a new letter is being taught, skill should be acquired by using the letter in either visual or auditory separately until it is mas- tered. Review all initial consonants that have been taught but letters like l' .!:• _!, and:!. need extra practice for skill. The new initial con- sonants to be stressed at this level are v a n d z. Eye, ear, a nd hand co-ordination bring enjoyment a nd meaning to these consonants if
37 taught in the followinvanner: / \ , / I V \:J \ / "V-v-v-v-v-v-v, 11 hums the airplane. /"\/~-J Have you a very soft voice? .::} We found violets in the valley.
z n Zzz-zzz-zzz, 11 buzzed the bees: There is a zebra in the zoo.
The Airplane Zoom, zoom, zoom, Hear the airplanes hum. Zoom, zoom, zoom, See how fast they come.
Most writers agree that too prolonged drill on one thing is not as helpful as alternation with practice on another; work on them, then learn something new; spiral back repeatedly for refreshment of memory.
At this level, the letter x is new as a final consonant. Letters previous- ly introduced should be practiced on in new ways, if possible. Again seeing, hearing, and ~rawing make learning enjoyable; so x can be i ntro- duced by this
x wax, mix, ox, box, fox A .;-ax candle is i~ the box. Put the fox in a box. Do not mix the socks.
Double consonants, ending and medial, are found in many vocabu- lary words at th~s level. A game can be made of finding all the double letters in one story, on one page, or in a small library book. Common ones are ball, dress, burr, li_!!le, summer, soon, and cheep.
As a part of auditory perception and visual discrimination, , knowl-
38 edge of consonant blends and digraphs is very important for skill in quick recognition of new words. For variation, a new one may be introduced first, then some old ones may be reviewed. The previous blends to be re-examined are br, fr, bl, and fl. New vocabulary words always make them seem like new blends. The blends to be introduced at this level are listed here·:
as in drink, sink, think, link nk - -- as in creek, crack,- crew, crust er -- - - cl as in -clean, ---cluck, click, clock sn as in ~ow, ~oot, ~ag, snug st as in stick, struck, string, stump.
The digraphs to be reviewed are: sh, ch, th, wh, The new ones to be introduced are:
ck as in chicken, lick, stick, slick, tick ng as in -sing, song,ring, Sling -- kn as in know, kneel, knit, knowledge, knife (children like to call silentk a traffic control)-:-
In the study of consonants variant sounds of one letter are very interesting as in soft and hard sounds of~ and£·
Hard~ sounds like ~as in ~at, ~an, ~andy, ~are Soft c sounds like s as in cent, nice, rice, ice, race, city, fence Hard g sounds like-gas in-game, ground, ga"TI.g, garage Soft g-sounds like j as in gem, giraffe, gei°rtle, g-;rm {children call ~and l cousins):- ----
Phonetic Analysis - Vowels
This is the first introduction to long and short sound of vowels.
' ' /.Ii'' ~,~ · _,__/ii ' Short a as in ant fan - 0 ' bag [JI ~ ,; '/
39 ~as in p~t rdI\ bell web \lJ --Y ~ -- .~ ./ ~---·· / . i as in fish sp_i:n w.2:_ng I ~ . . ~~,_ ~-., , . l '"'·-·- ~ ·-~-..... o as in t~p 0 clock- ~ l~g c~, ~:i - '. rr11 _ >
\ \ I I I ,,~ u as in sun C~:_P bug~ ~t.I
I \ ' \ I I __,. I I I i Long a as in f~ce nail C;: rain fJ I l . ~
_A2 ~ - ... ~ i_ as in pi_e slide mice~;q ~r:;;:~ (f_f) ; - -~ ..- . ~ -___.. · - --==-/-·-1 ... -)··..:.:::. ~\_ ..l o as in coat w rose @ pole T
Digraphs or two vowel letters that sound like one are stressed more at this level, for example:
ee as in sheep, beet, w~k ai as in rain, grain, mountain, again ay as in hay, lay, may, gay, pay, way oa as in boat, moan, float ea as in beat, wheat, sea, tea, flea, seat, seam, team 00 as in book, look, hook, nook.
Simple principles of vowel sounds are brought to the attention of the children, but there is no drill except to match words with the same sound. Examples of this are as follows:
40 Medial vowel short as in b~t, ~n, pi_n, g!t, n_?t, but Silent vowel in digraphs as in rai_n, be~t, co~t Short vowel in two letter words: an, am, i_s, i_t, ~t, on, ~p, and in if vowel comes first.
Phonetic Parts
Besides phonetic analysis involving the study of vowels, there is also consideration of analogous words, phonograms, and rhyming end- ings. Some will be a review but new techniques will also be added.
One important phase of study of analogous words is discrimination of words having very similar parts; for instance, mouse-house, him-his, cent-sent.
The phonograms in the second readers are mostly made up of a combination of a vowel and one or more consonants. The examples below should come to be easily recognized in vocabulary words.
Simple phonograms with a are an, and, ang, all, at, ack, ad, ay 11 11 11 ~are en, ed, em, e~er-:--ear, eep - 11 11 I I • • • k ' 11 • • i • h • ..:_are ive, ~' _1_, -2:£ 1 2:_!, ~, :!_.• mg 11 11 11 o are ought, op, ound II II II ~are ~, up, ump, uch, ut. .
Besides skill in recognizing new words, there should be review through making up new words from rhyming endings. Suggestions for endings at this level are:
en as in ten, men, Ben ick as in sick, pick, slick all as in tall, wall, fall ound as in found, round, around et as in set, met, let ust as in just, rust, must ook as in book, took, look ay as in play, stay,pray ai- as in flat, slat, thai-- ill as in still, will, fill ow as in flow, grow, slow oat as in goat, boat, float un as in gun, bun-;-sun - ump as in bump, jump, stump old as in told, mold, bold op as in stop, shop, flop--
41 ack as in black, sack, pack ight as in night, right, sight out as in about, shout, pout and as in stand, hand, grand og as in frog, flog, agog ear as in fear, hear, nea_r_ ing as in bring, slin g, string ar as in far, car, jar
Structural Analysis
Besides the simple plural form of adding~· teach~ where appro- priate; for example, box~, bush~, dish~ Previous study has been made of verbs ending in ed and ing; but children should learn to drop fin al.=_ before adding ing; for example, mak.=_-making, and skat.=_-skating.
The pupils should continue work on compound a nd hyphenated words and the recognition of new words by using structural analysis. They should also learn the meaning of the suffix er. By this time, the common words ending in~ are recognized but new ones can be learned faster by practice of hearing and seeing words like baker, singer, worker, farm~, and teacher.
Word Analysis
At each level, new techniques and skills are learned as an aid in recognition of basic vocabulary. The teacher should always spiral back to known techniques for practice when the need arises, but she must also assist children in new ways so they can be independent workers. Pupils should now be able to see differences in form and meaning of words by changing initial consonants like i_ell, _!ell; gen, ~en; ~ent, ~ent. More practice can now be given on changing the final consonant as in wet, web; sent, send; can, car.
