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December 11-12th 2019, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY APPLICATION TO ANTHROPOLOGICAL STATUS WITH CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS AND ADULTS

BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS

Editors Željko Rajković, Darko Mitrović, Vladimir Milošević and Vladimir Miletić

University of Belgrade Faculty of Sport and Physical Education

Belgrade, 2020.

11-12. decembar 2019, Beograd, Republika Srbija

MEĐUNARODNA NAUČNA KONFERENCIJA EFEKTI PRIMENE FIZIČKE AKTIVNOSTI NA ANTROPOLOŠKI STATUS DECE, OMLADINE I ODRASLIH

ZBORNIK RADOVA

Urednici Željko Rajković, Darko Mitrović, Vladimir Milošević i Vladimir Miletić

Univerzitet u Beogradu Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja

Beograd, 2020.

IMPRESSUM

Publisher / Izdavač University of Belgrade – Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Univerzitet u Beogradu – Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja

For the Publisher / Za Izdavača Saša Jakovljević, Dean / Dekan

Editors / Urednici Željko Rajković Darko Mitrović Vladimir Milošević Vladimir Miletić

Classificaion / Klasifikacija Saša Golub

Layout / Tehnička obrada Vladimir Miletić Vladimir Milošević

Design and Cover / Dizajn i korice Vladimir Miletić

Printed by / Štampa 3D+, Beograd, MMXX

Edition / Tiraž 30 copies / primeraka

Organizer / Organizator University of Belgrade – Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Univerzitet u Beogradu – Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja

Supported by / Uz podršku Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije

Ministry of Youth and Sport of the Republic of Serbia Ministarstvo omladine i sporta Republike Srbije

Olympic Committee of the Republic of Serbia Olimpijski komitet Srbije web prezentacija fsfvconference.rs e-adresa [email protected]

Sponzor vizuelnog identiteta Konferencije Pro OUTDOOR Team, Beograd

ISBN 978-86-89773-61-3

SCIENTIFIC BOARD / NAUČNI ODBOR

President / Predsednik Assis. prof. Željko Rajković, PhD, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education

Members from the Institution / Članovi sa matične institucije: Prof. Aleksandar Janković, PhD, Prof. Sanja Mandarić, PhD, Prof. Goran Kasum, PhD, Prof. Marija Macura, PhD, Assoc. prof. Nenad Janković, PhD, Assoc. prof. Ana Vesković - Đaković, PhD, Assis. prof. Aleksandra Popović, PhD, Assis. prof. Vladimir Mrdaković PhD, Assis. prof. Goran Prebeg, PhD, Assis. prof. Miloš Marković, PhD, Assis. prof. Vladimir Miletić, PhD, Assis. prof. Marko Ćosić, PhD,

Members from other national institutions / Članovi sa ostalih nacionalnih institucija: Prof. Jovan Babić, PhD, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy Prof. Dejan Madić, PhD, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Prof. Zvezdan Savić, PhD, University of Niš, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Prof. Goran Šekeljić, PhD, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Pedagogical Sciences Prof. Boban Milojković, PhD, University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies – Department of Criminalistics Assoc. prof. Hadži Saša Ilić, PhD, University of Priština with temporary address in Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Assoc. prof. Benin Murić, PhD, State University of Novi Pazar, Department of Biomedical Science Assis. prof. Dragan Branković, PhD, University of Belgrade, Teacher Education Faculty Milan Spaić, PhD, Zemun Hospital, Department of Neurosurgery Assis. prof. Svetislav Šoškić, Captain of a battleship, the University of Defence, Military Academy, Belgrade Nikola Čikiriz, PhD, Lieutanant Colonel, the University of Defence, Military Medical Academy, Institute of Hygiene and Dietet- ics, Belgrade Darko Trifunović, PhD, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Security Studies, Institute of Security Studies Goran Džafić, PhD, Serbian National Employment Service

International members / Članovi iz inostranstva: Prof. Mladen Marinović, PhD, University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia Prof. Goran Bošnjak, PhD, University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina Assis. prof. Nikolay Panayotov, PhD, National Sports Academy „Vassil Levski“, Sofia, Bulgaria Assis. prof. Matija Mato Škerbić, PhD, University of Zagreb, University Department of Croatian Studies, Croatia Assis. prof. Nebojša Mitrović, PhD, University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Education in Bijeljina, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina Assis. prof. Franjo Lovrić, PhD, University of Mostar, Faculty of Natural Mathematical and Educational Sciences, Bosnia and Herzegovina Csaba Szanto, ICF Expert, International Canoeing Federation, Laussane, Switzerland Fernando Parente, FISU Executive Committee member, Braga, Portugal Msc, Katsumi Namba, Tamagawa University, Tokyo, Japan

ORGANIZATIONAL BOARD / ORGANIZACIONI ODBOR

President / Predsednik Assoc. prof. Darko Mitrović, PhD

General secretary / Generalni sekretar Ass. Vladimir Milošević

Members / Članovi:

Assis. prof. Milan Matić, PhD, Assis. prof. Slobodanka Dobrijević, PhD, Ass. Lazar Tomić Ass. Marija Čolić, Ass. Nikola Majstorović, Ass. Vladimir Grbić, Gordana Vekarić, Foreign language lecturer

7 Dear colleagues, participants of the Conference

On the occasion of the 81st anniversary of the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education of the University of Belgrade, an international scientific conference was traditionally organized to celebrate the jubilee. The conference entitled “Effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and adults” has been organized since 2011, and this year had its 9th edition. Support for the organization of the Conference, this year as well as in previous years, was given by the Ministry of Youth and Sports of the Republic of Serbia, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Ser- bia and the Olympic Committee of Serbia. The international scientific gathering is organized for the purpose of intellectual exchange at the level of institutions, but also of individuals who, in addition to education, are mainly engaged in scientific work. The conference boasts a long and rich history with a significant contribution to promoting health and exercise at all levels, in the wider region. Regarding to the defined criteria, 70 papers were sub- mitted within the thematic areas, and after the reviews, the Sci- entific Board accepted 59 abstracts, in Serbian and English. Cho- sen papers were distributed in 8 sessions for oral presentations, and one poster session. A slightly smaller number of the total number of oral presentations at the conference, was sent by the authors for review for the Book of proceedings, of which 30 articles received positive reviews, and were published here in the book of proceedings. In addition to the usual attendance of students of the home Faculty from all forms and levels of study, lectures were also attended by physical education teachers employed in primary, and secondary schools in Serbia, whose attendance at lectures is recognized as professional training approved by the Institute for the Advancement of Education. Apart from them, the lectures were also attended by experts in sports, as well as sports experts, who thus acquire the conditions for the renewal of licenses in branch and regional sports federations.

We wish all the authors successful further scientific work, and every kind of happiness in life.

President of the Scientific Board of the Conference

______Željko Rajković, PhD, assis. prof.

8 Poštovane koleginice i kolege, učesnici Konferencije

Povodom 81. godišnjice Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu, uz proslavu jubileja tradicionalno je organizovana i međunarodna naučna konferencija. Konferencija se pod nazivom „Efekti primene fizičke aktivnosti na antropološki status dece, omladine i odraslih“ organizuje od 2011. i ove godine je imala svoje 9. izdanje. Podršku organizaciji Konferencije, ove kao i prethodnih godina, dali su Ministarstvo omladine i sporta Republike Srbije, Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije i Olimpijski komitet Srbije. Međunarodni naučni skup se organizuje u cilju intelek- tualne razmene na nivou institucija, ali i pojedinaca koji se osim obrazovanja, pretežno bave naučnim radom. Konferenciju krasi duga i bogata istorija uz značajan doprinos unapređenju zdravlja i fizičkog vežbanja na svim nivoima, u širem regionu. Prema definisanim kriterijumima, u okviru tematskih po- dručja prijavljeno je 70 radova, a nakon recenzija naučni odbor je prihvatio 59 sažetaka radova, na srpskom i engleskom jeziku. Odabrani radovi na konferenciji su raspoređeni u 8 sesija za us- mene prezentacije i jednu poster sesiju. Od ukupnog broja us- menih prezentacija na konferenciji, nešto manji broj je od strane autora poslat na recenziju za zbornik radova, od čega je 30 radova dobilo pozitivne recenzije i ovde je objavljeno u knjizi radova. Pored uobičajenog prisustva studenata matičnog Fakulteta sa svih oblika i nivoa studija, predavanjima su prisustvovali i profesori fizičkog vaspitanja zaposleni u osnovnim i srednjim školama u Srbiji, kojima se prisustvo na predavanjima priznaje kao stručno usavršavanje odobreno od strane Zavoda za unapređivanje obrazovanja i vaspitanja (ZUOV). Osim njih predavanjima su prisustvovali i stručnjaci u sportu, kao u sportski stručnjaci, koji tako stiču uslove za obnavljanje licenci u granskim i regionalnim sportskim savezima.

Svim autorima želimo uspešan dalji naučni rad i svaku sreću u životu.

Predsednik Naučnog odbora Konferencije

______Dr Željko Rajković, docent

9 12 71 Josip Cvenić, Ena Crnoja Slobodan Tošić; Željko Rajković GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD OF RECREATIONAL PREFERENCES AMONG PERCEIVED EXERTION AND THE RESULTS IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS THE RACE OF DRAGO BOAT 78 Slobodan Tošić; Željko Rajković 17 RELACIJA NIVOA SUBJEKTIVNOG OSEĆAJA Violeta Šiljak ZAMORA I PLASMANA U TRCI DRAGON SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AND BOUTA ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH THE HISTORY OF SPORTS 23 84 Violeta Šiljak Ljiljana Stankov; Sanja Vuletić; Mira Jovanović; NAUČNE USTANOVE I ORGANIZACIJE KOJE Nataša Starčević SE BAVE ISTORIJOM SPORTA SPATIO-TEMPORAL STRUCTURE OF KINDERGARTEN AS AN INCENTIVE TO ENGAGE IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AT PRESCHOOL AGE 29 Goran Bošnjak; Vladimir Jakovljević; Gorana 95 Tešanović; Branko Škof; Milinko Dabović Ljiljana Stankov; Sanja Vuletić; Mira Jovanović; ANTHROPOMETRY RELATIONSHIPS AND Nataša Starčević RUNNING RESULTS AT 1500 METERS PROSTORNO-VREMENSKA STRUKTURA DEČJEG VRTIĆA KAO PODSTICAJ ZA BAVLJENJE FIZIČKIM AKTIVNOSTIMA NA 35 PREDŠKOLSKOM UZRASTU Goran Bošnjak; Vladimir Jakovljević; Gorana Tešanović; Branko Škof; Milinko Dabović RELACIJE ANTROPOMETRIJE I REZULTATA TRČANJA NA 1500 METARA 106 Boban Milojković; Vladimir Miletić SAFETY ASPECTS OF USING MOUNTAIN 41 ROADS Lazar Tomić; Мiloslav Fabok; Bojan Leontijević; Аleksandar Janković 113 METHODS OF RESPONSE TIME Boban Milojković; Vladimir Miletić BEZBEDNOSNI ASPEKTI KORIŠĆENJA ASSESSMENT IN DIFFERENT SPORTS PLANINARSKIH PUTEVA Contents 46 Lazar Tomić; Мiloslav Fabok; Bojan Leontijević; Аleksandar Janković METODE ZA PROCENU VREMENA 120 Sadržaj Ljubica Papić; Stanimir Stojiljković; Marija REAGOVANJA SPORTISTA RAZLIČITIH Macura; Igor Ranisavljev SPORTOVA THE IMPACT OF HALF MARATHON TRAINING ON THE FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES AND BODY COMPOSITION OF WOMEN ENGAGED IN RECREATIONAL RUNNING 51 Miroslav Milovanović; Miloš Mudrić 127 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCORING Ljubica Papić; Stanimir Stojiljković; Marija ACTIONS OF ELITE KARATEKAS AND THE Macura; Igor Ranisavljev IMPACT OF SENSHU IN THE FINAL MATCHES UTICAJ TRENINGA ZA POLUMARATON NA OF PREMIER LAEGUE EVENTS IN 2018. FUNKCIONALNE SPOSOBNOSTI I TELESNI SASTAV ŽENA REKREATIVACA 56 Miroslav Milovanović; Miloš Mudrić KARAKTERISTIKE POENTIRAJUĆIH AKCIJA I UTICAJ SENŠUA U FINALNIM BORBAMA 134 ELITNIH KARATISTA NA PREMIJER LIGAMA Zvezdan Savić; Predrag Đokić; Nikola Stojanović 2018. GODINE THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORTS ON HEALTH STATUS: A BRIEF REVIEW 61 140 Nebojša Đošić Zvezdan Savić; Predrag Đokić; Nikola Stojanović CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATTACK BENEFITI NASTAVE FIZIČKOG VASPITANjA I STRUCTURE OF THE WINNER OF THE ŠKOLSKOG SPORT ZA ZDRAVSTVENI STA- TUS: KRATAK PREGLED FOOTBALL WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP 2014 66 Nebojša Đošić КARAKTERISTIKE STRUKTURE NAPADA 146 Franjo Lovrić; Ivana Kujundžić Lujan; Zoran OSVAJAČA SVETSKOG PRVENSTVA U Čuljak FUDBALU 2014 GODINE THE EFFECT OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE OF MANIPULATIVE BILATERAL KINESIOLOGICAL TESTS IN SEVEN-YEAR-OLD BOYS

10 149 213 274 Mateja Beck; Zvonimir Tomac; Dražen Rastovski Lazar Toskić, Milivoj Dopsaj, Milan Marković Nikolay Panayotov; Nebojša Jotov RELATION BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY UTICAJ PARAMETARA TELESNOG SASTAVA EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF PILATES AND MOTOR ABILITIES IN ELEMENTARY DONJIH EKSTREMITETA NA TMG ODGOVOR HEALTH-PREVENTION PROGRAMMES ON SCHOOL CHILDREN KOD MIŠIĆA ZGLOBA THE MORPHOLOGICAL STATUS OF KOLENA PHYSICALLY INACTIVE WOMEN 279 153 Nikolay Panayotov; Nebojša Jotov Dragan Kolev 220 EVALUACIJA EFEKATA ZDRAVSTVENO-PREVENTIVNIH PROGRAMA SPORT AS A MEANS OF DIPLOMACY Marko Ćosić; Nenad Baša; Stanimir Stojiljković; Goran Prebeg PILATESA NA MORFOLOŠKI STATUS FIZIČKI THERAGUN AS A RECOVERY TOOL IN NEAKTIVNIH ŽENA 162 RECREATIONAL EXERCISE Dragan Kolev SPORT KAO “MEKA MOĆ” DIPLOMATIJE 225 Marko Ćosić; Nenad Baša; Stanimir Stojiljković; 284 Goran Prebeg Katarina Nejić; Stefan Đorđević; Mima Stanković; “THERAGUN” KAO SREDSTVO OPORAVKA U Kristina Marković; Saša Bubanj REKREATIVNOM VEŽBANJU DIFFERENCES IN POSTURAL STATUS OF THE SPINAL COLUMN IN FEMALE VOLLEYBALL 170 PLAYERS OF DIFFERENT AGE CATEGORIES Stefan Radojičić; Marko Ćosić CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING TRAINING PROGRESSION IN THE 230 289 REHABILITATION OF ANTERIOR Zdravko Aničić; Miloš Petrović; Olivera Knežević; Katarina Nejić; Stefan Đorđević; Mima Stanković; CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURY Marko Erak Kristina Marković; Saša Bubanj CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE IN LEARNING RAZLIKE U POSTURALNOM STATUSU VOLLEYBALL SKILLS KIČMENOG STUBA KOD ODBOJKAŠICA 176 RAZLIČITIH UZRASNIH KATEGORIJA Stefan Radojičić; Marko Ćosić KRITERIJUMI ZA PROCENU 235 Zdravko Aničić; Miloš Petrović; Olivera Knežević; PROGRESIJE TRENIRANOSTI PRI Marko Erak REHABILITACIJI POVREDE PREDNJEG UČENJE ODBOJKAŠKIH VEŠTINA 294 UKRŠTENOG LIGAMENTA KONTEKSTUALNIM MEŠANJEM Milorad Kličković; Milorad Marković; Gordana Milošević SPELEOLOGICAL TRAINING OF EMPLOYEES IN THE RESAVA CAVE 182 240 Daliborka Stanković; Goran Nešić; Nikola Marta Ćirković; Sanja Mandarić; Branka Marković 300 Milorad Kličković; Milorad Marković; Gordana THE INCIDENCE OF INJURY AMONG Majstorović Milošević CONTEMPORARY DANCERS ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERIS- SPELEOLOŠKA OBUKA ZAPOSLENIH U TICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES IN 13-15 RESAVSKOJ PEĆINI YEAR OLD FEMALE VOLLEYBALL 246 PLAYERS Marta Ćirković; Sanja Mandarić; Branka Marković INCIDENCA POVREĐIVANJA PLESAČA SAVREMENOG PLESA 306 187 Nenad Vasić; Daniel Heler Daliborka Stanković; Goran Nešić; Nikola PUBLIC RELATIONS AND ADVOCACY Majstorović VERSUS LOBBYNG IN SPORT: A CASE PROFIL ANTROPOMETRIJSKIH STUDY OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA AND 252 COMPARATIVES INTERNATIONAL PRACTICE KARAKTERISTIKA I MOTORIČKIH Milinko Dabović; Marko Erak; Ivana Čerkez Zovko; SPOSOBNOSTI ODBOJKAŠICA Aleksandra Lakić; Aleksandar Stefanović UZRASTA 13-15 GODINA ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE IN ORDER TO IMPROVE THE 313 Nenad Vasić; Daniel Heler QUALITY OF TEACHING IN THE ARTHISTIC ODNOSI SA JAVNOŠĆU I ADVOKATURA GYMNASTICS CLASSES NASUPROT LOBIRANJU U SPORTU: STUDIJA SLUČAJA REPUBLIKA SRBIJA I UPOREDNA 192 257 MEĐUNARODNA PRAKSA Svetislav Šoškić; Uroš Kostić; Dušan Milinko Dabović; Marko Erak; Ivana Čerkez Zovko; Stošić Aleksandra Lakić; Aleksandar Stefanović THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPOR- ANALIZA TAKMIČARSKE USPEŠNOSTI STUDENATA U CILJU PODIZANJA KVALITETA TANCE OF ROWING AS A SPORTS NASTAVE NA PREDMETU SPORTSKA 320 Ilija Andrejić; Milorad Marković; Dragan Petrić; DISCIPLINE AT THE MILITARY GIMNASTIKA ACADEMY Nikola Rvović EVALUATION OF PROCEDURES FOR BANED OF USE OF A MOUNTAINEERING FACILITY ON THE EXAMPLE OF VIA FERRATA “BRUNO 199 BIONDI” (ITALY), AND PROPOSALS FOR Svetislav Šoškić; Uroš Kostić; Dušan 262 IMPROVEMENT MEASURES Stošić Vladimir Miletić; Boban Milojković; Milorad

RAZVOJ I ZNAČAJ VESLANJA KAO Marković; Željko Rajković GLOBAL SCHEME FOR LEARNING SPORTS SPORTSKE DISCIPLINE NA OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES 325 VOJNOJ AKADEMIJI Ilija Andrejić; Milorad Marković; Dragan Petrić; Nikola Rvović EVALUACIJA PROCEDURA ZABRANE 268 KORIŠĆENJA PLANINARSKOG OBJEKTA Vladimir Miletić; Boban Milojković; Milorad NA PRIMERU VIA FERATE “BRUNO BIONDI” Marković; Željko Rajković (ITALIJA) I PREDLOZI MERA ZA GLOBALNA ŠEMA OBUČAVANJA SPORTSKIH 206 POBOLJŠANJE Lazar Toskić, Milivoj Dopsaj, Milan Marković AKTIVNOSTI U PRIRODI INFLUENCE OF LOWER EXTREMITY BODY COMPOSITION PARAMETERS ON TMG RESPONSE IN KNEE JOINT MUSCLES 330 INDEX OF AUTHORS / INDEKS AUTORA 331 REVIEWERS / RECENZENTI 332 INSTITUTIONS / INSTITUCIJE

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GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPORT AND RECREATIONAL PREFERENCES AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Josip Cvenić; Ena Crnoja Faculty of education, J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia

Indroduction

Implementation of sport recreation activities in university curricula is an important issue considering its importance in creating a fully developed personality and its impact on participation in sport and physical activity during the entire life (Popeska et al., 2017). Based on WHO reports, period of adolescence (15-19 years) and the period of young adults (20-25 years) are the critical one in which there is remarkable drop of the physical activity and engagement with sports. Lack of physical activity has resulted in increasingly frequent incidence of overweight and obesity (Blair & Connelly, 1996). In order to continue the trend of regular physical activity within the realm of the institutional educational system, with a goal to stop the tendency of interruption of the physical activity typical for the period of studies, the subject Physical education is represented with 0+0+2 classes planned with the curriculum. In other words, the students have only practical exercises. Most of the Croatian universities and Polytechnics provide the subject Physical education as an obligatory for the university students on first and second year of study, and it’s obtain 1 ECTS per semester. Physical education was incorporated as obligatory subject at curricula at all faculties and departments at Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in the first two years of study since 1978 (Cvenić, 2016). The basic aim of the Physical education curriculum in higher education is to learn new motor skills, improvement of basic theoretical and practical motor abilities, prevention of processes deterioration or premature decline in traits and abilities due to lack of physical activity empowering students to exercise individually and to promote exercise and sports culture. An adequate offer of sports and recreational activities is an important factor that enables participation in beneficial physical activities. In order to make physical education more interesting and successful, the opinions and attitudes of students are more than appreciated. Physical education has a task to enable the student to fulfill their needs for movement via planned and dosed physical activity in order to be able to conduct certain transformational changes. In this way, conditions for continuation with the sporting activity are being created, as well as improvement and maintenance of the motoric abilities and the physical readiness at a satisfactory level in every segments of the anthropological status of the human, encouragement of a healthy and active life, formation of healthy lifestyle habits, as well as prevention of illnesses related to the physical inactivity and a sedentary way of life, which is typical for the student population.

Subject to this study are the students at first and second year of studies from Department of mathematics at the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek, Republic of Croatia. Considering the fact that PE curricula in higher education is realized in accordance with students interests and needs, aim of this study is possible gender differences in student’s preferences toward sport recreational activities.

Methods

The research has been realized with a total number of 122 respondents, 69 females and 53 males, full - time students of the Department of mathematics at the J.J. Strossmayer University in Osijek who regularly attendant Physical education classes in the academic year 2019/2020. Considering the aim of the research, to determine the gender differences between students’ attitudes and preferences, the sample was divided in two sub – samples. The research has been conducted anonymously and it was realized in the first teaching week (October, 2019), before winter semester. Student’s attitudes and preferences were determined using questionnaire. The questionnaire used in this research is modified and adopted version of questionnaire used in similar research realized by Jurakić (2009). Beside the general questions (gender, age, years of studying) the questionnaire was conducted from 14 questions on the 5 point Likert scale, two question about frequencies in sport activities and one question about possible cost exercise. The obtained results have been processed with frequencies (f) and percent’s (%). The differences between subsamples were tested using one-way ANOVA and chi-squared test. The gained results are also presented graphically as figures.

Results

From the total number of students included in the research, 43% (53 students) are male, while 57% (69 students) are female. Considering the years of studying, there are 75 (61%) students in the first year of

12 UDK: 796-055.1/.3 study, and 47 (39%) students in the second year of study. According the results, analyzed within gender sub – samples, it can be see that students declare mostly different toward sport and recreational activities in their study curriculum. Gender differences toward sport and recreational activities is confirmed with comparison of answers. The received values for the one- way ANOVA (F14,107=8.75) show that the gained gender differences between the students are statistically significant at the level 0.01 (figure 1).

Figure 1. Comparative graph of mean values of the rated sports and recreational activities by gender

According to the Physical education curricula in higher education, plan and program on each faculty depend on competencies of teacher, faculty regulation, student’s interest as well as other conditions (sport infrastructure, time table, material conditions). The current curriculum of Physical education is consisted from various sport and recreational activities, so it is very important to get objective feedback from students to make an optimal program close to their interest and preferences at the beginning of the year. Within the results of all participated students, we could note similarities in student’s interests. Namely, analyzing student’s answers from both groups, it could be noted that fitness and cyclical activities (running, roller skating, cycling) are on the top of the list of students choices. Presented by numbers, 3,95 was arithmetic mean from all students obtained to fitness, 3,87 of all students was obtained to cyclical activities and 3,53 students rated for walking. Less selected and interested activities for students of mathematics are corrective gymnastics (2,14), aerobics (2,45) and pilates (2,50).

Main aim of this research is to note differences regarded sex. As presented in Figure 1, both male and female students are most interested in fitness (3,86 females and 4,05 males). Females are also interested in cyclical activities (4,07) and walking (4,01), while their male colleagues are interested in team sport games (3,98) and cyclical activities (3,62). Male are less interested in aerobics (1,43) and pilates (1,53), while females are less interested in corrective gymnastics (2,21), martial arts (2,71) and swimming (2,71). Weekly number of sport and recreational activities in free time, preferred weekly number of sport and recreational activities, as well as the amount of money students willing to spend to participate in sports activities are also some of the questions contained in the questionnaire.

Figure 2. Differences upon weekly number of exercising in free time by gender

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The current number of classes for Physical education is once per week in duration of 90 minutes. Many students exercise outside of the class in their free time. Based on students answers, 34,78% female students do not exercise at all in free time, so PE on faculty is only activity for them. Most of male students, 26,42% declare that 4 times and more exercising in free time, but there is also22,64% who do not exercise. The gained differences, according the values (χ2 = 9,07; df = 4, p=0,06) between male and female students are not statistically significant, but they are very close to the levels of significance 0,05 (Figure 2).

Figure 3. Differences upon weekly number of possibility to participate in sport and recreational programs by gender

Based on students answers for second question, most of male and female students declare that 1-2 times a week (70-80%) would be an optimal number of participating in sport and recreational programs (Fig- ure 3). Obtained differences, between male and female students are determined as not statistically significant (χ2 = 8,82; df = 5, p=0,11).

Figure 4. Differences upon amount of money willing to spend to participate in sports and recreational activities

The last question is related to the students’ budget provided for programs of sport and recreational activities. Based on students’ answers, 14,49% female students and 20,76% male students are not ready to spend any money on sport and recreational activities. Most of male students 39,62 % and 37,68 % of female students declare that 50-100 kn (7-13 €) is optimal amount they are ready to spent. The gained differences, according the values (χ2 = 17,16; df = 13, p=0,19) between male and female students are not statistically significant (Figure 4).

Discussion

The analysis of the answers obtained from a total number of 122 respondents and the comparison of the differences between the gender using analysis of the values on the ANOVA and chi – square test, leads toward the conclusion that the students different gender have different preferences regarding the Sport and recreational activities that could be prospectively included in the curricula. Differences are not significant in other question weekly number of sport and recreational activities in free time, preferred weekly number of sport and recreational activities, as well as the amount of money students willing to spend to participate in sports activities. 14 UDK: 796-055.1/.3

The activity that received the highest average rating in all sample is fitness with 3,95 and activity that received lowest average score is corrective gymnastics 2,14. These results suggest that main frequencies in actually PE program should include fitness topics, and that teaching topics in corrective gymnastics is just necessary for the students with disabilities. The top three interests for male students are fitness (4,06), team sport games (3,98) and cyclical activities (3,62). The gained results are found to be very similar to the results of obtained in the research conducted for the opinions of their colleagues from Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Zagreb which have been surveyed in 2005/2006 by Gošnik, Sedar and Bunjevac (2007). In this research top three preferred sport activities were basketball, football and swimming, Basketball and fotball are also part of team sport games, just in these qustionarry was put together, and swimming came in 5th place (3,38). The top three interests for female students are cyclical activities (4,07), walking (4,01), and fitness (3,87). If we compare these results with the same research (Gošnik, Sedar and Bunjevac, 2007) there ara totally different findings. Top three preferred sport activities for femal Faculty of Humanities and Social Sci- ences in Zagreb were dance, swimming and yoga.Špehar et al. (2008) also get a dance on the top of the list of female students and football is on the top of male list. Similar choices of the students and the differences regarding the gender have been also confirmed in other researches. Popeska et al. (2007) on a sample of 670 Macedonian students obtained, males were interested in basketball, table tennis and basic physical preparation, while there female colleagues beside basketball and volleyball were also interested in aerobics. These choice of students are mainly related to their personal interests, abilities as well as the popularity of these activities as recreate activities. Petračić and Nemet (2010) obtained study realized on a sample of 209 students from Faculty of education in Zagreb that on the first place on the lists of interests is dance, follow by aerobics and roller skating, while mountain hiking is last. Based on student’s answers and values of chi - square test, statistical differences between genders are determined regarded the weekly number of sport and recreational activities in free time, the weekly number sport and recreation activities willing to participate as well as the amount of money willing to spent for sport and recreational activities. Nearly half of the male students (49,2%) declare that they are exercising 3 times and more in a free time. This statement give us a reason to think about raising number of regular classes of PE during the week. More than third (34,78%) female students answered that they dont exercise in a free time, and that is also important information as directions for future possible changes in organization of the course Physical education. This means that Physical education makes a sense as an obligatory subject on first two years, maybe during all years of study, otherwise it increases inactivity and lead to sedentary lifestyle. Economical and material conditions are one of the fundamental factor for quality sport, activities and physical and sport education. Based on this, information about the economical aspects of the organization of Physical education course are also very important issues for future development. Knowing how much money students are willing to spend is very important information for organizing some activities outside curriculum, participate in some activities for which faculty doesn’t have enough money, or support students who have no money and want to practice more.

Conclusion

The obtained answers and the summarized results from the gained values from the applied ANOVA and chi – square test partly confirm the set hypothesis, i.e. there are significant differences between male and female upon their attitudes and preferences toward sport and recreational activities (ANOVA), and there is no significant differences in other three questions (chi-square). Other important issue is that obtained results give us the directions for further planning and organization of Physical education at the university, in compliance with the students’ opinions and interests.

Physical education as a mandatory subject on first two years of study and possible facultative university subject in later year of studies, accompanied by an analogous number of theory lectures important for exercising in a free time, participating in a sport selected according students affinities, stimulated by a particular number of credits according to the ECTS would denote a solid basis for a continuous influence over the students, creating a habits for an active and healthy lifestyle and regular physical activity.

References

1. Blair, S.N, Connelly, J.C (1996). How much physical activity should we do? The case for moderate amounts and intensities of physical activity. R.Q.E.S; 67 (2): 193-205. 2. Cvenić, J. (2016). Changes in health-related fitness in female students University of Osijek under the influence of the experimental theoretical physical education program. Disertation. Faculty of kinesiology, University of Zagreb.

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3. Gošnik, J., Sedar, M., & Bunjevac, T. (2007). Preferencije studenata/ica Filozofskog fakulteta u Zagrebu prema sportskim aktivnostima. V. Findak (ur.). Zbornik radova, 16, 430-437. 4. Jurakić, D. (2009). Taxonomic Characteristics of Middle-aged Employed Population as a Basis for De- velopment of Sport and Recreation Programs. Disertation. Faculty of kinesiology, University of Zagreb. 5. Petračić, T. & Nemet, M. (2010). Razlike u preferencijama prema kineziološkim aktivnostima studenata Učiteljskog fakulteta. U: Findak, V. (ur.) Zbornik radova 19. ljetne škole kineziologa Republike Hrvatske - Individualizacija rada u područjima edukacije, sporta, sportske rekreacije i kineziterapije. Zagreb, Hr- vatski kineziološki savez, 155-160. 6. Popeska, B., Barbareev, K., Janevik – Ivanovska, E. & Jovanova – Mitkovska, S. (2017). Students’ interest for sport and recreation at Goce Delcev University - Stip, depending the selected Faculty. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences. [Online]. 01, pp 439-451. 7. Špehar, N., Gošnik, J., & Reichel, K. F. (2008). The preferences toward sports of students in institutions of higher education. In International Scientific Conference on Kinesiology (5; 2008).

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SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH THE HISTORY OF SPORTS

Violeta Šiljak European Center for Peace and Development UN University for Peace, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

The approach to the study of sports history differs both in the countries where this science is highly regarded1, and in our region. In the United States, according to the curriculum prescribed by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education, general sports history is studied up to the 19th century, which makes up about two thirds of the material, while the history of US (national) sports is studied from the 18th century onward, which makes up the remaining third of the material (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED544272.pdf). It is also notable that one chapter is dedicated to the leaders in sports education in the US, and there is a chapter on the establishment and operation of a specific sports body that addresses the fitness of young people and their health, implemented using the Physical Health Tests.

In addition to general sports history, the UK is particularly interested in the social aspect of sports history, and the cause-and-effect in sports development in order to look at the development of sports in the near future (https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-sports-history-9780199858910?c- c=rs&lang=en&#). In our region, the approach to the study of sports/physical culture history is historiographic in nature (Živanović, 1987; Ilić and Mijatović, 2006; Šiljak, 2007 et al.). Textbooks are certainly a valid basis for a more contemporary approach to the study of sports history. Given that the research problem relates to the scientific institutions and organizations dealing with sports history, the logical question is - what are these institutions and organizations? As sports history is an interdisciplinary subject, in addition to subject-oriented scientific institutions, there is a wide range of institutions that touch on this field. Some of the major institutions are selected so that their work and contribution can be emphasized when it comes to highlighting historical facts during research.

Methods

In this research, the methods were used to logically harmonize the data collected on the phenomenon under study, in addition to the scientific methods used in history research, and the methods of theoretical analysis.

Results and discussion

The study of sports history cannot be separated from physical exercise history in a broader sense or from physical education history because these fields are conditioned by one another. The question is, when and how did research in sports begin? It is important to note that both in the world and in our country, research in the field of sports history is most often conducted by researchers (professors) at the Faculty of Sports Sciences (subject professors), and the Faculty of Philosophy (archeologists, historians, and sociolo- gists2).

At the very beginning of sports history research, it was certainly the most interesting to look at ancient Greece and the sports competitions that took place at the Pythian Games dedicated to various deities. In his research, Kyle cites Norman Gardiner (1864-1930) as the historian who has undoubtedly had the greatest influence on all others involved in this type of research (Kyle, 1991). The same author further states that Gardiner was a role model to H. A. Harris and H. W. Pleket, also well-known researchers in sports history.

Archaeologists have also shown interest in sports history and a potential reconstruction of sports competitions by excavating in Greece. The more famous ones include Nicholas Yalouris (1918-2011), who in addition to being a university professor was also director of the National Museum of Greece and chief inspector of Greek antiquities, and professor Stephen Miller, emeritus professor at Berkeley (USA), thanks to whom we have an idea of how the competitions at the Nemean Games took place (Fig. 1).

1 The United States and the United Kingdom are the only countries with scientific journals in the field of sports history on the T&R list, reflecting their commitment to the work in the field.. 2 In Serbia, archeology, history and sociology departments are found at the Faculty of Philosophy.

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Figure 1. Professor S. Miller with a student in Nemeia (the stadium entrance)

With the establishment of the Museum of Sports in Serbia in 1979, created using the Physical Cul- ture History Collection, a significant contribution to the development of sports history was made by the late Jovan Vanja Petrović3 (Mijatović, 2005, 50; Pavlović, 2014, 155; Lazović, Mitrović, D. and Mitrović, I., 2017, 117).

Researchers from the Faculty of Sports Sciences were initially more interested in the field of sports history associated with mass physical exercise, and consequently the effect on the physical education of future generations. Later, interest in the emergence and development of the training process and certain sports branches also expanded. They are considered research pioneers in the field of sports history (Johnes, 2004, 146). Day and Vamplew point out that sports researchers from historical education institutions focus on the concept, while those from sports education institutions focus on the history of sports disciplines and the history of physical activities (Day and Vamplew, 2015, 1722). Furthermore, they emphasize that these two groups of researchers are increasingly collaborating, and will be getting closer to each other in the near future.

Today’s diffuse approach to sports history can create confusion for the average reader, given that there is competition in the field of sports history research and in sports in general, much like there is competition in other spheres of life. If we take into account that for this very reason, competitions in all spheres of life, the Greeks left us many world values besides sports - architecture, sculptures, etc., then this fact can be positively characterized. However, future experts in the field of sports have to take a critical approach to the study of this field. This means consolidating as many different materials as possible, and considering the research problem from various perspectives. The work of sociologists, philosophers, geographers, and anthropologists is notable in a large number of materials addressing this issue today, in addition to the work done by historians, archaeologists, and subject professors at sports faculties. However, contributions of the arts in sports, which left us with marks and guidelines for a particular researched concept should not be overlooked. The famous Miron’s Discobolus, and the written Andrić’s mark, as a witness of the times who looked at basketball in our region are just some of them (Andrić, 2008, 292). These examples lead us to conclude that sports history requires an interdisciplinary approach. In shedding light on the approach to the study of sports history, it must be noted that research has to be based on a methodology applied in history as a science. Also, knowledge of historical sources and their critique is mandatory.

When asked which scientific institutions are closely involved in research in the field of sports history not by following the hierarchy but the principle of going from the more known to the less known, we start from the faculty of sports because they are the only ones that have a subject called sports history or physical culture history in their curriculum. There are a number of sports colleges in the world and like other colleges/ universities, they have their own rankings that are updated annually. This involves evaluating their research oeuvre. The most recognized rankings are the following: The Shanghai List, Times Higher Education List 3 Vanja Petrovic, archaeologist, was the first curator of the Museum of Sports (formerly known the Museum of Physical Culture). The Museum of Physical Culture won a gold medal at the Olymphilex in Barcelona in 1992 for the best philately exhibition, thanks to Vanja Petrović’s enthusiasm (Pavlović, 2014:156).

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(UK), QS Ranking List (Quacquarelli Symonds, UK), Leiden Ranking List (Netherlands), and Webometrics (CSIC, Spain).

There are several public and private sports faculties in Serbia, and they have sports (physical culture) history in their curriculum, much like other schools around the world. Subject and other teachers are involved in researching sports history both for teaching purposes and for participating in national and international scientific congresses, or for publishing papers in scientific journals. As mentioned in the introduction, in addition to these, the number of researchers from the Faculty of Philosophy (history department) has recently increased.

The basic orientation of an institute as a scientific institution is research. The most famous is the OSC (Olympic Studies Center), located in Lausanne, Switzerland, and it researches Olympic movement history (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. The OSC Library in Lausanne, Switzerland

There are 43 other Olympic Movement Research Centers in the world recognized by the IOC (https://www.olympic.org/olympic-studies-centre/olympic-studies-in-the-world). With the same research orientation, the International Olympic Academy headquartered in Olympia, Greece (Fig. 3) is a special research institution of worldwide importance.

Figure 3. The International Olympic Academy in Olympia

Highly respectable international institutes that have special study programs, organize conferences, and preserve sports heritage are the International Center for Sports History and Culture at De Monfort Uni- versity in Leicester (UK), and the International Institute for Sport History (IISOH) in Pennsylvania (USA). There are two public and several private sports institutes in Serbia that are mainly oriented towards research related to training technology. They can also be of great help with archival data when doing research in the

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field of sports history. The RS Institute for Sports and Sports Medicine, and the Provincial Institute for Sports and Sports Medicine are the best known public sports institutes. Of much greater importance for sports history research are the history institutes: The Institute for Balkan Studies, Institute of History, Institute for Byzantine Studies, etc.

In addition to faculties and institutes, the archives as the institutions that preserve, collect, and conduct research are also considered important. In Serbia, the following archives are among those that possess significant material for the study of sports history: the Archives of Yugoslavia, the Archives of Serbia, the Serbian Arts and Science Academy Archive, the Military Archive of the Ministry of Defense, the Archives of the Yugoslav Cinematheque, and all of the historical and local archives in our country.

Museums as cultural and scientific institutions are of great importance to researchers. In addition to sports museums, archeological museums, history museums and the like have objects, archives, and library material relevant to sports history. We should keep archeological sites or open-air museums in mind too, such as the Colosseum in Rome, the archaeological complex in Olympia (Fig. 4), and many others.

Figure 4. The Archaeological site in Olympia, Greece

Whether they are outdoors (Olympia, Rome), indoors (permanent exhibitions), or virtual, it is evident that they are interesting to the masses as well, in addition to being interesting to researchers, which is why they are included in numerous tourist offers. The world’s most famous sports museums include: Na- ismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum, Olympic Museum in Lausanne (Fig. 5), Camp Nou Museum, Polish Sports & Tourism Museum (Fig. 6), Manchester United Museum, Ferrari Museum etc.

Figure 5. The Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland Figure 6. The Polish Museum of Sports and Tourism

In the Guide through the Museums of Serbia you can find three museums, the FSPE Sports Mu- seum, and the museum collections of FC Red Star, and FC Partizan (Njegovan, Mustedanagić, 2016, 304,

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344-347). The Sports Museum has no showroom, just a depot, so it is not accessible to the general public. Thanks to the efforts of Ivana Mitrović, the current curator, this problem is being solved by organizing exhibitions at the Faculty Hall, or by organizing guest exhibitions and children’s workshops. As part of the European Heritage Days 2018 held in Belgrade, an exhibition was set up at the FSPE Hall (Fig. 7). The fact that there is no showroom is not an obstacle to getting the curator’s help to conduct research in the field of sports history.

Figure 7. Olympic flame holder from 1936.

In the University Heritage of Serbia monograph, we see that there is a Museum of Sports and Physical Education at the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, University of Niš (Lazovic, Mitrovic, D. and Mitrovic, I., 2017, 209). The collection of this museum was created by professor Nenad Živanović, who organized and collected a large number of objects and documents relevant to sports history with his students and colleagues.

Researchers in the field of sports/physical culture history are organized through various associations around the world. In addition to organizing annual congresses where scientific achievements are presented and scientific thoughts exchanged, these associations encourage young researchers through various grant programs and awards. They also insist on the publication of PhD theses and scientific papers in English to increase the visibility and availability of their research results. In 1989, the ISHPES (International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport) was formed by merging two organizations: the International Committee for the History of Physical Education and Sport (ICOSH), and the International Association for the History of Physical Education (HISPA) (https://www.ishpes.org/). The Australia Society for Sports History (ASSH), European Committee for Sports History (CESH), North American Society for Sport History (NASSH), British Society for Sports History (BSSH), Finnish Society for Sport History (FSSH), French Society of Sport History (FSSH), Japan Society of Sport History (JSSH), and the International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) are all members of the ISHPES. Although ISHPES encourages collaboration with researchers from all over the world, this brief overview of its members indicates on which continents and in which countries the area of sports history is appreciated. The FIEP (Federation Internationale d ‘Education Physique) is an international organization for physical education founded in 1923. They are very active all over the world through several fields (physical education and sports in schools, sports for everyone, recreation, physical education and sports history, etc.). Through its European branch called FIEP Europe, the History of Physical Education and Sports branch contributes to the field of physical culture/sports history research (http://fiepeurope.eu/ management.php). It is important to point out that the branch is run as FIEP Serbia because the originators of the idea to have it formed were the researchers from our country (http://fiep-serbia.net/). The members of the branch publish monographs on various sports fields in collaboration with colleagues from all over Europe. The Southeastern Europe Sports Heritage Center is an NGO that researches the field of sports history, and operates via social media (https://www.facebook.com/CSNCSH/). They have published the Sports Remem- ber monograph with the help of the British Embassy in Belgrade.

Conclusion

Sports history, as part of general history that studies the phenomenon of sports has gradually grown into an independent teaching and scientific discipline. The study of sports history should enable students to

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study the emergence and development of the sports phenomenon, help them understand the laws thereof when it comes to the individual manifestations of sports, and acquire basic methodological knowledge of the study of sports history. Also, studying sports through history should raise students’ awareness of the evolution of sports, and contribute to a better understanding of today’s issues in sports. As sports history is an interdisciplinary subject, in addition to subject-oriented scientific institutions, there is a wide range of institutions that touch on this matter. The paper presents some of the most important institutions and organizations dealing with sports history with the aim of highlighting their work and contribution to shedding light on historical facts during research. The archives, museums, and institutes have been neglected in educational terms. It is important to emphasize that museums as cultural and scientific institutions are of great importance to researchers in the field of sports history, and are not used enough for educational purposes in our region unlike in some other parts of the world.

References

1. Andrić, I. (2008). Roadside Signs (II Edition). Zrenjanin: Sezam. 2. Southeast European Sports Heritage Center (n.d.). Retrieved on 31.10.2018. from https://www.facebook.com/CSNCSH/. 3. Day, D. & Vamplew, W. (2015) Sports History Methodology: Old and New, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 32:15, 1715-1724, (online) http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2015.1132203. 4. Edelman, R., Wilson, W. (n.d.). The Oxford Handbook of Sports History. Retrieved on 31.10.2018. from https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-sports-history-9780199858910?c- c=rs&lang=en&#. 5. FIEP (n.d.). FIEP in Europe. Retrieved on 21.11.2018. from http://fiepeurope.eu/management.php. 6. FIEP Srbija (n.d.). Fiep Serbia. Preuzeto 21.11.2018. sa http://fiep-serbia.net/. 7. Ilić, S., Mijatović, S. (2006). History of physical culture. Belgrade: D.T.A. TRADE. 8. International Olympic Committee (2018). Olympic Studies Centre. Olympic Studies in the World. Re- trieved on 19.11.2018. https://www.olympic.org/olympic-studies-centre/olympic-studies-in-the-world. 9. ISHPES (n.d.). International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport. Retrieved on 19.11.2018. from http://www.ishpes.org/web/index.php. 10. Johnes, M. (2004). Putting the History into Sport: On Sport History and Sport Studies in the U.K. Journal of Sport History. Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 145-160. 11. Kyle, D. G. (1991). E. Norman Gardiner: historian of ancient sport. The International Jourbal of History of Sport. Vol. 8, Iss. 1, pp. 28-55. 12. Lazović, Ž., Mitrović, D. i Mitrović, I. (2017). University heritage of Serbia. Belgrade: University of Bel- grade. 13. Mijatović, S. (2005). Museum of Physical Culture of Serbia, Faculty of Sports and Physical Education in Belgrade. Physical Culture, vol. 59, pp. 49-51. 14. NASPE (2010). Guidance document. Suggested Guidelines for Teaching Undergraduate History of Phys- ical Education and Sport in a Physical Education Teacher Education Program. Retrieved on 31.10.2018. from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544272.pdf. 15. Njegovan, D., Mustedanagić, L. (2016). Guide through the museums of Serbia. Novi Sad: Museum Society of Serbia. 16. Pavlović, M. (2014). The development of the Olympic Museum is observed through the prism of the celebration of the centenary of Olympism in Serbia. Culture, vol.144, pp. 154-171. 17. Šiljak, V. (2007). History of sports. Belgrade: Faculty of Management in Sport. 18. Živanović, N. (1987). History of physical culture. Niš: NIŠ University & Prosveta.

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NAUČNE USTANOVE I ORGANIZACIJE KOJE SE BAVE ISTORIJOM SPORTA

Violeta Šiljak Evropski centar za mir i razvoj Univerziteta za mir UN, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Primetno je da se pristup izučavanju istorije sporta razlikuje kako u državama gde je ova nauka izuzetno cenjena1, tako i na našim prostorima. U SAD-u se prema Nastavnom planu i programu koji propisuje njihova Nacionalna asocijacija za sport i fizičko obrazovanje izučava opšta istorija sporta zaključno sa XIX vekom što čini oko 2/3 gradiva, dok se istorija američkog (nacionalnog) sporta izučava od XVIII veka pa do danas, što čini preostalu trećinu gradiva (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544272.pdf). Interesantna je činjenica da je jedno poglavlje posvećeno liderima vezanim za sportsko obrazovanje u SAD-u, kao i poglavlje o osnivanju i radu specifičnog sportskog tela koje se bavi fitnesom mladih, odnosno, njihovim zdravljem, što se sprovodi putem tzv. „testova fizičkog zravlja“.

U Velikoj Britaniji se pored opšte istorije sporta naročito izučava društveni aspekt istorije sporta, odnosno, uzročno-posledična veza na sam razvoj sporta sa ciljem da se sagleda razvoj sporta u bliskoj budućnosti (https://global.oup.com/ academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-sports-history-978019985891 0?cc=rs&lang=en&#). Na našim prostorima pristup izučavanju istorije sporta/fizičke kulture bio je istoriograf- skog karaktera (Živanović, 1987; Ilić i Mijatović, 2006; Šiljak, 2007 i dr.). Svakako da ovi udžbenici pred- stvaljaju validnu bazu za savremeniji pristup izučavanju istorije sporta. Budući da se problem israživanja odnosi na naučne ustanove i organizacije koje se bave istorijom sporta, postavlja se logično pitanje – koje su to ustanove i organizacije. Kako je istorija sporta interdisciplinarni predmet, tako je pored predmetno usko orijentisanih naučnih ustanova, prisutna široka lepeza onih ustanova koje imaju dodirne tačke sa istorijom sporta. Izabrane su neke od značajnijih ustanova, da se ukaže na njihov rad i doprinos u rasvetljavanju istorijskih činjenica prilikom istraživanja.

Metode

U ovom istraživanju su se pored nauĉnh metoda koje se koriste u istraživanjima u oblasti istorije, metode teorijske analize, koristile metode kojima su se logiĉki doveli u sklad prikupljeni podaci o istraživa- nom fenomenu.

Rezultati sa diskusijom

Izučavanje istorije sporta nije moguće izdvojiti od istorije telesnog vežbanja u širem smislu, kao ni od istorije fizičkog obrazovanja (vaspitanja), jer su međosobno uslovljene jedna drugom. Nameće se pitanje, kada i kako je započelo istraživanje u oblasti sporta? Značajno je navesti da kako u svetu, tako i kod nas, istraživanja u oblasti istorije sporta najčešće sprovode istraživači (profesori) sa Fakulteta sportskih nauka (predmetni profesori), kao i sa Filozofskog fakulteta (arheolozi, istoričari i sociolozi2).

Na samom početku istraživanja u oblasti istorije sporta, svakako je bio najzanimljiviji prostor antičke Grčke i sportskih nadmetanja koja su se odvijala na njihovim Svečanim igrama posvećenim različitim božan- stvima. U svom istraživanju Kil navodi Normana Gardinera (1864-1930), kao istoričara koji je neosporno imao najveći uticaj na sve ostale koji su se bavili istraživanjima (Kyle, 1991,28). Isti autor dalje navodi, da je Gardiner bio uzor H. A. Harisu i H. W. Pleketu, takođe poznatim istraživačima istorije sporta.

Arheolozi su takođe, pokazali zanimanje za istoriju sporta i moguću rekonstrukciju sportskih nadmetanja vršeći otkopavanja u Grčkoj. Među poznatijima su Nikolaos Jaluris (Nicholaos Yalouris, 1918-2011), koji je pored toga što je bio univerzitetski profesor, bio i direktor Nacionalnog muzeja Grčke i glavni (odgov- orni) inspektor za grčke antikvitete i prof. Stefan Miler (Stephen Miller), emeritus profesor na Berkliju (SAD), zahvaljujući kome imamo predstavu kako su se nekada odvijala nadmetanja na Nemejskim igrama (sl.1).

1 SAD i Velika Britanija su jedine države čiji se naučni časopisi iz oblasti istorije sporta nalaze na T&R sci listi, što govori o njihovoj posvećenosti radu u ovoj oblasti. 2 U Srbiji se na Filozofskom fakultetu u okviru posebnim departmanata izučavaju arheologija, istorija i sociologija.

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Slika 1. Prof. S. Miler sa studentom u Nemeji (ulaz u stadion)

Kod nas je uspostavljanjem Muzeja sporta 1979. godine, nastalog iz Zbirke za istoriju fizičke kulture značajan doprinos razvoju istorije sporta dao pok. mr Jovan Vanja Petrović3 (Mijatović, 2005, 50; Pavlović, 2014, 155; Lazović, Mitrović, D. i Mitrović, I., 2017, 117).

Istraživače sa Fakulteta sportskih nauka je u početku više interesovala oblast istorije sporta povezana sa masovnim telesnim vežbanjem i posledično, uticajem na fizičko obrazovanje budućih narašta- ja. Kasnije se proširilo interesovanje i na nastanak i razvoj trenažnog procesa i pojedinih sportskih grana. Smatraju se takođe, pionirima istraživanja u oblasti istorije sporta (Johnes, 2004, 146). Dej i Vamplu ističu da istraživači u oblasti sporta iz istorijskih obrazovnih institucija su usredsređeni na koncept, dok su oni sa sportskih obrazovnih institucija usmereni na istoriju sportskih disciplina i istoriju telesnih aktivnosti (Day&- Vamplew, 2015, 1722). Dalje, oni naglašavaju da ove dve grupe istraživača ostvaruju sve bolju saradnju i da će se u bliskoj budućnosti približiti jedna drugoj.

Današnji difuzni pristup istoriji sporta može stvoriti konfuziju kod običnog čitaoca, s obzirom da je u oblasti istraživanja istorije sporta, kao i u samom sportu, a i u drugim sferama života prisutan momenat nadmetanja. Ako se setimo da su nam stari Grci upravo iz ovog razloga, nadmetanja u svim oblastima, ostavili pored sportskih i mnoge druge svetske vrednosti – arhitektonske građevine, vajarska dela i dr., onda se ova činjenica može i pozitivno okarakterisati. Međutim, budući stručnjaci u oblasti sporta bi morali kritički da pristupe proučavanju ove oblasti. To podrazumeva da treba objedniti što više različitih dostupnih materijala i sagledati problem istraživanja iz što većeg broja perspektiva. U mnoštvu današnjih materijala koji se bave ovom problematikom, pored već pomenutih istoričara, arheologa, predmetnih profesora sportskih fakulteta, primetno je prisutvo radova sociologa, filosofa, geografa, antropologa. Međutim, nikako se ne smeju zanemariti doprinosi umetnosti u sportu, koji su nam ostavili tragove, pa i smernice za određeni istraživani pojam. Čuveno Mironovo delo Diskobolosa ili pisani Andrićev trag, kao svedoka vremena, o košarci na našim pros- torimu su samo neki od njih (Andrić, 2008. 292). Ovi primeri nas navode na zaključak da se istoriji sporta mora prići interdisciplinarno. U rasvetljavanju pristupa proučavanju istorije sporta, neizostavno je napomenuti da istraživanja moraju biti zasnovana na metodologiji koja se primenjuje u istoriji kao nauci. Takođe, poznavanje istorijskih izvora, odnosno, njihove kritike je obavezno.

Na postavljeno pitanje - koje su to naučne ustanove koje se usko bave istraživanjima u oblasti istorije sporta, ne prateći hijerarhiju, već princip da se ide od poznatog, ka manje poznatom, polazimo od fakulteta sportskog profila jer jedino oni u svom nastavnom planu i programu imaju predmet koji se zove istorija sporta, odnosno, istorija fizičke kulture. U svetu postoji veliki broj sportskih fakulteta i kao i ostali fakulteti/ univerziteti, imaju svoju rang listu koja se ažurira na godišnjem nivou. To podrazumeva vrednovanje njihovog istraživačkog opusa. Najpriznatije su sledeće rang liste: Šangajska lista, zatim, Times Higher Education lista (Velika Britanija), QS rang lista (Quacquarelli Symonds, Velika Britanija), Lajden rang lista (Leiden Ranking, Holandija) i Webometrics (CSIC, Španija). U Srbiji postoji više državnih i privatnih fakulteta sportske orijentacije i oni takođe, poput svetskih, imaju u 3 Vanja Petrović, arheolog, bio je prvi kustos Muzeja sporta (tada Muzeja fizičke kulture). Muzej fizičke kulture je 1992. g. u Barseloni osvojio zlatnu medalju na „Olimphilexy“ za najbolju izložbu filatelije, zahvaljujući entuzijazmu Vanje Petrovića (Pavlović, 2014:156).

24 UDK: 796.061(091) svom nastavnom planu i programu predmet istorija sporta (fizičke kulture). Predmetni i drugi nastavnici bave se istraživanjem istorije sporta kako za potrebe nastave, tako i za učešće na domaćim i međunarodnim naučnim kongresima, ili objavljivanje radova u naučnim časopisima. Pored njih, kao što je u uvodu već reče- no, u poslednje vreme primetan je povećan broj radova istraživača sa Filozofskog fakulteta - odsek istorija.

Osnovna orijentacija Instituta kao naučne ustanove je upravo istraživački rad. Najpoznatiji je OSC (Olympic Studies Centre) koji se nalazi u Lozani i bavi se istraživanjima u oblasti istorije olimpijskog pokreta (sl. 2).

Slika 2. Biblioteka OSC u Lozani

U svetu ima još 43 centra za istraživanje u oblasti istorije olimpijskog pokreta priznatih od strane MOK (https://www.olympic.org/olympic-studies-centre/olympic-studies-in-the-world). Sa istom orijentacijom istraživanja, kao posebna istraživačka ustanova od svetskog značaja je Međunarodna olimpijska akademija (International Olympic Academy) čije sedište se nalazi u Olimpiji, u Grčkoj (sl.3).

Slika 3. Međunarodna olimpijska akademija u Olimpiji

Veoma organizovani međunarodni instituti koji imaju posebne studijske programe, organizuju konferencije, bave se očuvanjem sportskog nasleđa su Međunarodni centar za istoriju sporta i kulturu pri De Monfort univerzitetu iz Lestera (Velika Britanija), kao i Međunarodni institut za istoriju sporta (IISOH) iz Pen- silvanije (SAD). U Srbiji postoje dva državna i nekoliko privatnih sportskih instituta koji su uglavnim orijenti- sani na istraživanja vezana za trenažnu tehnologiju. Međutim, i oni mogu dosta pomoći vezano za arhivske podatke kada se vrši neko istraživanje u oblasti istorije sporta. Zavod za sport i medicinu sporta RS i Pokra- jinski zavod za sport i medicinu sporta su najpoznatiji državni instituti za sport. Od mnogo većeg značaja za istraživanja istorije sporta su instituti istorijske orijentacije: Balkanološki institut, Istorijski institut, Vizantološki institut i dr. Pored fakulteta i instituta, arhivi, kao ustanove koje čuvaju, prikupljaju i istražuju, danas se takođe

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smatraju ustanovama od značaja za sprovođenje istraživanja. U Srbiji su među onima koji poseduju znača- jnu građu za istraživanje istorije sporta sledeći arhivi: Arhiv Jugoslavije, Arhiv Srbije, Arhiv SANU, Vojni arhiv Ministarstva odbrane RS, Arhiv Jugoslovenske kinoteke, kao i svi istorijski i lokalni arhivi u našoj zemlji.

Muzeji, kao kulturne i naučne ustanove su od ogromnog značaja za istraživače. Pored muzeja sporta, arheološki muzeji, muzeji istorije i dr. poseduju muzealije (predmete, arhivsku i bibliotečku građu), koja je od značaja za istoriju sporta. Ne treba izgubiti iz vida ni arheološke lokalitete, tzv. „muzeje na otvorenom“, poput Koloseuma u Rimu, arheološkog kompleksa u Olimpiji (sl. 4) i mnogih drugih.

Slika 4. Arheološki lokalitet u Olimpiji

Bilo da su na otvorenom (Olimpija, Rim) ili zatvorenom prostoru (stalne postavke), ili su virtuelni, evidentno je da su kako istraživačima iz struke, zanimljivi i širokim masama pa su između ostalog uvršćeni u mnogobrojne turističke ponude. Među poznatijim svetskim muzejima sporta su: Nejsmitov košarkaški hol slavnih (Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame), Muzej tenisa u Vimbldonu (Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum), Olimpijski muzej (Olympic Museum in Lausanne), sl.5, Kamp Nou muzej FK Barselona (Camp Nou Museum), Poljski muzej sporta i turizma (Polish Sports & Tourism Museum), sl. 6, Muzej FK Mančester (Manchester United Museum), Ferari muzej (Ferrari Museum) i dr.

Slika 5. Olimpijski muzej u Lozani Slika 6. Poljski muzej sporta i turizma

U Vodiču kroz muzeje Srbije mogu se naći 3 muzeja, odnosno, Muzej sporta FSFV i Muzejske zbirke FK Crvene Zvezde i FK Partizana (Njegovan, Mustedanagić, 2016, 304, 344-347). Muzej sporta nema izložbeni prostor, već samo depo, tako da nije dostupan široj javnosti. Zahvaljujući naporima Ivane Mitrović, sadašnjeg kustosa Muzeja sporta, ovaj problem se rešava kroz organizovanje izložbi u holu Fakulteta, ili se organizuju gostujuće izložbe, kao i radionice za decu. U okviru manifestacije „Dani Evropske baštine 2018“, koja je održana u Beogradu, u holu FSFV bila je postavljena izložba (sl.7). Nedostatak izložbenog prostora nije smetnja da se dobije pomoć kustosa za sprovođenje istraživanja u oblasti istorije sporta.

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Slika 7. Nosač olimpijskog plamena iz 1936. g.

U monografiji Univerzitetsko nasleđe Srbije, nailazimo na podatak o postojanju Muzeja sportai fizičkog vaspitanja Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Nišu (Lazović, Mitrović, D. i Mitrović, I., 2017, 209). Za nastanak zbirke ovog muzeja zaslužan je prof. Nenad Živanović koji je sa studentima i kolegama organizovao i prikupio veliki broj predmeta i dokumenata koji su od značaja za istoriju sporta.

Istraživači koji se bave istraživanjima u oblasti istorije sporta/fizičke kulture organizovani su kroz razne asocijacije ili udruženja, i to na svetskom/kontinentalnom nivou. Pored organizovanja godišnjih kongresa na kojima se prezentiraju naučna dostignuća i razmenjuju naučne misli, ova udruženja podstiču mlade istraživače kroz različite grant programe ili nagrade. Takođe, insistira se na objavljivanju doktorskih disertacija i naučnih radova na engleskom jeziku radi globalne vidljivosti i dostupnosti rezultata njihovih istraživanja. ISHPES (International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport) je 1989.g. formiran spajanjem dve organizacije: International Committee for the History of Physical Education and Sport (ICOSH) i The International Association for the History of Physical Education (HISPA) (http://www.ishpes.org/web/index. php). Udruženja sportske istorije iz Australije (ASSH), Evrope (CESH), Severne Amerike (NASSH), Velike Britanije (BSSH), Finske (FSSH), Francuske (FSSH), Japana (JSSH) kao i Međunarodno udruženje koje se bavi istorijom olimpizma (ISOH) su članice ISHPES-a. Iako ISHPES podstiče saradnju sa istraživačima iz celog sveta, ovaj kratki pregled članica ukazuje na činjenicu na kojim kontinentima/državama je cenjena oblast istorije sporta. FIEP (Federation Internationale d’ Education Physique) je međunarodna organizacija za fizičko obrazovanje osnovana 1923. godine. Veoma su aktivni u celom svetu i to kroz više sekcija (fizičko obrazovanje i sport u školama, sport za sve, rekreacija, fizičko vaspitanje i istorija sporta i dr). Kroz svoj evropski ogranak, FIEP Europe, sekcija za istoriju fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta daje svoj doprinos u oblasti is- traživanja istorije fizičke kulture/sporta (http://fiepeurope.eu/management.php). Značajno je istaći da se sekcija vodi kao FIEP Srbija, jer su začetnici ideje da se ona oformi bili upravo istraživači iz naše zemlje (http:// fiep-serbia.net/). Članovi sekcije u saradnji sa kolegama iz cele Evrope bave se publikovanjem monografija o različitim sportskim granama u Evropi. Centar za sportsko nasleđe Jugoistočne Evrope je NGO koja se se bavi istraživanjima u oblasti istorije sporta, funkcioniše preko društvenih mreža (https://www.facebook.com/ CSNCSH/). Monografiju „Sport pamti“ su objavili uz pomoć Britanske ambasade u Beogradu.

Zaključak

Istorija sporta, kao deo opšte istorije koja proučava fenomen sporta, vremenom se konstituisala kao samostalna nastavna i naučna disciplina. Izučavanje istorije sporta treba da omogući studentima izuča- vanje nastanka i razvoja fenomena sporta, kao i da shvate zakonitosti nastanka i razvoja njegovih pojedinih pojavnih oblika i usvoje osnovna metodološka znanja o istraživanju istorije sporta. Takođe, izučavanje problematike sporta kroz istoriju bi trebalo da podigne svest studenata o evoluciji sporta i doprinese boljem razumevanju današnjih problema u sportu. Kako je istorija sporta interdisciplinarni predmet, tako je pored predmetno usko orijentisanih naučnih ustanova, prisutna široka lepeza onih ustanova koje imaju dodirne tačke sa istorijom sporta. U radu su prezentovane neke od značajnijih ustanova i organizacija koje se bave istorijom sporta u cilju da se ukaže na njihov rad i doprinos u rasvetljavanju istorijskih činjenica prilikom istraživanja. Arhivi, muzeji i instituti su zanemareni u edukativnom pogledu. Značajno je naglasiti da muzeji kao kulturne i naučne ustanove su od ogromnog značaja za istraživače u oblasti istorije sporta i za razliku od svetskih, na našim prostorima nisu dovoljno iskorišćeni u edukativnu svrhu.

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Literatura

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ANTHROPOMETRY RELATIONSHIPS AND RUNNING RESULTS AT 1500 METERS

Goran Bošnjak1; Vladimir Jakovljević1; Gorana Tešanović1; Branko Škof2; Milinko Dabović3 1 University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, Slovenia 3 University of Belgrade - Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Needs of practical application of training process of runners require certain relations of anthropological characteristics to be shaped towards an ultimate success in particular athletic disciplines. Precise determination of anthropological characteristics is of great importance in a proper selection and orientation to specific athletic disciplines. Also, during the training process, greater attention should be paid to those anthropological characteristics which are associated with a final result. Knowing the importance of certain anthropological characteristics and their impact on a final result in athletic disciplines, one can better approach the development of the training process itself. All of the above requires a need to form one precise specification equation for individual athletic disciplines. However, in practice, to date, these specification equations have not been definitively and precisely developed. The biggest problems in developing these specification equations are related to a gender and age of an athlete. For the groups of athletic disciplines, as well as for each individual athletic discipline, there is a characteristic morphological structure, i.e. a somatotype, which have so far been precisely defined. The Heath-Carter somatotype method is the most commonly used in research to date, with the purpose of a complete description of the human body. This method is used in the overall description of the following three components: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy, which describe in detail and accurately the characteristics of the human body, in this case it applies to athletes involved in athletics. Analyzing this method, it is noticeable that runners have a balanced mesomorphic then ectomorphic with a minimal endomorphic component, with sprinters slightly more mesomorphic than middle- and long-distance runners (Carter, 1984). Very important success factors in athletics are body size and body type, so important that even the consti- tutional types of great-grandfathers should not be overlooked in the selection of young athletes (De Gray, Levine, & Carter, 1974). Also, a higher percentage of fat adversely affects athletic performance. This is especially pronounced in disciplines in which body leaves the ground, such as in jumping, or in high acceleration above ground, such as sprinting, running over hurdles and long-distance running (Wilmore, 1976). In some athletic disciplines, a certain value of displaying strength as a motor ability is required in order to achieve superior results, (Babin, Bavcević, Moretti, 2006). Based on the research done so far, it is clear that accurate determining of anthropological characteristics of athletes is important, because only in this way their sports development can be influenced, and therefore the achievement of top results. Precise determination of the full spectrum of specification equations and benchmarks would allow easier orientation of young athletes as well as easier monitoring of training effects and a possibility of timely interventions in the training process (Rakovic, Stankovic, Pavlovic, Simeonov & Petkovic, 2015; Milanovic, I., Milanovic, D. & Harasin, 2013). Of the large number of anthropological characteristics found in a nature of an athlete, this paper analyzes morphological characteristics, namely only one part of it, a longitudinal and transversal dimensionality of a skeleton. Several authors have dealt with defining morphological characteristics. The morphological characteristics of human anthropological status are most commonly understood to mean a certain system of basic anthropometric latent dimensions (Malacko, 1991), while (Malacko and Radjo, 2004) state that these include processes of growth and human ontogenetic development. The aim of the paper was to determine certain relations between the anthropometric dimensions (longitudinal and transversal dimensionality of the skeleton) and achieved result of running at 1500 meters, so that the obtained results can be applied in potential selection of athletes, that is, proper choice for adequate athletic discipline.

Methods

In order to obtain the measurement results required for this research, valid tests were used to evaluate the results of running at 1500 meters and the anthropometric status of the respondents. The evaluation of the 1500 meter running results was simple, where the respondents ran the 1500 meter distance according to their capabilities. The anthropometric measures recommended by the International Biological Program were used to assess the anthropometric status of the respondents. Of the many anthropometric features from the domain of longitudinal dimensionality of the skeleton, the following were analyzed in this paper: body height,

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leg length, ankle length, lower leg length and foot length, while the following were analyzed from the domain of transverse dimensionality of the skeleton: bicrystalline range, diameter of knee joint, diameter of ankle joint and foot width. Running time at 1500 meters was measured as follows. The respondents ran the 1500 meter distance at an athletic stadium that met all the requirements for valid time and distance measurement (lap length and track length). The measurement was carried out in the afternoon at a temperature of 20°C. The respondents had sports equipment that did not deter them from achieving the best results. They ran in groups of ten, each with approximately the same physical capabilities. Running time at 1500 meters was measured manually with valid time measuring instruments. The time achieved by each respondent is entered and rounded to the first higher decimal. The measurement of anthropometric characteristics was performed in accordance with the International Biological Program (IBP) and carried out in a gym in the afternoon. The respondents were in sports equipment. Standard anthropometric instruments, calibrated before each measurement, were used. Prior to the measurement, the anthropometric levels and points necessary for proper measurements were accurately determined and marked. The following instruments were used to accomplish this program: an anthropometer according to Martin, a sliding caliper, a metal measuring tape and a pelvime- ter according to Martin.

The sample was determined to be intentional with respect to the age of the respondents, and random with respect to the choice of each respondent who participated in this research. Thus, the group of respondents consisted of students of the second grade of secondary school, age (16 years +/- 6 months). The sample was also divided into two groups, ie one group consisted of respondents who had a value of all anthropomotory measures below the total average value (arithmetic mean), while another group consisted of respondents who had a value of all anthropometric measures above the total average ( anthropometric means). The research covered several secondary schools in Banja Luka. The sample consisted of 214 respondents. All respondents were not involved in some form of sporting activity and were subjected to medical examination. Comparative statistics were used to process and analyze the measurement results and draw conclusions from the obtained results. The statistical program SPSS (version 17.0) was used in the processing.

Results

Table 1. Ratio of longitudinal dimensionalities of skeletons and running results at 1500 m

body upper leg lower leg leg group % % % % foot length % height length length length 1 158,00-175,51 0,00 48,20-56,19 0,00 39,30-46,35 0,00 89,0-100,9 0,00 23,50-26,66 0,00 2 175,52-193,00 -6,04 56,20-64,20 -5,54 46,36-53,40 -0,52 101-112,9 -6,71 26,67-33,00 -9,64

Diagram 1. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to body height of respondents

Diagram 2. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to upper leg length of respondents Refer- ences

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Diagram 3. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to lower leg length of respondents

Diagram 4. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to leg length of respondents

Diagram 5. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to foot length of respondents

Diagram 6. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to longitudinal dimensionality of skeletons of respondents

Respondents’ results when processed by valid statistical procedures (descriptive statistics) were divided into two groups. One group consisted of respondents who had a value of all anthropometric measures below the total mean value (arithmetic mean), while the other group consisted of respondents who had a value of all anthropometric measures above the total mean value (arithmetic mean). For each group of respondents, in relation to the longitudinal dimensionality interval, the ratio of the achieved running result at 1500 meters was calculated, which is shown as a percentage. The body height of the respondents ranged from 158,00 to 193,00 centimeters, the length of the upper leg in the interval from 48,20 to 64,20 centimeters, the length of the lower leg from 39,30 to 53,40 centimeters, the leg length from 89,00 to 112,90 centimeters and foot length from 23,50 to 33,00 centimeters. 31 UDK: 796.42:572.087

Table 2. Ratio of transversal dimensionalities of skeletons and running results at 1500 m

bicrystalline diameter of diameter of foot groups % % % % range knee joint ankle joint width 1 23,50-27,75 -3,81 7,75-9,38 -2,42 5,86-7,15 -8,86 7,76-9,49 -5,22 2 27,76-32,00 0,00 9,39-10,99 0,00 7,16-8,45 0,00 9,50-11,20 0,00

Diagram 7. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to bicrystalline range of respondents

Diagram 8. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to diameter of knee joint of respondents

Diagram 9. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to diameter of ankle joint of respondents

Diagram 10. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to width of feet of respondents

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Diagram 11. Percentage of achieving better running results at 1500m relative to transversal dimensionality of skeletons of respondents

As for the transversal dimensionalities, as in the previous analysis, for this morphological characteristic, in relation to the interval of dimension values, the ratio of the achieved running result at 1500 meters was also calculated, which is also shown here as a percentage. The bicrystalline range ranged from 23,50 to 32,00 centimeters, the diameters of the knee joint and the ankle joint, in the intervals from 7,75 to 10,99 centimeters, and from 5,86 to 8,45 centimeters, while the foot width interval ranged from 7,76 to 11,20 centimeters.

Discussion

The obtained results showed that respondents with higher values of longitudinal dimensionalities also achieved better results in running at 1500 meters. Thus, the respondents who had a body height in the 175,52-193,00 cm interval achieved 6.04% better results in running at 1500 meters, compared to the respondents with a body height in the 158,00-175,51 cm interval. A greater length of lower extremities also showed better running results at 1500 meters, so the respondents with lower extremities lengths in the interval of 101-112,9 cm achieved 6.71% better results in running at 1500 meters, compared to respondents with lower extremities length in the interval of 89,00-100,90 cm. The respondents with longer upper legs and lower legs also achieved better results at 1500 meters. The group of respondents with the length of the upper leg in the interval from 56,20 to 64,20 cm achieved better results by 5.54% than the other group of respondents whose length of the upper leg length ranged from 48,20-56,19 cm. While the group with lower leg length ranging from 46,36 to 53,40 cm performed better by 0.52% than the other group with lower leg length interval from 39,30 to 46,35 cm. The last measure analyzed was foot length, where the respondents were also divided into two groups with respect to this dimension. Thus, the respondents with a foot length in the interval from 26,67 to 33,00 cm achieved better results by 9,64% than the first group that had a foot length from 23,50 to 26,66 cm. From the previous analyzes, it can be observed that the longitudinal dimensionality of the skeleton, in this case of the lower extremities, plays a certain role in achieving running results at medium distances, specifically at 1500 meters, that is, it can be observed that the respondents with higher values of longitudinal dimensions achieved better results. When the obtained results of one of the longitudinal dimensions, that is, body height, are compared in this study with the results of the finalists of the Individual Junior Champion- ships (U23) in the 1500m discipline, held in 2017, and the World Athletics Championships held in the same year, we can notice certain similarities. The finalists of the Individual Junior Championships in the 1500m discipline averaged 184,25 cm (European athletics, 2017), while the World Championship finalists in the same discipline averaged 183,91 cm (World athletics, 2017). The obtained analysis of the results is in favor of the conducted research, because the competitors with body height, which is approximately in the interval of this research (184,28-193,00 cm), achieved the results that brought them to the finals of the European and World Championships. Another detail from the World Championship is in support of this research. It refers to the fact that when analyzing the World Championship finalists at 1500 meters, the competitors with an average height of 187 cm (6 competitors) achieved on average better results (3:35;66) than lower competitors (3:36;19) who had an average body height of 180,83 cm (6 competitors), that is, they achieved better results by 0.24%. Although these are small differences, they should be taken into account, of course, with all those many other parameters that lead to a top result. Similar studies which have addressed the correlation between morphological dimensions and athletic performance (Rakovic, Savanovic, Stankovic, Pavlovic, Simeonov, and Petkovic, 2015; Milanovic, I., Milanovic, D. and Harasin, 2013; Tesanovic, Jakovljevic, and Bosnjak, 2013; Jakovljevic, Bijelic, Jovanovic, Bozic and Vukic, 2013; Jakovljevic, Ljubojevic, Karalic, Gerdi- jan and Vukic, 2014;), have highlighted the great importance these dimensions have on the result. Based on all these studies, it can be concluded that this parameter should not be excluded either during the selection or when planning the training for the selected sample. The second group of anthropological dimensions

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analyzed was from the domain of transversal dimensionality of the skeleton. The results of the research indicate that the respondents with lower values (diameter of knee joint and ankle joint, bicrystalline range and foot width) achieved better results in running at 1500 meters. The respondents with a bicrystalline range in the interval of 23,50-27,75 cm achieved 3.81% better results in running at 1500 meters, compared to the respondents with a bicrystalline range in the interval of 27,76-32,00 cm. While the respondents with a knee joint diameter of 7,75-9,38 cm performed 2.42% better in running at 1500 meters than the respondents with a larger knee joint diameter (Table 2). The same case was observed in the repondents with smaller ankle diameter and smaller foot width. They performed 8.86% better in running at 1500 meters than the respondents with larger ankle diameter, or 5.22% better than the respondents with greater foot width.

Conclusion

The aim of the research was to investigate the relations between some anthropometric characteristics and the results of running at 1500 meters, so that the obtained results could be applied in the eventual selection of athletes, that is, for a proper determination for an adequate athletic discipline. The obtained research results indicate that certain measures of the longitudinal and transversal dimensionality of skeleton are highly correlated with the achieved result of running at 1500 meters. Based on the obtained data and results in this paper, and comparison with similar research, it can be concluded that the parameters of the longitudinal and transverse dimensionality of skeleton should not be excluded either during selection or during training planning for a selected sample. The data from this research further indicate that higher values of longitudinal dimensionality (body height, upper leg length, lower leg length, leg length and foot length), or smaller values of the transversal dimensionality of skeleton (bicrystalline range, knee joint diameter, ankle joint diameter and foot width) have positive correlations with the middle distances running results. If the selection of future competitors is taken seriously and with great care, and given these parameters, it can be expected that future competitors will also achieve good running results at the middle distances. The data from this research could find certain use in the selection of athletics competitors, as only proper selection can have more success in the future training process.