42 Blending consonants in harder words increases skill; for example,
br as in bring, bright; fr as in frog, fresh; str as in string, strike; cl
as in club, ~ock j gr as in grunt.
Blending word parts gets more difficult at each level. Special holiday words emphasize this technique; for example, Christ, Christmas;
thanks, Thanksgiving; birth, birthday (Lincoln or Washington). Other
words like man-woman and child-children can be found almost daily in new stories.
Analogy and context clues are other methods used more frequently as skill develops and special skill can be acquired in recognizing
similar phonetic elements such as .!._hink, .!._hank; care, careful, careless; arrow, narrow; fellow, follow.
Structural _,analysis is a much practiced skill in recognizing words and meanings in outside basic vocabulary; for example, scare, scaring,
scared; fair, fairer, fairest; sat, satin, satisfy; happy, happiness, un- happy.
LEVEL VI or SECOND READER, LEVEL II
Co-ordinating Auditory Perception and Visual Discrimination
No special periods of time are spent on auditory and visual dis-
crimination, but attention is incidentally called to either as there is need in learning new words. At this period all the consonants and vowels should be familiar in initial, medial, or final positions, yet
43 practice should be continued to aid memory and fix habits, skills, and techniques. Two letters ~and:!. may need extra practice. Double con-
sonants in words are found more frequently in this level than in previous
ones and attention can be given to them in the stories.
Consonant blends are always an aid in quick recognition. The necessary review may be motivated by using new words. Practice can be given in different ways; for instance, taking one consonant and using it in many words as E_ blends found in £:eak, bring, crate and l blends found in J:!eat, !!-ing, ~ug, <:].ear. Special drill can be given those blends
not found so frequently in other levels such as:
qu as in queen, quiet, quail, quart (Mr. Q and Mrs. U, he never -goes without his wife"l" - sc as in scream, scat, scrub, scab - - - st as in stream, strike, star, -stretch - - - - nk as in drink, sink, plank, spank.
There will be no new consonant digraphs in t h is level but the di-
graphs wh, kn, ck, and ng need additional practice in basic vocabulary
words. The variant sounds of ~and f also need more application so as
to facilitate quick recognition.
Phonetic Analysis - Vowels
There should be frequent reviews and tests on t h e short sound of
vowels, as well as the short sound of x_ as found in penny, baby, and
an_y. In Level V the long sound of the vowels of a, e, and i were taught;
now skill should be practiced in long e and u, then y as if often takes the - - place of a vowel. Examples in this area include:
44 long~ as in h~te, r~in, d~y long u as in use, cute, blue long I as in 'C"rr., try, frr.- (similar to long i).
Pictures, flash cards (children love to make their own), and games can bring practice in changing short vowels to long by adding final silent e. "If the boy friend_=- comes to see the vowel and is stand- ing on the back doorstep, the vowel is told to say its own name." (See games for all levels in Chapter IV). Examples are: bit, bite; man, mane; not, notei cut, cute.
It is possible either to teach the new digraphs of ui and short and long oo first, then spiral back for review of previous digraphs, or to review first with new words . The new digraphs are:
ui as in quick, quiet, quite, quince oo (short) as in book, .;ood, Stood, wool oo (long) as in room, too, roof, tool.
Opposite to the meaning of digraph where two letters combine to form one speech sound is t hat of the diphthong wherein the sound of two letters changes from one letter to another in the same word. The first introduction to diphthongs comes at this level, though the children al- ready know many words containing them. Just four are studied here:
ow as i n low, slow, sow OW and OUas theysound alike in p low, loud, count ew as i n few, chew, new aw as in straw, gnaw,flaw.
Charts of vowel differences are now useful, for children are mature enough to understand them a nd can check independ ently for
45 recognition techniques. These are some of the variant sounds of vowels:. a before 1 and r, a after wand in aw; i and o before r. A few suggestions follow:
a before 1 as in tall, walk, chalk a before r as in star, are, arithmetic a after was in water, warm, wagon ~in aw as in saw, awning, ~-1- i before r as in stir, chirp, circus, sir o before r as in for, store, more, sore .
Principles governing vowel sounds may now be introduced since the pupils have mastered so m any individual sounds. Examples, if always at hand on charts, will lend meaning and give a sense of security to those who work independently. Five principles can be stated simply and illus- trated as follows:
1. Medial vowels are short: not, bran, hit, nut, let - -- - 2. Medial v owel is long if there is a final ~: m~de, m_!le, bale 3. Usually the second letter in a vowel digraph is silent: m a_!n, beak, steam 4. Vowels are long in a two-letter word if they follow the consona~t: my, g~, b~ 5. Vowels governed by.:'.. take a slurring sound before r: cure, error.
Structural Analysis
The structural-analysis skills of making new compound words, adding prefixes and suffixes, changing_y to_! before adding~· adding v erb variants such as e d or ing are much used in daily practice in spell- ing, language, and reading. Only through persistent practice can pupils gain a rich reward in structural analysis. · In addition to p r evious ex- a m ple s, few on a higher l evel are given here:
46 Compound words: bumblebee, butterflies, gentlemen, candlelight Prefix: like-dislike, happy-unhappy, tie-retie, venture-adventure Suffix: cheer-cheerful, drip-dripping, trot-trotted, beat-beaten, boy-boyish, air-airy, day-daily, love-lovable,shut-shutter Plural form: review Of s and es but also practice on changing y to i and adding es: berries, fairies, flies, lies - c;-ntractions: ooe letteromission to be practiced at first: 'tis' we're, they're, isn't.
Methods of Using Word Analysis
There is an overlapping in structural analysis, word analysis, and consonant and vowel studies. A review of methods used in Level II, sec- ond reader, may be helpful as a standard for acquiring skills. The fol- lowing four ways of word analysis should be reviewed:
1. Blending: making new words by prefixing consonants and short vowel phonograms as in an, ran, ~· sl~; at, blat; tie, untie; cross, across 2. Recognizing analogous words as in well, dwell; father, farther; steam, stream 3. Structural- analysis:-- rarn, tramp, tramping; man, manners; pat, pattern; glad, gladness ------4. Applying phonetic attack to new words of a lesson: The boy cut his arm and it . . . . . a great deal. (bed, bless, bled, lend) A bottle with nothing in it is ...... (empty, enter, plenty, enjoy).
LEVEL VII or THIRD GRADE, LEVEL I
Co-ordinating Auditory Perception and Visual Discrimination
Since Second Reade.r ,, L.evel l these two types of word recognition have been co-ordinated. Level VII is very important in that pupils are expected to acquire skills and techniques already taught and also to rec- ognize new ones. All single and double consonants, two-letter consonant
47 blends and digraphs, and variant sounds of letters .are practiced. In addition to previously introduced skills, the common three-letter blends should be taught. These are:
str as in struck, string, strike, stream spr as in spread, spring, sprung, spry thr as in throw, three, thrash, through.
Silent letters in consonant digraphs are found frequently at this level especially gh as in ghost, kn as in knee, knead, and knight. In addition, the following should be taught:
Variant sounds of cks and x are observed in words like: chick, click, sick Soft~ as in ~enter, ~ity, i~e, gro~er; hard~ (k) as in ~ottage, curl, creep Soft£ (j}as in £em, £entle, £ypsy, ma£iCi hard£ as in a£e, £in~er, £0·
Phonetic Analysis
With the constant moving about these days, children are fortunate to be in the same school even through primary grades. Even if they are in the same school, teachers usually change with each grade. Some are good teachers of phonetic techniques while others teach ineffectively or do not teach it at all. Beginning with this last level in primary school, it is very important that each child have a thorough review of the teeh- niques that should have been taught in the previous levels. Some pupils may not have been mature enough to understand phonics before; so they now have a second chance. Below is listed a summary of skills in vowels and phonetic parts that should be acquired by the pupils.
Vowel summary: review long and short sound of vowels, y_ included.
48 Diphthongs and digraphs:
oo as in food, moon, smooth (long); look, foot (short) ai as in rain, bait, raid, fail - - - - ea as in beat, mean, bead ee as in feet, peep - oa as in float, soap ou as in ought, pouch, round ow as in row, slow, flow; bow, mow, now (same as ou) ew as in few, sl~, blew (long u) oi as in toil, joiil; spoil:- rejoice ox as in box, oxen, flox - re as in sieve;siege; quiet (each different) ea as in reach, Str~m,-meat (long); read, bread, spread (short) ei as in sleigh, neigh, sleight
Variant sounds:
~as in ~ir, fl~re; ~sk, ~pple, aroundi all, fall, tall; was, cause, c~r (au) e as in her, herd, herb ;a as in ~ean-:- peat,-wheat (long)i feather, head, great (short) ei as in weigh, vein, sleigh (long a) ew as in flew, knew, slew (long u) - ---'-- ie as in field, tie, shield (long e) ~as in feet, seed, green . . i as in sit, grip, minute (short); sight, pine, gripe (long) ~as in ~~n , .;~rk, -wc::ry (short u); b~at-:- soap {iong); ~n, not (short); or, for u as in rul;, J~e, junior (long); up, nut (short) y_ as in y_;s, y_et, y_octh (beginning); sky_~ my_ (same as long i).
Also under phonetic analysis there should be a review of old prin- ciples and the addition of new principles governing differences:.
1. Short sound of medial vowel - Usually short in.closed syllables (ending with consonant) as in hot Usually short except when modified by position as in moan One vowel in a word followed by a consonant as in am - Stressed vowel followed by one or more consonants as in belong (In the English language, the short vowel predominates). -
2. Medial vowel lengthened by final~ - In a short word ending with a final silent e, the medial vowel is long as in h~pe, g2:_ve, some
49 Exceptions are: g~e, done, some.
3. Double vowels or digraphs - First vowel usually long, the second one is silent as in beat, and main. Exceptions are: field, great feather Double vowels are sometimes short as in took, book.
4. Vowels governed by_.::: - If .::_is preceded by a vowel, it is called a "murmur diphthong" or it stutters as in h~r, f::_r, s~r.
5. Syllables - In open accented syllables the vowel is usually long as in acorn Single vowel in a word or a syllable not ending with a consonant is usually long as in t~, m~, ns: In a stressed syllable not ending in a consonant, a vowel is usually long as in agre~, avenue.
Structural Analysis
At each level, structural analysis can be a more highly developed skill for there are always new vocabulary words which call for added practice and new techniques, such as new compound and hyphenated words like half-faced, high-up, and homespun. Beginning with third grade, di- vision of words into syllables is a new and interesting technique. In read- ers, words with one, two, three, or four syllables provide games such as a hunt for words with a given syllable. One syllable words like work or time are so numerous that they are understood quickly and even two-syl- lable words like to/day and wo/man soon lose their appeal for a hunting game. Three- and four-syllable words are harder to find so they are more fun in a competitive hunt. Examples of three syllables are: yes/- ter/day, for/give/ness; four syllables: ev/er/y/where, e/vap/or/ate.
Besides the regular plural endings of s and es and the change of y_
50 to _i_ and adding es, a new form of derivative by changing_! to ~and
adding es is now practiced; for example, knife-knives and w~e-wives.
Review is given to verb variants of adding ed and ing. Children now
learn verb forms that involve changing y_ to i_ and adding ~or ed as in
fry_, fries, fried; cry_, cries, cried; hurry_, hurries, hurried.
Further structural analysis involves the study of prefixes and
suffixes. In the spiral of learning to fix i n the mind all the techniques
and skills, it is necessary .to review by utilizing old learnings as intro-
duction or by reverting to it as a related new skill is practiced. Some
of the following suffixes and prefixes will be review. Whether old or
new, the following elements need to be mastered at this level:
Suffixes: y_ as in man, man_y; fun, funn_y; fuzz, fuzz_y; shine, shiny_; sleep, sleepy ly as in soft, softly; bright, brightly self as in himself-,-herself, itself - ~- -~ ~- -~ ~and est as in cold, colder, coldest; big, bigger, biggest en as in soften, widen, lighten, darken (en, y, self are syllabic unitsor they add another syllable).
Prefixes: new ones are a and be as syllabic units as in ai round, and be / hind-:-
At Level VI, contractions were studies with one letter omitted but
now two or more letters can be omitted; for example, I've , I'll, you'll,
and we've. Alphabetizing is another technique in structural analysis.
Arrangement according to first, second, and third steps can be practiced.
New vocabulary words can easily be arranged according to the alphabetical
51 order of the initial letter of each word. Then the second letter is con- sulted in further arrangement. Upon mastery of this step, the pupils may gradually learn to consult the third letter. Syllabication may be divided into two definite steps:
1. Compound words beginning with be, a, al and words ending with en, y, le; for example, be/for~ a/head, al/ready; flat/ten, news/box_, auto/mobile
2. Dividing words into syllables and dividing words with double me dial lettersi for example, po/lite, read/y, for I get/ful; lit/tle, su':.J'::....ess, bi~/~er. ------
Methods of Using Word Analysis
At this stage, pupils should review all the techniques and skills developed in this level. Methods and examples are listed below:
Blending: using blends like fr as in friends, sc as in scream, and nk as in blank
Using analogy: finding words that look alike as shin and skin; find and fine; hand and hang
Using context clues: The flower pot was (grass, green).