References

1. Babin, J., Bavcevic, T., & Moretti, V. (2006). Canonical relations of latent morphological structure and power variables of female students aged six to seven. Proceedings of the 15th Summer School of Kine- siology of the Republic of Croatia, p.p (62-66). 2. Carter, J. (1984). Physical structure of Olympic Athlete, Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic Athlete. Basel: Karger. 3. De Gray, A. C., Levine, L., & Carter, J. (1974). Genetic, anthropological and mental adolescence group. Proc. Conf. on adolescence. Cleaveland, Ohio, U.S.A. 4. European athletics (2017). European athletics U23 Championships Bydgoszcz 2017. Retrived from http://www.european-athletics.org/competitions/european-athletics-u23-championships/history/ year=2017/results/index.html 5. World athletics (2017). IAAF World Championships London 2017. Retrived from https://www.iaaf. org/results/iaaf-world-championships-in-athletics/2017/iaaf-world-championships-london-2017-5151/ men/1500-metres/final/result#resultheader 6. Jakovljevic, V., Bijelic, S., Jovanovic, S., Bozic, I. i Vukic, Z. (2013). Relationship between morphological characteristics and impact of coordination and explosive strength of students 12 years old. Scientific Conference FIS COMMUNICATIONS 2013 in Physical Education, sport and recreation and I Interna- tional Scientific Conference, Book of Proceedings, Nis, (str. 234-246). 7. Jakovljević, V., Ljubojević, A., Karalić, T., Gerdijan, N. i Vukić, Ž. (2014). Relacije morfoloških karakteristika i maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika učenika četvrtog razreda osnovne škole u odnosu na pol. Fizička kultura, Naučni časopis iz oblasti sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, 68(1) (63-74). 8. Malacko, J. (1991): Osnove sportskog treninga, Novi Sad: Julijan Malacko. 9. Malacko, J. i Rađo, I. (2004): Tehnologija sporta i sportskog treninga, Sarajevo: Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Fakultet sporta i tjelesnog odgoja. 10. Milanović, I., Milanović, D., & Harasin, D. (2013). Differences between best olympic results and best world athletics events’ throws women accomplished in the olympic games’ years. Acta Kinesiologica 7(2) 12-18. 11. Raković, A., Savanović, V., Stanković, D., Pavlović, R., Simeonov, A., Petković, E. (2015). Analysis of the elite athletes somatotypes. Acta Kinesiologica 9(1) 47-53. 12. Tešanović, G., Jakovljević, V. i Bošnjak G. (2013). Relations Between some Anthropometric Dimensions with the Results Achieved in Shot put and Javelin Throw Bratislava, (str. 364-367). 13. Wilmore, J. (1976), Athletic Training and Physical Fitness: Physiological Principles of the Conditioning Process, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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RELACIJE ANTROPOMETRIJE I REZULTATA TRČANJA NA 1500 METARA

Goran Bošnjak1; Vladimir Jakovljević1; Gorana Tešanović1; Branko Škof2; Milinko Dabović3 1 Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci, Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta, Banja Luka, Bosna i Hercegovina 2 Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport, Ljubljana, Slovenija 3 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Potrebe praktične primjene trenažnog procesa trkača iziskuju da se uobliče određene relacije an- tropoloških karakteristika na konačni uspijeh u pojedinim atletskim disciplinama. Precizno određivanje antro- poloških obilježja ima veliki značaj u pravilnoj selekciji i orijentaciji prema određenim atletskim disciplinama. Takođe, u toku trenažnog procesa veću pažnju treba posvetiti onim antropološkim karakteristikama koje su povezane sa konačnim rezultatom. Poznavajući važnost pojedinih antropoloških karakteristika i njihov uticaj na konačan rezultat u atletskim disciplinama, može se kvalitetnije prići izradi samog trenažnog procesa. Sve navedeno iziskuje potrebu da se formira jedna precizna jednačina specifikacije za pojedine atletske dicipline. Međutim, u praksi do danas nisu definitivno i precizno izrađene ove jednačine specifikacije. Najveći problemi prilikom izrade ovih jednačina specifikacije odnose se na pol i uzrast sportista. Za grupe atletskih disciplina, ali i za svaku pojedinu atletsku disciplinu karakteristična je i odgovarajuća morfološka struktura, odnosno, somatotip, koji su do sada dosta precizno utvrđeni. U dosadašnjim istraživanjima se najčešće koristi Heath-Carterov somatotip metoda, koja ima svrhu cjelokupnog opisa ljudskog tijela. Ova metoda primjenuje prilikom cjelokupnog opisa tri komponente: endomorfija, mezomorfija i ektomorfija, koje detaljno i precizno opisuju karakteristike ljudskog tijela, u ovom slučaju to se odnosi na sportiste koji se bave atletikom. Analizirajući ovu metodu, primjećno je da trkači imaju uravnotežen mezomorfni zatim ektomorfni sa minimalnom endomorfnom komponentom, s tim što su sprinteri nešto mezomorfniji od trkača srednjih i dugih staza (Carter, 1984). Vrlo važni faktori uspjeha u atletici jesu veličina tijela i tip tjelesne konstitucije, toliko važni da se čak konstitucionalni tipovi pradjedova ne smiju zanemariti kod selekcije mladih atletičara (De Grayu, Levineu i Carteru, 1974). Takođe, veći postotak masti negativno utiče na atletske rezultate. To je pogotovo izraženo u disciplinama u kojima tijelo napušta podlogu, kao kod skokova, ili je u velikom ubrzanju iznad zemlje, kao kod sprinta, trčanja preko prepona i dugih trčanja (Wilmore, 1976). U nekim atletskim disciplinama potrebna je određena vrijednost ispoljavanja snage kao motoričke sposobnosti u postizanju vrhunskih rezultata, (Babin, Bavčević, Moretti, 2006). Na osnovu dosadašnjih istraživanja, jasna je važnost preciznog utvrđivanja antro- poloških obilježja atletičara jer se samo na taj način može uticati na njihov sportski razvoj, a samim tim i na postizanje vrhunskih rezultata. Preciznim utvrđivanjem cijelog spektra jednačina specifikacije i referentnih vrijednosti omogućila bi se lakša orjentacija mladih atletičara kao i jednostavnije praćenje efekata treninga, te mogućnost pravovreme intervencije u trenažnom procesu (Raković, Stanković, Pavlović, Simeonov i Pet- ković, 2015; Milanović, I., Milanovič, D. i Harasin, 2013). Od velikog broja antropoloških karakteristika koje se nalaze u prirodi samog sportiste, u ovom radu su analizirane morfološke karakteristike, i to samo jedan njen dio, odnosno longitudinalna i transverzalna dimenzionalnost skeleta. Više autora se bavilo definisanjem morfoloških karakteristika. Pod morfološkim karakteristikama antropološkog statusa čovjeka najčešće se podrazumjeva određen sistem osnovnih antropometrijskih latentnih dimenzija (Malacko, 1991), dok (Malacko i Rađo, 2004) navode da se pod tim podra- zumjevaju procesi rasta i čovjekovog ontogenetskog razvoja. Cilj rada je bio da se utvrde određene relacije između antropometrijskih dimenzija (longitudinalna i transverzalna dimenzionalnost skeleta) i ostvarenog rezultata trčanja na 1500 metara, da bi se dobijeni rezultati mogli primjeniti prilikom eventualne selekcije sportista, odnosno pravilnim opredjeljenjem za adekvatnu atletsku disciplinu.

Metode

Da bi se dobili rezultati mjerenja potrebnih za ovo istraživanje, korišteni su validni testovi za procjenu rezultata trčanja na 1500 metara i antropometrijskog statusa ispitanika. Procjena rezultata trčanja na 1500 metara je izvršena jednostavno, gdje su ispitanici u skladu sa svojim mogućnostima pretrčavali dionicu od 1500 metara. Za procjenu antropometrijskog statusa ispitanika korištene su antropometrijske mjere koje preporučuje Internacionalni biološki program. Od velikog broja antropometrijskih karakteristika iz domena longitudinalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta, u ovom istraživanju su analizirane: visina tijela, dužina noge, dužina natkoljenice, dužina potkoljenice i dužina stopala, dok je iz domena transverzalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta analiziran: bikristalni raspon, dijametar zgloba koljena, dijametar skočnog zgloba i širina stopala. Vrijeme

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trčanja na 1500 metara mjereno je na sljedeći način. Ispitanici su trčali distancu od 1500 metara na atletskom stadionu koji ispunjava sve uslove za validno mjerenje vremena i distance (dužina kruga i staza). Mjerenje je vršeno u popodnevnim časovima pri temperaturi od 20 oC. Ispitanicu su imali sportsku opremu koja ih nije sputavala u postizanju što boljih rezultata. Trčali su u grupama od po deset ispitanika koji su bili približno istih fizičkih mogućnosti. Vrijeme trčanja na 1500 metara je mjereno ručno sa validnim mjernim instrumentima koji mjere vrijeme. Za svakog ispitanika je upisano postignuto vrijeme i zaokruživano je na prvu veću decimalu. Mjerenje antropometrijskih karakteristika provedeno je u skladu sa Internacionalnim biološkim programom (IBP) i obavljeno u sportskoj sali u popodnevnim časovima. Ispitanici su biti u sportskoj opremi. Korišteni se standardni antropometrijski instrumenti, baždareni prije svakog mjerenja. Prije mjerenja precizno su bili određeni i obilježeni antropometrijski nivoi i tačke neophodne za pravilna mjerenja. Za ostvarenje ovog programa korišteni su sljedeći instrumentarijumi: antropometar po Martinu, klizni šestar, metalna mjerna traka i pelvimetar po Martinu. Uzorak je određen kao namjeran u odnosu na uzrast ispitanika, a slučajan u odnosu na izbor svakog ispitanika koji je učestvovao u ovom istraživanju. Tako su grupu ispitanika činili učenici drugog razreda srednje škole, uzrasne dobi (16 godina +/- 6 mjeseci). Uzorak je takođe bio podjeljen u dvije grupe, odnosno jednu grupu su činili ispitanici koji su imali vrijednost svih antropomotorijskih mjere ispod ukupne prosječne vrijednosti (aritmetička sredina), dok je drugu grupu ispitanika činili ispitanici koji su imali vrijednost svih antropometrijskih mjera iznad ukupne prosječne vrijednosti (antropometrijske sredine). U istraživanju je bilo obuhvaćeno više srednjih škola u Banja Luci. Uzorak se sastojao od 214 ispitanika. Svi ispitanici nisu bili uključeni u neki vid sportskih aktivnosti i bili su podvrgnuti ljekarskom pregledu. Za obradu i analizu rezultata mjerenja i izvođenje zaključaka iz dobijenih rezultata korištena je komparativna statistika. U obradi je korišten statistički program SPSS (verzija 17.0).

Rezultati

Tabela 1. Odnos longitudinalnih dimenzionalnosti skeleta i rezultata trčanja na 1500 m

tjelesna dužina dužina dužine dužine grupa % % % % % visina natkoljenice potkoljenice noge stopala 1 158,00-175,51 0,00 48,20-56,19 0,00 39,30-46,35 0,00 89,0-100,9 0,00 23,50-26,66 0,00

2 175,52-193,00 -6,04 56,20-64,20 -5,54 46,36-53,40 -0,52 101-112,9 -6,71 26,67-33,00 -9,64

Dijagram 1. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na tjelesnu visinu ispitanika

Dijagram 2. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na dužinu natkoljenice ispitanika

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Dijagram 3. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na dužinu potkoljenice ispitanika

Dijagram 4. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na dužinu noge ispitanika

Dijagram 5. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na dužinu stopala ispitanika

Dijagram 6. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na longitudinalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta ispitanika

Rezultati ispitanika kada su obrađeni validim statističkim procedurama (deskriptivna statistika) bio je podjeljen u dvije grupe. Jednu grupu su činili ispitanici koji su imali vrijednost svih antropomotorijskih mjere ispod ukupne prosječne vrijednosti (aritmetička sredina), dok je drugu grupu ispitanika činili ispitanici koji su imali vrijednost svih antropometrijskih mjera iznad ukupne prosječne vrijednosti (aritmetičke sredine). Za svaku grupu ispitanika, u odnosu na interval longitudinalnih dimenzionalnosti, izračunat je odnos postignutog rezultata trčanja na 1500 metara, koji je prikazan u postotku. Tjelesna visina ispitanika se kretala u intervalu od 158,00 do 193,00 centimetra, dužina natkoljenice u intervalu od 48,20 do 64,20 centimetara, dužina potkoljenice od 39,30 do 53,40 centimetara, dužina noge od 89,00 do 112,90 centimetara, a dužina stopala od 23,50 do 33,00 centimetra.

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Tabela 2. Odnos transverzalnih dimenzionalnosti skeleta i rezultata trčanja na 1500m

bikristalni dijametar dijametar širina grupe % % % % raspon zgloba koljena skočnog zgloba stopala 1 23,50-27,75 -3,81 7,75-9,38 -2,42 5,86-7,15 -8,86 7,76-9,49 -5,22 2 27,76-32,00 0,00 9,39-10,99 0,00 7,16-8,45 0,00 9,50-11,20 0,00

Dijagram 7. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na bikristalni raspon ispitanika

Dijagram 8. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na dijametar zgloba koljena ispitanika

Dijagram 9. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na dijametar skočnog zgloba ispitanika

Dijagram 10. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na širinu stopala ispitanika

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Dijagram 11. Postotak ostvarenja boljih rezultata u trčanju na 1500m u odnosu na transverzalnu dimenzionalnost skeleta ispitanika

Što se tiče transverzalnih dimenzionalnosti, kao i u prethodnoj analizi, i za ovu morfološku karakteristiku, u odnosu na interval vrijednosti dimenzija, izračunat je odnos postignutog rezultata trčanja na 1500 metara, koji je i ovdje prikazan postotkom. Bikristalni raspon se kretao u intervalu od 23,50 do 32,00 centimetra, dijametri zgloba koljena i skočnog zgloba, u intervalu od 7,75 do 10,99 centimetara, odnosno od 5,86 do 8,45 centimetara, dok je interval širine stopala bio u rasponu od 7,76 do 11,20 centimetara.

Diskusija

Dobijeni rezultati su pokazali da su ispitanici sa većim vrijednostima longitudinalnih dimenzionalnosti ostvarili i bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara. Tako su ispitanici koji su imali tjelesnu visinu u intervalu od 175,52-193,00 cm su za 6,04 % ostvarili bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara, u odnosu na ispitanike sa tjelesnom visinom u intervalu od 158,00-175,51 cm. Veća dužina donjeg ekstremiteta je takođe pokazala i bolje rezultate trčanja na 1500 metara, tako da su ispitanici sa dužinom donjeg ekstremiteta u intervalu od 101-112,9 cm su za 6,71% ostvarili bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara, u odnosu na ispitanike sa dužinom donjeg ekstremiteta u intervalu od 89,00-100,90 cm. Ispitanici sa većim dužinama natkoljenice i potkoljenice su takođe ostvarili bolje rezultate na 1500 metara. Grupa ispitanika sa dužinom natkoljenice u intervalu od 56,20 do 64,20 cm je ostvarila bolje rezultate za 5,54% od ostale grupe ispitanika čija se dužina natkoljenice kretala u intervalu od 48,20-56,19 cm. Dok je grupa sa dužinom potkoljenice u intervalu od 46,36 do 53,40 cm je ostvarila bolje rezultate za 0,52% od druge grupe koje je imala interval dužine potkoljenice od 39,30 do 46,35 cm. Posljednja mjera koja je analizirana bila je dužina stopala, gdje su ispitanici bili ta- kođe podjeljeni u dvije grupe u odnosu na ovu dimenziju. Tako su ispitanici sa dužinom stopala u intervalu od 26,67 do 33,00 cm ostvarili bolje rezultate za 9,64% od prve grupe koja je imala dužine stopala od 23,50 do 26,66 cm. Iz predhodnih analiza može se primjetiti da longitudinalna dimenzionalnost skeleta, u ovom slučaju donjih ekstremiteta, ima određenju ulogu u ostvarivanju rezultata trčanja na srednjim distancama, konkretno na 1500 metara, odnosno može se primjetiti da su ispitanici sa većim vrijednosti longitudinalnih dimenzija ostvarili bolje rezultate. Kada se dobijeni rezultati jedne od longitudinalnih dimenzija, odnosno tjelesne visine, u ovom istraživanju uporede sa rezultatima finalista Pojedinačnog prvenstva za mlađe seniore (U23) u disciplini 1500 metara, koje je održano 2017 godine, i Svjetskog prvenstva u atletici održanog iste godine, mogu se primjetiti određene sličnosti. Finalisti Pojedinačnog prvenstva za mlađe seniore u disciplini 1500 metara su prosječno bili visoki 184,25 cm, (European athletics, 2017), dok su finalisti Svjetskog prvenstva u istoj diciplini prosječno bili visoki 183,91 cm (World athletics, 2017). Dobijene analize rezultata idu u prilog provedenog istraživanja, jer su takmičari sa tjelesnom visinom koja se približno nalazi i u intervalu ovog istraživanja (184,28-193,00 cm) ostvarili rezultate koji su im obezbjedili finale Evropskog odnosno Svjetskog prvenstva. Još jedan detalj sa Svjetskog prvenstva ide u prilog ovog istraživanja. Odnosi se na to da kada se analiziraju finalisti Svjetskog prvenstva na 1500 metara, takmičari sa prosječnom visinom od 187 cm (6 takmičara) su postigli prosječno bolje rezultate (3:35;66) od nižih takmičara (3:36;19) koji su imali prosječnu tjelesnu visinu od 180,83 cm (6 takmičara), odnosno ostvarili su bolje rezultate za 0,24%. Iako se radi o malim razlika, treba ih uzeti u obzir, naravno uz sve one druge mnogobrojne parametre koji dovode do vrhunskog rezultata. Slična istraživanja koja su se bavila povezanošću morfoloških dimenzija i rezultata u atletici (Raković, Savanović, Stanković, Pavlović, Simeonov i Petković, 2015; Milanović, I., Milanović, D. i Harasin, 2013; Tešanović, Jakovljević i Bošnjak, 2013; Jakovljević, Bijelić, Jovanović, Božić i Vukić, 2013; Jakovljević, Ljubojević, Karalić, Gerdijan i Vukić, 2014;), su istakla veliki značaj koji ove dimenzije imaju na rezultat. Na osnovu svih tih istraživanja može se zaključiti da se ovaj parametar ne smije isključiti ni prilikom selekcije ni prilikom planiranje treninga kod selektovanog uzorka. Druga grupa antropoloških dimenzija koja je analizirana bila je iz domena transverzalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta. Dobijeni rezultati istraživanja up-

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ućuju na to da su ispitanici sa manjim vrijednostima (dijametra zgloba koljena i skočnog zgloba, bikristalnog raspona i širine stopala), ostvarili bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara. Ispitanici sa bikristalnim rasponom u intervalu od 23,50-27,75 cm su za 3,81% ostvarili bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara, u odnosu na ispitanike sa bikristalnim rasponom u intervalu od 27,76-32,00 cm. Dok su ispitanici sa dijametrom zgloba koljena u intervalu od 7,75-9,38 cm su za 2,42% ostvarili bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara, u odnosu na ispitanike sa većim dijametrom zgloba koljena (Tabela 2.). Isti slučaj je primjećen i kod spitanika sa manjim dijametrom skočnog zgloba i manjom širinom stopala. Oni su za 8,86% ostvarili bolje rezultate u trčanju na 1500 metara od ispitanika sa većim dijametrom skočnog zgloba, odnosno za 5,22% ostvarili bolje rezultate od ispitanika sa većom širinom stopala.

Zaključak

Provedeno istraživanje je imalo za cilja da ispita relacije nekih antropometrijskih karakteristika i rezultata trčanja na 1500 metara, da bi se dobijeni rezultati mogli primjeniti prilikom eventualne selekcije sportista, odnosno pravilnim opredjeljenjem za adekvatnu atletsku disciplinu. Dobijeni rezultati istraživanja upućuju na to da su određene mjere longitudinalne i transverzalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta, u velikoj korelaciji sa postignutim rezultatom trčanja na 1500 metara. Na osnovu dobijenih podataka i rezultata u ovom radu i poređenja sa istraživanjima slične problematike, može se zaključiti da se parametri longitudinalne i transverzalne dimenzijalnosti skeleta ne smiju isključiti ni prilikom selekcije ni prilikom planiranje treninga kod selektovanog uzorka. Podaci ovog istraživanja dalje upućuju da veće vrijednosti longitudinalne dimenzijalnosti (tjelesna visina, dućina natkoljenice, dužina potkoljenice, dužina noge i dužina stopala), odnosno manje vrijednosti transverzalne dimenzionalnosti skeleta (bikristalni raspon, dijametar zgloba koljena, dijametar skočnog zgloba i širina stopala) imaju pozitivne korelacije sa rezultatom trčanja na srednjim distancama. Ako se ozbiljno i sa velikom pažnjom pristupi selekciji budućih takmičara, a imajući u vidu ove parametre, može se očekivati da će budući takmičari i ostvarivati dobre rezultate trčanja na srednjim distancama. Podaci ovog istraživanja bi mogli naći svoju određenu primjenu u selekciji takmičara u atletici, jer samo pravilna selekcija može imati više uspjeha u budućem procesu treninga.

Literatura

1. Babin, J., Bavčević, T., & Moretti, V. (2006). Kanoničke relacije latentne morfološke strukture i varijabli snage učenica u dobi od šest do sedam godina. Zbornik radova 15. Ljetna škola Kineziologa Republike Hrvatske, p.p (62-66). 2. Carter, J. (1984). Physical structure of Olympic Athlete, Part II: Kinanthropometry of Olympic Athlete. Basel: Karger. 3. De Gray, A. C., Levine, L., & Carter, J. (1974). Genetic, anthropological and mental adolescence group. Proc. Conf. on adolescence. Cleaveland, Ohio, U.S.A. 4. European athletics (2017). European athletics U23 Championships Bydgoszcz 2017. Retrived from http://www.european-athletics.org/competitions/european-athletics-u23-championships/history/ year=2017/results/index.html 5. World athletics (2017). IAAF World Championships London 2017. Retrived from https://www.iaaf. org/results/iaaf-world-championships-in-athletics/2017/iaaf-world-championships-london-2017-5151/ men/1500-metres/final/result#resultheader 6. Jakovljević, V., Bijelić, S., Jovanović, S., Božić, I. i Vukić, Ž. (2013). Relationship between morphological characteristics and impact of coordination and explosive strength of students 12 years old. Scientific Conference FIS COMMUNICATIONS 2013 in Physical Education, sport and recreation and I Interna- tional Scientific Conference, Book of Proceedings, Niš, (str. 234-246). 7. Jakovljević, V., Ljubojević, A., Karalić, T., Gerdijan, N. i Vukić, Ž. (2014). Relacije morfoloških karakteristika i maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika učenika četvrtog razreda osnovne škole u odnosu na pol. Fizička kultura, Naučni časopis iz oblasti sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, 68(1) (63-74). 8. Malacko, J. (1991): Osnove sportskog treninga, Novi Sad: Julijan Malacko. 9. Malacko, J. i Rađo, I. (2004): Tehnologija sporta i sportskog treninga, Sarajevo: Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Fakultet sporta i tjelesnog odgoja. 10. Milanović, I., Milanović, D., & Harasin, D. (2013). Differences between best olympic results and best world athletics events’ throws women accomplished in the olympic games’ years. Acta Kinesiologica 7(2) 12-18. 11. Raković, A., Savanović, V., Stanković, D., Pavlović, R., Simeonov, A., Petković, E. (2015). Analysis of the elite athletes somatotypes. Acta Kinesiologica 9(1) 47-53. 12. Tešanović, G., Jakovljević, V. i Bošnjak G. (2013). Relations Between some Anthropometric Dimensions with the Results Achieved in Shot put and Javelin Throw Bratislava, (str. 364-367). 13. Wilmore, J. (1976), Athletic Training and Physical Fitness: Physiological Principles of the Conditioning Process, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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METHODS OF RESPONSE TIME ASSESSMENT IN DIFFERENT SPORTS

Lazar Tomić; Мiloslav Fabok; Bojan Leontijević; Аleksandar Janković University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Modern sports activity that is necessary to participate in certain sports disciplines requires from athletes extremely preparedness in almost all aspects of preparation. Along with motor caracteristics, it is important whether an athlete is able to respond to cognitive abilities when performing certain movements during activity. One of the most important factors in all sports, martial arts and other sports disciplines which combine motor and cognitive ability is response time (RT). Time for an athlete to process and recognize a particular stimulus and to initiate a response in the form of motor action can be defined as the reaction time to perform certain activities (Ando et al., 2002). RT has been the subject of research since the mid-19th century, and this ability is very current in modern researchers as well.

What is known from previous studies is that three different types of RT can be distinguished (Welford, 1980). There is simple RT (one stimulus – one correct answer) and two belonging to the group of complex RT and those are RT recognition (response to some stimuli and some to miss – one correct answer) and optional RT (answer corresponding to a specific stimulus). Donder (1868) in his research proved that the least value is simple RT and the longest is optional RT, respectively RT depends on complex stimuli to which a particular reaction is to be made. As well, stimulus complexity most influences signal processing time as confirmed in their study by Miller and Lov (2001). The RT is influenced by a several factors, and so far the following have been the most studied: stimulus type and intensity (Kemp et al., 1973), age (Rose et al., 2002; Der and Deary, 2006) and gender (Der and Deary, 2006), hand dominance (Boulinquez and Bartelemy, 2000), skill level of a particular activity, i.e the influence of training (Fontani et al., 2006), way of presentation of stimuli (Ando et al., 2002; Vignais et al., 2015) and other.

As a part of sports games, football is a poly structural activity in which RT plays an important role in the execution of certain technical tactical elements. RT is especially pronounced during the 1:1 game, which is great importance when making decisions in problem situations and also, depends on this ability of the goalkeeper’s efficiency in hitting a goal by an opponent. In previous studies conducted on a population of football players, the impact of different signal presentation on RT was examined, as well as the effect of training on RT in signal presentation from different angles (central and peripheral) (Ando et al., 2001, 2002). The results showed that shorter RT was necessary during the central signal required for testing (Ando et al., 2001) and that RT decreased significantly with exercise (Ando et al., 2002). Smith et al. (2016) examined the impact of mental fatigue on RT football players and concluded that participants began slower reactions when exposed to mental fatigue. Also, previous research has confirmed that better players make faster decisions from players with a lesser degree of quality (Vaeyens et al., 2007). When analyzing 1vs1 football game situations, the researchers concluded that defenders would have different strategies in solving such situations. Players with more experience focus on a smaller number of regions, and with a longer duration of each fixation (Krzepota, 2016) thus, they have fewer potential solutions, so one of the reasons is shorter RT.

Response time is a very important factor in other sports disciplines, and so this ability has been the subject of many studies. In evaluating a specific RT assessment method by Mudric et al. (2015), it was concluded that top karatists have shorter RT than students who received karate experience as part of their teaching at the Faculty and that RT decline with the complexity of the stimuli presented to the participants. Sports games are highly unpredictable, so an athlete needs to respond quickly to stimuli that occur in activities. Studies indicate that sprinters have shorter RT than volleyball players when an audio signal was presented, but no differences were found when a video signal was presented to the same subjects (Nuri et al., 2012). In the same study, athletes were found to be more successful in those sensory - cognitive abilities that are more natural to the sporting discipline they practice, so sprinters had shorter RT per audio signal, while volleyball players had greater efficiency in assessing ball flight (Nuri et al. 2012).

A review of the literature revealed that no study systematically presents a comparison between participants involved in football and those involved in other sporting disciplines regarding the ability to respond quickly, respectively RT to a particular stimulus. This paper aims to provide quantitative insight into RT research from different sports disciplines compared to athletes playing football, as well as to make a qualitative analysis of the methods used in the studies covered.

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Меthods

LIТЕRАТURЕ REVIEW

The literature was searched using „Google“, „PubMed“ and „Google Scholar“. The author used the following keywords in the literature search: reaction time, reaction time sport, reaction time soccer, reaction time football, reaction time basketball, reaction time volleyball, reaction time handball, reaction time karate, reaction time in specific sport situation. The basic criterion for the selection of papers was that the study was conducted after 2000 and that one of the types of stimuli representing the stimulus was visual. Based on the keywords, 21 papers were found that related to the topic of the study, however, after the analysis of the papers, 9 papers were selected whose results and methods will be analyzed.

Results

Table 1. Overview of studies covered in this review paper showing: author’s name and year of study publication, sport to which research belongs, a sample of participants, research methods (instruments), category, type of stimuli and RT results.

Research mеth- Тype of Author Sport Participants Category RT Results (ms) ods stimuli Experimental group Sensor sensitive to (mental fatigue) - Smith et 12 football players Football pressure (RT test) Visual Complex 768±134; al., 2016; (19.3±1.5) – raising feet Control group (no fatigue) - 685±156; Central stimulus High stimulus – Football players - 243±7.3 6 football players Students - 246±15.6 Ando et (21.5±1.4) Medium stimulus – Football Computer - finger Visual Simple al., 2001; 6 students Football players - (22.8±0.8) 252±14.7 Students - 252±13.8 Small stimulus Football players - 249±7 Students - 260±14.2 Spierer et 15 football players Visual Visual – 530±40 Football „Speed Trap II“ Complex al., 2011; (22.1±1.5) and audio Аudio – 610±44 49 football players 37 young football Professional/ players Amateur Ruschel (16.4±0.9) Visual Visual - et al., Football Computer - finger Simple 12 and audio 190.3±29.9/204.9±26.6 2011; Professional Audio- football players 162±28.5/183.7±33.9 (21.7±1) Simple/Complex 57 participants Basketball 20 basketball Nakamo- 231±15/261±18 Basketball players Simple to et al., Computer - finger Visual Baseball Baseball 24 baseball Complex 2008; 233±13/274±21 players Students 13 students 249±17/317±32 Sprinters / Volleyball Audio optional RT 474.7±61.7/704.9±83.6 Audio Complex Optional 11 volleyball Volleyball RT Nuri et (21.6±1.1) Visual and Ath- Computer - finger Complex 469.7±57.2/771.7±171.2 al., 2012; 11 sprinters and audio letics Video optional RT (22.9±2.2) 385.4±37.9/385.3±31 Video complex optional RT 494.2±50.6/486.2±54.1

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Attack projection 10 top handball (hit on goal virtual Vignis et Video / Virtual Handball goalkeepers and video technol- Visual Complex al., 2015; 382.1±15.7/355.9±14.3 (24±5.2) ogy) - goalkeeper reaction Guttierrez 2 selection / 4 selection – Davila 17 top fencing Fencing 2 platforms of force Visual Complex Simple 199±22/223±31 et al., (23.3±4.1) Complex 186±46/243±44 2013; Professionals / students Attacks with foot Simple reaction Attempt 1 175±30/247±60 Attempt 2 177±30/254±50 Attempt 3 175±30/242±60 Complex reaction Attempt 1 268±50/362±80 Attempt 2 269±50/359±60 10 karatist Attempt 3 (23.3±3.2) Attack Projection - Mudric et Simple 268±40/362±80 Karate 10 studenat FSFV Defense Reaction Visual al., 2015; Complex (22.6±1.3) (3D Camera) Attacks with hand Simple reaction Attempt 1 201±40/293±40 Attempt 2 202±50/297±30 Attempt 3 201±40/291±30 Complex reaction Attempt 1 325±60/398±80 Attempt 2 318±60/391±70 Attempt 3 320±60/389±50

Discussion

This paper aims to provide quantitative insight into RT research from different sports disciplines compared to athletes playing football, as well as to make a qualitative analysis of the methods used in the studies covered. Comparative analysis of the results of the literature review, it was observed that the shortest RT was achieved by football players during simple RT for auditory stimuli (162 ± 28.5ms) (Ruschel et al., 2011). When looking at visual stimuli, the least observed RT were simply realized by karatists (175 ± 30 ms) (Mudric et al., 2015), and the worst results were achieved by students in hand reactions (297 ± 30 ms), which represented a sample in the same study. Complex RT was the shortest in fencers (186 ± 46ms) (Guttierrez - Davila et al., 2013), the longest in football players under the influence of mental fatigue (768 ± 134 ms) (Smith et al., 2016). A literature review can confirm Donder’s (1869) interpretation, where values observed for football have shown rapid responses in measuring simple RT (Ando et al. 2001; Ruschel et al. 2011) compared to complex RT (Spiere et al. 2011; Smith et al., 2016). The same results were obtained on samples of basketball players, baseball players and students (Nakamoto et al., 2008; Mudrić et al., 2015), in fencing players (Guttierrez - Davila et al., 2013) and karate players (Mudrić et al., 2015). al., 2015). It is well known that RT is shorter on audio than video signal (Brebner and Welford, 1980), and the same results were obtained by Russell et al. (2011), where soccer players were tasked with pressing a specific key (visual or auditory) with a finger on the mouse (computer-to-finger method). Nevertheless, using the same method, Nuri et al. (2012) did not obtain the same results. Based on the mean values obtained in that testing on the volleyball sample, it can be observed that the subjects needed less time to respond to visual signals (Table 1). The conclusion of this study that athletes have better sensory - cognitive skills in their specific areas is confirmed by the study Spierer et al. (2011) where the results showed a significant statistical

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difference in RT in the sample of football players in favor of visual signals, using the “Speed trap II” method. A study by Fontani et al. (2006) concluded that trained athletes performed better results when compared to a sample of subjects who represented less trained individuals. The literature reviewed confirms that experience in a sport discipline affects RT, and thus basketball players, baseball players, and karate players responded significantly faster than students (Nakamoto et al., 2008; Mudric et al., 2015). However, no differences were found in the sample of football players when compared to students for RT (Ando et al., 2001). The same research has shown that premotor time is significantly shorter in football players, with the emphasis being that this indicator is a more significant indicator for motor programming than RT (Ando et al., 2001).

Papers analysis, it was found that the methods used by the researchers during testing could be classified into two groups. The greatest amount of testing in studies was conducted using the computer-finger method (Ando et al., 2001; Nakamoto et al., 2008; Ruschel et al., 2011; Nuri et al., 2012), with the second group studies in by which the subjects were tested for specific activities that approximate real-life situations from a particular sport discipline (Spierer et al., 2011; Guttierrez - Davila et al., 2013; Vignis et al., 2015; Mudric et al., 2015; Smith et al. al., 2016). In all methods, the subjects were presented with a specific video that represented a realistic visual stimulus. The problem is that when using the computer-finger method, the participants are not able to exert a realistic-specific sports movement on the stimulus (Mudrić et al., 2015). With the second group of methods, when a particular activity was presented to the subjects via a video pro- jector, the lack is the three-dimensionality of the model to which the participant’s movement needs to respond (Vignis et al., 2015). The research of Vignis et al. (2015) showed that handball goalkeepers had significantly more efficient, precisely and faster reactions when presented with a three-dimensional virtual model that performs a kick compared to the design of a video model. The methods presented in review studies that have been subject to RT in certain sporting disciplines are not fully ecologically valid. The lack of this study may be the non-standardized methodology applied in the papers covered, so it is most likely the reason for some disagreement with the results of previous research. Conclusion Studies have confirmed that participants from all sports disciplines respond the fastest in simple RT and that participants from certain sports disciplines are far more successful in responding to a certain signal than non-athletes at a competitive level. However, in comparison to some previous research, it has been shown that in certain situations that are more natural to the sporting discipline the participants come from, a person can respond more quickly to a visual one than an auditory signal, which is the case for football players. Analyze methods in previous studies, it can be concluded that further research must aim to find an appropriate method that satisfies the ecological validity and accord with the realistic conditions of the sports discipline, as well as being available to more coaches and researchers.