Using phonograms to help unlock new words: ang, hang; ear, dear; ick, sick; ought, fought; ump, thump
Finding derived words: changing the vowel as in write-wrote a nd r~n-r~n ; taking off prefixes and suffixes as view from review and sit from sitting
Unlocking new words when told the sound of the vowel: polite - o (long}, ~ (long}, .:_ (silent) -- --
Applying principle of medial vowel to new word: usually short as in mad, mud, did, and not
Unlocking new one syllable words when not told the vowel sound: either by thinking of a similar word or finding a small word in
52 the bigger one, or saying it different ways and choosing the best as in match, clock, and cause
Naming vowel sounds in syllables: e/ven/ing - long e, short e, and short i; kit/ten - short i, and shorte
Pronouncing new words by identifying vowel sounds in syllables: a as in arm will help in pronouncing farm/er
a aS in far II ll II I I far /ther e as in her II 11 II II both farmer and farther
Dividing words into syllables: el/ e /va/tors, Jan/u/ar /y, and el/_=./phant ------
Applying phonetic attack to new words of lesson and story mate rial outside vocabulary: Christmas - ch has sound of k, short i, t silent, a like i n along (kris /mas).-
LEVEL VIII or THIRD GRADE, LEVEL II
Co-ordinating Auditory Perception and Visual Discrimination
This level involves a continuation of all techniques and the main- tenance of them along with the introduction of any new ones that are n eeded. Perhaps more work should be done on the consonant blends and digraphs than on single consonants and vowels for the latter elements are supposed to have been mastered before Level VIII. The following previously introduced three letter blends are practiced:
spr as in spring, spread, sprawl ~ as in scratch, ~ubbing, scream, scrape thr as in threw, thrown, threat, throat
These n ew ones are t:o be taught:
str as in straigh t, street, stream, strike chr as in Christmas, chrome, christen --s pl as in splash,- - split,-- splint, --splendid
53 There are no new digraphs for Level VIII but new words are al- ways being found in stories so as to provide a .constant review of the old ones. Review ch, th, sh, wh; ch as~ in chrysalis. Silent letters are frequently found in vocabulary and spelling words so there is a continuous need for identifying them. A list of words with silent letters is as follows:
w as in wreath, wreck, wren, wring, write (before r) k as in k-;_ow, kneel, knead, knew (befure n) b as in lamb, plumb, -climb {preceded by ~; debt, doubt (before t) c as in sce~e, scerrt, muscle ------E. as in psalm, ptomain (followed by s or t) ~ as in gnaw, gnash (before n. - initial); sign, phle~m (before m and n-= final) - - gh as in sigh, caught, tight (after a vowel) las in could, cal~ walk k as in know, krrlfe, knee s as in isle, island, islet - -- t as i n often, listen, doubt.
Principles governing a few consonant sounds are:
5:. followed by ~· i , or 'l.! has the same sound as ~ - 5:.ider, ~ypher, 5:.ity, 5:.ent ~followed by ~· i, or X has the same sound as l - ~em, gist, gyspy s and z sound alike in is, puzzle, discern, zeal ed souii°ds like t in asked, flunked, stopped, dropped.
Phonetic Analysis - Vowels
This type of analysis is a part of visual and auditory discrimination, as is also the rather uncomplicated study of the consonant sounds. The vowels and vowel digraphs, which are also included, have many more sounds and principles governing them. The study of the various vowel sounds is necessarily a continuous process to be studied into the high
54 school years. There follows a list of elements to be considered at
Level VIII (and thereafter).
Review all the long and short sounds in syllables Review all the diphthongs and digraphs Review all the variant sounds of vowels and sounds that are in dicated: a as in pale, paid, freight, prey, great (long aj ~ as in h~t, p~d, fan,sh~ll (short) - . a as in ~sk, gl~ss, c~sp ~ as in ~ll, talk, ~uthor, ~we, fought, f~rm ~ as in f~r, ~lms, f~ther, h~lf, l~ugh, ~h ----a as in hair, fare, bear, their,- where- a as in above, di~mond, sof~, ~part e as in me, machine, meat, sweet, bier -- -- - ~ as in m~, berry, t.:_rrible, b~ry e as in her, earn, bird, firm - - - - - ~as in m2_te, m~ne, m~ght, mr_ i as in mitt, him, did, division ~ as in go, h~ld, c~al, sno-;, o as in not, comma, was, what - - - - - o as in wolf, woman, book, would 0 as in move, too, food:- rule,-rude - - - - u as in mute,- union, - stew, your ~ as in h~t, s~"ti, h~ry:-r~stiC, ~n~n.
There are variant vowel sounds in words that sound alike but look different as in the following; pair, pearj bare, bearj dear, deer; hear, here; seem, seam; wear, ware.
Children at this level can hear rhymes, see visual differences and make up poetry of their own. Their visual perception is keen and the appreciation of poetry enriches hearing of endings which rhyme though looking quite different. Notice the endings of this poem:
December Thanks I thank you for December, And for each bird that comes To eat where I have scattered The wheat seeds and the crumbs.
55 There are no new principles governing vowel differences taught at Level VIII, but pupils need practice on all the principles stated in
Level VII. New words give occasion for the children1 s use of these principles. Many techniques will be reviewed as children are asked
which principles they have used; for instance, airman - air was rec-
ognized from science reading and man was a known word. Another
example is streetcar. The child recalled str was in string, usually
double vowels are long, the word~ was known; so a compound word
was recognized and pronounced correctly.
Phonetic Parts
After much practice on consonants, vowel sounds, digraphs, diphthongs, prefixes, and suffixes, pupils can acquire facility and accuracy in:
Recognizing familiar phonetic parts in new words: handful, chuckling, garden~
Utilizing phon ograms: ar, er, ir, or, ur or vowels controlled by E.. - c~r, h.=_r, ~r, fur,bui;andmiscellaneous phonograms, such as ump, ee, .=.:_, ight, old, etc.
Using phonograms along with blends and diphthongs to unlock new words, such as blight - bl as in black, ight as in light, foil - oi as i n oil.
Also under phonetic analysis is the continued study of syllabic divisions of words. As dictionary practice continues, attention can b.e more a nd more focused on syllables as shown in the dictionary. At this leve l, the following principles should become quite familiar though
56 future use and practice will almost surely be essential.
1. When a word has more than one vowel sound or diphthong, it is broken into parts called syllables; for example, vi/ o/let, bro/ken, hop/ping, loi/ter.
2. In identifying vowel sounds of syllables, pupils must discriminate between long or short vowels in open and closed syllables. The vowel is short before a consonant in single syllable words such as am, at, in; and long if vowel follows consonant as in i_:::, go, my (sound of long i_). Closed syllable usually has a short vowel as in nut, hot, pan, bin, get.
3. In the case of final syllables with le, words ending in le after a consonant usually include the c0nsonant in the last syllable as in lit/tle; when words end in le after a consonant other than l or r, thele is not allowed to stand alone in the last syllable asin cir/cl~ a/ble, ta/ble.
4. When ed is a separate syllable, it is preceded by d or t as in pos_!_Ted, iacJJ ed, roas_!_/ ed. --
5. In the phonetic pronunciation of syllables with two medial consonants, the syllables are divided between consonants, as in mis/take.