References

1. Ando, S., Kida, N., & Oda, S. (2001). Central and peripheral visual reaction time of soccer players and nonathletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 786 – 794. 2. Ando, S., Kida, N., & Oda, S. (2002). Practice effects on reaction time for peripheral and central visual fields. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95, 747 – 751. 3. Boulinguez, P., and Barthelemy, S. (2000). Influence of the movement parameter to be controlled on manual RT asymmetries in right – handers. Brain and Cognition, 44(3), 653 – 661. 4. Brebner, J. T., and Welford, A. T. (1980). Introduction : an historical background sketch. In A. T. Wel- ford (Ed.), Reaction Times. Academic Press, New York, pp. 1 – 23. 5. Der, G., and Deary, I. J. (2006). Age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: Results from the United Kingdom health and lifestyle survey. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 62 – 73. 6. Donders, F. C. (1868). On the speed of mental processes. Acta Psychologica, 30, 412 – 431. 7. Fontani, G., Lodi, L., Felici, A., Migliorini, S., & Corradeschi, F. (2006). Attention in athletes of high and low experience enganged in different open skill sports. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 102(3), 791 – 816. 8. Gutiérrez - Dávila, M., Rojas, F. J., Antonio, R., & Navarro, E. (2013). Effect of uncertainty on the reaction response in fencing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84(1), 16 - 23. 9. Kemp, B. J. (1973). Reaction time of young and elderly subjects in relation to perceptual deprivation and signal – on versus signal – off condition. Developmental Psychology, 8, 268 – 272. 10. Krzepota, J., Stepinski, M., & Zwierko, T. (2016). Gaze control in one versus one defensive situations in soccer players with various levels of expertise. Perceptual and motor skills, 0(0), 1 – 15. 11. Miller, J. O., and Low, K. (2001). Motor processes in simple, go/no – go and choice reaction time tasks : a psychophysiological analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology : Human perception and performance, 27, 266. 12. Mudric, M., Cuk, I., Nedeljkovic, A., Jovanovic, S., & Jaric, S. (2015). Evaluation of video – based

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method for the measurement of reaction time in specific sport situation. International Journal of Per- formance Analysis in Sport, 15, 1077 – 1089. 13. Nakamoto, H., and Mori, S. (2008). Sport - specific decision - making in a go/no go reaction task: difference among nonathletes and baseball and basketball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106(1), 163 - 171. 14. Nuri, L., Shadmehr, A., Ghotbi, N., & Moghadam, B. A. (2012). Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill – dominated sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 13(5), 431 – 436. 15. Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., Jankowski, J. J., & Caro, D. M. (2002). A longitudinal study of visual ex- pectation and reaction time in the first year of life. Child Development, 73(1), 47. 16. Ruschel, C., Haupenthal, A., Hubert, M., Fontana, H. B., Pereira, S. M., & Roesler, H. (2011). Tempo de reação simples de jogadores de futebol de diferentes categorias e posições. Motricidade, 7(4), 73 - 82. 17. Smith, M. R., Zeuwts, L., Lenoir, M., Hens, N., De Jong, L. M. S., & Coutts, A. J. (2016). Men- tal fatigue impairs soccer – specific decision making skill. Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1156241. 18. Spierer, D. K., Petersen, R. A., & Duffy, K. (2011). Response time to stimuli in Division I soccer players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(4), 1134 – 1141. 19. Vaeyens, R., Lenoir, M., Williams, A. M., Mazyn, L., & Philippaerts, R. M. (2007). The effects of task constraints on visual search behavior and decision – making skill in youth soccer players. Journal of sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(2), 147. 20. Vignais, N., Kulpa, R., Brault, S., Presse, D., & Bideau, B. (2015). Which technology to investigate visual perception in sport: Video vs. virtual reality. Human Movement Science, 39, 12 – 26. 21. Welford, A. T. (1980). Choice reaction time: Basic concepts. In A. T. Welford (Ed.), Reaction Times. Academic Press, New York, pp. 73 – 12

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METODE ZA PROCENU VREMENA REAGOVANJA SPORTISTA RAZLIČITIH SPORTOVA

Lazar Tomić; Мiloslav Fabok; Bojan Leontijević; Аleksandar Janković Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Savremene sportske aktivnosti koje su neophodne za učestvovanje u određenim sportskim disciplinama od sportista zahtevaju izuzetnu pripremljenost u gotovo svim aspektima pripreme. Pored motoričkih karakteristika važno je da sportista može da odgovori i kognitivnim sposobnostima prilikom realizacije određenih kretanja tokom aktivnosti. Jedan od najznačajnijih faktora u svim sportskim igrama, borilačkim disciplinama i drugim sportovima, koji povezuje motoričku i kognitivnu sposobnost, jeste vreme reagovanja (VR). Period koji je neophodan sportisti da obradi i prepozna određeni stimulus, a da započne odgovor u vidu motoričke radnje na isti, može se definisati kao vreme reakcije za izvršavanje određenih aktivnosti (Ando et al., 2002). Vreme reagovanja je predmet istraživanja još od sredine 19. veka, a ova sposobnost je veoma aktuelna i u savremenim istraživanjima. Ono što je poznato prema dosadašnjim istraživanjima je da se mogu razlikovati tri različita tipa VR (Wel- ford, 1980). Postoji prosto VR (jedan stimulus – jedan tačan odgovor) i dva koja pripadaju grupi složenih VR, a to su VR prepoznavanja (odgovor na neke stimuluse, a neke propustiti – jedan tačan odgovor) i izborno VR (odgovor koji odgovara određenom stimulusu). Donder (1868) je u svom istraživanju pokazao da najmanje vrednosti ima prosto VR, a najduže je izborno VR, odnosno da VR zavisi od složenih stimulusa na koji treba izvršiti određenu reakciju. Kompleksnost stimulusa najviše utiče na vreme obrade signala što potvrđuju u svojoj studiji Miler i Lov (2001). Na VR utiče veliki broj faktora, a u dosadašnjem periodu najviše su ispitivani sledeći: tip i intenzitet stimulusa (Kemp et al., 1973), godine (Rose et al., 2002; Der and Deary, 2006) i pol (Der and Deary, 2006), dominantnost ruke (Boulinquez and Bartelemy, 2000), nivo veštine određene aktivnosti, odnosno uticaj treninga (Fontani et al., 2006), način prikazivanja stimulusa (Ando et al., 2002; Vignais et al., 2015) i drugi.

Kao deo sportskih igara, fudbal predstavlja polistrukturalnu aktivnost u kojoj VR ima važnu ulogu u izvršavanju određenih tehničko – taktičkih elemenata. Vreme reagovanja posebno dolazi do izražaja prilikom igre 1:1, veliki značaj ima pri donošenju odluka u problemskim situacijama, a takođe od ove sposobnosti zavisi i nivo efikasnosti golmana prilikom udarca na gol od strane protivnika. U prethodnim istraživanjima sprovedenim na populaciji osoba koje igraju fudbal, ispitivan je uticaj različitog prezentovanja signala na VR, kao i uticaj treninga na VR pri prezentovanju signala iz različitih uglova (centralno i periferno) (Ando et al., 2001, 2002). Rezultati su pokazali da je ispitaniku neophodno kraće vreme za reagovanje prilikom puštanja centralnog signala (Ando et al., 2001), kao i da VR statistički značajno opada sa vežbanjem (Ando et al., 2002). Smit i saradnici (2016) su ispitivali uticaj mentalnog zamora na VR fudbalera i došli do zaključka da ispitanici započinju značajno sporije reakcije kada su prethodno izloženi mentalnom zamoru. Takođe, prethodna istraživanja su potvrdila da kvalitetniji igrači donose brže odluke od igrača sa manjim stepenom kvaliteta (Vaeyens et al., 2007). Prilikom analize situacione igre 1vs1 u fudbalu, istraživači su došli do zaključ- ka da odbrambeni igrači imaju različite strategije u rešavanju takvih situacija. Igrači sa više iskustva fiksiraju pogled na manji broj regija, sa dužim trajanjem svake fiksacije (Krzepota, 2016), na taj način imaju manji broj potencijalnih rešenja pa je to jedan od razloga kraćeg VR. Vreme reagovanja je veoma važan faktor i u drugim sportskim disciplinama, pa je tako predmet određenog broja istraživanja bila upravo ta sposobnost. Prilikom evaluiranja određene metode za procenu VR koju su sproveli Mudrić i saradnici (2015), zaključeno je da vrhunski karatisti imaju kraće VR od studenata koji su iskustva iz karatea stekli u sklopu nastave na Fakultetu, kao i da VR opada sa usložnjavanjem stimulusa koji su prezentovani ispitanicima. Poznato je da su sportske igre veoma nepredvidive, pa je za sportistu važno da brzo reaguje na stimuluse koji se javljaju u aktivnostima. Sprovedena istraživanja ukazuju da at- letičari imaju kraće VR od odbojkaša, kada im je prezentovan audio signal, međutim nisu pronađene razlike kada je istim ispitanicima prikazan video signal (Nuri et al., 2012). U istoj studiji je zaključeno da su sportisti uspešniji u onim senzo - kognitivnim sposobnostima koji su prirodniji sportskoj disciplini kojom se bave, dakle sprinteri su imali kraće VR na audio signal, dok su odbojkaši imali veću efikasnost u proceni leta lopte (Nuri et al., 2012).

Pregledom literature ustanovljeno je da ne postoji studija u kojoj je na sistematizovan način prikazano poređenje između ispitanika koji se bave fudbalom i onih koji se bave drugim sportskim disciplinama u odnosu na sposobnost brzine reagovanja, odnosno VR na određeni stimulus. Cilj ovog rada je da omogući kvantitativni uvid u istraživanja koja se odnose na VR iz različitih sportskih disciplina u poređenju sa osobama iz fudbalskog sporta, kao i da se napravi kvalitativna analiza metoda koje su korišćene u obuhvaćenim studijama.

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Меtоdе

PRЕТRАGА LIТЕRАТURЕ

Pretraga literature vršena je uz pomoć „Google“, „PubMed“ i „Google Scholar“ pretraživača. Autor je upotrebljavao sledeće ključne reči prilikom pretrage literature: reaction time, reaction time sport, reaction time soccer, reaction time football, reaction time basketball, reaction time volleyball, reaction time handball, reaction time karate, reaction time in specific sport situation. Osnovni kriterijum u odabiru radova je bio da je studija sprovedena nakon 2000. godine i da je jedan od tipova draži koji je predstavljao stimulus vizuelan. Na osnovu ključnih reči pronađen je 21 rad koji je povezan sa temom studije, međutim nakon analize radova, izabrano je 9 radova čiji će rezultati i metode biti analizirani.

Rezultati

Таbela 1. Prikaz studija koje su obuhvaćene u ovom preglednom radu u kojoj je prikazano: ime autora i godina objavl- jivanja istraživanja, sport kojem pripada istraživanje, uzorak ispitanika, metode istraživanja (instrumenti), vrsta i tip draži i rezultati VR

Тip Rezultati Autori Sport Ispitanici Меtоdе Vrsta VR VR (ms) Еksperimentalna Prekidači osetljivi grupa (mentalni zamor) - Smith et 12 fudbalera na pritisak (VR Fudbal Vizuelna Složena 768±134); al., 2016; (19.3±1.5) test) – podizanje Kontrolna grupa (nema stopala zamora - 685±156); Centralni stimulus Veliki stimulus – Fudbaleri - 243±7.3 6 fudbalera Studenti - 246±15.6 Ando et (21.5±1.4) Srednji stimulus – Fudbal Kompjuter - prst Vizuelna Prosta al., 2001; 6 studenata Fudbaleri - 252±14.7 (22.8±0.8) Studenti - 252±13.8 Mali stimulus Fudbaleri - 249±7 Studenti - 260±14.2 Spierer et 15 fudbalera Vizuelna i Vizuelna – 530±40 Fudbal „Speed Trap II“ Složena al., 2011; (22.1±1.5) audio Аudio – 610 49 fudbalera Profesionalci/ 37 mladih Amateri Ruschel fudbalera Vizuelna - et al., Fudbal (16.4±0.9) Kompjuter - prst Vizuelna Prosta 190.3±29.9/204.9±26.6 2011; 12 Audio- profesionalnih fud- 162±28.5/183.7±33.9 balera (21.7±1) Prosta/Složena Košarkaši 57 оsoba Nakamo- 231±15/261±18 Košarka 20 košarkaša Prosta to et al., Kompjuter - prst Vizuelna Bejzbol igrači Bejzbol 24 bejzbol igrača Složena 2008; 233±13/274±21 13 studenata Studenti 249±17/317±32 Sprinteri / Odbojkaši Audio izborno VR 474.7±61.7/704.9±83.6 Audio složeno izborno 11 оdbojkaša VR Nuri et Odbojka i (21.6±1.1) Vizuelna i Kompjuter - prst Složena 469.7±57.2/771.7±171.2 al., 2012; atletika 11 sprintera audio Video izborno VR (22.9±2.2) 385.4±37.9/385.3±31 Video složeno izborno VR 494.2±50.6/486.2±54.1

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Projekcija napada 10 vrhunskih ru- (udarac na gol Vignis et Video / Virtualna Rukomet kometnih golmana virtuelna i video Vizuelna Složenа al., 2015; 382.1±15.7/355.9±14.3 (24±5.2) tehnologija) – reakcija golmana Guttierrez 17 vrhunskih 2 izbora / 4 izbora – Davila Mačevanje mačevalaca 2 platforme sile Vizuelna Složena Prosta 199±22/223±31 et al., (23.3±4.1) Složena 186±46/243±44 2013; Profesionalci/studenti Napadi nogom Prosta reakcija Pokušaј 1 175±30/247±60 Pokušaј 2 177±30/254±50 Pokušaј 3 175±30/242±60 Složena reakcija Pokušaј 1 268±50/362±80 Pokušaј 2 269±50/359±60 10 karatista Pokušaј 3 (23.3±3.2) Projekcija napada Mudric et Prosta 268±40/362±80 Karate 10 studenata – reakcija odbrane Vizuelna al., 2015; Složena FSFV (kamera 3D) Napadi rukom (22.6±1.3) Prosta reakcija Pokušaј 1 201±40/293±40 Pokušaј 2 202±50/297±30 Pokušaј 3 201±40/291±30 Složena reakcija Pokušaј 1 325±60/398±80 Pokušaј 2 318±60/391±70 Pokušaј 3 320±60/389±50

Diskusija

Cilj ovog rada je da omogući kvantitativni uvid u istraživanja koja se odnose na VR iz različitih sportskih disciplina u poređenju sa osobama iz fudbalskog sporta, kao i da se napravi kvalitativna analiza metoda koje su korišćene u obuhvaćenim studijama. Uporednom analizom rezultata pregledane literature, zapaženo je da su najkraće VR ostvarili fudbaleri prilikom prostog VR na auditivnu draž (162±28.5ms) (Ruschel et al., 2011). Kada je u pitanju vizuelna draž, najmanje zapaženo prosto VR su ostvarili karatisti (175±30ms) (Mudrić et al., 2015), a najslabije rezultate su imali studenti u reakcijama rukama (297±30ms) koji su predstavljali uzorak u istom istraživanju. Složeno VR je najkraće bilo kod mačevalaca (186±46ms) (Guttierrez – Davila et al., 2013), a najduže kod fudbalera koji su bili pod uticajem mentalnog zamora (768±134ms) (Smith et al., 2016). Na osnovu pregledane literature, može se potvrditi tumačenje Dondera (1869), dobijene vrednosti za fudbalere pokazuju da su brže reagovali pri merenju prostog VR (Ando et al., 2001; Ruschel et al., 2011) u odnosu na složeno VR (Spiere et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2016). Isti rezultati su dobijeni i na uzorku košarkaša, bejzbol igrača i studenata (Nakamoto et al., 2008; Mudrić et al., 2015), kod ispitanika koji se bave mačevan- jem (Guttierrez – Davila et al., 2013) i kod karatista (Mudrić et al., 2015). Poznato je da je VR na audio signal kraće nego kada se ispitanicima prezentuje video signal (Breb- ner and Welford, 1980), a iste rezultate je dobio i Rušel sa saradnicima (2011) gde su fudbaleri imali zadatak da na određeni stimulus (vizuelni ili auditivni) pritisnu kažiprstom određeni taster na mišu (metod „kompjuter – prst“). Međutim, koristeći istu metodu Nuri i saradnici (2012) nisu dobili iste rezultate. Na osnovu srednjih vrednosti dobijenih u tom testiranju na uzorku odbojkaša, može se zapaziti da je ispitanicima bilo potrebno manje vremena da reaguju na vizuelne signale (tabela 1). Zaključak te studije da sportisti imaju bolje senzor- no – kognitivne veštine u njihovim specifičnim oblastima potvrđuje i studija Spierera i saradnika (2011) gde su rezultati pokazali značajnu statističku razliku u VR na uzorku fudbalera u odnosu na vrstu draži u korist vizuelnih signala, upotrebom metode „Speed trap II“.

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U studiji Fontania i saradnika (2006) zaključeno je da utrenirani sportisti imaju bolje rezultate u odnosu na uzorak ispitanika koji su predstavljali manje utrenirane osobe. Pregledana literatura potvrđuje da iskustvo u nekoj sportskoj disciplini utiče na VR, pa su tako košarkaši, bejzbol igrači i karatisti značajno brže reagovali od studenata (Nakamoto et al., 2008; Mudrić et al., 2015). Međutim, na uzorku fudbalera nisu pronađene razlike u odnosu na studente kada je u pitanju VR (Ando et al., 2001). Isto istraživanje je pokazalo da je premotorno vreme značajno kraće kod fudbalera, pri čemu je naglašeno da je taj pokazatelj značajniji indikator za programiranje motorne radnje u odnosu na VR (Ando et al., 2001). Analizom radova, utvrđeno je da se metode koje su istraživači upotrebljavali tokom testiranja mogu svrstati u dve grupe. Najveći broj testiranja u studijama je sprovedeno upotrebom metoda „kompjuter – prst“ (Ando et al., 2001; Nakamoto et al., 2008; Ruschel et al., 2011; Nuri et al., 2012), a drugu grupu predstavljaju studije u kojima su ispitanici testirani pri određenim specifičnim aktivnostima koje su približne realnim situacijama iz određene sportske grane (Spierer et al., 2011; Guttierrez – Davila et al., 2013; Vignis et al., 2015; Mudric et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2016). U svim metodama ispitanicima je prezentovan određeni video koji je predstavljao realan vizuelni stimulus. Međutim, problem je što prilikom upotrebe metode „kompjuter – prst“ ispitanik nije u mogućnosti da na stimulus izvrši realan – specifični sportski pokret (Mudrić et al., 2015). Kada je u pitanju druga grupa metoda, kada je ispitanicima prezentovana određena aktivnost putem video projek- tora, zamera se nedostatak trodimenzionalnosti modela na čiji pokret ispitanik treba da izvrši reakciju (Vignis et al., 2015). Prema istraživanju Vignisa i saradnika (2015) rukometni golmani su imali značajno efikasnije, preciznije i brže reakcije kada je prikazan trodimenzionalni virtuelni model koji izvodi udarac u odnosu na projektovanje video modela. Dakle, metode koje su zastupljene u preglednim istraživanjima čiji je predmet bilo VR u određenim sportskim disciplinama nisu u potpunosti ekološki validne. Nedostatak ove studije može biti nestandardizovana metodologija primenjena u obuhvaćenim radovima, što može biti razlog određenih neslaganja sa rezultatima prethodnih istraživanja.

Zaključak

Istraživanja su potvrdila da ispitanici iz svih obuhvaćenih sportskih disciplinama najbrže reaguju prilikom prostog VR, kao i da su ispitanici iz određenih sportskih disciplina daleko uspešniji u brzini reagovanja na određeni signal od osoba koje se ne bave istim sportom na takmičarskom nivou. Međutim, u odnosu na neka prethodna istraživanja, pokazano je da u određenim situacijama koje su prirodnije za sportsku disciplinu iz koje ispitanik dolazi, osoba može da reaguje brže na vizuelni u odnosu na auditivni signal, što je slučaj kod fudbalera. Analizom metoda koje su upotrebljavane u obuhvaćenim studijama, može se zaključiti da naredna istraživanja moraju biti usmerena na pronalaženje odgovarajuće metode koja bi zadovoljila ekološku validnost i da odgovara realnim uslovima sportske discipline koja je predmet istraživanja, kao i da bude pristupač- na većem broju istraživača i trenera.

Literatura

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12. Mudric, M., Cuk, I., Nedeljkovic, A., Jovanovic, S., & Jaric, S. (2015). Evaluation of video – based method for the measurement of reaction time in specific sport situation. International Journal of Per- formance Analysis in Sport, 15, 1077 – 1089. 13. Nakamoto, H., and Mori, S. (2008). Sport - specific decision - making in a go/no go reaction task: difference among nonathletes and baseball and basketball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106(1), 163 - 171. 14. Nuri, L., Shadmehr, A., Ghotbi, N., & Moghadam, B. A. (2012). Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill – dominated sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 13(5), 431 – 436. 15. Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., Jankowski, J. J., & Caro, D. M. (2002). A longitudinal study of visual ex- pectation and reaction time in the first year of life. Child Development, 73(1), 47. 16. Ruschel, C., Haupenthal, A., Hubert, M., Fontana, H. B., Pereira, S. M., & Roesler, H. (2011). Tempo de reação simples de jogadores de futebol de diferentes categorias e posições. Motricidade, 7(4), 73 - 82. 17. Smith, M. R., Zeuwts, L., Lenoir, M., Hens, N., De Jong, L. M. S., & Coutts, A. J. (2016). Men- tal fatigue impairs soccer – specific decision making skill. Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1156241. 18. Spierer, D. K., Petersen, R. A., & Duffy, K. (2011). Response time to stimuli in Division I soccer players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(4), 1134 – 1141. 19. Vaeyens, R., Lenoir, M., Williams, A. M., Mazyn, L., & Philippaerts, R. M. (2007). The effects of task constraints on visual search behavior and decision – making skill in youth soccer players. Journal of sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(2), 147. 20. Vignais, N., Kulpa, R., Brault, S., Presse, D., & Bideau, B. (2015). Which technology to investigate visual perception in sport: Video vs. virtual reality. Human Movement Science, 39, 12 – 26. 21. Welford, A. T. (1980). Choice reaction time: Basic concepts. In A. T. Welford (Ed.), Reaction Times. Academic Press, New York, pp. 73 – 12

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCORING ACTIONS OF ELITE KARATEKAS AND THE IMPACT OF SENSHU IN THE FINAL MATCHES OF PREMIER LAEGUE EVENTS IN 2018.

Miroslav Milovanović; Miloš Mudrić University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

When the rules of karate competition repeatedly change, in an effort to develop the sport, the characteristics of karate sport in its various domains simultaniously go through significant changes (Ćirković, Jovanović, Kasum, 2010). The development of sport also brings changes in characteristics of the athletes. Sports are profiled and differentiated from one another through the competition rules. The rules create the structure and make the sport recognizable and distinct (Stefanov, Koropanovski, 2010). A regular analysis of karate competitions would help us determine the direction of development and would give us further information about the necessary traits required for success in the competitions. Due to the complexity of sports fights, no significant monitoring and analysis systems have been designed for karate, so the current analysis is based on the expert judgment alone. The outcome of the fight is determined by the total number of points scored.

The scoring techniques in karate are punches and kicks, which can be realized through the three basic scoring methods: attack, interception and counter-attack. It is necessary to observe the tendencies dictated by the modern karate in order to improve the training process. The tendencies are mainly related to frequency of certain techniques in current competitions, as well as the scoring methods of the techniques. Monitoring of athletes’ activity during the fight, i.e. the frequency of certain elements in different intervals of the bout is of great importance for the technical and tactical preparation.

The Premier League is, the most important league in karate world. It consists of seven competitions throughout the whole calendar year. The 64 highest ranked competitors in each category have the right to compete. The number of competitors per national federation is not limited; therefore, the competitors from countries where karate has been highly developed have the opportunity to perform, the fact that raises the quality of these competitions. The Premier League has become even more important, since the success in these competitions increases the chances of attending the 2020 Olympic Games, where karate will make its debut appearance. Along with the Continental and World Championships, the Premier League tournaments have been included in the Olympics Qualification System. While the World Championships are held once every two years, and the Continental Championships once each year, the Premier League tournaments are held seven times a year.

The competition rules were significantly changed in the beginning of 2018. ,,Senshu“1, the new rule which is related to the first score advantage in the sports fight, has been introduced. In a situation where the result is tied at the end of a bout, the rule of senshu will decide the winner; i.e. the winner will be the competitor who has acquired senshu. If we put the obvious advantage in score aside, we see that senshu can also determine the further course of the match in terms of the psychological advantage. After the senshu has been gained, the competitor in backlog is automatically an extra point behind.

Based on the aforementioned facts, the aim of this research is related to identifying the indicators of competitors’ activity by analyzing their activity during the Premiere League tournaments in 2018, as well as the impact of the new rule on the course and the outcome of the bout.

Methods

The sample of this study consisted of 51 male competitors (N=51). The analysis has covered the 35 final matches of the 7 tournaments, namely: Karate1 Premier League Paris 2018, Karate1 Premier League Dubai 2018, Karate1 Premier League Rotterdam 2018, Karate1 Premier League Rabat 2018, Karate1 Pre- mier League Istanbul 2018, Karate1 Premier League Berlin 2018 and Karate1 Premier League Tokyo 2018. The final bouts of the following categories were analyzed: under 60 kg, under 67 kg, under 75 kg, under 84 kg and over 84 kg. The following indicators of competitors’ activity were analyzed for the purpose of this work: the scoring techniques, the scoring methods and the impact of senshu on the outcome of the bout. 1 By ‘first unopposed score advantage’ (SENSHU) is understood that one competitor has achieved the first in- stance of scoring on the opponent without having the opponent also score before the signal (WKF rules).

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The variables that represent the scoring techniques are: kizami tsuki (KZ), gjaku tsuki jodan (GZJ), gjaku tsuki chudan (GZC), uraken uchi (UU), mawashi geri chudan (MGC), ashi mawashi geri jodan (AMGJ), ashi mawashi geri chudan (AMGC), ashi uramawashi geri (AUMG) and ushiro mawashi geri (USMG). The variables that represent the scoring methods are: direct attack (DA), extended attack (EA), interception (I), direct counter-attack (DC), direct counter-attack with block (DCB), extended counter-attack (EC) and extended counter-attack with block (ECB). The variables that represent the impact of senshu on the outcome of the bout are: utilized senshu (IS) and unutilized senshu (NS). The competitor who has acquired senshu and managed to win the bout has been placed into the first group (IS), regardless of whether the senshu has or hasn’t been lost by the end of the fight. The competitor who has acquired senshu and lost the bout or has never acquired senshu at all, has been placed into the second group (NS).

The data has been collected through analysis of the video materials of the final bouts from the aforementioned competitions. Each activity has been registered in the custom designed tables. The analysis of the chosen indicators is based on descriptive statistical analysis gained from the measuring of frequency of occurrence. The results of the monitoring of the competitors’ activity within the total sample of the bouts are represented via quantified indicators of the frequency of occurrence for each element. The frequency of occurrence is expressed through both numeric and percentage value. In addition to the total value, the tables also include the frequency of the scoring techniques and the scoring methods in each of the intervals of the bout (4x45s).

Results

Table 1. The numeric and percentage value of frequency of the scoring techniques

Modality KZ GZJ GZC UU MGC AMGJ AMGC AUMG USMG Σ Quarter N 1 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 7 1 % 0.88 1.77 1.77 0 1.77 0 0 0 0 6.19 1 N 4 8 5 0 2 1 1 0 0 21 2 % 3.54 7.08 4.42 0 1.77 0.88 0.88 0 0 18.58 2 N 10 20 5 0 1 0 0 3 1 40 3 % 8.85 17.7 4.42 0 0.88 0 0 2.65 0.88 35.4 3 N 16 21 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 45 4 % 14.16 18.58 2.65 1.77 1.77 0.88 0 0 0 39.82 4 SUM 31 51 15 2 7 2 1 3 1 113 SUM % 27.43 45.13 13.27 1.77 6.19 1.77 0.88 2.65 0.88 100 %

Table 1 contains the numeric and percentage value of frequency of the scoring techniques among seniors for each of the quarters of the bout, as well as on the overall level. The opposite hand punch that targets the head, i.e. gjaku tsuki jodan (GZJ) is the most frequent scoring technique with 45.13%. A front hand punch to the head, kizami tsuki (KZ) is right behind with 27.43% and it is followed by the opposite hand punch to the body, gjaku tsuki chudan (GZC) with 13.27%. The leg strikes take up 12.37% on the overall level, whereas mawashi geri chudan (MGC) is the most frequent kick with 6.19%. When it comes to coma- prison of the quarters of the bout, the frequency of scoring actions continuously increases towards the end of the bout, with the most remarkable difference between the first and the second half of the bout (6.19% in the first, 18.58% in the second, 35.4% in the third and 39.82% in the fourth quarter). When we compare the quarters, the hand strike to the head, gjaku tsuki jodan (GZJ) is still the most frequent technique with 1.77% in the first, 7.08% in the second, 17.7% in the third and 18.58% in the fourth quarter.

Table 2. The numeric and percentage value of frequency of the scoring methods

Modality DA EA I DC DCB EC ECB Σ Quarter N 3 1 2 1 0 0 0 7 1 % 2.65 0.88 1.77 0.88 0 0 0 6.19 1 N 11 0 9 0 1 0 0 21 2 % 9.73 0 7.96 0 0.88 0 0 18.58 2 N 17 5 13 5 0 0 0 40 3

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% 15.04 4.42 11.5 4.42 0 0 0 35.4 3 N 15 4 13 9 1 3 0 45 4 % 13.27 3.54 11.5 7.96 0.88 2.65 0 39.82 4 SUM 46 10 37 15 2 3 0 113 SUM % 40.71 8.85 32.74 13.27 1.77 2.65 0 100 %

The numeric and percentage value of frequency of the scoring methods among seniors for each quarter, as well as on the overall level can be found in Table 2. The direct attack (DA) is the most frequent scoring method with 40.71%. The interception (I) takes up 32.74% and is the second most frequent scoring method. Counter-attack (including all its variants) takes up 17.69%. When we compare the quarters, the direct attack (DA) is the most frequent scoring method in all of them, with 2.65% in the first, 9.73% in the second, 15.04% in the third and 13.27% in the fourth quarter.

Figure 1 shows both numeric and percentage value of utilization of senshu (IS and NS) in parallel. In 25 bouts (71.43%) competitors who acquired senshu managed to win the bout (IS). In 10 bouts (28.57%) competitors either acquired senshu or not and lost the bout (NS).

•• 80 71.43 60 40 25 28.57 20 10

0 IS NS IS NS

Figure 1. The numeric and percentage value of utilization of senshu

Discussion

A comparison between the previous research (Koropanovski, 2006) and the new data confirms a tendency of growth in frequency of occurrence for the gjaku tsuki jodan technique. The frequency of occurrence in the previous study was 32%. This tendency can be explained by the fact that this technique has got the shortest programming time. Another reason could be the fact that the distance in nowadays sports fight is shorter and the stances are higher than before. The judge criteria that encourages an active fight with as many points as possible has also contributed to this tendency, as head is more easily compromised compared to the other pointing zones. The hand strikes are more dominant compared to the leg strikes with 87.6% against 12.4%, whereas mawashi geri chudan (MGC) takes up 6.19%. The competitors keep a safe position while performing this technique, more than while performing other leg strikes, so they use it far more freely. In spite of the obvious difference in frequency of hand and leg strikes, the increase of frequency of leg strikes is noticeable in comparison to the previous research. In a research conducted by Ćirić (1992.), the leg strikes took up 9.6% in the scoring system up to one ippon, while they took up 7.27% in the scoring system up to three ippons. The research done by Koropanovski (2006.), the leg strikes took up 8.35%. This tendency could be explained by the fact that the leg strikes bring 3 (if the scoring zone is head) or 2 points (if the scoring zone is body), which makes them most efficient.

When it comes to the scoring zones (head or body), almost 80% of the scoring techniques target the zone of head. Compared to the previous study conducted by Jovanović, Koropanovski and Kasum (2010) the frequency of scoring techniques that target the zone of head has been increased by almost 20%. In the bouts with the scoring system up to 8 point advantage, 61.78% of the scoring techniques targeted the head, while 37.24% targeted the body (Jovanović, Koropanovski i Kasum, 2010). This tendency can be explained by the fact that the hand strikes that target the body demand a high level of precision and it is generally more challenging to meet the other scoring criteria. Considering the fact that hand strikes to the body and head score the same amount of points, while the strikes to the body demand a higher level of mastery, it is clear why the strikes that target the head constantly become more dominant. When it comes to distribution of the scoring techniques between the time intervals, we can see that the 75.22% of all the scoring actions happen in the second half of the bout. Bearing in mind that the sample of this work consisted of the final matches,

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the lower activity of the competitors in the first and second quarter of the bout is not unusual. Senshu also contributes to greater caution in the opening intervals of the fight, as it brings both score and psychological advantage to the competitor who manages to acquire it.

Gjaku tsuki chudan (GZC) is more frequent than kizami tsuki (KZ) in the first and second quarter, with 6.19% in comparison with 4.42%, even though the difference on the overall level favors kizami tsuki. This tendency can be explained by the fact that gjaku tsuki chudan (GZC) is often used in interceptions, requiring a high level of concentration. Its frequent use in the first half of the bout is expected in cases where the competitors find themselves in less dangerous positions. The leg strikes take up only 2.65% of the total scoring techniques in the last quarter of the bout. The attack (a combination of direct and extended attack) takes up 49.56% of the total scoring methods. These results are in agreement with the previous research, which can be explained by the continuous changes of rules in favour of the attacking techniques, which lead to greater freedom of the competitors. Interception (I) is the second most frequent scoring method with 32.74%, a figure that has increased in comparison with the research conducted by Gužvica (2000); according to his study, interception took up 23.26% of total scoring methods (Gužvica, 2000). This tendency can be explained by the fact that interception is the least unsafe scoring method. The extended counter-attack with block hasn’t been recorded in any of the analyzed bouts.

The last quarter of the bout brings most variety in the scoring methods. All of the scoring methods have been recorded in the last time interval, except for the extended counter-attack with block. These findings are a consequence of the fact that the competitor who is losing initiates more actions in order to catch up. The concentration of both competitors, then, becomes reduced, more often being the concentration of the competitor who is in backlog, which then leads to higher number of potential scoring actions. The same reason leads to increase of frequency of the direct counter-attack (DC) in the second half of the bout (0.88% in the first, and 12.39% in the second half).

The findings related to the impact of the new rule, senshu, on the course and outcome of the matches, were predictable. After the senshu has been gained, the competitor in backlog is automatically an extra point behind. Along with the score advantage, senshu can also determine the further course of the match in terms of the psychological advantage.

Conclusion

The aim of the research was to analyze the competitors’ activity of the 35 final senior matches of the 7 Premier League tournaments in 2018, in order to determine the indicators of competitors’ activity of elite karate athletes. The following variables were examined for each bout: the scoring techniques, the scoring methods and the impact of senshu on the outcome of the bout.

The findings can be summed up by the following conclusions:

• Gjaku tsuki jodan (GZJ) stands out regarding the frequency of occurrence with 45.13%, as the most frequent scoring technique. This finding is not in accordance with the previous research. • When it comes to the scoring zones (head or body), almost 80% of the scoring techniques target the zone of head. This figure has been increased by almost 20% compared with previous research. • When it comes to distribution of the scoring actions throughout the quarters of the fight, the frequency of scoring actions continuously increases towards its end. The 75.22% of all the scoring actions happen in the second half of the bout. • The analysis of the scoring methods shows us that the attack dominates the other methods. The last quarter of the bout brings most variety in scoring methods. • The impact of the new rule (senshu) on the outcome of the bout is reflected in the findings that more than 2/3 of the competitors who acquired senshu managed to win the bout.

The general conclusion of this study is that the competitors’ activity is higher in the second half of the bout, as well as that senshu contributes to greater caution in the opening intervals of the fight, but also brings psychological advantage to the competitor who manages to acquire it.

References

54 UDK: 796.8.015.8

fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd 3. Gužvica, M. (2000). Tehničko- taktičke karakteristike težinskih kategorija u jugoslevenskom karateu (Magistarski rad), Fakultet fizičke kulture, Beograd 4. Jovanović, S., Koropanovski, N. i Kasum, G. (2010). Uticaj izmene pravila suđenja na takmičarsku aktivnost u karateu, Aktuelno u praksi 9, Pokrajinski zavod za sport, Novi Sad, 5- 15. 5. Koropanovski, N. (2001). Osnove sistema za praćenje sportske borbe u karateu (Diplomski rad), Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd 6. Koropanovski, N. (2006). Strukturne karakteristike sportske borbe u karateu (Magistarski rad), Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd 7. WKF rules 8. Stefanov, Z. i Koropanovski, N. (2010). Suđenje kao faktor uspeha u karate sportu, Aktuelno u praksi 9, Pokrajinski zavod za sport, Novi Sad, 98-103.

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KARAKTERISTIKE POENTIRAJUĆIH AKCIJA I UTICAJ SENŠUA U FINALNIM BORBAMA ELITNIH KARATISTA NA PREMIJER LIGAMA 2018. GODINE

Miroslav Milovanović; Miloš Mudrić Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Konstantnim menjanjem takmičarskih pravila, sa ciljem razvoja karatea, istovremeno se bitno menjaju karakteristike ovog sporta u različitim njegovim domenima (Ćirković, Jovanović, Kasum, 2010). Razvo- jem sporta menjaju se i karakteristike sportista. Sportovi se profilišu i od drugih razlikuju kroz takmičarska pravila. Ona kreiraju okvire i sport čine prepoznatiljivim i specifičnim (Stefanov, Koropanovski, 2010). Kako bi se utvrdilo u kom smeru se sport razvija i koje su to karakteristike potrebne za uspeh na takmičenju, neophodna je češća analiza istih. Zbog složenosti sportske borbe, u karateu do sada nije postavljen ozbiljniji sistem za praćenje i analizu, pa se sama analiza zasniva na ekspertskoj proceni.

Rezultat borbe se određuje na osnovu broja osvojenih poena. Poentirajuće tehnike u karateu predstavljaju udarci rukama i nogama. Oni se mogu realizovati kroz tri osnovna načina poentiranja: napad, presretanje i kontranapad. U cilju unapređenja trenažnog procesa, neophodno je pratiti trendove koje diktira savremeni karate koji se pre svega odnose, kako na zastupljenost odgovarajučih tehnika na današnjim takmičenjima, tako i na način na koji su one realizovane. Pored utvrđivanja karakteristika, od velikog značaja za tehničko-taktičku pripremu sportista je i praćenje njihove aktivnosti u toku same borbe, odnosno, zastupljenosti konkretnih elemenata u različitim intervalima sportske borbe.

Premijer liga predstavlja najvažniju ligu u svetu karatea. Čini je sedam takmičenja tokom cele kal- endarske godine. Pravo nastupa imaju 64 najbolje plasirana takmičara na listi, po kategoriji. Broj takmičara po nacionalnoj federaciji nije ograničen, što daje mogućnost nastupa kvalitetnim takmičarima iz zemalja u kojima je ovaj sport na visokom nivou, što dodatno podiže kvalitet. Od kada je karate postao olimpijski sport, njihov značaj je još veći, pošto od uspeha na njima zavise i šanse sportista da se nađu na Olimpijskim Ig- rama u Tokiju 2020. godine. Zajedno sa kontinentalnim i svetskim prvenstvima, premijer lige su ušle u sistem bodovanja za plasman na OI. Kontinentalno prvenstvo se održava jednom godišnje, svetsko jednom u dve godine, dok je broj takmičenja u okviru premijer liga u godini sedam.

Od početka 2018. godine takmičarski pravilnik je bitno izmenjen. Uvedeno je pravilo ,,senšu“1, koje se odnosi na prvu ostvarenu prednost u borbi. Ovo je presudno u konačnom ishodu sportske borbe u situaciji kada je rezultat izjednačen. Pobednik je takmičar koji je ostvario senšu. Pored prednosti u poenima, senšu može odrediti i dalji tok borbe sa aspekta psihološke prednosti takmičara. Nakon prve ostvarene prednosti u borbi, takmičar koji je u rezultatski podređenom položaju, automatski zaostaje poen više u odnosu na trenutni rezultat.

Na osnovu navedenog, proizašao je i cilj ovog istraživanja koji se odnosi na dobijanje pokazatelja takmičarske aktivnosti karatista analizom njihove aktivnosti na premijer ligama u 2018. godini, kao i uticaj novog takmičarskog pravila na tok i ishod sportske borbe.

Metode

Uzorak ispitanika u ovom istraživanju činio je 51 takmičar (N=51) muškog pola. Analizom je obuh- vaćeno 35 finalnih borbi sa 7 takmičenja i to: Karate1 Premijer Liga Pariz 2018, Karate1 Premijer Liga Dubai 2018, Karate1 Premijer Liga Roterdam 2018, Karate1 Premijer Liga Rabat 2018, Karate1 Premijer Liga Istanbul 2018, Karate1 Premijer Liga Berlin 2018. i Karate1 Premijer Liga Tokijo 2018.

Obuhvaćene su borbe u sledećih 5 kategorija: do 60 kg, do 67 kg, do 75 kg, do 84 kg i preko 84 kg. Za potrebe ovog rada, analizirani su sledeći elementi takmičarske aktivnosti: poentirajuće tehnike, načini poentiranja i uticaj senšua na pobednika borbe. Varijable koje predstavljaju poentirajuće tehnike su: kizami zuki (KZ), gjaku zuki džodan (GZJ), gjaku zuki čudan (GZC), uraken uči (UU), mavaši geri čudan (MGC), aši mavaši geri džodan (AMGJ), aši mavaši geri čudan (AMGC), aši ura mavaši geri (AUMG) i uširo mavaši geri (USMG). Varijable koje predstavljaju načine poentiranja su: direktni napad (DN), produženi napad (PN), 1 Senšu podrazumeva situaciju u kojoj jedan takmičar prvi poentira nad drugim takmičarem koji nije zaradio poen pre sudijskog znaka za zaustavljanje meča (Pravilnik WKF).

56 UDK: 796.8.015.8 presretanje (P), direktni kontranapad (DK), direktni kontranapad sa blokom (DKB), produženi kontranapad (PK) i produženi kontranapad sa blokom (PKB). Varijable koje predstavljaju uticaj senšua na pobednika borbe su: iskorišćen senšu (IS) i neiskorišćen senšu (NS). Ako je takmičar ostvario senšu, bez obzira da li ga gubi do kraja, ukoliko na kraju borbe pobedi, spada u prvu grupu koja je merena (IS). Ukoliko takmičar koji je ostvario senšu izgubi na kraju borbe ili uopšte ne dođe do njega u toku borbe, spada u drugu kategoriju koja je merena (NS). Prikupljanje podataka izvršeno je pregledanjem video materijala finalnih borbi sa navedenih tak- mičenja. Ocena svake registrovane aktivnosti je notifikovana u posebno konstruisane tabele. Metodom deskriptivne statistike, odnosno procedurom distribucije frekvence, analizirani su izabrani pokazatelji tak- mičarske aktivnosti. Rezultati sprovedenog praćenja takmičarske aktivnost karatista u okviru ukupnog uzorka borbi predstavljeni su preko kvantifikovanih pokazatelja učestalosti pojavljivanja svakog elementa. Izračuna- ta je učestalost pojave koja je izražena kroz brojčanu i procentualnu zastupljenost. Pored ukupnih vredosti, u tabelama je prikazana i učestalost poentirajućih tehnika i načina poentiranja u različitim intervalima sportske borbe (4x45s).

Rezultati

Tabela 1. Numerička i procentualna zastupljenost poentirajućih tehnika

Modalitet KZ GZJ GZC UU MGC AMGJ AMGC AUMG USMG Σ Četvrtina N 1 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 7 1 % 0.88 1.77 1.77 0 1.77 0 0 0 0 6.19 1 N 4 8 5 0 2 1 1 0 0 21 2 % 3.54 7.08 4.42 0 1.77 0.88 0.88 0 0 18.58 2 N 10 20 5 0 1 0 0 3 1 40 3 % 8.85 17.7 4.42 0 0.88 0 0 2.65 0.88 35.4 3 N 16 21 3 2 2 1 0 0 0 45 4 % 14.16 18.58 2.65 1.77 1.77 0.88 0 0 0 39.82 4 SUM 31 51 15 2 7 2 1 3 1 113 SUM % 27.43 45.13 13.27 1.77 6.19 1.77 0.88 2.65 0.88 100 %

U Tabeli 1 su prikazani rezultati numeričke i procentualne zastupljenjnosti poentirajućih tehnika kod seniora u okviru četvrtina sportskih borbi, kao i na ukupnom nivou. Udarac suprotnom rukom u glavu gjaku zuki džodan (GZJ) je najzastupljenija poentirajuća tehnika sa 45.13%. Slede udarac isturenom rukom u glavu kizami zuki (KZ) sa 27.43% i udarac suprotnom rukom u telo gjaku zuki čudan (GZC) sa 13.27%. Udarci nogom su ukupno zastupljeni sa 12.37%, od čega je mavaši geri čudan (MGC) zastupljen sa 6.19%. Kada se posmatraju četvrtine borbe, zastupljenost poentirajućih tehnika sukcesivno raste kako se bliži kraj borbe, s tim što je primetna veća razlika između prve i druge polovine borbe (6.19% u prvoj, 18.58% u drugoj, 35.4% u trećoj i 39.82% u četvrtoj četvrtini). Udarac rukom gjaku zuki džodan (GZJ) je, kada se gledaju i pojedinačne četvrtine, najzastupljeniji sa 1.77% u prvoj , 7.08% u drugoj, 17.7% u trećoj i 18.58% u četvrtoj.

Tabela 2. Numerička i procentualna zastupljenost načina poentiranja

Modalitet DA EA I DC DCB EC ECB Σ Četvrtina N 3 1 2 1 0 0 0 7 1 % 2.65 0.88 1.77 0.88 0 0 0 6.19 1 N 11 0 9 0 1 0 0 21 2 % 9.73 0 7.96 0 0.88 0 0 18.58 2 N 17 5 13 5 0 0 0 40 3 % 15.04 4.42 11.5 4.42 0 0 0 35.4 3 N 15 4 13 9 1 3 0 45 4 % 13.27 3.54 11.5 7.96 0.88 2.65 0 39.82 4 SUM 46 10 37 15 2 3 0 113 SUM % 40.71 8.85 32.74 13.27 1.77 2.65 0 100 %

57 UDK: 796.8.015.8

U Tabeli 2 su prikazani rezultati numeričke i procentualne zastupljenosti načina poentiranja kod seniora u okviru četvrtina sportskih borbi, kao i na ukupnom nivou. Poentiranje direktim napadom je najzas- tupljenije sa 40.71%. Presretanje (P) sa 32.74% je drugi način poentiranja po zastupljenosti. Kontranapad (uključujući sve njegove varijante) je zastupljen sa 17.69%. Kada je u pitanju zastupljenost načina poentiranja u različitim intervalima borbe, direktni napad (DN) je najzastupljeniji u svim. U prvom sa 2.65%, u drugom sa 9.73%, u trećem sa 15.04% i u četvrtom intervalu sa 13.27%.

Na Grafikonu 1 su uporedno prikazane numerička i procentualna zastupljenost iskorišćenosti i neis- korišćenosti senšua (IS i NS). U 25 borbi (71.43%) takmičari koji su prvi ostvarili prednost (stekli senšu) su na kraju borbe izašli kao pobednici. U 10 borbi (28.57%) takmičari su stekli prednost i izgubili na kraju borbe, ili uopšte nisu uspeli da steknu senšu u toku borbe (NS).

•• 80 71.43 60 40 25 28.57 20 10

0 IS NS IS NS

Grafikon 1. Numerička i procentualna zastupljenost iskorišćenosti i neiskorišćenosti senšua

Diskusija

Učestalost pojavljivanja udarca gjaku zuki džodan (GZJ) je uvećana u odnosu na istraživanje koje je sproveo Koropanovski 2006. godine, u kome je zastupljenost ovog udarca bila 32%. Jedan od razloga za ovakvu pojavu je taj što ovaj udarac ima najkraće vreme programiranja. Ovakvu zastupljenost možemo takođe objasniti i time što je distanca u današnjoj borbi kraća i što su stavovi viši nego ranije. Ovome je svakako doprineo i sudijski kriterijum koji nameće borbu sa što većim brojem poena, a glava predstavlja poentirajuću zonu koju je najlakše ugroziti. Tehnike koje se izvode rukama su dominantne u odnosu na one koje se izvode nogama, 87.6% u odnosu na 12.4%, od čega je mavaši geri čudan (MGC) zastupljen sa 6.19%. Pri izvođenju ovog udarca takmičari su bolje zaštićeni, nego kada su u pitanju druge nožne tehnike, pa se slobodnije odlučuju za njegovu upotrebu. I pored velike razlike u odnosu na ručne tehnike, uzimajući u obzir ranija istraživanja primetan je rast zastupljenosti nožnih tehnika. U istraživanju koje je radio Ćirić 1992. godine, nožni udarci u sistemu suđenja do jednog ipona su zastupljeni sa 9.6%, a u sistemu suđenja do tri ipona sa 7.27%. U istraživanju koje je radio Koropanovski 2006. godine, kod seniora su poentiranja nožnim tehnikama bila zastupljena sa 8.35%. Ovo se može objasniti time što je poentiranje u karateu nožnim tehnikama najefikasnije i donosi 3 poena (poentiranja u glavu) ili 2 poena (poentiranja u telo).

Kada se upoređuju tehnike u odnosu na poentirajuću zonu (glava i telo), skoro 80% poentirajućih tehnika je realizovano u predelu glave. U odnosu na ranije istraživanje, koje su radili Jovanović, Koropanovs- ki i Kasum 2010. godine, procenat zastupljenosti poentirajućih tehnika u predelu glave je uvećan za skoro 20%. U analiziranim borbama u sistemu suđenja “do osam poena” 61.78% poentiranja je bilo u nivo glave i 37.24% u nivo tela (Jovanović, Koropanovski i Kasum, 2010). Ovome doprinosi to što je za poentiranje ručnom tehnikom u telo, osim preciznosti, teže zadovoljiti ostale sudijske kriterijume za dodelu poena. Kada se uzme u obzir da se udarac rukom u predelu glave i u predelu tela isto vrednuju, a da je za drugi potreban viši stepen majstorstva u izvođenju, jasno je što primat u trenažnom procesu preuzimaju tehnike koje se izvode rukom u predelu glave. Kada se posmatraju različiti intervali borbe, zastupljenost poentirajućih tehnika sukcesivno raste kako se bliži njen kraj. Primetna je veća razlika između prve i druge polovine borbe (75.22% poentirajućih tehnika je realizovano u drugoj polovini). Uzimajući u obzir da su u pitanju finalne borbe, manja aktivnost tak- mičara u prvoj i drugoj četvrtini borbe je očekivana. Pravilo senšu takođe doprinosi većem oprezu takmičara u uvodnim intervalima borbe, jer donosi, pored rezultatske, i veliku psihološku prednost takmičaru koji prvi ostvari prednost.

Udarac suprotnom rukom u telo gjaku zuki čudan (GZC) u prve dve četvrtine je zastupljeniji od udarca isturenom rukom u glavu kizami zukija (KZ), 6.19% u odnosu na 4.42%, iako je na ukupnom nivou razlika između ova dva udarca veća u korist drugog. Ovo se može objasniti time što je gjaku zuki čudan (GZC) udarac koji se češće upotrebljava u presretanju protivnika, za šta je potreban visok nivo koncentracije,

58 UDK: 796.8.015.8 i njegova češća upotreba u prvoj polovini borbe je očekivanija u situacijama koje izlažu takmičare manjem riziku. Udarci nogom su u poslednjem intervalu borbe zastupljeni sa samo 2.65%.

Poentiranje napadom (kombinacija direktnog i produženog napada) zastupljeno je u 49.56% načina poentiranja. Ovo su rezultati koji su u skladu sa prethodnim istraživanjima, što se objašnjava tendencijom izmene pravila u smeru favorizovanja napadačkih tehnika, što dovodi do veće slobode takmičara. Presre- tanje (P) sa 32.74% je drugi način poentiranja po zastupljenosti, što je malo veća zastupljenost u odnosu na istraživanje koje je radio Gužvica 2000. godine. Zastupljenost presretanja kao načina poentiranja je bila 23.26% (Gužvica, 2000). Ovo se objašnjava time što je presretanje najmanje rizičan način poentiranja. Poentiranja iz produženog kontranapada sa blokom nisu bila zastupljena u okviru analiziranih borbi.

Raznovrsnost u načinima poentiranja je najveća u poslednjoj četvrtini sportske borbe. U njoj su zastupljeni svi načini poentiranja, izuzev produženog kontranapada sa blokom. Ovakvi rezultati se objašnjavaju time da je aktivnost takmičara veća kako se bliži kraj borbe i takmičar koji je u rezultatskom zaostatku želi to da nadoknadi. U navedenim situacijama, koncentracija takmičara popušta, bilo onog koji je u prednosti, a češće onog koji je u zaostatku, što rezultira većim brojem situacija za poentiranje. Ovim se može objasniti i veća zastupljenost direktnog kontranapada (DK) u drugoj polovini borbe (0.88% u prvoj, a 12.39% u drugoj).

Dobijeni rezultati, koji se odnose na uticaj novog pravila senšu na tok i ishod borbi, očekivani su. Nakon prve ostvarene prednosti u borbi, takmičar koji je u rezultatski podređenom položaju, automatski zaostaje poen više u odnosu na trenutni rezultat. Pored prednosti koju donosi u rezultatskom smislu, senšu može odrediti i dalji tok borbe sa aspekta psihološke prednosti takmičara.

Zaključak

U cilju utvrđivanja pokazatelja takmičarske aktivnosti elitnih karatista, analizirano je 35 finalnih borbi seniora sa 7 premijer liga u 2018. godini. Svaka borba je analizirana na osnovu sledećih ispitivanih varijabli: poentirajuće tehnike, načini poentiranja i uticaj senšua na pobednika borbe.

Sumirajući dobijene rezultate, može se zaključiti sledeće:

• Po učestalosti pojavljivanja izdvaja se udarac rukom gjaku zuki džodan (GZJ) sa 45.13%, kao najzastupljenija poentirajuća tehnika, što predstavlja novinu u odnosu na ranija istraživanja. • Kada se upoređuju tehnike u odnosu na poentirajuću zonu (glava i telo), skoro 80% poentirajućih tehnika je izvedeno u predelu glave. Ovaj rezultat je za oko 20% viši u odnosu na dosadašnja is- traživanja. • Kada se posmatra učestalost pojavljivanja poentirajućih tehnika u četvrtinama borbe, ona sukcesivno raste ka njenom kraju. Zastupljenost poentirajućih tehnika u trećoj i četvrtoj četvrtini borbe je 75.22%. • Najzastupljeniji način poentiranja je napad. Raznovrsnost u načinima poentiranja je najveća u četvrtoj četvrtini borbe. • Analizom uticaja novog pravila senšua na pobednika borbe, došlo se do zaključka da je u više od dve trećine borbi takmičar koji je stekao senšu na kraju borbe ostvario pobedu.

Generalni zaključak ovog rada je da je aktivnost takmičara mnogo veća u drugoj polovini borbe, kao i da pravilo prve ostvarene prednosti (senšu) utiče na veći oprez takmičara u prvim intervalima, ali i na konačni ishod sportske borbe.

Literatura

1. Ćirić, S. (1992). Primena nožnih udaraca u sportskoj karate borbi (Diplomski rad), Fakultet fizičke kulture, Beograd 2. Ćirković, Z., Jovanović, S. i Kasum, G. (2010). Borenja, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd 3. Gužvica, M. (2000). Tehničko- taktičke karakteristike težinskih kategorija u jugoslevenskom karateu (Magistarski rad), Fakultet fizičke kulture, Beograd 4. Jovanović, S., Koropanovski, N. i Kasum, G. (2010). Uticaj izmene pravila suđenja na takmičarsku aktivnost u karateu, Aktuelno u praksi 9, Pokrajinski zavod za sport, Novi Sad, 5- 15. 5. Koropanovski, N. (2001). Osnove sistema za praćenje sportske borbe u karateu (Diplomski rad), Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd 6. Koropanovski, N. (2006). Strukturne karakteristike sportske borbe u karateu (Magistarski rad), Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd

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7. WKF rules 8. Stefanov, Z. i Koropanovski, N. (2010). Suđenje kao faktor uspeha u karate sportu, Aktuelno u praksi 9, Pokrajinski zavod za sport, Novi Sad, 98-103.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATTACK STRUCTURE OF THE WINNER OF THE FOOTBALL WORLD CHAMPIONSHIP 2014

Nebojša Đošić1,2 1 Vocational colleges for the education of teachers and trainers, Subotica, Serbia 2 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

It is in human nature to strive to be better, faster and stronger. We are driven by a desire for new knowledges, experiences, affirmation for ourselves and others, for success and victory. This is especially visible in elit sport and in sports in general. The goal of each coach is to improve the athletic performance of his athletes and teams. In order to succeed in this, it must regularly receive and provide athletes with feedback on their performance (Sporiš, Barišić, Fiorentini, Ujević, Jovanović, & Talović, 2014). From the overall expression knowlege of the football players and teams in the course of competitive activity in this paper research attention has been focused on certain technical-tactical-temporal elements in the attack phase. In the attack phase, some of the important features are the number of players, the number of passes, the number of contacts with the ball in the individual possession of the ball and the total number of ball possessions, as well as the time characteristic of the ball possession expressed in seconds for each possession and in minutes for five-minute or fifteen-minute portions of the match or for the total duration of ball possession in the first and / or second half part or for the whole match.

In today’s elit sports, experts in sports games have especially recognized the need to collect data and that there are certain regularities in the seemingly chaotic game. The analysis of competitive activity (in the field of all types of preparation) represents a very important segment of the preparation of athletes (Janković, Jelušić, Leontijević, & Mićović, 2010). From the conclusions of the analyzes, certain principles of the game of the opposing team as well as of the team that is in direct training process are noted (Janković, Jelušić, Leontijević, and Mićović, 2010).

The attack phase has been analyzed in different studies to date by different criteria such as % of ball possession, precision of ball passing (Göral, 2015; Dufor, Phillips & Ernwein, 2017), distance traveled at different speeds without and with the ball , scoring goals with different body parts, different attacking ways at different times of the match (Leite, 2013; Armatas, Yiannakos, Papadopoulou & Skoufas, 2009), duration of the attack phase (Rodenas, Malavés, Calabulg & Casal, 2019), zones of the beginning of ball possession, number of players, adding and touching the ball in the actions from which goals were scored (Tokul & Mülazimoğiu, 2018). In the above studies, a sample of respondents was represented by teams participating in various competitions such as National League, Champions League, World and European Championships.

In 1968, Charles Rep and Bernard Benjamin (according to Ken Bray, 2006), in their study, which they called “The Skill and Probability of Football”, explored the pass of the ball and the shot on the goal of the opponent. They processed a total of 578 English League matches and all matches on two World Cham- pionships between 1953 and 1967. Back then, as today, the interest was attracted to the ball possession, and the main question concerned the number of successful passes in the series before the defense took the ball. In a survey conducted by them (Muhammad, Norasrudin and Rahmat 2013), a sample of 31 matches from the European Football Championship explores the differences between the winning and losing teams in the manner and timing of goals, the number of passes and the distance at which the passes were made. A sample of 21 matches of the medal winner at the 2010 FIFA World Championship using the Kruskall Wallis test found a statistically significant difference in ball possession and contact with the ball, and no statistically significant difference was found in contact index (Djosic, 2014).

The subject of this research is part of the structure of the attack phase of the 2014 World Champi- onship. The problems being analyzed are the number of players, the number of passes and the contact with the ball in the individual possession of the ball and the total of ball possessions, as well as its time duration. The aim of the research is to determine how many players, ball passes and ball contacts per ball possession were played by the German team in this competition, how long the possession of the ball is and to examine their interrelation. A positive correlation is expected of different strengths between the observed characteristics of the attack structure of the winner of Football World Championsship 2014.

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Methods

In the research was used the empirical-non-experimental method was used , and from general research techniques observation was used. There were 7 matches played by the German national team in this competition. The observation sheet records the frequencies of the analyzed variables, except for the variable duration of possession, which is expressed in seconds, and was measured with a stopwatch on a Casio 3283, W 734 made in China. In addition to the duration of possession, the number of players, the number of ball passes, the number of contacts with the ball in total and per player within the possession of the ball were analyzed. The statistical program SPSS 20 was used to process the collected data. Descriptive characteristics of the variables were calculated: minimum and maximum value, sum, arithmetic mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variance. The results are presented graphically and in tabular form. For pairs of variables, the association was calculated.

Variable definitions:

BRIGR – the number of players in possession of the ball BRDLO – the number of ball passes within the ball possession BRKLU – total number of contacts with the ball within ball possession total KLOPI – contact with the ball per player, VTRPL – time duration of ball possession.

Results

Table 1 shows that the number of players who participated in all the individual ball possessions that this National team achieved in this compatition ranges from 459 to 806, and that their total is 4350. It is also seen that the total number of passes is from 424 to 756 and their sum is 4097. As for as contacts with the ball is concerned, their number ranges from 968 to 1740, and the total of ball possessions is 9511 contacts within all ball possessions. The bottom of the table shows that the duration of ball possession ranges from 24.44 minutes to 36.52 minutes, and in total in this competition the observed representation was in ball possession 215, 58 minutes, or 30.78 minutes on average per game.

Table 1. Descriptive characteristics for observing the variable

N Min. Max. Sum AS St.dev. Cv% BRIGR 7 459 806 4350 621,4 119,3 14227,6 BRDLO 7 424 756 4097 585,2 111,6 12433,2 BRKLU 7 968 1740 9511 1358,7 280,6 78675,2 KLOPI 7 2,11 2,27 15,28 2,18 ,06 ,004 VTRPL 7 24,4 36,52 215,6 30,78 4,75 22,55

Table 2. Correlation coefficients for paired variables

Pairs of variables N r p BRIGR – BRDLO 7 ,997 ,000 BRIGR – BRKLU 7 ,993 ,000

BRIGR – KLOPI 7 ,567 ,184

BRIGR – VTRPL 7 ,957 ,001

BRDLO – BRKLU 7 ,992 ,000

BRDLO – KLOPI 7 ,584 ,169

BRDLO – VTRPL 7 ,967 ,000

BRKLU – KLOPI 7 ,660 ,107

BRKLU – VTRPL 7 ,979 ,000

KLOPI – VTRPL 7 ,740 ,057

Table 2 shows variable value results for paired variables.

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Discussion

Football is explored from various aspects, and as far as technique is concerned, contact with the ball is an essential part of all technical elements. Research on football techniques so far has been dominated by research on differences by various criteria (Lago Peňas, 2007; Lago Peňas, Martin, 2009; Lago Peňas & Dellal, 2010; Castellano, Casamichana & Lago Peňas, 2012; Muhamed, Norasrudin, & Rahmat, 2013; Liu, Gómez, Gonçalves, Sampaio, 2016; Leontijević, Janković & Tomić, 2018; Đošić, 2018). Research on the connection between technical elements is rare and it can be said that, despite the vast amount of research on football and technological background applied in these studies, football theory is lacking. This knowledge would contribute to a better understanding of what was happening during the competitive activity. The question remained open why is this so and why the research attention of scientists engaged in the scientific discipline Football so far has not been directed towards seeking answers to these questions? It is better to have questions you cannot answer than answers you cannot review (Harari, 2019).

When we compare the results of this study with the results of the same team at the World Champi- onship in South Africa 2010, there are differences in absolute numbers and that in all seven games played by the German team in this competition achieved a minimum of 968, a maximum of 1740 and an average of per game 1358.7 of ball contacts. At the same number of matches, four years earlier at the 2010 World Champi- onship in South Africa, the German national team made an average of 1187.33 ball-point contacts per game, a minimum of 716 and a maximum of 1722 (Djosic, 2014). There is a difference, i.e. average per match were achieved 171.37 more ball contacts on the World Championship 2014 compared to the same competition in 2010. The answer to this question remains open, which means that additional research is needed to possibly explain the established difference. There is also a difference of 252 in the minimum contact values of the ball. On the World Championship 2014 , there were a minimum of 968 ball contacts, and in 2010 716, and in this feature of the attack phase the difference in favor of the matches in the 2014 competition was obtained. The difference in favor of the matches at the 2014 World Championship was also obtained by the average number of contacts with the ball per player. At this competition, that value was 2.18, and four years earlier 2.17. However, significantly larger differences were obtained when comparing the minimum and maximum values for the average number of ball contacts per player. In 2010, the same team had a minimum average number of ball contacts per player 1.91 and four years later 2.11. There is a difference of 0.20 ball contacts per player in favor of the matches of the German national team in the 2014 competition. There is a slight difference when it comes to the maximum values of average ball-per-player contacts and is 0.19, but in favor of the games in the 2010 competition.

A deeper level of exploration of this problem is when contact with the ball is recorded across the field. It is common to divide into three zones: defensive, maneuvering and attacking. At the 2010 World Championship, the German team had 1.62 average contact with the ball per possession, 2.29 in the zone of attack organization and 2.63 in the offensive zone. This research found significant differences between the defense and organization zones and the attack termination in the average number of contacts with the ball per possession of the ball (Djosic, 2013). On the matches of English Premier League was determined the range of average contact with the ball per possession of 1.8 ± 0.3 for central backs in teams with a low percentage of possession to 3.1 ± 0.6 for outside midfielders in teams with high percentage of ball possession (Bredly, Lago-Peῆas, Rey & Diaz, 2013). In a sample of 60 matches on the World Championship 2010 , it was found that the total number of passes together with the possession of the ball and the total number of correct passes significantly influence the achievement of a better result (Jankovic, Leontijevic, Pasic and Jelusic, 2011). With an average of 585.2 passes per match at the 2014 World Championship, the German national team made 51.7 more passes than the 2010 World Championship average.

On a pattern of matches on the EURO 2016 has been analyzed the goal scoring process and it has been found that 31.48% of goals were scored after 1-3 passes, and that 29.63% of goals were scored with the cooperation of four players. In addition, 54.63% of goals were found to be scored with just one touch, 17.59% with two touchdowns, 13.89% with three touchdowns, and also 13.89% with more than three touchdowns (Tokul & Mülazimoğlu, 2018).

An analysis of goals scored in 64 games during the 2018 World Cup in Russia found that 76.3% of goals were scored after 0-4 additions, 23.7% after 5 - 8+ additions (Vegonis, Michailidis, Mikikis, Semaltia- nou, Mavrommatis, Christoulas & Metaxas, 2019).

This research found a great correlation r = 0,997 between the number of players and the number of passes made within possession of the ball, players and contacts with the ball total r = 0,993, players and duration of possession r = 0,957, the number of ball passes and contacts with the ball total r = 0, 992, pass and timing of possession r = 0.967 and total numbers of ball contacts and duration of ball possession r = 0.979. Between players and contacts per player, passes and contacts per player, total number of contacts with the

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ball and contacts per player and contacts per player and duration of possession, a moderate association was found, ranging from r = 0.567 to r = 0.740. Examining the association between the investigated attack characteristics, higher values were obtained compared to the previous study when the interplay between ball possession, ball contact and contact index was examined. Between ball possession and contact with the ball the correlation coefficient was r = 0.899, between ball possession and contact index r = 0.107 between contact with the ball and contact index r = 0.528 (Đošić, 2017).

Conclusion

This research answers some of the questions regarding the relationship between the analyzed technical-tactical-temporal characteristics of the attack phase in the game of the winner of the 2014 Football World Championship. A sample of seven games played by the German national team on the 2014 FIFA World Championship found that the number of players who participated in all individual ball possessions and the national team achieved in this competition ranged from a minimum of 459 to a maximum of 806, their sum is 4350. It is also seen that the total number of passes made ranges from a minimum of 424 to a maximum of 756 and that their sum is 4097. As for contacts with the ball, their number ranges from 968 to 1740, and the total is realized within all ball possessions 9511 ball contacts. The duration of possession of the ball in individual games ranges from 24.44 minutes to 36.52 minutes, and in total in this competition the national team had the ball in its possession 215, 58 minutes, or 30.78 minutes on average per game.

Also, the research found a great correlation r = 0,997 between the number of players and the number of completed additions within possession of the ball, players and contacts with the ball total r = 0,993, players and duration of possession r = 0,957, the number of ball passes and contacts with the ball total r = 0 , 992, the pass and time duration of possession r = 0.967 and ball contact and total possession of the ball r = 0.999. Between players and contacts per player, passes and contacts per player, contacts with the ball total and contacts per player and contacts per player and duration of possession, a moderate association was found, ranging from r = 0.567 to r = 0.740. The results of this research may contribute to a better understanding of the competitive activity of football, and in particular the correlation between the analyzed characteristics of the attack structure. Based on the obtained results, the hypothesis is accepted, but in order to make more reliable conclusions about the investigated characteristics of the phase of attack in football, it is necessary to increase the sample of matches in future researches. In addition to the answers given to the questions posed in the introduction, this research has opened up new questions that await answers in the near or far future, and are related to explaining the differences in the game of the same National team in two competitions at intervals of four years.

References

1. Armatas, V., Yiannakos, A., Papadopoulou, S. & Skoufas. D. (2009). Evoluation of goals scored in top ranking soccer matches: Greek “Superleague” 2006-07. Serbian Journal of Sports Sciences, 3(1): 39-43. 2. Bray, K. (2006). Kako dati gol. Zagreb: V.B.Z. 3. Bredly, P., Lago- Peῆas,C., Rey, E. & Diaz,A., (2013). The effect of high and low percentage ball possession on physical and technical profils in English FA Premier League soccer matches. Journal of Sport Sciences, DOI:10.1080/02640414.2013.786185 4. Castellano, J., Casamichana, D., & Lago Peňas, C. (2012). The Use of Match Statistics that Discrimi- nate Between Successful and Unsuccessful Soccer Teams. Journal of Human Kineticsl, 31, 139-147. 5. Dufor, M., Phillips, J. & Ernwein, V. ( 2017). What makes the difference? Analysis of the 2014 World Cup. Journal of human sport & exercise, 12 (3), 616-629. 6. Đošić, N. (2013). Broj dodira prilikom odigravanja loptom po zonama terena u igri reprezentacije Nemačke na utakmicama SP 2010. godineU 6.”Vaspitno-obrazovni i sportski horizonti” (str. 201-204). Subotica: Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača i trenera. 7. Đošić, N. (2014). Razlike u posedima lopte, kaontaktima sa loptom i kontakt indeksima osvajača medalja na Svetskom fudbalskom prvenstvu 2010. godine. Sportske nauke i zdravlje 4 (1):64-72. 8. Đošić, N. (2017). Povezanost poseda lopte, kontakata sa loptom i kontakt indeksa u savremenom fudbalu. Srpska nauka danas Vol.2 No.1 (44-55). 9. Đošić, N. (2018). Beginning of ball possession toward field zones in the game of football World Shampions 2014. U Effects of Physical Activity Application to Anthropological Status with Children, Adolescents and Adults (pp. 550-554). Belgrade: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. 10. Gӧral, K. (2015). Passing Success Percentages and Ball Possession Rates of Successful Teams in 2014 FIFA World Cup. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, 3 (1), 86-95.

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11. Harrari, J.N. (2019). 21 lekcija za 21 vek. Beograd: Laguna. 12. Lago Peňas, C & Martin, R. (2007). Determinants of possession of the ball in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25:9, 969-974. 13. Lago, C. (2009). The influence of match location, quality of opposition, and match status on possession strategies in professional association football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27:13, 1463-1469. 14. Lago Peňas, C. & Dellal, A. (2010). Ball Possession Strategies in Elite Soccer According to the Evolu- tion of the Match-Score: the Inflence of Situational Variables. Journal of Human Kineticsl, 25, 93-100. 15. Leontijević, B., Janković, A. i Tomić, L. (2018). Attacking Performance Profile of Football Teams in Defferent Nationalc Leagues according to UEFA rankings for club competitions. Facta Universitatis Series Physical Education and Sport Vol.16, No 3, 697- 708. 16. Leite, W.S. (2013). Analysis of goals in soccer World Cup and the determination of the critical phase of the game. FACTA UNIVERSITATIS Series Physical Education and Sport Vol.11, No 3, 247-253. 17. Liu, H., Gómez, M.A., Gonçalves, B. & Sampaio, J. (2016). Tehnical performance and match-to- match variation in elite football teams. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34:6, 509-518. 18. Muhamed, S., Norasrudin, S. i Rahmat, A. (2013). Differences in Goal Scoring and Passing Sequenc- es between Winning and Losing Team in UEFA-EURO Championship 2012. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic and Management Engineering Vol:7, No:2, 224-229. 19. Rodenas, J.G., Malavés,R.A., Calabulg, F. & Casal,C (2019). Effect of Match Location, Team ranking, Match Status and Tactical Dimensions on the offensive Performance in Spanish ,La Liga, Soccer. Front. Psychol. 10:2089.doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02089. 20. Janković, A., Jelušić. V., Leontijević, B. i Mićović, B. (2010). Uticaj uspešno izvedenih napada na postizanje pozitivnog rezultata reprezentacije srbije u takmičarskom ciklusu za Svetsko prvenstvo u fudbalu u Južnoafričkoj republici 2010. godine (analiza standardne situacije – prekid igre). U FIS ko- munikacije 2010 u sportu, fizičkom vaspitanju i rekreaciji (str.496-502). Niš: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 21. Janković, A., Leontijević, B., Pašić, M. i Jelušić. V. (2011). Uticaj pojedinačnih napadačkih sredstava taktike na ostvareni rezultat ekipa učesnica svetskog prvenstva u fudbalu u Južnoafričkoj Republici. Fizička Kultura 65 (1): 34-45. 22. Sporiš, G., Barišić, V., Fiorentini, F., Ujević, B., Jovanović, M i Talović, M. (2014). Situacijska efikasnost u nogometu. Glina: Lena sport d.o.o. 23. Vegonis,A., Michailidis,Y., Mikikis,D.,Semaltianou, E., Mavrommatis,G., Christoulas, K. & Metaxas, T. (2019). Technical and tactical analysis goal scoring patterns in the 2018 Fifa World Cup. Facta Universitatis Series Physical Education and Sport Vol.17, No 2,181-193. 24. Tokul, E. & Mülazimoğlu, O. (2018). Analyzing the Process from the Initiation of attack to Goal Scoring Touch in the EURO 2016. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(12):2738-2742.

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КARAKTERISTIKE STRUKTURE NAPADA OSVAJAČA SVETSKOG PRVENSTVA U FUDBALU 2014. GODINE

Nebojša Đošić1,2 1 Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača i trenera, Subotica, Srbija 2 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

U ljudskoj je prirodi nastojati biti bolji, brži i jači. Napred nas vodi želja za novim saznanjima, iskustvima, potvrđivanjem sebi i drugima, za uspehom, za pobedom. To je naročito vidljivo u vrhunskom, a i u sportu uopšte. Svakom treneru je cilj da unapredi sportske rezultate svojih sportista i timova. Da bi u tome uspeo, mora redovno dobijati, i sportistima prosleđivati povratne informacije o njihovoj uspešnosti (Sporiš, Barišić, Fiorentini, Ujević, Jovanović, i Talović, 2014). Od sveukupnog ispoljavanja fudbalera i timova u toku takmičarske aktivnosti u ovom radu istraživačka pažnja je usmerena na određene tehničko-taktičko-vremenske elemente u fazi napada. U fazi napada neke od bitnih karakteristika su broj igrača, broj dodavanja lopte, broj kontakata sa loptom u pojedinačnom posedu lopte i ukupno, a takođe i vremenska karakteristika poseda lopte izražena njegovim trajanjem u sekundama za pojedinačni posed i u minutama za petominutne ili petnaestominutne delove utkmice ili za ukupno trajanje poseda lopte u prvom i/ili drugom poluvremenu ili za celu utakmicu.

U savremenom vrhunskom sportu posebno su stručnjaci u sportskim igrama uočili neophodnost prikupljanja podataka i da u naizgled haotičnoj igri postoje određene zakonitosti. Analiza takmičarske aktivnosti (na planu svih vidova pripreme) predstavlja važan segment pripreme sportista (Janković, Jelušić, Leontijević i Mićović, 2010). Iz zaključaka analiza zapažaju se određeni principi igre kako protivničke, tako i ekipe koja je u direktnom trenažno takmičarskom postupku (Janković, Jelušić, Leontijević i Mićović, 2010).

Faza napada je u dosadašnjim istraživanjima analizirana po različitim kriterijumima kao što su % poseda lopte, preciznost dodavanja lopte (Gӧral, 2015; Dufor, Phillips & Ernwein, 2017), pretrčane distance različitim brzinama bez i sa loptom, postizanje golova različitim delovima tela, različitim načinima izvođen- ja napada u različitim vremenskim periodima utakmice (Leite, 2013; Armatas,Yiannakos, Papadopoulou & Skoufas, 2009), vremensko trajanje faze napada (Rodenas, Malavés, Calabulg & Casal, 2019) zonama početka poseda lopte broju igrača, dodavanja i dodira lopte u akcijama iz kojih su postizani golovi (Tokul & Mülazimoğiu, 2018). U prethodno navedenim istraživanjima uzorak ispitanika su predstavljali timovi učesnici različitih takmičenja kao što su nacionalne lige, Liga šampiona, Svetska i Evropska prvenstava.

Tako Charles Rep i Bernard Benjamin još 1968 (prema: Ken Bray, 2006) u svojoj studiji koju su nazvali „Umeće i verovatnost u fudbalu“ istražuju dodavanja lopte i udarce na gol protivnika. Obradili su ukupno 578 utakmica engleske lige i sve utakmice dva svetska prvenstva između 1953. i 1967. godine. Tada kao i danas interes je privlačio posed lopte, a glavno pitanje se odnosilo na broj uspešnih dodavanja u nizu pre nego što odbrana oduzme loptu. U istrživanju koje su sproveli (Muhamed, Norasrudin i Rahmat 2013) na uzorku 31 utakmice sa Evropskog fudbalskog prvenstva istražuju razlike između pobedničkih i poraženih ekipa u načinu i vremenu postizanja golova, broju dodavanja i u udaljenosti na koju su dodavanja vršena. Na uzorku 21 utakmice osvajača medalja na Svetskom fudbalskom prvenstvu 2010. godine primenom Kruskall Wallis testa utvrđena je statistički značajna razlika u posedima lopte i kontaktima sa loptom, a u kontakt indeksima nije pronađena statistički značajna razlika (Đošić, 2014).

Predmet ovog istraživanja je deo strukture faze napada svetskih fudbalskih prvaka 2014. godine. Problemi koji se analiziraju su broj igrača, broj dodavanja i kontakata sa loptom u pojedinačnom posedu lopte i ukupno, kao i njegovo vremensko trajanje. Cilj istraživanja je da se utvrdi koliko igrača, dodavanja lopte i kontakata sa loptom po jednom posedu lopte je imala reprezentacija Nemačke na ovom takmičenju, koliko je vremensko trajanje poseda lopte i da se ispita njihova međusobna povezanost. Očekuje se pozitivna povezanost različite jačine između posmatranih karakteristika structure napada osvajača SP u fudbalu 2014. godine.

Metode

U istraživanju je korišćen empirijsko-neeksperimentalni metod, a od opštih istraživačkih tehnika posmatranje. Posmatrano je 7 utakmica koje je reprezentacija Nemačke odigrala na ovom takmičenju. U posmatračkom listu su evidentirane frekvencije analiziranih varijabli osim za varijablu trajanje poseda koja je

66 UDK: 796.332.052.242 izražavana u sekundama, a merena je štopericom na ručnom časovniku marke Casio 3283, W 734 proizve- denom u Kini. Pored trajanja poseda analiziran je i broj igrača, broj dodavanja lopte, broj kontakata sa loptom ukupno i po igraču u okviru poseda lopte. Za obradu prikupljenih podataka korišten je statistički program SPSS 20. Izračunate su deskriptivne karakteristike varijabli: minimalana i maksimalna vrednost, zbir, aritmetička sredina, standardna devijacija i koeficijent varijanse. Rezultati su prikazani grafički i tabelarno. Za parove varijabli izračunata je povezanost.