Structural Analysis
Most of the techniques used in this level have been used before but
the applications have i n creased a little in difficulty. So that the reader
need not look back over the previously introduced techn iques, the review
items are listed here also there are a few new items.
1. Making new compound a nd hyphenated words such as everytime, everybody, grasshopper, mid-air, good-night, twenty-one a n d one-hundred.
2. Review plural forms of s, es, changing y to i and adding es, chang ing.!. to::!. and adding es, Sometimes addin g en after x; for ex ample, books, dishes, berries, wives and oxen. - - 3. Verb variants: dropping.=_ as in paring; doubling consonant before ed as in droppedi doubling consonant before ing as in sunning;
57 adding ~ or .=:: as in like~ or blacken.
4. Suffixes: ly-sweetly, ful-fearful, y-sleepy, self-yourself, selves themsel;es, er-singer, est-brightest, fess-nevertheless; doubling consonant before y_ as in fun-funny.
5. Prefixes: un-unlatch, ex-exhale, ~-~like, al-always, be-behind.
6. Contractions and possessives: use according to words found in the stories.
7. Alphabetizin g according to first, second, and third letters.
8. Syllabication: recall of principles of structure, compound and hyphenated words, dividing words into syllables.
Methods of Using Word Analysis
Because this is a review of previous levels, the techniques will be listed without examples. These methods are just a beginning, and
upper grades must continue instruction on all such elements as these
that are mentioned below:
1. Using recognition of digraphs and blends in word analysis
2. Using context clues to check word analysis
3. Using analogy to attack new words
4. Recognizing phonograms as a help in pronouncing unfamiliar words
5. Recognizing stem words in word variants
6. Developing readiness for dictionary usuage: Alphabetizin g: arranging words in alphabetical order; making a simple glossary Syllabication: dividing words into syllables; using the accent marks as an aid to pronunication.
58 CHAPTER IV
FUN IN PHONICS, RHYMES, AND GAMES
Most of children's learning of word recognition techniques will be learned through actual analysis as new words are met in reading situations. However, there can be much practice in games, rhymes, a nd fun exercises. Children learn easily a nd remember well anything that is pleasurable. Moreover, if the teacher once gives suggestions for game s or rhymes, children think up others. There can be accom plished much creative work that provides for variation and interest.
The following pages contain various suggestions of word games and rhymes which can be varied and supplemen ted as desired. For instance, art, sin ging, and music as well as poetry can be coordin ated with word-analysis techniques and skills. Most children enjoy the feelin g of rhythm; so acting out the sound while sayin g a letter, word, or r hy m e gives enrichm ent. For example, wh e n a child hears the "mad cat" sound of..!_, he can play he is a mad cat and make the sound. Or if the airplan e sound of~ is heard, the arms or body can sweep sideways and up to illustrate the movement of the plan e.
In the world about us, there are many sounds of animals, birds, moving things, and household equipment that can be imitated for fun while i ncreasing auditory p e rception. At ev e ry level of reading, ale rtne s s and perceptiveness in listening can be stimulated. Especially at the
59 lower levels, such listening helps the child to distinguish sounds which he may associate with the symbols he sees. Out of such experiences does independence in reading grow. There follows suggestions for many familiar sounds heard in the every-day world in which we live. We might call them Fun in Phonics.
1. B Big bells say, 11 Bing-bong, bin g-bon g." Carpet sweepers say, 11 Brrrrrrrr, brrrrrrrr, 11 Dogs say, "Bow-wow, bow-wow." Faucets say, "Bleep, bloop; bleep, bloop. 11 Goats say, 11 Baw, baw, baw. 11 Saws say, "Buzz-a-wuzz, buzz-a-wuzz. 11 Sheep say, 11 Baa, baa, baa,"
2. c Crows say, "Caw, caw, caw. 11 Mother hen says, "Cluck, cluck, cluck. 11 Pigeons say, "Coo, coo, coo. 11 Trains say, "Click-e-ty, clack, click-e-ty, clack. 11
3. CH Engines say, 11 Ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch. 11 Robins say, "Chirp, chirp, chirp, chirp." Trains say, 11 Choo-ka, choo-ka, choo- ka."
4. D Baby says, "Da, da, da, da. 11 Medium sized bells say, 11 Ding, dong, ding, dong. 11 The refrigerator goes, "Dottle, dottle, dottle. 11
5. F Angry cats say, "Fff, £££, fff."
6. G Mother pig says, 11 Grunt, grunt, grunt. " Turkeys say, "Gobble, gobble, gobble." Water coming out of a bottle goes, "Gurgle, gurgle, gurgle."
7. H Big horns say, "Honk, honk, honk. 11 Donkeys say, "Hew-haw, hew-haw. 11
8. J Little bells say, "Jingle, jingle, jingle."
9. L Telephone poles say, "Lll, lll, lll."
10. M Baby says, "Ma, ma, ma, ma. 11
60 Cows say, "Moo, moo, moo." Kitten s say, "Mew, mew, mew. 11 Lambs say, "Maa, maa, maa."
11. N Calves say, "Nnn, nnn, nnn. 11
12. p Baby chicks say, "Peep, peep, peep. 11 Happy cats say, "Prr, prr, prr. 11 Motor boats go, "Put, put, put. 11 Rain goes, "Pitter, patter, pitter, patter."
13. Q Ducks say, "Quack, quack, quack."
14. R Angry dogs say, "Rrr, rrr, rrr, rrr. 11 Drums go, "Rat-ta-ta-tat, rat-ta-ta-tat." Lawn mowers go, "Ric-a-tic-a-tic, ric-a-tic-a-tic."
15. s Baby pigs say, "Squeal, squeal, squeal." Snakes say, "Sss, sss, sss." Wind shield wipers go, "Swish, swish, swish. 11
16. T Clocks say, 11 Tick-tock, tick-tock. 11 Horns say, 11 Too, too, too." Train whistles say, "Too-0-0-0-0-0."
17. TH Geese say, "Th, th, th, th. 11
18. V Airplanes go, "VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV."
19. W The wind goes, "Wooooo, wooooo, wooooo."
RHYMES
Alice L. Wood in The Jingle Book l 7 presents many rhymes to
increase auditory perception for consonants. These can be used at all
levels of reading. As far as possible, these rhymes will be written
4 17Alice L. Wood, The Jingle Book, New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1954, pp·. 13 - 142-:-
61 according to the alphabet and not according to the level of teaching. A few of her jingles are given here to illustrate how sounds can be com- bined, sounds can be made by certain organs of speech, and sounds can be imitated by things.
B b ar·e called the 11 Busy Lip Sounds. 11
Bumblebee Big, brown bear and a bumblebee Both beneath a butternut tree. 11 Buzz I" boomed the bee, 1 'There my breakfast goes." 11 Boof, 11 barked the bear, 11 What bit my nose? 11 ( p. 30)
CH ch Engine Sounds
11 Chee, chee, chee, 11 sang the chick-a-dee, "Choo, choo, choo ! 11 said the train. The train went chug, chug, up the track And the chick-a-dee sang again. (p. 110}
F f F and V are called the "Angry Cat Sounds11
v v
It sniffs and snuffs, and snorts and puffs The reindeer on the roof. And happy Riford laughs to hear The stamping of a hoof.