Definicije varijabli: BRIGR – broj igrača učesnika u posedu lopte, BRDLO – broj dodavanja lopte u okviru poseda lopte, BRKLU – broj kontakata sa loptom u okviru poseda lopte ukupno, KLOPI – kontak sa loptom po igraču, VTRPL – vremensko trajanje poseda lopte.

Rezultati

U tabeli 1 se može videti da se broj igrača koji je učestvovao u svim pojedinačnim posedima lopte koje je posmatrana reprezentacija ostvarila na ovom takmičenju kreće od 459 do 806, a da je njihov zbir 4350. Vidi se takođe da se ukupan broj ostvarenih dodavanja kreće od 424 do 756 i da njihov zbir iznosi 4097. Što se tiče kontakata sa loptom njihov broj se kreće od 968 do 1740, a ukupno je ostvareno u okviru svih poseda lopte 9511 kontakata sa loptom. Na dnu tabele se vidi da se vremensko trajanje poseda lopte kreće od 24,44 minuta do 36,52 minuta, a da je ukupno na ovom takmičenju imala loptu u svom posedu 215, 58 minuta, odnosno 30,78 minuta prosečno po utakmici.

Tabela 1. Deskriptivne karakteristike za posmatrane varijable

Tabela 2. Koeficicijenti korelacije za uparene varijable

Parovi variabli N r p BRIGR – BRDLO 7 ,997 ,000 BRIGR – BRKLU 7 ,993 ,000

BRIGR – KLOPI 7 ,567 ,184

BRIGR – VTRPL 7 ,957 ,001

BRDLO – BRKLU 7 ,992 ,000

BRDLO – KLOPI 7 ,584 ,169

BRDLO – VTRPL 7 ,967 ,000

BRKLU – KLOPI 7 ,660 ,107

BRKLU – VTRPL 7 ,979 ,000

KLOPI – VTRPL 7 ,740 ,057

U tabeli broj 2 su prikazani rezultati za vrednosti korelacije za uparene varijabe.

Diskusija

Fudbal se istražuje sa raznih aspekata, a što se tiče tehnike, kontakti sa loptom su osnovni deo svih tehničkih elemenata. U dosadašnjim istraživanjima tehnike fudbala preovlađuju istraživanja o razlikama po raznim kriterijumima (Lago Peňas, 2007; Lago Peňas, Martin, 2009; Lago Peňas & Dellal, 2010; Castellano,

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Casamichana & Lago Peňas, 2012; Muhamed, Norasrudin, & Rahmat, 2013; Liu, Gómez, Gonçalves, Sam- paio, 2016; Leontijević, Janković i Tomić, 2018; Đošić, 2018). Istraživanja povezanosti tehničkih elemenata su retka i može se reći da i pored ogromnog broja istraživanja u vezi fudbala i tehnološkog naptetka primenjenog u tim istraživanjima nedostaju teoriji fudbala. Ta znanja bi doprinela boljem razumevanju dešavanja u toku takmičarske aktivnosti. Otvoreno je pitanje zašto je to tako i zašto do sada istraživačka pažnja naučnika angažovanih u naučnoj disciplini Fudbal nije bila usmerena prema traženju odgovora na ta pitanja? Bolje je imati pitanja na koja ne možete da odgovorite nego odgovore koje ne možete da preispitate (Harari, 2019).

Kada uporedimo rezultate dobijene ovim istraživanjem sa rezultatima iste reprezentacije na Svets- kom fudbalskom prvenstvu u Južnoafričkoj Republici 2010. godine primećuju se razlike u apsolutnim brojevi- ma i da je na svih sedam utakmica koje je reprezentacija Nemačke odigrala na ovom takmičenju ostvareno minimalno 968, maksimalno 1740, a prosečno po utakmici 1358,7 kontakata sa loptom. Na istom broju utakmica, četiri godine ranije na Svetskom fudbalskom prvenstvu u Južnoj Africi 2010. godine reprezentacija Nemačke je ostvarila prosečno 1187,33 kontakata sa loptom po jednoj utakmici, minimalno 716, a maksimalno 1722 (Đošić, 2014). Postoji razlika, odnosno ostvareno je prosečno po utakmici više za 171,37 kontakata sa loptom na Svetskom fudbalskom prvenstvu 2014. godine u odnosu na isto takmičenje 2010. Odgovor na ovo pitanje je ostao i dalje otvoren, a to znači da su potrebna dodatna istraživanja kako bi se eventualno objasnila utvrđena razlika. Takođe postoji razlika od 252 i u minimalnim vrednostima kontakata sa loptom. Na takmičenju 2014. godine ostvareno je minimalno 968 kontakata sa loptom, a 2010. godine 716, i u ovoj karakteristici faze napada dobijena razlika je u korist utakmica na takmičenju 2014. godine. Razlika u korist utakmica na Svetskom fudbalskom prvenstvu 2014. godine je dobijena i vrednosti prosečnog broja kontakata sa loptom po jednom igraču. Na ovom tamičenju ta vrednost je iznosila 2,18, a četiri godine ranije 2,17. Međutim znatno veće razlike su dobijene kada se uporede minimalne i maksimalne vrednosti za prosečan broj kontakata sa loptom po jednom igraču. Ista reprezentacija je 2010. godine imala minimalan prosečan broj kontakata sa loptom po jednom igraču 1,91 a četiri godine kasnije 2,11. Zapaža se razlika od 0,20 kontakata sa loptom po igraču u korist utakmica reprezentacije Nemačke na takmičenju 2014. godine. Nešto je manja razlika kada se radi o maksimalnim vrednostima prosečnih kontakata sa loptom po igraču i iznosi 0,19 ali u korist utakmica na takmičenju 2010. godine.

Dublji nivo istraživanja ovog problema je kada se evidentiraju kontakti sa loptom po zonama terena. Uobičajena je podela na tri zone, odbrambena, manevarska i napadačka. Na Svetskom prvenstvu 2010. godine reprezentacija Nemačke je imala u zoni odbrane 1,62 prosečno kontakata sa loptom po jednom posedu lopte, 2,29 u zoni organizacije napada i 2,63 u zoni završnice napada. Tim istraživanjem su utvrđene značajne razlike između zona odbrane i zona organizacije i završnice napada u prosečnom broju kontakata sa loptom po jednom posedu lopte (Đošić, 2013). Na utakmicama engleske Premijer lige utvrđen je raspon prosečnog broja kontakata sa loptom po jednom posedu lopte od 1,8 ± 0,3 kod centralnih bekova u timovima sa malim procentom poseda lopte do 3,1 ± 0,6 kod spoljnih veznih igrača u timovima sa visokim procentom poseda lopte (Bredly, Lago- Peῆas, Rey & Diaz, 2013).

Na uzorku od 60 utakmica Svetskog fudbalskog prvenstva 2010. godine utvrđeno je da ukupan broj dodavanja zajedno sa posedom lopte i ukupnim brojem tačnih dodavanja značajno utiču na ostvarivanje boljeg rezultata (Janković, Leontijević, Pašić i Jelušić, 2011). Sa prosečno ostvarenih 585,2 dodavanja po utakmici na prvenstvu sveta 2014. godine reprezentacija Nemačke je za 51,7 dodavanje ostvarila više dodavanja od proseka na prvenstvu sveta 2010. godine.

Na uzorku utakmica sa EURO 2016 analiziran je proces postizanja golova i utvrđeno je da je 31,48 % golova postignuto posle 1-3 dodavanja lopte, a da je najviše golova 29,63 % postignuto uz saradnju četiri igrača. Pored toga utvrđeno je da je najviše golova 54,63 % postignuto sa samo jednim dodirom lopte, 17,59 % sa dva dodira lopte, 13,89 % sa tri dodira lopte, a takođe sa 13,89 % sa više od tri dodira lopte (Tokul & Mülazimoğlu, 2018).

Analizom golova postignutih na 64 utakmice u okviru Svetskog prvenstva 2018. godine u Rusiji utvrđeno je da je 76,3 % golova postignuto posle 0-4 dodavanja, 23,7 % posle 5 – 8+ dodavanja (Vegonis, Michailidis, Mikikis, Semaltianou, Mavrommatis, Christoulas & Metaxas, 2019).

Ovim istraživanjem je utvrđena velika povezanost r = 0,997 između broja igrača i broja realizovanih dodavanja u okviru poseda lopte, igrača i kontakata sa loptom ukupno r = 0,993, igrača i trajanja poseda r = 0,957, broja dodavanja lopte i kontakata sa loptom ukupno r = 0, 992, dodavanja i vremenskog trajanja poseda r = 0,967 i kantakata sa loptom ukupno i trajanja poseda lopte r = 0,979. Između igrača i kontakata po igraču, dodavanja i kontakata po igraču, kontakata sa loptom ukupno i kontakata po igraču i kontakata po igraču i trajanja poseda lopte je utvrđena umerena povezanost i kreće se u rasponu od r = 0,567 do r = 0,740. Ispitujući povezanost između istraživanih karakteristika napada dobijene su veće vrednosti u odnosu na prethodno istraživanje kada je ispitivana međusobna povezanost poseda lopte, kontakata sa loptom

68 UDK: 796.332.052.242 i kontakt indeksa. Između poseda lopte i kontakata sa loptom koeficijent korelacije je iznosio r = 0,899, između poseda lopte i kontakt indeksa r = 0,107 između kontakata sa loptom i kontakt indeksa r = 0,528 (Đošić, 2017).

Zaključak

Ovo istraživanje daje odgovore na neka od pitanja u vezi povezanosti analiziranih tehničko-tak- tičko-vremenskih karakteristika faze napada u igri pobednika Svetskog fudbalskog prvenstva 2014. godine. Na uzorku od sedam utakmica koje je reprezentacija Nemačke odigrala na Svetskom fudbalskom prvenstvu 2014. godine utvrđeno je da se broj igrača koji je učestvovao u svim pojedinačnim posedima lopte koje je posmatrana reprezentacija ostvarila na ovom takmičenju kreće od minimalno 459 do maksimalno 806, a da je njihov zbir 4350. Vidi se takođe da se ukupan broj ostvarenih dodavanja kreće od minimalno 424 do maksimalno 756 i da njihov zbir iznosi 4097. Što se tiče kontakata sa loptom njihov broj se kreće od 968 do 1740, a ukupno je ostvareno u okviru svih poseda lopte 9511 kontakt sa loptom. Vremensko trajanje poseda lopte na pojedinačnim utakmicama se kreće od 24,44 minuta do 36,52 minuta a ukupno na ovom takmičenju posmatrana reprezentacija je imala loptu u svom posedu 215, 58 minuta, odnosno 30,78 minuta prosečno po utakmici.

Takođe istraživanjem je utvrđena velika povezanost r = 0,997 između broja igrača i broja realizovanih dodavanja u okviru poseda lopte, igrača i kontakata sa loptom ukupno r = 0,993, igrača i trajanja poseda r = 0,957, broja dodavanja lopte i kontakata sa loptom ukupno r = 0, 992, dodavanja i vremenskog trajanja poseda r = 0,967 i kantakata sa loptom ukupno i trajanja poseda lopte r = 0,979. Između igrača i kontakata po igraču, dodavanja i kontakata po igraču, kontakata sa loptom ukupno i kontakata po igraču i kontakata po igraču i trajanja poseda lopte je utvrđena umerena povezanost i kreće se u rasponu od r = 0,567 do r = 0,740. Rezultati ovog istraživanja mogu doprineti boljem razumevanju takmičarske aktivnosti fudbala, a naročito povezanosti između analiziranih karakteristika strukture napada. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata hipoteza se prihvata, ali je za donošenje pouzdanijih zaključaka o istraživanim karakteristikama faze napada u fudbalu potrebno povećati uzorak utakmica u budućim istraživanjima. Takođe pored dobijenih odgovora na pitanja postavljena u uvodu rada, ovim istraživanjem su otvorena nova pitanja koja očekuju odgovore u bližoj ili daljoj budućnosti, a tiču se objašnjavanja dobijenih razlika u igri iste reprezentacije na dva takmičenja u razmaku od četiri godine.

Literatura

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sion strategies in professional association football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27:13, 1463-1469. 14. Lago Peňas, C. & Dellal, A. (2010). Ball Possession Strategies in Elite Soccer According to the Evolu- tion of the Match-Score: the Inflence of Situational Variables. Journal of Human Kineticsl, 25, 93-100. 15. Leontijević, B., Janković, A. i Tomić, L. (2018). Attacking Performance Profile of Football Teams in Defferent Nationalc Leagues according to UEFA rankings for club competitions. Facta Universitatis Series Physical Education and Sport Vol.16, No 3, 697- 708. 16. Leite, W.S. (2013). Analysis of goals in soccer World Cup and the determination of the critical phase of the game. FACTA UNIVERSITATIS Series Physical Education and Sport Vol.11, No 3, 247-253. 17. Liu, H., Gómez, M.A., Gonçalves, B. & Sampaio, J. (2016). Tehnical performance and match-to- match variation in elite football teams. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34:6, 509-518. 18. Muhamed, S., Norasrudin, S. i Rahmat, A. (2013). Differences in Goal Scoring and Passing Sequenc- es between Winning and Losing Team in UEFA-EURO Championship 2012. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic and Management Engineering Vol:7, No:2, 224-229. 19. Rodenas, J.G., Malavés,R.A., Calabulg, F. & Casal,C (2019). Effect of Match Location, Team ranking, Match Status and Tactical Dimensions on the offensive Performance in Spanish ,La Liga, Soccer. Front. Psychol. 10:2089.doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02089. 20. Janković, A., Jelušić. V., Leontijević, B. i Mićović, B. (2010). Uticaj uspešno izvedenih napada na postizanje pozitivnog rezultata reprezentacije srbije u takmičarskom ciklusu za Svetsko prvenstvo u fudbalu u Južnoafričkoj republici 2010. godine (analiza standardne situacije – prekid igre). U FIS ko- munikacije 2010 u sportu, fizičkom vaspitanju i rekreaciji (str.496-502). Niš: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 21. Janković, A., Leontijević, B., Pašić, M. i Jelušić. V. (2011). Uticaj pojedinačnih napadačkih sredstava taktike na ostvareni rezultat ekipa učesnica svetskog prvenstva u fudbalu u Južnoafričkoj Republici. Fizička Kultura 65 (1): 34-45. 22. Sporiš, G., Barišić, V., Fiorentini, F., Ujević, B., Jovanović, M i Talović, M. (2014). Situacijska efikasnost u nogometu. Glina: Lena sport d.o.o. 23. Vegonis,A., Michailidis,Y., Mikikis,D.,Semaltianou, E., Mavrommatis,G., Christoulas, K. & Metaxas, T. (2019). Technical and tactical analysis goal scoring patterns in the 2018 Fifa World Cup. Facta Universitatis Series Physical Education and Sport Vol.17, No 2,181-193. 24. Tokul, E. & Mülazimoğlu, O. (2018). Analyzing the Process from the Initiation of attack to Goal Scoring Touch in the EURO 2016. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(12):2738-2742.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD OF PERCEIVED EXERTION AND THE RESULTS IN THE RACE OF DRAGON BOAT

Slobodan Tošić; Željko Rajković University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Allmost all disciplines of paddling sports belongs to endurance type of sports, but also to the category of cyclic sports because paddlers movement is based on repeating thef cycle of identical movements (Ilić, Rajković, 2009). The sports result in paddling disciplines mainly depends on the athlete himself. Pad- dling disciplines are relatively simple structures, the result can be objectively measured, while the number of athletes can be classified between individual and group in combined sports (Koprivica 2013). Dragon boat is one of the paddling sports that is extremely widespread in the world. Crews of 10 or 20 paddlers sit in the boat and, following the rhythm of the drummers and the helmsman, try to master the tracks of 200m, 500m, 1000m and 2000m as quickly as possible, in male, female and mixed crews, with the usual age categories (Group of authors, 2016). They paddle with paddles that are like a boat with standardized shape and dimensions (Group of authors, 2013). The great stability of the boat, and the simplicity of the paddling technique enable the quick involvement of beginners in these sports activities. Athlete fatigue is a signal, as a natural defensive reaction from further loads, which could damage the body. The basis of fatigue is a temporarily disturbed internal balance of the organism, the consequence of which working ability is reduced (Grujić, et al., 2017). In sports training, depending on the nature of work, there are local, regional and general fatigue, which can occur in its acute or chronic form. Fatigue can be intellectual, sensory, emotional and physical (Dimitrijević, 1975). In paddling sports, ATP and CP depot emptying, as well as lactic acidosis, predominate as causes of fatigue (Fratrić. 2006). Fatigue can be manifested in a decrease in the strength or speed of muscle contractions, in slower muscle relaxation, in a decrease in the precision, and accuracy of movement coordination, in a prolongation of the reaction time to stimuli, etc. Working ability can be lower even in the case of full-scale work, but this requires increasing stress on the physiological functions of the organism (increase in energy expenditure, respiratory rate and heart rate, etc.) (Farfelj, 1972). Inability to perform work of previous intensity indicates the onset of fatigue. The speed of fatigue development depends on the rhythm of work (frequency of contractions and the size of the load). The causes of fatigue can be multiple, but the most common division is into fatigue of the central nervous system, muscle acidification and emptying of energy depots (Grujić, 2004). In considering the causes of fatigue during dynamic work, it is necessary to pay attention to the relative intensity of that work, because the physiological mechanisms of fatigue in zones of different intensity are different (Sanderson 1983). In paddling races, work of maximum, and submaximal intensity is represented. Modern sport requires more and more careful monitoring of the size of the load, according to internal indicators. One of the divisions of fatigue is according to the criterion of visibility into visible, and hidden (Koprivica, 2013). However, even when it is visible, it is often a problem to turn a qualitative statement into a quantitative one.Biofeedback can be an effective method for improving personal monitoring, and personal regulation of exercise intensity in healthy and clinical populations (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli, Tenenbaum, 2002). Fatigue achieved by one race in a dragon boat at 500m can be more closely defined as general acute fatigue, which is the result of a single very large load. There are numerous studies dealing with the assessment of perceived exertion in laboratory conditions.The data confirm the usefulness of a subjective fatigue session for a subjective assessment of training intensity, during varying exercise conditions, including very high intensity interval training and team sports and competition practices (Foster at all, 2001). It is very important to measure the load of perceived exertion (RPE) in the conditions of a competition, and to determine the relationship between RPE, and the result in a race, and to discover problems in the realization of research, so that they can be systematically overcome in the future.

A sports result, an achievement in sports in races is equivalent to a placement or a place achieved in a competition. The time achieved in the race is significant in the assessment of the achieved speed. The ranking in the race ranks the athlete in clubs, national federations and national teams, assigns him status and has a huge significance, and influence on his further development.

In the race, the competitor brings his body into a state of fatigue, caused by psychophysical stress. Through the autonomic nervous system, the motor neuron of the engaged musculature sends signals from the periphery to the cortical part of the cerebral hemisphere, where it creates a feeling of fatigue through

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sensory pathways, which can be measured on the Borg scale CR10 (Table number 1), and RPE 6-20 scale (Borg, 1980, 1998).

Table 1. Borgs scale CR10

Score Level of exertion 0 No exertion at all 0,5 Very, very slight (just noticable) 1 Very slight 2 Slight 3 Moderate 4 Somewhat Severe 5 Severe 6 7 Very Severe 8 9 Very, very severe (almost maximal) 10 Maximal

The motor cortex sends stronger signals to the sensory cortex giving it a reason to increase the subjective feeling of fatigue (Gearthart et al., 2005). The Borg scale of load of perceived exertion was created, taking into account quantitative semantics, the problem of measuring, and psychophysical relation (Borg 1980), and can be used to measure fatigue levels in individuals (Noble and Robertson, 1996). Numerous previous articles have proven the validity and correlation between objective and subjective indicators of fatigue in the modalities: kayaking, running, cycling, swimming, weightlifting (Borg, 1980, 1982, 1998). Non-invasive methods of assessing the condition of athletes have repeatedly shown a high correlation with objective laboratory methods, and their advantages are availability to a wide number of researchers, and the ability to measure in the field, with very low financial costs (Najera-Longoria et al., 2017). The main goal of this pilot study was to establish the level of RPE, which occurs in relative beginners in the dragon boat race. Accordingly, the task was given to precisely measure the RPE, after the race as an independent variable, and to establish whether there is a connection with the placement. The hypothesis was set: a higher load of RPE is related to a better result in a competition. More importantly, the research follows a critical review of the imperfection of the Borg scales of RPE, and the need for several new upgrades, for which there is a real possibility. In addition, the pilot research looked for possible risks and parasitic factors, which may jeopardize the usability of subjective results, obtained by field research.

Methods

Respondents of this pilot study were members of 3 teams of 10 paddlers each, who participated in the final race of the national championship in the dragon boat at 500m (18 men and 12 women, average age 30.2 years). The research was conducted on September 17th, 2016. at 12:15 pm in Belgrade on Lake Ada Ciganlija. All respondents were physically active, and healthy and voluntarily joined the competition, as well as participated in the research. Boat crews of 10 people (6 men and 4 women) had no previous experience of paddling in a dragon boat, but they had organized two trainings of the basic elements of technique. In addition to the paddling crew, there were two other people in the boat: One with the role of the helmsman who directs the boat to the right path during the rowing race, and the other who gave the pace of paddling by hitting the drum. The weight of the boat, and its geometric properties were uniform, according to the propo- sitions for the dragon boat competition (Group of authors, 2013). Immediately after the race, the competitors were given verbally instructions to declare the degree of fatigue on a 10-point scale. The test was performed 5 minutes immediately after the end of the race, and the exit of the paddlers from the boat to the coast. Prior to the interview, the examiner gave precise instructions to the respondents about the Borg CR10 scale (Table 1) and its proper use. Respondents individually gave an interview about the level of perceived exertion experienced in the race.

The general instructions given to the respondents immediately after the race were: “Try to rate your perceived exertion as realistically as possible, without thinking about the importance of the size of fatigue. Do

72 UDK: 797.123:612.766.1 not overestimate or underestimate the level of intensity experienced. It is your personal feeling of perceived exertion, and you do not need to compare it with the statements of other athletes. It doesn’t matter what the other contestants think. Look at the scale in front of you, and find a linguistic expression that corresponds to your size of the experienced fatigue estimated by an adequate number. We want you to rate your perceived exertion. How hard and difficult it was for you in the race. The perceived exertion depends mainly on the effort, and fatigue in your muscles, and the feeling of shortness of breath, and chest pain. We want you to use a scale from 0 to 10 degrees where the number 0 means no fatigue, and 10 means extremely strong or maximum fatigue like you have never experienced before. Number 1 represents a very slight fatigue, compared to a light walk at a personal pace for a few minutes. Number 3 is moderate fatigue, it is not particularly difficult, you feel good and you can continue without any problems. Number 5 belongs to a severe feeling of fatigue, but you don’t have much difficulty continuing. Number 7 is a very severe feeling of fatigue, with which a prepared healthy competitor can continue to encourage himself. The person is very tired and feels very tired ”(Borg, 1998).

At the end of the given instructions, the respondents were given the opportunity to ask about possible ambiguities.

The SPSS 20 program was used for statistical data processing.

Results

Table 2. Descriptive indicators of the RPE of the teams in the Final of the Serbian Dragon Boat Championship 2016

Standard Variation RPE M max min Range deviation koeficient First place crew 8,8 10 7 3 1,98 0,225 Second place crew 7,9 10 3 7 2,44 0,308 Third place crew 6,4 8 3 5 1,83 0,287

The first-placed team noted average RPE level at 8.8, which is a very, very severe effort. The second-placed team recorded an average score of RPE level at 7.9, which is between a very severe and a very, very severe effort (Table number 2). The third-placed team recorded an average score of RPE level at 6.4, which is slightly lower than the very severe effort. The biggest differences in fatigue between the members of one crew were noticed in the crew of the second-placed team. The third-placed team records the smallest difference within the crew, according to the RPE, while the differences within the first-placed team are slightly larger. The relative indicators of group variability are somewhat different. The first-placed team is the most uniformed, the third-placed crew records somewhat less uniformity, while the second-placed team records the worst uniformity. In addition to the above differences, all three crews are described as homogeneous sets in terms of RPE, while the first-placed team is on the edge of a highly homogeneous set.

Table 3. Comparative indicators of the RPE of the teams in the Final of the Serbian Dragon Boat Championship 2016.

One Brawn Welch Tamhane T2 Post hoc test way F test Forsyth Test Anova test First place Second place Third place crew crew crew First place crew x 0,665 0,010 x 17,117 22,572 RPE Second place crew 0,665 x 0,033

x p=0,013 p=0,027 Third place crew 0,010 0,033 x

When observing the RPE in differently placed teams (Table number 3), it can be seen that the assessment of fatigue increases with better placement in the race. Due to the inhomogeneity of variance in the examined RPE, instead of the F test, the values of the Welsh (17,117; p=0,013) and Brown - Forsyth (22,572; p=0,027) tests were observed, which revealed a statistically significant difference for 3 levels of paddlers crew placement. Subsequent comparisons using the Tamhan T2 - Post hoc test indicate that the mean value of the RPE of the first-place team (M=8,8; SD=1,98) does not differ significantly (p=0,665) from the mean value of the RPE of the second-place team. (M=7,9; SD=2,44). In contrast to the previous conclusion, the RPE

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between the first-placed (M=8,8; SD=1,98), and third-placed team (M=6,4; SD=1,83), as well as between the second-placed (M=7,9; SD=2,44) and third-placed teams (M=6,4; SD=1,83), recorded statistically significant differences at the levels (p = 0,010) and (p=0,033). In addition to quantifying the fatigue of relative beginners in the dragon boat race in a small boat at 500m, as a result of this pilot study, problems in its implementation can be cited, with possible risks in conducting field research subjective fatigue assessment, all through measures to be taken as a prevention for possible ommisions. All data that can be taken before the race must be taken before the race. It is necessary to maximally unify the testimony of all experimenters with prior preparation, and explanations that must be given to participants before the race (again at equal intervals from the race for all groups participating in it), when choosing a verbal or written statement it is necessary to take into account all relevant factors, the duration of testimony should be the same for all individuals, and groups. It remains a great challenge how to reach different levels of concentration, interest, motivation to participate, emotions, as well as honesty with crew members, especially after a race of maximum intensity...

Discussion

Almost all values of RPE obtained with the three crews belong to a level slightly higher than the very severe feeling of fatigue. The obtained values have very little concrete informative value for application in practice, but they therefore encourage many procedural and value reviews. It is similar with the conclusion that a better placement in the race in this case implies a greater effort (the opposite could have happened, since the sample is not strictly controlled, and uniformed in all parameters). The third-placed team differs statistically significantly in the RPE from the first two teams, and there are possible explanations that their level of technique did not allow them to get tired properly in the race, but it is possible that they reduced their efforts during the race, because they realized they could not endanger the first two teams, while due to the participation of 3 boats in the final, the bronze medal was not endangered. These interpretations are interesting, because the circle of conclusions can sometimes be reversed, so based on a RPE, we can conclude about the outcome, or course of the race. RPE in this case plays another, very important - control role, and it is reflected in checking the validity of all other measured variables during the race or training tests, where the athlete is required to make maximum effort. Thus, in the case of measuring biomechanical variables in three mentioned teams, the results of the third-placed team would be excluded from processing the results, because they did not fulfill the task of maximum intensity during the race (which is usually implied in the case of a race). The type of exponential increasing RPE, which is specific to the dragon boat (specific to each discipline - 200m, 500, 1000m, 2000m), and which may differ from other paddling sports or the universal Borg scale, is very important to explore in the future. For this, in addition to subjective, objective indicators of fatigue are also necessary, and research should be done in strictly controlled laboratory conditions. However, the obtained values of the competitive load in the dragon boat in the discipline of small boat 500m in the mixed category, are significant due to the characteristics of the sport, which carries a specific intensity, volume, duration, and movement structure. RPE thus includes the degree of effort, or otherwise the amount of work performed over time. The achieved times classify the effort of the tested athletes in the anaerobic glycolytic zone. All this should be have in mind in terms of the small power of generalizing research results and their great limitations. Fatigue factors identified so far are: hyperthermia, dehydration, demineralization, depletion of energy depots, increase in PH values, dislocation of potassium from the cell, dislocation of calcium ions, depletion of neurotransmitter depots, disturbance in tryptophan transport in the central nervous system, insufficiency of the central nervous system, blood flow - hypoxia and psychological factors ... (Koprivica 2013), so the question can be asked which factor, and how much participated in the average assessment of RPE of the tested groups. This is one of the indicators for need of constructing several different scales, which should improve the Borg scales, and go deeper into the subjective assessment of the state of the tired organism. The dilemma can be posed from another angle: in the overall assessment of one crew, how much did it affect physically, and how much did it affect intellectual, sensory and emotional fatigue...? This is another indicator of the large capacity of the Borg scales, and the need for their further differentiation at different levels. Although placement as a variable should not be set as a goal in training and competition, it represents an important reality, which brings significant consequences, so placement from that point of view is worth dealing with. It is also a well-known case when marathoners, after 42 km and winning a medal after killer finishes, run a joyful and fresh lap of honor, carrying their flag. Where is the fatigue at that moment, and how did it disappear??? (Of course, the system was discovered a long time ago, hormones mask fatigue for a short time...) Thus, the subjectivization of the athlete’s objective fatigue implies the necessary demodulation (minor corrections) by the coach, in order to properly assess fatigue and accurately determine the break, scope, and intensity of the next training, series, repetitions... In addition, specifically in the dragon boat, fatigue can be caused by different pulse effects, volume and frequency of breathing, the quality of strokes synchronization within the crew, force on the paddle (Go-

74 UDK: 797.123:612.766.1 mory, Ball, Stokes, 2011), or in other paddling sports - given boat speed, manifested strength during stroke, work performed, more or less appropriate pace, and rhythm of paddling, duration of the stroke, duration of active and passive phase of the stroke, force gradient... (Rajković 2014). All of these factors or variables can specifically affect the occurrence of fatigue. It would be very useful if the contribution of a particular variable could be defined in the total value on the Borg scale. Experienced athletes can describe in detail the impact of, for example, too strong and useless paddling during the finish, or too short passive phase of the stroke in relation to the optimal value, on the specific, and cumulative feeling of fatigue. And this is one of the possible ways of further evolution of the Borg scales. It is interesting, that during the examination of biomechanical variables of the stroke in all paddling sports, the most attention is paid to mechanical efficiency and effectiveness, comparison of recorded variables during training, or competition, with one competitor, or with other research (Ilić, Rajković 2010; Ho, Smith, Sinclair, 2012; Rajković 2014), while the subjective feeling of paddler is most often neglected. It is not the same, for example, whether at a given or imposed frequency of paddling, the paddler feels more or less comfortable, because this will offen, and strongly affect on his further manifestation during the race. It is enough to mistakenly approach only one of the many biomechanical or other variables during paddling, to have a devastating effect on the overall result of the training or the competition itself. Therefore, it is necessary to experiment with intentionally induced smaller and larger values than the optimal values of different task variables, in order to more clearly differentiate, and define specific feelings of fatigue in paddlers, so that after generalization on a large sample we can talk about a system that applies to all paddlers, but also for all paddling sports.

A somewhat deeper understanding of race placement refers to the current race placement, which is often very variable. There are known cases from practice, where at the moment when the team leads in one part of the race, the crew feels lighter and more relaxed, while in case the crew has a boat in front of them, the overall feeling of sports performance weakens up to 30%, while both crews move at the same speed... Therefore, it is not negligible to think about the division of the race into parts, when assessing the RPE, of course having in mind the specifics of the start, acceleration, transition to speed and finish, through energy sources that dominate certain parts of the race with appropriate athlete capacity, but also on the mentioned different situations on the course in terms of current placement, the influence of weather conditions and trou- bles, the activities of the audience, etc... In all these cases, there are individual differences in the athlete’s reaction to different situations, so it is necessary to know, monitor, and record them, due to more precise corrections of fatigue in athletes, which are performed and used by the coach in his preparation. The assessment of the RPE in “opposing” teams is often neglected. Most likely, the athletes themselves, and their coaches will not be ready to cooperate, and give such, and similar information to others. Therefore, a new dimension of the Borg scales should be considered, where athletes will not give their statements, but trained professionals will be able to make assessments with defined reference points, in order to develop tactical variants for the matches or races that follow. Modern sports, especially disciplines where endurance dominates, are adorned with an unpleasant, and absurd situation: The one who gets closer to death during the race, achieves a victory or a record. This is increasingly achieved by suppressing the feeling of fatigue, training to inhibit natural mechanisms, and short-circuiting all the fuses that the creator predicted (cessation of activity, giving up, failure of extremities, or any of the organs, fainting, coma...). Maybe we went the wrong way? Perhaps the right path is precisely in the detailed research of all modalities and intensities of fatigue, by which the organism advises us how to survive our arrogant competitive, and other life activities. The pilot research justified its expectations, because it pointed out a number of possible omissions, which can happen in the field, where many factors are not, and cannot be in controlled conditions. In that sense, it is necessary, and possible to solve one problem or risk factor, one by one with a studious approach, prevention measures, and reserves in human and material resources with strictly controlled time, which is one of the key resources in field research.

Conclusion

The hypothesis that the RPE is related to the result in the race was confirmed. Such a research result may indicate a connection between these two variables, but it is necessary to control other factors from the possible influence on the placement (crew quality, sports experience, training frequency, age, crew compatibility...).

Critical thinking and participation in the research led to significant ideas for further differentiation and improvement of the Borg scales, as well as for new fields of their application. Problems in the implementation of field interviews, after intensive prestigious races were also pointed out. It should be emphasized, that the results of measurements performed during specific trainings or

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competitions, must in some way be available to the paddlers themselves, regardless of their age or quality level. By revealing the value of measured variables to novice paddlers, especially in theoretical training, the coach can influence their understanding of movement in paddling, gaining specific feelings they get, conclusions they draw about the phenomenon of paddling technique, and verbalization of their newly acquired experiences in motor learning (Rajković, 2014). While some rowers like figurative explanations, others like the technical specifications of the movement, and the values of the biomechanical variables of the rowing. Biomechanical (and any other) feedback for athletes, and coaches, could fill the gap or make up the difference between an ideal rower performance, and a conceptual understanding of a rower performance (Lippens, 2005).

This process can be long-lasting, and the best way to learn new concepts, and shed light on phenomena is, among other methods, independent thought activity with pedagogical interaction between coaches, and athletes (Стефановић, Ранисављев, 2013), which puts the educational component of training, and competition parallel with understanding of the phenomenon of sports as a means, not as an goal, which corresponds to one of the principles of sports training - individualization (Petrović, 1980).

Thus, the use of RPE is not enough to use only in competition. Greater benefit can be obtained from the daily use of this method in training, with prior proper, and comprehensive education of both coaches, and competitors through a special form of training - theoretical preparation (Koprivica, 2013). It is even more valuable if both the coach, and the competitor approach this phenomenon at a higher research level, where the heuristic function of sport, as a phenomenon of social superstructure can be manifested (Koprivica, 2013).

References

1. Стефановић, Ђ., Ранисављев, И. (2013): Теорија и технологија кондиције, практикум, Гносис, Београд. 2. Blumenstein, B., Bar- Eli, M., Tenenbaum, G. (2002): Brain and Body in Sport and Exercise, Johan Wiley & Sons, London. 3. Borg G. (1980): A Category Scale with Ratio Properties for Intermodal and Interindividual Compar- isons In: Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Psychology. Leipzig VEB Deutscher Verlag. 4. Borg G. (1982): Psychophysical Bases of Perceivad Exertion. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise Vol 14. No 5, pp 377-381. 5. Borg G. (1998): Borg`s Perceived Exertion and Pain Scales. Auckland. New Zealand. Human Kinet- ics. 6. Dimitrijević B. (1975): Zamor, Savez za fizičku kulturu Jugoslavije, Beograd. 7. Farfelj V. (1972): Fiziologija sporta, Jugoslovenski savez organizacija za fizičku kulturu, Beograd. 8. Foster, C., Florhaug J., A., Franklin, J., Gottschall, L., Hrovatin, L.,A., Parker, S, Doleshal, P., Dodge, C. (2001): A New Approach to Monitoring Exercise Training, J Strength Cond Res. 15:109-115. 9. Fratrić F. (2006): Teorija i metodika sportskog treninga, Pokrajinski zavod za sport, Novi Sad. 10. Gearhart, R.F., Goss, F.L., Lagally, K.M., Jakicic, J.M., Gallagher, J., Gallagher, K.I., Robertson, R.J. (2002): Ratings of Perceived Exertion in Aktive Muscles During High-Intensity and Low-Intensity Re- sistance Exercise, J Strength Cond Res., 16, pp 87-91. 11. Gomory, J., Ball, K., Stokes, R. (2011): A System to Measure the Kinematics, Kinetics and Effort of Dragon Boat Paddling, Procedia Engineering 13, pp 457-463. 12. Group of authors, (2013): IDBF Manufacturers Licencing Shemes for Racing Dragon Boats and Rac- ing Paddles Attachment 3 to the IDBF Competitions Regulations, IDBF Secretariat c/o CDBA, Beijing. 13. Group of authors, (2016): IDBF Competition Regulations, IDBF Secretariat c/o CDBA, Beijing. 14. Grujić N. (2004): Fiziologija sporta, Futura, Petrovaradin. 15. Grujić, N., Barak, O., Drapšin, M., Karaba-Jakovljević, D., Klašnja, A., Lukač, D., Baćanović, M., Brkić, P., Vasić, G., Drenjančević, I., Ibročić, P., Jakovljević, Đ., Mitrović, D., Ponorac, N., Radoš, B., Rajković, Ž., Ćeranić, S. (2017): Fiziologija sporta, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu - Medicinski Fakultet, Novi Sad. 16. Ho, S., Smith, R., Sinclair, P. (2012): Effect of Stroke Rate on Kinematic Characteristics of Simulated On-water Dragon Boat Paddling, 30th Annual Conference of Biomechanics in Sports, Melbourne. 17. Ilić, N., Rajković, Ž. (2009) Monitoring treninga kroz puls i brzinu u različitim zonama intenziteta u cikličnim sportovima tipa izdržljivosti u: Prvi nacionalni seminar za sportske trenere Republike Srbije, Beograd: Republički zavod za sport, str. 136-154. 18. Koprivica, V. (2013): Teorija sportskog treninga, Prvi deo, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 19. Lippens V. (2005): Inside the Rowers Mind. In V. Nolte (Eds), Rowing Faster (pp 185-194), Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL 20. Najera-Longoria R., H., Ortiz Gomez O., R., Lopez Alonso H., S., Kandia-Lujan R., Njunjez Enrikuez

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O., Gutierez Martinez R., Rajković Ž. M. (2017): Nespirografske ili neinvazivne metode za procenu anaerobnog praga, Fizička kultura, Beograd, 71(1):55-62. 21. Noble, B., J., Robertson, R.J. (1996): Perceived Exertion. Human Cinetics,Champaign, IL. 22. Petrović, D. (1980): Sportski trening, Novinska izdavačko-propagandna radna organizacija Partizan, Saveza za fizičku kulturu Jugoslavije. 23. Rajković, Ž. (2014): Promena biomehaničkih varijabli zaveslaja pod uticajem veslanja 2000m maksimalno mogućom brzinom, Doctoral Thesys, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Belgrade. 24. Sanderson H. (1983): Length and Spacing of Practice Session in Sport Skills, International journal of sport psychology, 14: 116-122.