Fee, foe, fie, fair I Forty geese up in the air; And all know how to write. Full five hundred feet from me, See they form the lette r V What a pretty sight. (p. 46)
62 G ~ Q_ and K are called sounds that "Caught Cold" or
K k "Away down in the Throat" sounds.
Cocoa Cocoa, cocoa, 11 Gug, gug, gug I 11 A cup for cocoa bring, Said the old brown jug. Cookies, cake, or c ocoa "Go get my mug, I cook for a king. (p. 13) Here's good cold water, Gug, gug, gug." (p. 140)
H h The Tired Sound
"Ho! Ho! Ho!" roared Father; "Ha I Ha! Ha I" laughed Mack. "Hoo! Hoo! Hoo 111 hooted the Owlie; "Hee-haw! Hee!" brayed Jack. (p. 142)
L 1 is called the sound of "Drilling".
Lovely little yellow lilies, Leaning low alon g the lake, Laughi ng lightly at the lilies Which the lilti ng water make. (p. 148)
M m These letters are called the "Singing Sounds" .
N n " Moo! Moo! Moo!" mooed th e muley cow One Monday morn ing in May. NG ng "Mary, may I have a mug of milk, May I have a mouthful of hay?" (p. 18)
p p Popcorn Posies Hop, hop, hop I Watch the popcorn pop In to pure white posies Then stop, stop, stop. (p. 34)
R r i s c a lle d the growly soun d.
63 Run, rat, run I Race to the rack. Eat all the red corn And run right back. (p. 26)
Johnny Jump-up Join the jaunty Johnny Jump-up In their joyful dance of spring. They are just jolly fellows Whom June and magic bring. (p. 113) s s Steamy Sounds z z Then sing the song the sailor sang Then sing the song of the sea; Of the salt, the sand, and the silver sail Which the seaman had sung to. me. (p. 69)
Pretty zebra at the zoo, What do you do in zero weather? In our cold zone, you well may own An overcoat of leather. (p. 80)
SH sh Hush-a-by Sounds
ZH zh Sea shells, sea shells Every shape and shade. Many shining ships of pearl On sandy shores are laid. (p. 108)
TH th Windy Sounds
Thump! Thump I Thump! Thumpity, thumpity, thump I TH (soft) Thin Thelma Thayer fell down the stair. Thumpity, thumpity, thump. (p. 50)
Birds of a Feather Said the bat to the owl, "Here am I without a feather.
64 If you'll give me part of yours We'll be birds together. '' (p. 58)
T t Tongue-Tipping Sounds or Tongue Tap Dances
D d Too Soon I put on my coat and hat And rush out of my gate, An auto splashed in front of me - I wished I had been late. (p. 62)
w w The Windy Sounds
WH Which and Whether, What and Why, Went to call on When and Where; But there were so many questions asked That they n ever did get there. (p. 39)
y y Squeaky Mouse Sound
"Yoo, yoo, yoo, yoo," Yesterday the wind howled hard; "Ye- owl, ye-owl, ye-owl, ye-owl," Yesternight came from our back yard. (p. 44)
!!:1 E, _!_, Q_, U are called the Vowel Rhyme Letters.
" We're the merry mou lde rs---- The lips, th e tongue, th e jaw. We can't be stiff as boulders When we shftpe our "ah, ees ) aw." (p. 147)
65 GAMES
Garnes offer both visual and auditory perception. They can be
used for board or seat work, and many are useful as action games for
changing positions.
Durrell and Sullivan in Building Word Power 18 give many sug-
gestive games. A few of them are used in this study. These can be
varied or new ones may be created from these suggestions.
1. Clock type game. Place letters of words around the clock instead
of figures and let children name words with the beginning letters.
Words can be used and pronounced. Change letters or words
often. Scores can be kept for perfect work.
/VICJp ~ ~e Co :;'G)A. S...-t:: qt}" i..; j f ('-,.> !JC - ~fi h~ J · ~ :J Lt:.· e
2. Sleigh ride. Scores can be given for number of words or letters
known in climbing the hill.
3. Clapping game. Have a list of words on the board with the initial
letters the same except for one or two. Pronounce words and,
J l8Durre ll and Sullivan , Buildi ng Word Powe r, New York: World Book Company, Yonkers on Hudson, 1945.
66 if the letter is the same, the children clap; if it is not the same,
they do not clap. This game is very helpful for auditory and
visual discrimination.
flower four one
feet five fun
seat fan flat
4. Ball game. Rhyme a word with each bas.e word and see if a home
run can be made.
tip bed
5. Ladder climbing. Make a ladder and write words on it. Practice
going up and down with new words used in a story or review of old
ones.
dinner
forenoon
yesterday
brother
6. Tachistoscopic Devices. Any picture that a child has drawn and
mounted· on cardboard can be used. Cut two slots two inches long
and three-eighths of an inch apart. Words to be learned should
be put on strips of oaktag two inches wide. Put word in slit and
pull it through as the child says it, then give the word to him if it
67 is right. Visual discrimination can be encouraged by this game.
7. The talking Indian game. Paste on cardboard an Indian picture
with a slit close to his mouth through which words can be pulled.
This activity increases visual perception.
8. Word Match 0. The same word is printed on two cards and one
is cut up in letters. When the leader calls for a word the child
must take the letters from his envelope and place them on the other
card as quickly as he can. If solid words are on one large card,
the child who fills one row can win the game, Many variations
of skills can be practiced with this game.
9. Fishing game. Paste pictures of fish on cardboard, then place a
word on the back. Put fish in a large box with a paper clip in his
mouth and have children fish out a word with a small magnet. If
the word is known, the fish is kept; but, if it is not known, the fish
is thrown back in the "pond".
10. Word picture hunt. Take a word like sing and match pictures with
the word of everything that sings such as birds, boys, girls, man,
woman, brook.
11. Picking fruit. A tree filled with fruit (letters or words) can be on
the board or on cardboard. The fruit is picked off if the letter or
word called for can be recognized. Competition can stimulate
the child to become a successful fruit picker.
68 12. Word whee1!9 i. Make a list of the words you want the child to
learn. Mix in enough simple words to make sentences. 2. From
your list, print or type out six-word sentences on strips of paper
or cards, with one sentence to a card. Have enough sentences to
make use of all the words in th e list at least once. "My car is
blue and yellow" or "Father said to play ball here." 3. Put the
cards aside. 4. Now draw a large circle on a p i ece of cardboard.
Inside the large circle, draw two smaller ones. 5. Draw radiating
lin es from the center. Draw as many lines as you need for your
list of words. You can use each word several times. 6. In each
space print a word. 7. Cut an arrow from cardboard and attach
it with the straight pin to the center of the wheel then ben d the pin
back against the cardboard and fasten with tape.
~~ -
r\O.,,, _, ;·J ,...... __ ./,/ ---{. •). .
j
J 19H e l en Barnhill, "Fun with Words" , E v erywom a n ' s Chil dren, September 1956, pp' . 3 1, 69.
69 CHAPTER V
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
In Chapter I we stated the purpose of this study to be ( 1) to pre pare a summary and chart on skills and word recognition for primary reading, (2) to organize the materials according to the eight levels of reading in the first three grades, and (3) to carry out a personal proj ect of offering the study as a help to the Robla School District primary teachers.
While the entire series of manuals and workbooks for the Ginn
Series of readers proved to give an adequate program of word recog nition, the survey of several other sources gave considerable supple mentation on word recognition. There were, for instance, many helps received from the Learning to Read, Developmental, and Reading for
Living Series. Spelling books and Phonetic Fun books as well as the dictionary were also helpful for supplementation on word recognition.
Many authors, experienced teachers, and the writer's own personal experience over a period of about thirty years in classroom teaching and in private tutoring have contributed to our belief that a work of this kind was necessary and could be very useful if condensed and simple enough to be easily put into daily practice.
Nearly every manual has an evaluation chart for word-recognition techniques to accompany the corresponding readers which should be
70 followed. However, in one simple chart which covers all the first three grades, The Word Analysis Program i~ the Ginn Basic Readers -
Grades One through Three is found a good guide for all levels'.
Chapter II consists of a survey of instructional materials for word recognition and analysis from seven books and two publications.
Chapters III and IV cover in detail the program for all reading through the third grade. Auditory perception and visucal discrimination are treated at the Reading Readiness, Pre-Primer, Primer, and First
Reade r Levels. From the Primer Level through the First Reader,
Second Reader Levels I and II, and the Third Reader Levels I and II, the auditory perception and the visual discrimination are co-ordinated wherever possible. This is done in the study of consonants, vowels, and phonetic combinations. Simple work is outlined for structural analysis and methods of using word analysis in Level III or Primer
Level; the difficulty of exercises gradually increased at each successive level.
By consulting the chart in the summary of this study, a teacher can recognize at a glance the goal set for each level and easily check on the work attempted by previous teachers or that to be attempted by teachers in the higher grades. In private teaching, a teacher who has a broad knowledge of the principles to be attained, can determine to what level a child has progressed, in which items he is weak, and to which elements to give first attention.
71 Rhymes, games, and fun exercises are very valuable in teaching
skills and word recognition. Those that are included in this study are
merely suggestive of a richer and more illustrative technique.
One result of the study was the diet:erminatfon. of principles under-
lying word analysis. These principles have been validated by com-
parison with those suggested by Emmett Albert Betts in Foundations of
R ea ding. I nstructlon.. 20 There are other rules and principles for inter-
mediate grades but these are the simple ones for primary levels in
reading. (See Betts, p. 634.)
Eight consonants have only one sound: ~' !:• l' ..!:_, ~· _p, ..!.• ~·
Nine consonants have two or more sounds: ~· d, i__, _[, .!:' E_, ~' x, z.
Vowels are always voiced but consonants may be either voiced or
breathed.
Examples of these rules are as follows:
1. !:: followed by..!:_ usually has the sound of au as in Paul or aw as in paw; it is neither long or short.
2. ~is a voiced equivalent sound of voiceless£.• if it is preceded by m it is silent as in climb, limb, lamb and before t it is also ~ ~ silent as in debt and doubt.
3. C has the sound of k as in cat or s as in center, if it is followed by a, o, or u it sounds like k but followed by e, i, or y it has the-sa~e sound as ~as in ~~t. ~ider, ~yphei; it is silent in muscle, scene,-- scent. Ch in- words sounds like_! and sh spoken in rapid succession as in ditch and luncheon.
J 20Emmett Albert Betts, Foundations of Reading Instructions, San Francisco: American Book Company, pp' . 621-646, 1950.
72 4. Q is a voiced explosive consonant; ed represents the sound of_! in such words as stopped and dropped and represents ~in begge~ and bubble~.
5. ~as a vowel has long or short sounds but before E. it murmurs as in her and mother. Final~ is usually silent as in at~ and not~ but exceptions include giv~, don~, som~.
6. F is a voiceless equivalent of voiced~ as in o_! or_! as a fricative iniun and _!or; the sound of__! is represented by ph in such words as phone, nephew, photo, phrase.
7. 9 is a voiced consonant - hard as in £a:r.ne, £0; soft as in £em, £eneral (like 1). G before n is usually silent as in sign, gnaw, gnat, gnarl, gnash. Gh after a vowel is silent as in sigh-:-sight, caught. --
8. His a breathed sound. When it follows a vowel, it is silent as in oh, ah. Wh is-formed by combining hand was· what (hwat}, which (hwich), while (hwile). ------
9. I is long when it comes befo're gh and they are silent; for example, - sight and fight. -
10. J represents two voiced consonant sounds as in jay, jam, and jewel; it sounds like£ in ran£e, hinge, pa£e, ra£e, sledie and hed°i_e.
11. ~is a voiceless explosive consonant; it is used after a long vowel as in take, bake, rake, and before a, o, u consonant k is repre sentedby ~as in ~at, <:_Ot, and ~ut. -It is silent befor~ n as in know, knife, knee. Ck sounds like~ after a short vowel; for example, tack, rack, and pack. K sometimes sounds like q as in quite and ch as in ache; xas in tax sounds the same ask in tacks.
12. L sometimes functions both as a consonant and a vowel sound as in cattle and bottle. It is silent in some words like would, talk, walk, psalm, palm. In spelling, it sometimes is preceded by e as in flannel; sometimes e follows as in bottle; many times it is doubled atthe end of a word as in till, fulfill; and occasionally it is preceded by~ as in musical.
13. M like.!_ may function as a consonant and as a vowel as in prism and spasIE.
73 14. ~ like_!:_ and m may function as a consonant and a vowel as in cotton and often; a final n after m is silent such as in hymn and column.
15. S? preceded by w has the same sound as u; for example, won, work and worry.
16. P is a voiceless explosive consonant and equivalent of the voiced b; it is silent in some words such as receipt and £_Salm.
17. Q is used only with ~(Mr. Q is always with his wife Mrs. U) and represents the sound of kw as in quack, quick, quiet, quite.
18. R when preceded by a vowel gives the vowel a murmuring sound as in sir, car, her.
19. ~is voiceless and is equivalent of the voiced z. It is a n unphonetic character and can be written in several ways as ~in ~ame, ~in sin~e, ~as in po~ible, ~as in quart~, st as in listen, ps as in psalm, sc as in ~ene, !!_as sh in ~ugar or sure, or it can be silent as in isle.
20. _! is a voiceless explosive consonant; it combines with th to not be a distinct sound or can be silent as in often, listen, castle.