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RELACIJA NIVOA SUBJEKTIVNOG OSEĆAJA ZAMORA I PLASMANA U TRCI DRAGON BOUTA

Slobodan Tošić; Željko Rajković University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Uvod

Skoro sve discipline veslačkih sportova spadaju u sportove tipa izdržljivosti, ali i u kategoriju cikličnih sportova jer se kretanje veslača zasniva na ponavljanju ciklusa istovetnih pokreta (Ilić, Rajković, 2009). Sportski rezultat u veslačkim disciplinama uglavnom zavisi od samog sportiste. Veslačke discipline su relativno jednostavne strukture, rezultat kod njih je moguće objektivno izmeriti, dok se po brojnosti sportista mogu svrstati između individualnih i grupnih u kombinovane sportove (Koprivica 2013). Dragon boat je jedan od veslačkih sportova koji je u svetu izuzetno rasprostranjen. Posade od 10 ili 20 veslača sede u čamcu i po ritmu bubnjara i upravljanju kormilara teže da što brže savladaju staze od 200m, 500m, 1000m i 2000m, u muškim, ženskim i mešovitim posadama sa uobičajenim starosnim kategorijama (Group of authors, 2016). Vesla se sa krmicama koje su kao i čamac standardizovanog oblika i dimenzija (Group of authors, 2013). Velika stabilnost čamca i jednostavnost tehnike izvođenja zaveslaja omogućuju brzo uključenje početnika u ove sportske aktivnosti. Zamor sportisti predstavlja signal, kao prirodnu odbrambenu reakciju od daljih opterećenja, koja bi mogli oštetiti organizam. Osnovu zamora predstavlja privremeno narušena unutrašnja ravnoteža organizma čija je posledica smanjena radna sposobnost (Grujić, i saradnici, 2017). U sportskom treningu u zavisnosti od karaktera rada, javljaju se lokalni, regionalni i opšti zamor, koji se može javiti u svom akutnom ili hroničnom obliku. Zamor može biti i intelektualni, senzorni, emocionalni i fizički (Dimitrijević, 1975). U veslačkim sportovima kao uzroci zamora preovlađuju pražnjenje ATP i CP depoa, kao i laktatna acidoza (Fratrić, 2006). Zamor se može ispoljiti u smanjenju snage ili brzine mišićnih kontrakcija, u sporijoj relaksaciji mišića, u smanjenju preciznosti i tačnosti koordinacije pokreta, u produžavanju vremena reakcije na nad- ražaje i sl. Radna sposobnost može biti manja čak i u slučaju da se radi punim obimom, ali to zahteva sve veće naprezanje fizioloških funkcija organizma (porast energetskog rashoda, frekvencije disanja i srčanog rada i sl.) (Farfelj, 1972). Nesposobnost obavljanja rada prethodnog intenziteta ukazuje na početak pojave zamora. Brzina razvoja zamora zavisi od ritma rada (učestalosti kontrakcija i veličine opterećenja). Uzroci zamora mogu biti višestruki, ali je najčešća podela na zamor centralnog nervnog sistema, zakišeljavanje mišića i pražnjenje depoa energije (Grujić, 2004). U razmatranju uzroka zamora pri dinamičkom radu neophodno je obratiti pažnju na relativni intenzitet tog rada jer su fiziološki mehanizmi zamora u zonama različitog intenziteta različiti (Sanderson 1983). U veslačkim trkama zastupljeni su rad maksimalnog i submaksimalnog intenziteta. Savremeni sport zahteva sve brižljivije praćenje veličine opterećenja po unutrašnjim pokazateljima. Jedna od podela zamora je po kriterijumu vidljivosti na vidljiv i skriven (Koprivica, 2013). Međutim i kada je vidljiv često je problem kvalitativni iskaz pretvoriti u kvantitativan. Biofidbek može da bude efektivan metod za unapređenje ličnog monitoringa i lične regulacije intenziteta vežbanja kod zdrave i kliničke populacije (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli, Tenenbaum, 2002). Zamor koji je postignut jednom trkom u dragon boatu na 500m može se bliže definisati kao opšti akutni zam- or, koji je posledica jednokratnog veoma velikog opterećenja. Veliki je broj istraživanja koja se bave procenom subjektivnog osećaja zamora u laboratorijskim uslovima. Podaci potvrđuju upotrebljivost sesije subjektivnog osećaja zamora za subjektivnu procenu intenziteta treninga tokom varirajućih uslova vežbanja, uključujući veoma visok intenzitet intervalnog treninga i praksu timskog sporta i takmičenja (Foster at all, 2001). Od velikog je značaja izmeriti nivo subjektivnog osećaja zamora u takmičarskim uslovima, odrediti njegovu relaciju sa rezultatom u trci i otkriti probleme u realizaciji istraživanja, da bi se oni u budućnosti sistemski prevazišli.

Sportski rezultat, postignuće u sportu na trkama ekvivalent je plasmanu ili mestu postignutom na takmičenju. Vreme postignuto u trci značajno je u proceni ostvarene brzine. Plasman u trci rangira sportistu u klubovima, nacionalnim savezima i reprezentaciji, dodeljuje mu status i ima ogroman značaj i uticaj na njegov dalji razvoj.

U trci takmičar dovodi svoj organizam u stanje zamora koji je izazvan psihofizičkim naprezanjima. Preko au- tonomnog nervnog sistema, motorni neuron angažovane muskulature šalje sa periferije signale u kortikalni deo moždane hemisfere, gde senzornim putevima stvara osećaj zamora, koji se jezičkim iskazom sportiste može izmeriti na Borgovoj skali CR10 (Tabela br. 1) i skali RPE 6-20 (Borg, 1980, 1998).

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Tabela 1. Borgova skala CR10

Motorni korteks šalje jače signale senzornom korteksu davajući mu razlog za povećanje subjektivnog osećaja zamora (Gearthart i saradnici, 2005). Borgova skala subjektivnog osećaja zamora stvorena je uzimajući u obzir kvantitativnu semantiku, problem mere i psihofizičku relaciju (Borg 1980) i može da se upotrebi u merenju nivoa zamora kod pojedinaca (Noble i Robertson, 1996). U mnogobrojnim dosadašnjim radovima dokazana je validnost i korelacija između objektivnih i subjektivnih pokazatelja zamora u modalitetima: kajak, trčanje, biciklizam, plivanje, dizanje tegova (Borg, 1980, 1982, 1998). Neinvazivne metode procene stanja sportista više su puta pokazale visoku korelaciju sa objek- tivnim laboratorijskim metodama i njihove prednosti su dostupnost širokom broju istraživača i mogućnost merenja u terenskim uslovima uz veoma male finansijske troškove (Najera-Longoria i saradnici, 2017). Osnovni cilj ovog pilot istraživanja je bio da se ustanovi nivo subjektivnog оsećaja zamora, koji se javlja kod relativnih početnika u dragon boat trci. Shodno tome dat je zadatak da se precizno izmeri subjektivni osećaj zamora posle trke kao nezavisna varijabla i ustanovi da li postoji veza sa plasmanom. Postavlje- na je hipoteza: veći nivo subjektivnog osećaja zamora povezan je sa boljim plasmanom u trci. Još važnije od navedenog, istraživanje prati kritički osvrt na nesavršenost Borgovih skala subjektivne procene zamora i na potrebu nekoliko novih nadgradnji za koje postoji realna mogućnost. Pored toga kroz pilot istraživanje tragalo se za mogućim rizicima i parazitarnim faktorima, koji mogu ugroziti upotrebljivost subjektivnih rezultata dobijenih terenskim istraživanjem.

Metode

Ispitanici ove pilot studije su bili članovi 3 ekipe po 10 veslača koji su učestvovali u finalnoj trci nacionalnog šampionata u dragon boutu na 500m (18 muškaraca i 12 žena, prosečne starosti 30,2 godine). Istraživanje je izvršeno 17. septembra 2016. godine u 12 časova i 15 min u Beogradu na jezeru Ada Ciganli- ja. Svi ispitanici su bili fizički aktivni i zdravi i dobrovoljno su pristupili takmičenju, kao i učešću u istraživanju. Posade čamaca od 10 osoba (6 muškaraca i 4 žene) nisu imale ranijeg iskustva veslanja u dragon boatu, ali su imali organizovana dva treninga u smislu obučavanja osnovnih elemenata tehnike. Pored veslačke posade u čamcu su bile još dve osobe: Jedna sa ulogom kormilara koji usmerava čamac na pravu putanju tokom veslanja trke i druga koja je udarajući u bubanj davala tempo veslanja. Težina čamca i njegove geo- metrijske osobine bile su ujednačene po propozicijama za takmičenje u dragon boutu (Group of authors, 2013). Neposredno posle završene trke takmičarima je data usmena instrukcija da se izjasne o stepenu zamora na 10-stepenoj skali. Ispitivanje je obavljeno 5 min neposredno posle završetka trke i izlaska veslača iz čamca na kopno. Ispitivač je pre pristupanja intervjuu dao precizne instrukcije ispitanicima o Borgovoj CR10 skali (Tabela br. 1) i njenom pravilnom korišćenju. Ispitanici su pojedinačno dali intervju o nivou ličnog doživljenog zamora u trci. Instrukcije date ispitanicima neposredno posle trke su glasile: „Pokušaj da proceniš svoj osećaj zamora što je moguće realnije bez razmišljanja o značaju veličine zamora. Nemoj da preceniš ili podceniš nivo doživljenog intenziteta. To je tvoj lični osećaj zamora i ne porediš ga sa iskazima drugih sportista. Nije važno šta ostali takmičari misle. Pogledaj u skalu pred tobom i nađi jezičko izražavanje koje odgovara tvojoj veličini doživljenog zamora procenjenog adekvatanim brojem. Mi želimo da proceniš tvoj osećaj zamora. Ko- liko je tebi naporno i teško bilo u trci. Osećanje zamora zavisi uglavnom od napora i zamora u tvojim mišićima i osećaja zadihanosti i bola u grudima. Mi želimo da upotrebiš skalu od 0 do 10 stepeni gde broj 0 znaci bez

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zamora i 10 znači ekstremno jako ili maksimalan zamor kakav do sada nisi doživeo. Broj 1 predstavlja veoma lagani zamor, upoređen sa laganom šetnjom ličnim tempom nekoliko minuta. Broj 3 je umeren zamor, nije specijalno teško, osećaš se dobro i možeš bez problema da nastaviš. Broj 5 pripada teškom osećaju zamora, ali nemaš velikih teškoća da nastaviš. Broj 7 je veoma težak osećaj zamora, uz kojeg pripremljen zdrav takmičar može da nastavi podsticanjem samog sebe. Osoba je veoma umorna i oseća veliki zamor“ (Borg, 1998). Na kraju datih instrukcija pružena je mogućnost da ispitanici mogu da pitaju o eventualnim nejas- noćama. Za statističku obradu podataka korišćen je program SPSS 20.

Rezultati

Tabela 2. Deskriptivni pokazatelji subjektivnog osećaja zamora ekipa u Finalu Prvenstva Srbije u dragon boatu 2016. godine

Subjektivna procena Standardna Koeficient M max min Opseg zamora devijacija varijacije Prvoplasirana ekipa 8,8 10 7 3 1,98 0,225 Drugoplasirana ekipa 7,9 10 3 7 2,44 0,308 Trećeplasirana ekipa 6,4 8 3 5 1,83 0,287

Prvoplasirana ekipa u proseku je zabeležila ocenu 8,8 što pripada veoma, veoma teškom naporu. Drugoplasirana ekipa zabeležila je u proseku ocenu 7,9 što je između veoma teškog i veoma, veoma tešk- og napora (Tabela 2). Trećeplasirana ekipa je zabeležila prosečnu ocenu 6,4 što je nešto niže od veoma teškog napora. Najveće razlike u zamoru između ispitanika zabeležene su u posadi drugoplasirane ekipe. Trećeplasirana ekipa beleži najmanju razliku unutar posade po proceni subjektivnog osećaja zamora, dok su razlike unutar prvoplasirane ekipe za nijansu veće . Relativni pokazatelji varijabilnosti grupa su nešto drugačiji. Prvoplasirana ekipa je najujednačenija, nešto manju ujednačenost beleži trećeplasirana posada, dok najlošiju ujednačenost beleži drugoplasirana ekipa. Pored navedenih razlika sve tri posade su opisane kao homogeni skupovi po pitanju ocena subjektivne procene zamora, dok je prvoplasirana ekipa na samoj granici izrazito homogenog skupa.

Tabela 3. Komparativni pokazatelji subjektivnog osećaja zamora ekipa u Finalu Prvenstva Srbije u dragon boatu 2016. godine

Jedno Brawn fak- Welch Tamhaneov T2 Post hoc test F test Forsyth torska Test test Prvoplasir- Drugoplasir- Trećeplasir- Anova ana posada ana posada ana posada

Subjek- Prvoplasirana posada x 0,665 0,010 tivna x 17,117 22,572 Drugoplasirana posada 0,665 x 0,033 procena zamora x p=0,013 p=0,027 Trećeplasirana posada 0,010 0,033 x

Kada se posmatra subjektivna procena zamora kod različito plasiranih ekipa (Tabela 3) može se videti da se procena zamora povećava sa boljim plasmanom u trci. Zbog nehomogenosti varijansi kod ispitivanih procena zamora umesto F testa posmatrane su vrednosti Welshovog (17,117; p=0,013) i Brown – Forsythovog (22,572; p=0,027) testa, čime je jednofaktorskom analizom varijanse – anovom, utvrđena statistički značajna razlika za 3 nivoa plasmana veslačkih ekipa. Naknadna poređenja pomoću Tamhanevog T2 - Post hoc testa ukazuju na to da se srednja vrednost subjektivne procene zamora prvoplasirane ekipe (M=8,8; SD=1,98) ne razlikuje značajno (p=0,665) od srednje vrednosti subjektivne procene zamora drugoplasirane ekipe (M=7,9; SD=2,44). Za razliku od prethodnog zaključka procena subjektivnog osećaja zamora između prvoplasirane (M=8,8; SD=1,98) i trećeplasirane ekipe (M=6,4; SD=1,83), kao i između drugoplasirane (M=7,9; SD=2,44) i trećeplasirane ekipe (M=6,4; SD=1,83), beleži statistički značajne razlike na nivoima (p=0,010) i (p=0,033). Pored kvantifikovanja zamora kod relativnih početnika u dragon boat trci u malom čamcu na 500m, kao rezultat ovog pilot istraživanja mogu se navesti i problemi u njegovoj realizaciji, mogući rizici kod spro- vođenja terenskog istraživanja subjektivne procene zamora, a sve kroz mere koje je potrebno preduzeti da bi se sprečili propusti. Sve podatke koje je moguće uzeti pre trke potrebno je tada i uzeti. Potrebno je maksimalno unificirati iskaz svih eksperimentatora uz prethodnu pripremu i objašnjenja koja moraju biti

80 UDK: 797.123:612.766.1 data učesnicima pre trke (opet u jednakim razmacima od trke za sve grupe koje u njoj učestvuju), pri izboru verbalnog ili pisanog iskaza potrebno je uzeti u obzir sve releventne faktore, trajanje uzimanja iskaza treba da bude jednako za sve pojedince i grupe. Ostaje veliki izazov kako doskočiti različitim nivoima koncentracije, interesovanja, motivacije za učešće, emocija, kao i iskrenosti kod članova posada, naročito posle trke maskimalnog intenziteta...

Diskusija

Skoro sve dobijene vrednosti kod tri posade pripadaju nivou nešto višem od veoma teškog osećaja zamora. Dobijene vrednosti imaju veoma malu konkretnu informativnu vrednost za primenu u praksi, ali zato podstiču na mnoga proceduralna i vrednosna preispitivanja. Slično je i sa zaključkom da bolji plasman u trci u ovom slučaju podrazumeva veći uloženi napor (moglo je da se desi i obrnuto, obzirom da uzorak nije strogo kontrolisan i po svim parametrima ujednačen). Treće- plasirana ekipa se statistički značajno razlikuje po subjektivnoj proceni zamora od prve dve ekipe i ovde su moguća objašnjenja da im nivo njihove tehnike nije dozvolio da se propisno zamore u trci, ali je moguće i da su tokom trke smanjili svoje napore jer su uvideli da nemogu ugroziti prve dve ekipe, dok im zbog učešća 3 čamca u finalu bronzana medalja nije bila ugrožena. Navedena tumačenja su interesantna, jer se krug zak- ljučivanja ponekad može okrenuti, pa na osnovu subjektivne procene zamora možemo zaključivati o ishodu ili toku trke. Subjektivna procena zamora u ovom slučaju igra još jednu, veoma važnu – kontrolnu ulogu, a ona se ogleda u proveri validnosti svih drugih izmerenih varijabli tokom trke ili testova na treningu, gde se od sportiste zahtevaju maksimalni napori. Tako u slučaju merenja biomehaničkih varijabli kod tri nevedene ekipe rezultati trećeplasirane ekipe bili bi izuzeti iz obrade rezultata, jer nisu ispunili zadatak maskimalnog intenziteta tokom trke (koji se u slučaju trke najčešće podrazumeva). Ono što je veoma bitno istražiti u budućnosti je upravo tip eksponencijalne rastuće funkcije zamora pri subjektivnoj proceni, koji je specifičan u dragon boatu (specifičan i za svaku disciplinu - 200m, 500, 1000m, 2000m) i koji se možda razlikuje u odnosu na druge veslačke sportove ili univerzalnu Borgovu skalu. Za ovo su pored subjektivnih neophodni i objektivni pokazatelji zamora i istraživanje je potrebno uraditi u strogo kontrolisanim laobratorijskim uslovima. Ipak, dobijene vrednosti takmičarskog opterećenja u dragon boatu u disciplini mali čamac 500m u mešovitoj kategoriji, značajne su zbog karakteristika sporta koji u sebi nosi specifičan intenzitet, obim, trajanje i kretnu strukturu. Subjektivna procena zamora tako obuhvata stepen uloženog napora, odnosno količinu izvršenog rada za određeno vreme. Postignuta vremena svrstavaju napor testiranih sportista u anaerobno glikolitičku zonu. Sve ovo treba imati u vidu u smislu male moći uopštavanja rezultata istraživanja i njihovih velikih ograničenja. Faktori zamora koji su do sada utvrđeni su: hipertermija, dehidratacija, demineralizacija, iscrpljenost energetskih depoa, porast PH vrednosti, dislokacija kalijuma iz ćelije, dislokacija jona kalcijuma, iscrpljenje depoa neurotransmitera, poremećaj u transportu triptofana u centralnom nervnom sistemu, efekat slobod- nih radikala, insuficijencija krvotoka – hipoksija i psihološki faktori... (Koprivica 2013), pa se može postaviti pitanje koji faktor i koliko je učestvovao u prosečnoj oceni subjektivne procene zamora testiranih grupa. Ovo je jedan od pokazatelja koji upućuje na potrebu konstruisanja više različitih skala, koje treba da unaprede Borgove skale i da dublje uđu u subjektivnu procenu stanja zamorenog organizma. Dilema se može postaviti i iz drugog ugla: u ukupnoj oceni jedne posade koliko je uticao fizički, a koliko intelektualni, senzorni i emocionalni zamor...? Ovo je još jedan pokazatelj velikog kapaciteta Borgovih skala i potreba za njihovo dalje diferenciranje na različitim nivoima. Iako plasman kao varijabla ne bi trebalo da se postavlja kao cilj u treningu i takmičenju, on predstavlja bitnu realnost, koja sobom nosi značajne posledice, pa se plasmanom sa tog stanovišta vredi baviti. Poznat je i čest slučaj kada maratonci posle 42km i osvajanja medalje posle ubitačnih finiša, radosni i sveži trče počasni krug noseći svoju zastavu. Gde je u tom trenutku i kako nestao zamor??? (Naravno, sistem je odavno otkriven, hormoni maskiraju zamor za kratko vreme...) Tako subjektivizacija objektivnog zamora sportiste podrazumeva i neophodno demoduliranje (unošenje manjih korekcija) od strane trenera, kako bi se pravilno izvršila procena zamora i precizno odredila pauza, kao i obim i intenzitet sledećeg treninga, serije, ponavljanja... Pored toga konkretno u dragon boatu zamor može biti izazvan različitim uticajem pulsa, volumen- om i frekvencijom disanja, kvalitetom sinhronizacije praćenja zaveslaja unutar posade, silom na veslu, (Go- mory, Ball, Stokes, 2011), ili u drugim veslačkim sportovima - zadatom brzinom plovila, ispoljenom snagom tokom veslanja, izvršenim radom, manje ili više odgovarajućim tempom i ritmom veslanja, trajanjem zaveslaja, trajanjem aktivne i pasivne faze zaveslaja, gradijentom sile... (Rajković 2014). Svi navedeni faktori ili varijable mogu specifično uticati na pojavu zamora. Bilo bi veoma korisno kada bi u ukupnoj vrednosti na Borgovoj skali mogao da se definiše doprinos pojedine navedene varijable. Iskusni sportisti mogu detaljno da opišu uticaj na primer prejakog i nekorisnog zaveslaja tokom finiša, ili prekratke pasivne faze zaveslaja u odnosu na optimalnu vrednost, na specifični i kumulativni osećaj zamora. I ovo je jedan od mogućih puteva dalje evolucije Borgovih skala.

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Interesantno je da se tokom ispitivanja biomehnaičkih varijabli zaveslaja u svim veslačkim sportovima najviše pažnje posvećuje mehaničkoj efikasnosti i efektivnosti, poređenju zabeleženih varijabli tokom treninga ili takmičenja kod jednog takmičara ili sa drugim istraživanjima (Ilić, Rajković 2010; Ho, Smith, Sin- clair, 2012; Rajković 2014), dok se subjektivni osećaj veslača najčešće zanemaruje. Uopšte nije svejedno, da li se na primer pri nekoj zadatoj ili nametnutoj frekvenciji veslanja veslač oseća manje ili više prijatno, jer od toga najčešće značajno zavisi njegovo dalje ispoljavanje tokom trke. Dovoljno je pogrešno pristupiti samo jednoj od mnogobrojnih biomehaničkih ili drugih varijabli tokom veslanja da to utiče porazno na celokupni rezultat treninga ili samog takmičenja. Zato je potrebno eksperimentisati sa namerno izazvanim manjim i većim vrednostima od optimalnih vrednosti različitih varijabli zadatka, kako bi se specifični osećaji zamora kod veslača jasnije izdiferencirali i definisali, kako bi posle uopštavanja na velikom uzorku moglo da se govori o sistemu koji važi za sve veslače, ali i sve veslačke sportove. Nešto dublje određenje prema plasmanu u trci odnosi se na trenutni plasman u trci, koji je često veoma promenljiv. Poznati su slučajevi iz prakse, gde se u trenutku kada ekipa vodi u jednom delu trke posada oseća lakše i rasterećenije, dok u slučaju kada ispred sebe posada ima neki čamac celokupni osećaj sportskog performansa slabi i do 30%, dok se obe posade kreću jednakom brzinom... Stoga nije zanemarl- jivo razmišljati o podeli trke na delove, kada se procenjuje subjektivni osećaj zamora, naravno imajući u vidu specifičnosti starta, startnog ubrzanja, prelaza na održavanje brzine i finiša, kroz energetske izvore koji dominiraju pojedinim delovima trke uz odgovarajuće kapacitete sportiste, ali i na pomenute različite situacije na stazi u smislu trenutnog plasmana, uticaja vremenskih prilika i neprilika, aktivnosti publike itd... U svim navedenim slučajevima postoje individualne razlike reakcije sportista na različite situacije, pa je neophodno i njih poznavati, pratiti i evidentirati, zbog preciznijih korekcija osećaja zamora kod sportiste, koje vrši i koristi trener u svojoj pripremi. Često se zanemaruje procena subjektivne procene zamora kod „protivničkih“ ekipa. Najverovatnije sami sportisti i njihovi treneri neće biti spremni na saradnju i na odavanje ovakvih i sličnih informacija drugima. Stoga treba razmišljati o novoj dimenziji Borgovih skala, gde sportisti neće davati svoje iskaze, već će osposobljena stručna lica uz definisane referentne tačke moći da vrše procene, u svrhu razrada taktičkih varijanti za mečeve ili trke koji slede. Savremeni sport, naročito discipline gde dominira izdržljivost krasi jedna neprijatna i apsurdna situacija: Onaj ko se više približi smrti tokom trke, taj ostvaruje pobedu ili rekord. Ovo se sve češće postiže suzbi- janjem osećaja zamora, treniranjem inhibicije prirodnih mehanizama, i kratkim prespajanjem svih osigurača koje je tvorac predvideo (prestanak aktivnosti, odustajanje, otkazivanje ekstremiteta ili nekog od organa, padanje u nesvest, koma...). Možda smo pogrešili put? Možda je ispravan put upravo u detaljnom istraživan- ju svih modaliteta i intenziteta zamora, kojim nas organizam savetuje kako da preživimo svoje bahate tak- mičarske i druge životne aktivnosti. Pilot istraživanje je opravdalo svoja očekivanja, jer je ukazalo na niz mogućih propusta, koji se mogu desiti na terenu, gde mnogi faktori nisu i nemogu biti u kontrolisanim uslovima. U tom smislu potrebno je i moguće rešavati jedan po jedan problem ili rizični faktor sa studioznim pristupom, merama prevencije i rezerve u ljudskim i materijalnim resursima uz strogo kontrolisano vreme, koje je jedan od ključnih resursa prilikom istraživanja na terenu.

Zaključak

Potvrđena je postavljena hipoteza da subjektivni osećaj zamora ima relaciju sa rezultatom u trci. Takav rezultat istraživanja može da ukaže na vezu ove dve varijable, ali je potrebno kontrolisati ostale faktore od mogućeg uticaja na plasman (kvalitet posada, sportski staž, učestalost treninga, uzrast, uveslanost posade...). Kritičkim razmišljanjem i učešćem u istraživanju došlo se do značajnih ideja za dalju diferencijaciju i unapređenje Borgovih skala, kao i za nova polja njihove primene. Označeni su i problemi pri realizaciji intervjua na terenu posle intezivnih prestižnih trka. Potrebno je naglasiti da rezultati merenja koji su vršeni za vreme specifičnih treninga ili takmičenja, moraju biti na izvestan način na raspolaganju i samim veslačima, nezavisno od njihovog uzrasta ili nivoa kvaliteta. Otkrivanjem vrednosti merenih varijabli veslačima početnicima, posebno na teoretskim treninzima, trener može uticati na njihovo razumevanje pokreta u veslanju, sticanje specifičnih osećaja koje dobijaju, zaključaka koje donose o fenomenu veslačke tehnike, kao i verbalizaciji njihovih novostečenih iskustava u procesu motornog učenja (Rajković, 2014). Dok nekim veslačima odgovaraju figurativna objašnjenja drugima odgovaraju tehničke specifikacije pokreta i vrednosti biomehaničkih varijabli zaveslaja. Biomehanička (i svaka druga) povratna sprega za sportiste i trenere mogla bi da popuni prazninu ili nadoknadi razliku između idealnog nastupa veslača i konceptualnog shvatanja nastupa veslača (Lippens, 2005). Ovaj proces može biti dugotrajan, a najbolji način da se novi pojmovi nauče i fenomeni rasvetle je pored ostalih metoda, samostalna misaona aktivnost uz pedagošku interakciju između trenera i sportiste (Стефановић, Ранисављев, 2013), čime se edukativna komponenta treninga i takmičenja stavlja u vezu shvatanja fenomena sporta kao sredstva, a ne krajnjeg cilja, što odgovara i jednom od principa sportskog treninga – individualizacije (Petrović, 1980).

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Tako i upotrebu subjektivne procene zamora nije dovoljno koristiti samo na takmičenju. Veći benefit može se dobiti od svakodnevne upotrebe ove metode na treninzima, uz prethodnu pravilnu i sveobuhvatnu edukaciju i trenera i takmičara i to kroz posebni oblik treninga – teorijske pripreme (Koprivica, 2013). Još je vrednije ako i trener i takmičar priđu ovom fenomenu na jednom višem istraživačkom nivou, gde se može ispoljiti euristička funkcija sporta kao fenomena društvene nadgradnje (Koprivica, 2013).

Literatura

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SPATIO-TEMPORAL STRUCTURE OF KINDERGARTEN AS AN INCENTIVE TO ENGAGE IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AT PRESCHOOL AGE

Ljiljana Stankov; Sanja Vuletić; Mira Jovanović; Nataša Starčević Preschool Teacher Training College, Šabac, Serbia

Introduction

Insufficient physical activity of young children is seen as a problem in many developed countries and is believed to be a direct or indirect cause of many diseases. Numerous studies have been conducted on the effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, both in the world and in our country, which differ in type (longitudinal and transversal), in sample size, in level (regional, national, cross-national), examining anthropological status in relation to gender of the respondents, using different methods of measurement and showing the effects of various physical exercise programs (Milenković, 2018). We have focused our attention on those studies that relate to the level of physical activity of preschool children and address the importance of space and equipment that stimulate them to activities as well as the role of adults who work with them. In their analysis of 27 studies of the correlation between physical activity and sedentary behaviour of young children, published between 1992 and 2015, Tong, Jones, and Okely (2016) identified 66 variables. The study review focused primarily on factors within the services provided by preschool institutions. The studies that addressed children’s characteristics (18 studies) and physical environment factors (17 studies) identified the highest level of correlation. The strongest correlation with physical activity was found in relation to gender and age of children, the overall motor coordination of children, the provision of opportunities for physical activity and the characteristics of physical environment - open space (size, use and presence). A high positive correlation was found between physical activity and the external environment - possibility for children to play in that space and its size respectively. The authors emphasize the importance of the physical environment, professional teachers and quality intervention programs. A study by Cardon et al. (Cardon, Van Cauwenberghe, Labarque, Haerens & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2008) aimed to find out how the physical environment factors in a preschool institution influence the level of physical activity of children during free play. The sample consisted of 415 boys and 368 girls, aged 5.3, from 39 randomly selected preschool institutions in Belgium (Flanders). Measurements were made from October 2006 to February 2007. Of the techniques, observation and pedometry were applied. Boys were found to take significantly more steps per minute than girls (65 versus 54). In both genders, more steps are significantly associated with fewer children per m² and shorter free play time. In boys, the hard surface of the playground was a borderline significant predictor of higher levels of physical activity. In girls, a higher level of activity was conditioned by reduced preschool teacher supervision. Playground markings, access to toys, the amount of play equipment and the presence of vegetation did not significantly affect the level of physical activity in both genders. A study on the physical activity of children aged 3-5 (Hannon & Brown, 2008) aimed to determine whether playground accessories, installed on a preschool playground, led to an increase in physical activity intensity. The study, conducted in 2005 in Salt Lake City, involved 64 children. Activity intensity was measured with an accelerometer, five days before and five days after the introduction of new equipment on the playground. The results showed that the sedentary behaviour was significantly reduced but the activities of lower, medium and higher intensity increased, so the authors conclude that simple interventions and a little teacher training are enough to encourage children to exercise physically. In relation to this study, which included a small sample of children, from only one preschool institution where the final measurement was made shortly after the intervention in the playground area, in another study by Cardon et al (Cardon, Labarque, Smits & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2009) there were 583 children, aged 5.3, from 40 preschool institutions and the final measurement followed 4-6 weeks after the intervention. Ac- celerometer measurement was also applied. Free play of children outdoors lasted 42 minutes on average (26 to 89 minutes). The initial measurement, made in November and December 2007, showed that children spent an average of 61.3% in sedentary activities, 25.6% of the time in low intensity activities and 11.2% in moderate and higher intensity activities. Within the sample, in 10 preschool institutions new play equipment was installed, in other 10, the play area was marked, in 10 of the institutions the space was marked and the equipment was provided, while 10 institutions represented a control group. The final measurement in Febru- ary and March 2008 showed that installing accessories on playgrounds and marking play areas were not a sufficient incentive to increase the intensity of physical activity. The authors argued that these interventions were also likely to have been effective initially, as they had the effect of novelty for children, but the effects were diminished over time. The results of this study are in contrast to the results of the study with primary school children, which showed an increase in activity levels three months after the placement of play equip-

84 UDK: 796:373.2 ment (Verstraete et al. 2006, in: Cardon et al. 2009, p. 338). Cardon et al conclude that pre-schoolers react differently in relation to older children and that pre-schoolers will need additional installation of new equipment, a more active attitude of caregivers during free children’s play, more instruction and encouragement for active play, and more time for structured physical activities.

The purpose of the research conducted by Chow, McKenzie & Louie (2015) in Hong Kong was to assess the level of physical activity of preschool children, during structured physical education classes, and to evaluate the impact of selected characteristics (lesson context, duration and location; behaviour of the teachers; group size; spatial conditions relative to number of participants). In 2012, four pre-school institutions were selected for the research, based on their structural and programme differences: three have both indoor and outdoor physical education facilities and one indoors only. The age of the children involved in the study was 3-6 years and a sample of grades (five to six grades in three pre-school levels) was randomly selected for observation. Four children (2 boys and 2 girls) from each class were selected for observation. A total of 90 physical education classes were observed. Classes ranged from 9 to 30 minutes. Trained observers used SOFIT (System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time) to evaluate physical education classes, which were realized by 25 teachers (24 females and 1 male) with children, and whose work experience ranged from 2 to 28 years. Teachers were informed of the days on which they would be visited, but not of the precise behaviour that observers would code; they were asked not to alter the original content of the lecture or in- structional methods. Significant discrepancies and ranges were observed both in terms of class organization and between these four preschool institutions. The activities primarily provided children with the opportunity to engage in basic movements, such as: jumping (39% of classes), crawling (32%), throwing (29%), and movement on the balance beam (22%), climbing (20%) and tricycle (18%). Few classes offered rhythmic activity (6%) or free play (2%); activities that included sand, water, and parachuting were only observed for one class each. On average, moderate- and higher-intensity activities in children lasted 9.9 minutes per class (49.9% of the class), during average classes, about 20 minutes, with more time in walking / moderate activity (6.1 minutes; 30.3 % of the class) than in higher intensity activities (3.8 minutes; 19.5% of the class). Girls were less active than boys (4.2 vs. 5.6 minutes / class; i.e. 6.2% less). In this study, the results showed that only 23% of observed physical education classes were held outdoors, and in a preschool institution that did not have open space, the highest proportion of moderate and higher intensity physical activity was observed (56%). In the authors’ view, in order for children to do enough physical activity in smaller spaces, it is important for their teachers to be effective instructors, to use an activity-friendly curriculum and to have sufficient resources and equipment.

One study aimed to determine the effects of physical activity programs for young children was conducted in South Carolina and involved 379 children (188 in the intervention and 191 in the control group), from 16 preschool institutions, 4 years of age (Pate, Brown, Pfeiffer, Howie, Saunders, Addy & Dowda, 2016). The data were collected during 2008-2009 and 2009-2010 and analysed in the period 2012-2014. The intervention program included structured physical activities indoors, led by a preschool teacher (dancing, overcoming obstacles); structured and unstructured outdoor physical activities and physical activities integrated into the content of other teaching areas. Modifications were made in both social and physical settings. Changes in the social environment included verbal encouragement of activity by teachers/preschool teachers, participation of preschool teachers in physical activity, and inclusion of activities enjoyed by children (e.g. dancing, hunting games, ball games). The physical environment was changing as the number of different props (balls, music and scarves) increased. Emphasis is placed on the use of space, materials and the existing equipment to engage all children in physical activities. When comparing the results, the children in the intervention group (both boys and girls) spent more time in moderate and higher intensity physical activities than the control group during the day at the preschool institution. An analysis of the results in relation to the gender of the children revealed that the intervention program had a greater impact on the girls which has been explained by the fact that they had a lower level of physical activity at the beginning, so there was a greater scope of improvement. The findings of this study support the conclusion that flexible intervention, which trains preschool teachers to provide physical activity opportunities for children, can increase activity intensity and energy expenditure in preschool children. The findings of the aforementioned research regarding the importance of the physical environment, enriching the environment in order to encourage children’s activities, overcoming the limitations of small spaces are also significant from the perspective of practitioners who, with pre-school children in Serbia, implement different programming models and work in different conditions of the physical environment. In pre-school institutions in Serbia, for the age of children from three years to school, the work program is implemented on the basis of Models A and B, which have been applied in the last two decades and the new Basics of pre-school education program “Years of the Rise” [Godine uzleta], the implementation of which has started in this working year, since September, in the territories of 6 cities and 5 municipalities (the two of which are in Belgrade). It is envisaged that the introduction of this program will take place in succession, so that from September 2022 it will be valid in all cities and municipalities in Serbia. The mentioned program and program models are based on different concepts that are reflected in the space-time structure of the kindergarten.

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Methods

In the conducted empirical research, a descriptive method was applied, with the aim of understanding, from the perspective of preschool teachers, the extent to which the spatio-temporal structure of the kindergarten enables children to engage in physical activity and develop their motor skills. The tasks of the research were aimed at finding out which kindergarten spaces are being used and how they are being restructured, in order to enable the realization of physical activities, how to stimulate the development of children’s motor skills and who is involved in this process and to what extent time structure is flexible to match the physical needs of children. A survey has been applied as a research technique. The non-standardized questionnaire prepared for the purpose of this research contains 24 closed, open and combined questions, the first five of which relate to the sample structure - city/municipality, the environment of the kindergarten, age group, number of children in the group, programme model according to which the work takes place. The next group of 7 questions relates to the realization of morning workout for children and 8 questions relate to the planning and realization of organized/directed physical activities in indoor and outdoor kindergarten spaces - the participants, frequency, duration, spatial possibilities and equipment. Three questions focused on the assessment of children’s motor skills - frequency of measurement, participants and possibilities to adapt physical exercises to individual children in order to stimulate underdeveloped motor skills. With the last question, of an open type, we wanted to find out the specifics in the way preschool teachers work so to stimulate the motor skills of children. Descriptive statistics was applied in the data processing and the frequency distribution and their percentage ratio are presented in tables. The sample in the research is suitable and consists of 35 students of master vocational studies at the Preschool Teacher Training College in Šabac during the school year of 2019/20. The surveyed students work as preschool teachers in 15 pre-school state institutions, in 35 educational groups, of which 17 are in urban, 7 in suburban and 1 in rural environment.