2 1. U or its equivalent ew or ue has the sound of long oo if it follows - r or j; for example, rule, June, junior. When long u follows a co~sonant and l, ithas th~sound of long~ as in blue, blew, flute.
22. V is the voiced equivalent of the voiceless.!.:
23. J! is always used before a vowel as in ~et, ~ent, wash. W used i n diphthongs as in no~ and bow and in vowel digraphs as in slow, show and grow has a particular use. W before r is silent asin write, wrench, wretch. The dictionary respelling of words wifuw is peculiar in:-words like wh o (hoo), whose (hoozj, whole (h.ol).
24. X as in fox and ox sounds like ks but in exit and exist it has the sound of gz.
25. Y is a consonant if used as an initial letter as in yes, yet, yester day but is a vowe l equivalent of 2_ if used within- a syllable; for example, mr_th, pry_, my_. Final r_ has the sho!t sound of i also
74 in words of more than one syllable like city, happy, sleepyi exceptions are rep~ and s,upplr_. - - -
26. Z is the voiced equivalent of~; the sound is different in zeal, puzzle, i~, and di.!_cern.
Principles regarding short and long vowels are as follows:
1. Vowels are usually short in closed syllables or a syllable ending in a consonant. In other words vowels are usually short ex cept when modified by position as being before a consonant or following it, for example as in l~t, bat, !.!• h~t.
2. Vowels are usually long if the word ends in silent e as in hope or if two vowels are together the first one is long as in r=.ceive; exceptions are giv=., don=., som=.; n=.ld, shi=.ld, gr=.at, feather, head.
3. In open accented syllables or when a single vowel in a word is not followed by a consonant, or a stressed vowel not followed by a consonant the vowel is usually long; for example, b=., s~, stupid acorn.
SUMMARY CHART
There follows a chart which summarizes the specific word-analysis skills to be considered at each level of the reading program.
75 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ENTRIES
A. BOOKS
Barnhill, Helen, .Everywoman's Children, September 1956, pp. 31, 69.
Betts, Emmett Albert, Foundations of Reading Instructions, San Francisco: American Book Company, pp . 621-646, 1950.
Dolch, Edward William, Teaching Primary Reading, Champaign: The Garrard Press, Chapter XII, pp. 278-318, 1951.
Durrell and Sullivan, Building Word Power, New York: World Book Company, Yonkers on Hudson,-1945.
Gate, Arthur I. , "What Research Says to the Teacher", Teaching Reading No . .!_, National Education Association, June 1953, p. 15.
Gray, William S. . Classroom Techniques in Improving Reading, Chicago: The University Press, No. 69,-1949.
Gray, William S. . On Their Own ~Reading, Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1948.
Hester; Kathleen B. . Teaching Every Child to Read, New York: Harper and Brothers, Chapter XI, pp. 136-1~
Keepie, Wedberg, Kesler, Speech Improvement Through Choral Speaking, Boston: Expression Company, 1942.
McKim, Margaret G. Guiding Growth in Reading, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1955, Chapter IX, p~p. 260-308.
Monroe, Marion, Children Who Cannot Read, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1948.
Morris, C. ~. and Laufgraben , Joan. Speech is Fun, Sacramento: Sacramento County Society for Crippled Children and Adults, Inc., 1950.
Ranbicheak, Letitia, Improving Your Speech, New York: Noble and N oble Company, 1939.
76 Robbins, Samuel, Correction of Speech Defects of Early Childhood, Boston: Expression Company, 1937. -
Robinson, Helen M. , Corrective Reading in Classroom and Clinic, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, T953, No. 79-.-
Tinker, Miles A. , Teaching Elementary Reading, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952, Chapter VIII, IX, pp. 129-172.
Walpole, Ellen, You Can Read Better, San Francisco: Silver Burdett Company, 1944-.------
Webster, Daniel, Collegiate Dictionary, Fifth Edition, Springfield: I. E. McLaren a nd G. & C. Merriam Company, 1943.
Wood, Alice L. . The Jingle Book, New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1954-.- --
B. MANUALS
Developmental Series, Publishers - California State Department of Education. Three of Us Play with Us. Fun with Us Many Surprises Happy Times Down our Way Just for Fun Stories from Everywhere Once Upon ~ Story Time
Ginn Series, Ginn and Company, San Francisco, 1948. Fun with Tom and Betty 'Cfclmesto Play-- --- Ride with US-- My Little Red Story Book My Little Green Story Book My Little Blue Story Book The Little-white:Heuse Under the Apple Tree On Cherry Street
77 Open the Gate Down our Way We Are Neighbors Around the Corner New Frierufly Village ~ing New Neighbors New If I Were Going New Th°i=~ the Green Gate Friends Far and Near Along Fr~d-iy-Roads ------Over Hill and Plain Learning to Read Series. Silver Burdett Company, San Francisco. Bill and Susan ----Through the Gate ------Down the Road ------In New Places ------From Sea to Sea Reading for Living Series. Publishers - California State Department of Education. Days of Fun Our Happy Ways Our Good Neighbors
C. PERIODICALS
Barnhill, Helen, ''Fun with Words, 11 Everywoman's Children. September 1956, pp. 31, 69.
Betts, Emmett Albert. "Phonics: Practical Consideration Based on Research,'' Elementary English, October 1956, PP'· 357-364.
Dolch, Edward William.. 11 Teaching Primary Reading, " Illustrator, 1950 .
Gans, Roma, "Phonetics," Grade Teacher, September 1956, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.
Myers, Garry Cleveland, "Fun with Phonetics, 11 Highlights for Children, January 1956, pp·. 22, 23, May 1956, p'p". 21, 24.
78 D. WORK BOOKS
Baker, Clara Belle; Reed, Mary; Baker, Edna; Whitaker, Nellie, Activity Book to accompany Friends Here and Away, The Bobbs Merrill Company, New York, 1938.----
Burton, William H.; Baker, Clara Belle, My Help to Read Book to accompany Days of Fun (California State Department of Education), The Bobbs-Merrill Company, New York, 1950.
Hildreth, Gertrudei Felton, Alice; Henderson, Mabel; Meighen, Alice, Work Book to accompany Faraway Ports, The John C. Winston Company, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, 1940.
Ousley, Odille; Russell, David H. , My Do and Learn Book to accompany We Are Neighbors, On Cherry Street,Firufing New Ne'ighbors, San Francisco: Ginn and Company. --
Patton, David H. Word Mastery Speller (used as work book), Manuscript first speller, San Francisco: Charles E. Merrill Company, 1950.
Patton, David H. , Word Mastery Speller (used as work book), Third Grade, Sacramento: California State Department of Education.
Smith, Nilai Teubner, Vivien, Read and Do to accompany Down the Road, San Francisco: Silver Burdett Company, 1945. ----
Stone, Clarence R. Eye and Ear Fun Book I, II, III, St Louis: Webster Publishing Compan.Y::--1943. -- ---
Stone, Clarence R. Let's See, St Louis: Webster Publishing Company, 1949.
79