Table 1. Sample structure by places - cities and municipalities

City/Municipality f Voždovac 4 Čukarica 3 Lazarevac 3 Novi Beograd 3 Beograd Grocka 2 Palilula 2 Rakovica 1 Stari grad 1 Vračar 1 Šabac 5 Valjevo 3 Nova Varoš 3 Loznica 2 Bajina Bašta 1 Užice 1 Σ 35

Table 2. Age groups with which preschool teachers work and number of children

Age group f Number of children enrolled (range) Older nursery (2-3 years) 2 19-28 Younger nursery 11 14-35 Middle kindergarten 7 16-44 Older kindergarten 6 27-48 Preparatory preschool 6 10-49 Age 4-5 years 2 35-36 Mixed Age 3-6 years 1 33 Σ 35

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The number of children in educational groups, as envisaged by the Law on Preschool Education (2010; 2017; 2019. Article 30, 31), is as follows: 2 - 3 years (16); 3 - 4 years (20); 4 - 5.5 years (24); 5.5 years until school (26); mixed group 3 - 6 years (20). Up to 20% increase of the number of children in the group is allowed. Based on the data obtained from the survey, it is observed that the educational groups in practice are more numerous and as many as 65.72% of the educational groups in which the surveyed preschool teachers work exceed the statutory number; in 9 educational groups the number ranges from 33 to 40 and in 4 educational groups it is above 40. In these groups there are three preschool teachers and the groups are located in larger study rooms.

Table 3. Programs and program models applied in educational groups

Program/program model f Program of care for children from 6 months to 3 years 1 Model A 16 Model B 15 Basics of the program "Years of the Rise" 3 Σ 35

In most cities and municipalities in Serbia, educational work is carried out on the basis of the Rule- book on General Principles of Preschool Education (2006), which consists of the Program of care for children from 6 months to 3 years, programs for children from 3 to 5.5 years and preparatory preschool program, based on two models with common educational goals and principles. Model A “gravitates towards the open system of education and action development of the programs depending on the interests of children, and Model B has the characteristics of a cognitive-developmental program and elaborated educational goals, tasks of preschool teachers and types of activities, among which the preschool teacher can choose and elaborate them, depending on the needs, opportunities and interests of children” (General Basics of Preschool Program, 2006, p. 24). An analysis of these programming models in relation to the ‘’competency and power’’ dimensions indicates that in Model A, a child is understood as a creature with developmental and individual needs and interests, who has conditional power, and in Model B, as a deficient person in relation to an adult and does not have a power, and adults apply the program (Krnjaja and Pavlovic Breneselovic, 2013, p. 220). The Basics of Preschool Education Program “Years of the Rise” (2018) emphasize the child’s competencies and appreciation of child’s initiative in the educational process as well as the actions of adults for the well-being of the child.

Results

The results of the research showed that morning exercise makes the largest percentage of daily workout (77.14%). The space in which it takes place is usually the study room and then the hall or courtyard. According to more than half of the answers (57.14%) it is realized after the morning gathering of children, and lasts up to 15 minutes (88.57%).

Table 4. Frequency of morning exercise on a weekly basis

Frequency of morning exercise f % Everyday morning exercise 27 77.14 3 to 4 times a week 4 11.43 2-3 times a week 4 11.43 Σ 35 100

Table 5. Morning exercise area

Area for the morning exercise f % Always in the study room 8 22.86 In the study room or in the hall 8 22.86 In the study room or in the courtyard 11 31.43 Always in the hall 3 8.57 In the study room, hall and courtyard 5 14.28 Σ 35 100

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Table 6. Morning exercise duration

Morning exercise duration f % Up to 10 minutes 15 42.86 10-15 minutes 16 45.71 15-20 minutes 4 11.43 Σ 35 100

Table 7. Period during the work day when morning exercise takes place

Period during the work day f % Always before breakfast 20 57.14 Mostly before breakfast, sometimes during the morning 6 17.14 Always during the morning 9 25.72 Σ 35 100

The largest number of preschool teachers (65.72%) strive for children to perform all movements correctly, but this is also conditioned by the size of the group, so they are not always able to do so. There are equal numbers (17.14%) of those who are persistent in this, and they are preschool teachers with smaller groups of children as well as those with very numerous groups, who consider it is important for children to participate, regardless of the proper movement.

Table 8. Children’s participation during morning exercise

Children's participation f % It is important for all children to become involved, regardless 6 17.14 of whether they perform all movements correctly As much as possible, because of the size of the group, we 23 65.72 strive for the children to perform all movements correctly We are persistent in striving for all children to perform all 6 17.14 movements properly

Before answering the question on the participants in the implementation, it was important for us to find out how many preschool institutions in our sample have a physical education associate. Responses indicated that these were only 5 institutions and out of 13 preschool teachers working in these institutions, 9 indicated that a physical education associate was included in the planning and implementation of the morning physical exercise.

Table 9. Who realizes the morning exercise

Participation in planning and realization of the f % morning exercise Preschool teachers 25 71.42 Preschool teachers in cooperation with the expert associate 9 25.72 Someone else participates - parents 1 2.86 Σ 35 100

The answers indicate that usually preschool teachers plan and design the contents of organized/ directed physical activities (71.42%); in institutions that have a professional associate for physical education, he or she is involved with the preschool teachers (14.29%) or has a dominant role in this process (11.43%). According to one preschool teacher’s (2.86%) answer a parent also participates. Orientation to collaboration with the environment is one of the common features of Models A and B, so it is very important that preschool teachers, primarily among parents, find associates who are willing to engage in educational work.

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Table 10. Planning and designing content for organized/directed physical activities

Participants in planning and designing of the content f % Preschool teachers 25 71.42 Professional physical education associate 4 11.43 Preschool teacher in cooperation with professional physical edu- 5 14.29 cation associate Preschool teacher in cooperation with parents 1 2.86 Σ 35 100

Table 11. Organized/directed physical activities on a weekly basis

Organized/directed physical activities f % Once a week 9 25.72 Twice a week 13 37.14 Integrated into the content of other areas 13 37.14 Σ 35 100

In an effort to find out from the preschool teachers how well the structure of the kindergarten space is suitable for physical activity, the first question relates to the study room where children spend the most time.

Table 12. Spatial opportunities for physical activity in the study room

Space for physical activities in the study room f % Part of the space is always free and sufficient for physical activity 22 62.86 Changes in space are needed / moving furniture/ 13 37,14 Σ 35 100

Although a higher percentage of answers (62.86%) indicates that the space in the study room is sufficient for physical activity, more than a third of the preschool teachers surveyed have to make changes in the space by moving furniture elements so that children can move about freely.

Table 13. Which indoor spaces, other than study rooms, are used for physical activity

Indoor kindergarten facilities f % (more answers possible) Central Hall 9 21.43 Hallways 9 21.43 Gym 16 38.09 Terrace 3 7.14 Nothing apart from the study room 5 11.91 Σ 42 100

Apart from the study room, the gym is most used, followed by the central hall and hallways; 5 respondents (11.91%) answered that they had no opportunity to use any other indoor space. Some kindergartens do not have a gym or it has changed its purpose - it has been converted into two study rooms (1 kindergarten in this sample), but this also affects the quality of other activities.

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Table 14. Space and equipment of the kindergarten yard

Average Kindergarten yard 1 2 3 4 5 grade Spacious, it allows for smooth movement, suitable for various / 4 7 11 13 3.94 activities Equipped with a variety of appliances 2 11 9 6 7 3.14 The devices are safe and all children can use them 5 9 7 7 7 3.06 There are enough grassy areas 6 1 9 6 13 3.54 There is a court/s for group sports 11 10 7 3 4 2.40 The space is enriched and adapted using different equipment and / 2 12 11 10 3.83 devices

The question related to the space and equipment of the yard contained six statements and the preschool teachers made a five-point assessment. The highest average grade refers to the surface of the yard, which allows for the stay and different activities of children (3.94), and preschool teachers seek to adapt the spaces in the yard to activities using different equipment and devices (3.83). However, although there are grass courts, there are not always enough of them or there are none at all (3.54), there are no courts for group sports (2.40) and even the devices are not safe enough (3.06).

Table 15. Physical outdoor activities within the daily activities schedule

Outdoor activities in relation to the schedule of daily f % activities The schedule is always respected regardless of the children’s wishes to 14 40.00 extend the stay We occasionally deviate from the schedule so as not to interrupt the 10 28.57 game We adapt the schedule to children's interests 11 31.43 Σ 35 100

The rhythm of the day in a kindergarten involves changing different types of activities - routine (meals, sleeping, maintaining hygiene), program activities and games. Greater flexibility of time organization is a feature of Model A and the Basics of the Program of Pre-school Education, which means that respecting the initiative and interests of children, the activity they are engaging in should not be interrupted, nor should there be an “idle” waiting time for a certain, pre-planned time to start a new activity. Responses of preschool teachers, who use Model B, to always respect the schedule, are expected, but in our sample this option was also chosen by Model A preschool teachers, and it is of the highest rate (40.00%).

Table 16. Time spent outdoors during early fall, spring and summer

Duration of stay outdoors f % 30-60 minutes 6 19.35 1-2 hours 13 41.94 More than 2 hours 12 38.71 Σ 31 100

Table 17. Time spent outdoors during late fall and winter

Duration of stay outdoors f % Up to 30 minutes 14 46.66 30 – 60 minutes 9 30.00 1-2 hours 7 23.34 Σ 30 100

It is anticipated that the answers about the length of stay outdoors will vary and will be conditioned

90 UDK: 796:373.2 by the season and meteorological conditions. The preschool teachers who did not indicate the duration, provided descriptive answers - “it depends on children’s interests”, “when the weather is dry”. Only in the answers of two preschool teachers there is no difference in duration regarding the seasons, namely, children spend 1-2 hours outdoors.

Table 18. Ways of supplementing and enriching devices and equipment

In what way is the fund of devices and equipment used by children f % during physical activities enriched and supplemented? They are procured by the institution 27 29.35 They are made by preschool teachers 21 22.83 They are made by preschool teachers and parents at workshops 18 19.56 They are made by preschool teachers with children during the activity 12 11.96 Purchased/donated by parents 11 13.04 They are bought by preschool teachers 2 2.17 They borrow them from the school of sports 1 1.09 Σ 35 100

Preschool teachers are, in most cases, the ones who enrich the fund of equipment and devices used for physical activity, whether they make it themselves (22.83%), with parents at workshops (19.56%) or with children during various activities (11.96%).

Table 19. Frequency of measuring children’s motor skills

How many times a year there is the assessment / measurement of chil- f % dren's motor skills Twice a year, at the beginning and end of the work year 19 54.29 Once a year (in September) 2 5.71 3-4 times a year 14 40.00 Σ 35 100

The assessment of children’s motor skills is most often done at the beginning and end of the work year (54.29%) and 3-4 times a year (40.00%).

Table 20. Who assesses / measures children’s motor skills

Who assesses / measures children's motor skills f % Preschool teachers 24 68.57 Physical education professional associate 1 2.86 Preschool teachers by instruction / in collaboration with a physical education professional 8 22.86 associate Physical education team members 2 5.71 Σ 35 100

Measurement of children’s motor skills is most often realized by preschool teachers (68.57%), and in those institutions that have a professional associate for physical education, he or she joins preschool teachers or gives instructions and participates in the physical education team.

Table 21. Adaptation of exercise in order to stimulate underdeveloped motor skills

To what extent preschool teachers adapt physical exercises f % Due to the number of children in the group they cannot be adjusted, everyone does the 13 37.14 same exercises They occasionally adjust the exercises to the needs of individual children or groups of 18 51.43 children Carry out special programs/exercises with children who have reduced motor skills 4 11.43 Σ 35 100

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The majority of preschool teachers (51.43%) occasionally do exercises with children who have underdeveloped individual motor skills, while 37.14% are not able to do so because of the number of children, so everyone does the same exercises; of 4 preschool teachers who responded to implement programs / exercises that are adapted for children, 3 preschool teachers work in institutions that have a professional associate for physical education, cooperate with him/her in the planning, implementation of physical activities and assessment of children’s motor skills; one preschool teacher independently evaluates when it is necessary to act because there is no professional associate at his / her institution. The last question in the questionnaire was open-ended, and we expected the preschool teachers to indicate what was specific about their kindergarten, when it came to space use and how their work was done to encourage the development of children’s motor skills, if they felt that it was not covered. Fifteen preschool teachers responded in more detail, describing the situations they encountered in practice. The potentials of the local community, which allow the use of other spaces in the immediate vicinity of the kindergartens - sports fields, forest, park with equipped children’s playground, influence to improve the conditions for realization of motor activities of children. When find irregular posture in children and the most commonly reported disorders are postural disorders of the spinal column and lowered feet, preschool teachers seek to influence by the choice of exercises that are performed in groups or individually - exercises for the muscles of the arm and shoulder, abdominal and back muscles; walking bare feet on uneven surfaces, competing in fast and proper walking on different surfaces (inside, outside of the feet, on the toes, on the heel); marble exercises (catching the marble with the toe and inserting it into the bowl). Preschool teachers also say that the use of stairs represents a problem for a certain number of children, so they work with them individually, first holding them by hand and providing verbal support until they are able to climb and descend independently; the fear of climbing and sliding down the slide is overcome by the inclusion of other children, who during this activity encourage their friends by singing their favourite songs. They find as many reasons as possible to use stairs and climbers in the yard. The preschool teachers try to act on the parents as well, by pointing to a particular problem and the success of the action depends on whether they want to accept the suggestion and turn to the expert or deny its existence.

Discussion

In relation to the first research task, to identify which kindergarten spaces are used for the physical activities of children and how they are being restructured, the results showed that the study room is most commonly used for the morning exercise and then the gym or yard. The space in the study room is generally sufficient for physical activity, although more than a third of the preschool teachers surveyed have to make changes to the space by moving furniture elements to allow children to move around freely. During the day, besides the study room, other indoor spaces are used for physical activities - the gym, the central hall and the hallways, and in this sample it was found that in some kindergartens they were unable to use other indoor spaces or even do not have a gym or it was turned into study rooms. The kindergartens’ yards are mostly spacious, there are grassy areas, but not always enough, there are no grounds for group sports, and the devices are not always safe. The preschool teachers try to adapt the spaces in the yard to the activities by using different equipment and devices. In the enrichment of the fund of equipment and devices are mostly involved preschool teachers, who make them themselves or in cooperation with the parents, at workshops or with children in various activities. The potential of the local community and the use of other spaces outside the kindergarten influence to improve the conditions for the realization of motor activities of children. The second research task was related to the ways of planning the stimulation of the development of motor skills and participants in this process. Planning of educational work should be based on continuous observation, listening to children and monitoring their needs and interests (Rulebook on the quality standards of the institution, 2018). Most often, the preschool teachers are the ones who plan and create the physical activity program and assess the motor skills of children (2-4 times during the working year), and only one quarter of the surveyed preschool teachers in this process cooperate with a professional associate - a teacher for physical education. Not all preschool institutions have professional associates for physical education. The ratio of educational groups to the number of professional associates is determined by the Rulebook on closer conditions for the establishment, start-up and pursuit of the activity of a preschool institution (2019), which stipulates that an institution with more than 48 educational groups of full-day and half-day stay has a professional associate of another profile, namely an educator for fine arts, music and physical education and speech therapist. Even when employed at a preschool institution, the question arises as to how effective his/ her work can be in promoting the development of the motor skills of children, in an institution with a large number of kindergarten facilities and educational groups? Consequences of sedentary lifestyles are increasingly evident at preschool age. Authors who measured the anthropological status of preschool children aged 6 and 7 years and received worrying results, point to the great importance of prevention and corrective exercises, which can be implemented as part of kindergarten activities (Milosevic and Obradovic, 2008; Obra- dovic and Milosevic, 2008; Romanov, Stupar, Medjedovic and Brkin). A small number of preschool teachers implement special programs with children having reduced motor abilities (11.43%), half of the respondents

92 UDK: 796:373.2 occasionally adjust exercises (51.43%) and 37.14% are not able to do so due to the number of children in educational groups. The third research task focused on the temporal structure, that is, how flexible it is to accommodate to children’s physical activity needs. Morning physical exercise mainly occurs daily (77.14% of responses), when integrated into the contents of other areas it is also present daily, while directed physical activities are performed twice a week and one quarter of the total number of responses shows that it is only once a week. Flexibility in the rhythm of the day and in the realization of activities is one of the indicators of the quality of work, which implies that children should be given different opportunities to play and learn (Rulebook on quality standards of institutions, 2018). When comparing the results of the survey, the highest percentage of responses (40.00%) indicates that it is more important for preschool teachers to respect the schedule, approximately one-third of the teachers adjust the schedule to children’s interests, and 28.57% occasionally deviate from the schedule. The time children spend outdoors is dependent on the seasons and meteorological conditions, during the winter months it is shorter, in most responses it lasts 30-60 minutes and in the early autumn, spring and summer 1-2 hours or longer. Only in the answers of two preschool teachers there is no difference in duration compared to the seasons, children spend 1-2 hours outdoors.

Conclusion

The results of the research show that there is a discrepancy regarding the working conditions, the number of children in educational groups, spatial capacities, equipment. Preschool teachers strive to meet the requirements of stimulating the development of children’s motor skills by making minor changes and adjusting the interior spaces of the kindergarten as well as using the available open spaces. They are aware of the importance of physical activities at an early age, which are present daily in educational work, but not sufficiently and generally without the possibility of individualizing approaches that would continuously, through special programs, stimulate the motor skills of children who are less pronounced. Solutions to these problems could be expected in systemic changes that would lead to the inclusion of a larger number of physical education teaching assistants in the educational process, who, along with preschool teachers, children and parents, would contribute to the development of the program.

References

1. Cardon, G., Van Cauwenberghe, E., Labarque, V., Haerens, L.& De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2008). The contribution of preschool playground factors in explaining children’s physical activity during recess. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5, 11. Retrieved 3 December, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2266778/ 2. Cardon, G., Labarque, V., Smits, D. & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2009). Promoting physical activity at the pre-school playground: The effects of providing markings and play equipment. Preventive Medicine, 48, 335–340. Retrieved 11 November, 2019, from 3. https://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/_pdf/Cardon2009PPAAT.pdf 4. Chow, Bik C., McKenzie, Thomas L.& Louie, Lobo (2015). Children’s Physical Activity and Associat- ed Variables during Preschool Physical Education. Advances in Physical Education, 5, 39-49. Re- trieved 11 November, 2019, from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f76e/b624607fabf95013824406d- d20674892acae.pdf 5. Hannon, J. C. & Brown, B. B. (2008). Increasing preschoolers’ physical activity intensities: An activity-friendly preschool playground intervention. Preventive Medicine, 46, 532-536. Retrieved 12 No- vember, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18313741 6. Krnjaja, Ž. i Pavlović Breneselović, D. (2013). Gde stanuje kvalitet. Knjiga 1. Politika građenja kvaliteta u predškolskom vaspitanju. Beograd: Institut za pedagogiju i andragogiju Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu. 7. Milenković, D. A. (2018). Fizičko vaspitanje i antropološki status dece predškolskog uzrasta. Nastava i vaspitanje, LXVII/2, 341-355. Retrieved 4 November, 2019, from https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/ data/pdf/0547-3330/2018/0547-33301802341M.pdf 8. Milošević, Z. i Obradović, B. (2008). Posturalni status dece novosadskih predškolskih ustanova uzrasta 7 godina. Glasnik Antropološkog društva Srbije, 43, 301-309. Retrieved 2 December, 2019, from https://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?query=ISSID%26and%266083&page=41&sort=8&s- type=0&backurl=%2fissue.aspx%3fissue%3d6083 9. Obradović, B. i Milošević, Z. (2008). Posturalni status dece novosadskih predškolskih ustanova uzrasta 6 godina. Glasnik Antropološkog društva Srbije, 43, 319-323. Retrieved 2 December, 2019, from https://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?query=ISSID%26and%266083&page=42&sort=8&s- type=0&backurl=%2fissue.aspx%3fissue%3d6083 10. Osnove programa predškolskog vaspitanja i obrazovanja „Godine uzleta“. Retrieved 2 Octobar, 2019, from http://www.mpn.gov.rs/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/OSNOVE-PROGRAMA-.pdf

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11. Pate, R. R., Brown, W. H., Pfeiffer, K. A., Howie, E. K., Saunders, R. P., Addy, C. L. & Dowda, M. (2016). An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children A Randomized Controlled Trial With 4-Year-Olds in Preschools. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 51(1), 12–22. Retrieved 11 No- vember, 2019, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379715007813 12. Pravilnik o bližim uslovima za osnivanje, početak rada i obavljanje delatnosti predškolske ustanove. Službeni glasnik RS – Prosvetni glasnik br. 1/2019. Retrieved 22 November, 2019, from https://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?query=ISSID%26and%266083&page=42&sort=8&stype=0&backurl=%2fis- sue.aspx%3fissue%3d6083 13. Pravilnik o opštim osnovama predškolskog programa (2006). Beograd: Prosvetni pregled, Ministarst- vo prosvete i sporta Republike Srbije. Retrieved 5 May, 2018, from http://www.uvb.org.rs/pdf/opste_ osnove_priprenog_predskolskog_programa.pdf 14. Pravilnik o standardima kvalitetarada ustanove. Službeni glasnik RS – Prosvetni glasnik, br. 14/2018. od 02.08.2018. godine. Retrieved 22 November, 2019, from https://www.pedagog.rs/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/pravlnik-o-standardima-kvaliteta-rada-ustanove.pdf 15. Romanov, R., Stupar, D. Međedović, B. i Brkin, D. (2014). Posturalni satatus dece predškolskog uzrasta na teritoriji Novog Sada. Fakultet za sport i turizam, Novi Sad, TIMS Acta 8, 129-135. Re- trieved 2 December, 2019, from https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/1452-9467/2014/1452- 94671402129R.pdf 16. Tonge, K. L., Jones, R. A. & Okely, A. D. (2016). Correlates of children’s objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior in early childhood education and care services: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 89, 129-139. Retrieved 11 November, 2019, from https://ro.uow.edu.au/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3367&context=sspapers 17. Zakon o predškolskom vaspitanju i obrazovanju. Službeni glasnik RS, br. 18/10, 101/17, 113/17- drugi zakon i 10/19. Retrieved 2 November, 2019, from http://www.mpn.gov.rs/dokumenta-i-propisi/ zakonski-okvir/

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PROSTORNO-VREMENSKA STRUKTURA DEČJEG VRTIĆA KAO PODSTICAJ ZA BAVLJENJE FIZIČKIM AKTIVNOSTIMA NA PREDŠKOLSKOM UZRASTU

Ljiljana Stankov; Sanja Vuletić; Mira Jovanović; Nataša Starčević Visoka škola strukovnih studija za vaspitače, Šabac, Srbija

Uvod

Nedovoljna fizička aktivnost dece ranih uzrasta uočava se kao problem u velikom broju razvijenih zemalja i veruje se da to može da bude direktan ili indirektan uzrok mnogih bolesti. Vršena su brojna is- traživanja o efektima fizičkih aktivnosti na antropološki status dece, i u svetu i kod nas, koja se razlikuju po tipu (longitudinalna i transferzalna), po veličini uzorka, nivou (regiоnalna, nacionalna, međunacionalna), koja ispituju antropološki status u odnosu na pol ispitanika, u kojima su primenjeni različiti načini merenja, prika- zuju efekti raznih programa fizičkog vežbanja (Milenković, 2018). Pažnju smo usmerili na ona istraživanja koja se odnose na nivo fizičke aktivnosti dece predškolskog uzrasta, bave se značajem prostora i opreme koja ih podstiče na aktivnosti kao i ulogom odraslih koji sa njima rade.

Tong, Džons i Oukli (Tonge, Jones & Okely 2016) su u svojoj analizi 27 studija o korelaciji između fizičkih aktivnosti i sedentarnog ponašanja dece ranih uzrasta, objavljenih u periodu od 1992. do2015. godine, identifikovali 66 varijabli. Pregled studija se prvenstveno fokusirao na faktore u okviru usluga koje pružaju predškolske ustanove. U studijama koje su se bavile karakteristikama dece (18 studija) i faktorima fizičkog okruženja (17 studija) ustanovljeno je da ima najviše povezanosti. Najsnažnija povezanost sa fizičkom aktivnošću ustanovljena je u odnosu na pol i godine deteta, ukupnu motoričku koordinaciju dece, pružanje mogućnosti za fizičku aktivnost i odlike fizičkog okruženja – otvorenog prostora (veličina, upotreba i prisustvo). Ustanovljena je visoka pozitivna korelacija fizičke aktivnosti i spoljašnjeg okruženja – mogućnost da se deca igraju u tom prostoru i njegova veličina. Autori naglašavaju značaj fizičkog okruženja, stručnih nastavnika i kvalitetnih interventnih programa. Istraživanje Kardona i saradnika (Cardon, Van Cauwenberghe, Labarque, Haerens & De Bourdeaud- huij, 2008) imalo je za cilj da ustanovi kako faktori fizičkog okruženja u predškolskoj ustanovi utiču na nivo fizičkih aktivnosti dece tokom slobodne igre. Uzorak je činilo 415 dečaka i 368 devojčica, uzrasta 5.3 godina, iz 39 nasumično izabranih predškolskih ustanova u Belgiji (u Flandriji). Merenja su vršena u periodu od oktobra 2006. do februara 2007. godine. Od tehnika je primenjeno posmatranje i pedometrija. Ustanovljeno je da dečaci u minuti naprave znatno više koraka od devojčica (65 prema 54). Kod oba pola je veći broj koraka značajno povezan sa manjim brojem dece po m² i sa kraćim vremenom slobodne igre. Kod dečaka je tvrda podloga igrališta bila granični značajan prediktor za viši nivo fizičke aktivnosti. Kod devojčica je viši stepen aktivnosti bio uslovljen smanjenim nadzorom vaspitača. Oznake na igralištu, pristup igračkama, količina opreme za igru i prisustvo vegetacije nisu značajno uticali na nivo fizičke aktivnosti kod oba pola. Studija o fizičkoj aktivnosti dece uzrasta 3-5 godina (Hannon& Brown, 2008) imala je za cilj da utvrdi da li dodatna oprema za igru, postavljena na dečjem igralištu predškolske ustanove, dovodi do povećanja intenziteta aktivnosti. U istraživanju, koje je realizovano 2005. godine u Solt Lejk Sitiju, učestvovalo je 64 dece. Intenzitet aktivnosti je meren akcelerometrom, pet dana pre i pet dana posle unošenja nove opreme na igralište. Rezultati su pokazali da se znatno smanjilo sedentarno ponašanje a povećale aktivnosti manjeg, srednjeg i većeg intenziteta pa autori zaključuju da su dovoljne jednostavne intervencije i malo obuke vaspi- tača da se deca podstaknu na zdrave fizičke aktivnosti. U odnosu na ovo istražiavnje, kojim je obuhvaćen mali uzorak dece, samo iz jedne predškolske ustanove a finalno merenje je izvršeno ubrzo po intervenciji u prostoru dečjeg igrališta, u drugom istraživanju Kardona i saradnika (Cardon, Labarque, Smits & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2009) obuhvaćeno je 583 dece, uzrasta 5.3 godina, iz 40 predškolskih ustanova a finalno merenje je usledilo 4-6 nedelja posle intervencije. Takođe je primenjeno merenje akcelerometrom. Slobodna igra dece na otvorenom prostoru je u proseku trajala 42 minuta (26 do 89 minuta). Inicijalno merenje, izvršeno u novembru i decembru 2007. godine, pokazalo je da su deca u proseku provodila 61.3% u sedentarnim aktivnostima, 25.6% vremena u aktivnostima manjeg intenziteta i 11.2% u aktivnostima umerenog i većeg intenziteta. U okviru uzorka, u 10 ustanova je postavljena nova oprema za igranje, u 10 je obeležen prostor za igru, u 10 ustanova je obeležen prostor i data oprema, dok je 10 ustanova predstavljalo kontrolnu grupu. Finalno merenje u februaru i martu 2008. godine je pokazalo da postavljanje dodatne opreme na dečjim igralištima i markiranje prostora za igru, nisu dovoljan podsticaj za povećanje intenziteta fizičkih aktivnosti. Autori iznose mišljenje da su verovatno i ove intervencije takođe bile efikasne u početku, jer su imale efekat novine za decu ali su efekti tokom vremena umanjeni. Rezultati ove studije su u suprotnosti i sa rezultatima istraživanja sa decom osnovnoškolskog uzrasta, koje je pokazalo povećanje nivoa aktivnosti tri meseca posle postavljanja opreme za igru (Verstraete et al. 2006, prema: Cardon et al. 2009, str. 338). Kardon i saradnici zaključuju da različito reaguju predškolska deca u

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odnosu na stariji uzrast i da će predškolcima biti potrebno dodatno unošenje nove opreme, aktivniji odnos vaspitača koji vrše nadzor tokom slobodne dečje igre, više uputstava i ohrabrenja za aktivnu igru kao i više vremena za strukturirane fizičke aktivnosti.

Svrha istraživanja koje su u Hong Kongu sproveli Čau, Mekenzi i Lui (Chow, McKenzie & Louie, 2015) bila je procena nivoa fizičke aktivnosti predškolske dece, tokom strukturiranih časova fizičkog vaspitanja i procena uticaja odabranih karakteristika (kontekst časova, trajanje i lokacija; ponašanje nastavnika; veličina grupe; prostorni uslovi u odnosu na broj učesnika). Za istraživanje, realizovano 2012. godine, izabrane su četiri predškolske ustanove, na osnovu njihovih strukturnih i programskih razlika: tri imaju i zatvoreni i otvoreni prostor za fizičko vaspitanje a jedna samo zatvoreni prostor. Uzrast dece koja su bila uključena u istraživanje je 3-6 godina a uzorak razreda (pet do šest razreda u tri nivoa predškolskog uzrasta) nasumično je odabran za posmatranje. Odabrano je po četvoro dece (2 dečaka i 2 devojčice) iz svakog razreda za posmatranje. Ukupno je posmatrano 90 časova fizičkog vaspitanja. Časovi su trajali u rasponu od 9 do 30 minuta. Obučeni posmatrači koristili su SOFIT (System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time) za procenu časova fizikog vaspitanja, koje je sa decom realizovalo 25 nastavnika (24 žene i 1 muškarac), čije se radno iskustvo se kretalo od 2 do 28 godina. Nastavnici su bili obavešteni o danima kada će ih posetiti, ali ne o preciznom ponašanju koje će posmatrači kodirati; od njih se tražilo da ne menjaju originalni sadržaj predavanja ili instruktivne metode. Ispoljena su značajna odstupanja i rasponi kako u pogledu organizacije časova tako i između ove četiri predškolske ustanove. Aktivnosti su deci prvenstveno pružale mogućnost da se bave osnovnim pokretima i to: skakanje (39% časova), puzanje (32%), bacanje (29%), kretanje na gredi za ravnotežu (22%), penjanje (20%) i tricikl (18%). Mali broj časova je ponudio ritmičke aktivnosti (6%) ili slobodnu igru (2%); aktivnosti koje su uključivale pesak, vodu i igru padobranom zapažene su samo na po jednom času. U proseku, aktivnosti umerenog i većeg intenziteta su kod dece trajale 9,9 minuta po času (49,9% časa), tokom prosečnih časova oko 20 minuta, sa više vremena u hodanju / umerenoj aktivnosti (6,1 minut; 30,3% časa) nego u aktivnostima većeg intenziteta (3,8 minuta; 19,5% časa). Devojčice su bile manje aktivne od dečaka (4,2 naspram 5,6 minuta / po času; 6,2% manje). U ovoj studiji rezultati su pokazali da je samo 23% posmatranih časova fizičkog vaspitanja održavano na otvorenom prostoru, a u predškolskoj ustanovi koja nije imala otvoreni prostor, zabeležen je najveći procenat fizičkih aktivnosti umerenog i većeg intenziteta (56%). Po mišljenju autora, da bi deca ostvarila dovoljno fizičkih aktivnosti u manjim prostorima, važno je da njihovi nastavnici budu efikasni instruktori, da koriste nastavni plan i program koji podstiče na aktivnosti i imaju dovoljno sredstava i opreme.

Jedno od istraživanja, sa ciljem da se ustanove efekti programa fizičkih aktivnosti za decu ranih uzrasta, izvršeno je u Južnoj Karolini i učestvovalo je 379 dece (188 u interventnoj i 191 u kontrolnoj grupi), iz 16 predškolskih ustanova, uzrasta 4 godine (Pate, Brown, Pfeiffer, Howie, Saunders, Addy & Dowda, 2016). Podaci su prikupljeni tokom 2008–2009. i 2009–2010. godine i analizirani u periodu 2012–2014. godine. Interventni program je obuhvatao strukturirane fizičke aktivnosti u zatvorenom prostoru, pod vođstvom vaspitača (ples, savladavanje prepreka); strukturirane i nestrukturirane fizičke aktivnosti na otvorenom prostoru i fizičke aktivnosti integrisane u sadržaje drugih oblasti. Modifikacije su izvršene i u socijalnom i fizičkom okruženju. Promene u socijalnom okruženju uključivale su verbalno podsticanje na aktivnost od strane nastavnika/vaspitača, učešće vaspitača u fizičkoj aktivnosti i uključivanje aktivnosti u kojima uživaju djeca (npr. ples, igre lova, igre loptom). Fizičko okruženje se menjalo tako što je povećan broj različitih rekvizita (lopte, muzika, marame). Akcenat je stavljen na upotrebu prostora, materijala i postojeće opreme, da bi se sva deca uključivala u fizičke aktivnosti. Kada se uporede rezulati, deca iz interventne grupe (i dečaci i devojčice) su, tokom dana u predškolskoj ustanovi, provela više vremena u fizičkim aktivnostima umerenog i većeg intenziteta, u odnosu na kontrolnu grupu. Analiza rezultata u odnosu na pol dece otkrila je, da je interventni program imao veći uticaj na devojčice a objašnjenje je da su one imale niži stepen fizičkih aktivnosti na početku pa je bilo i više prostora za poboljšanje. Nalazi ove studije podržavaju zaključak da fleksibilna intervencija, koja obučava vaspitače da pruže deci mogućnosti za fizičku aktivnost, može povećati intenzitet aktivnosti i potrošnju energije kod dece predškolskog uzrasta.

Nalazi navedenih istraživanja koji se odnose na značaj fizičkog okruženja, bogaćenje sredine u cilju podsticanja dečje aktivnosti, prevazilaženje ograničenja malih prostora, značajni su i iz ugla praktičara, koji sa predškolskom decom u Srbiji realizuju različite programske modele i rade u različitim uslovima fizičkog okruženja.

U predškolskim ustanovama u Srbiji, za uzrast dece od tri godine do polaska u školu, program rada se realizuje na osnovu Modela A i B, koji se primenjuju u poslednje dve decenije i novih Osnova programa predškolskog vaspitanja i obrazovanja “Godine uzleta” sa čijom primenom se započelo u ovoj radnoj godini, od septembra meseca, na teritorijama 6 gradova i 5 opština (od toga su dve na teritoriji Beograda). Predviđe- no je da se uvođenje ovog programa odvija sukcesivno, tako da bi od septembra 2022. godine bio važeći u svim gradovima i opštinama u Srbiji. Navedeni program i programski modeli zasnovani su na različitim koncepcijama koje se odražavaju i na prostorno-vremensku strukturu vrtića.

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Metode

U sprovedenom empirijskom istraživanju primenjena je deskriptivna metoda, sa ciljem da se, iz perspektive vaspitača, sagleda u kojoj meri prostorno-vremenska struktura vrtića omogućava deci da se bave fizičkim aktivnostima i razvijaju svoje motoričke sposobnosti. Zadaci istraživanja su bili usmereni na to da se sazna koji se prostori vrtića koriste i na koji način se restrukturiraju, da bi se omogućilo realizovanje fizičkih aktivnosti, na koji način se planira stimulisanje razvoja motoričkih sposobnosti dece i ko je uključen u ovaj proces, koliko je vremenska struktura fleksibilna da bi se uskladila sa potrebama dece za fizičkim aktivnostima. Od istraživačkih tehnika je primenjeno anketiranje. Nestandardizovani upitnik, sačinjen za potrebe ovog istraživanja, sadrži 24 pitanja zatvorenog, otvorenog i kombinovanog tipa, od kojih se prvih pet odnose na strukturu uzorka – grad/opština, sredina u kojoj se nalazi dečji vrtić, uzrasna grupa, broj dece u grupi, programski model po kome se odvija rad. Naredna grupa od 7 pitanja, odnosi se na realizaciju jutarnjeg vežbanja dece a 8 pitanja se odnosi na planiranje i realizaciju organizovanih/usmerenih fizičkih aktivnosti u zatvorenim i otvorenim prostorima vrtića – ko su učesnici, učestalost, trajanje, prostorne mogućnosti, opremljenost. Tri pitanja su bila usmerena na procenu motoričkih spsobnosti dece – učestalost merenja, učesnici, mogućnosti da se fizičke vežbe prilagođavaju pojedinoj deci u cilju stimulisanja nedovoljno razvijenih mo- toričkih sposobnosti. Poslednjim pitanjem, otvorenog tipa, želeli smo da saznamo specifičnosti u načinu rada vaspitača, na podsticanju motoričkih sposobnosti dece. U obradi podataka je primenjena deskriptivna statistika a distribucija frekvencija i njihov procentualni odnos prikazan je tabelarno. Uzorak u istraživanju je prigodan i čini ga 35 studenata master strukovnih studija u Visokoj školi strukovnih studija za vaspitače u Šapcu, školske 2019/20. godine. Anketirani studenti rade kao vaspitači u 15 predškolskih državnih ustanova, u 35 vaspitnih grupa, od kojih je 17 u gradskoj sredini, 7 u prigradskoj i 1 u seoskoj sredini.

Tabela 1. Struktura uzorka po mestima - gradovi i opštine

Grad/Opština f Voždovac 4 Čukarica 3 Lazarevac 3 Novi Beograd 3 Beograd Grocka 2 Palilula 2 Rakovica 1 Stari grad 1 Vračar 1 Šabac 5 Valjevo 3 Nova Varoš 3 Loznica 2 Bajina Bašta 1 Užice 1 Σ 35

Tabela 2. Uzrasne grupe sa kojima rade vaspitači i broj dece

Uzrasna grupa f Broj upisane dece (raspon) Starija jaslena (2-3 godine) 2 19-28 Mlađa vrtićka 11 14-35 Srednja vrtićka 7 16-44 Starija vrtićka 6 27-48 Pripremna predškolska 6 10-49 Uzrast 4-5 godina 2 35-36 Mešovita Uzrast 3-6 godina 1 33 Σ 35

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Broj dece u vaspitnim grupama, predviđen Zakonom o predškolskom vaspitanju i obrazovanju (2010; 2017; 2019. član 30, 31) je sledeći: 2 – 3 godine (16); 3 – 4 godine (20); 4 – 5,5 godina (24); 5,5 godina do polaska u školu (26); mešovita grupa 3 – 6 godina (20). Dozvoljeno je povećanje broja dece u grupi do 20%. Na osnovu podataka dobijenih anketiranjem, uočava se da su vaspitne grupe u praksi brojnije a čak 65.72% vaspitnih grupa u kojima rade anketirani vaspitači prelazi zakonski predviđen broj; u 9 vaspitnih grupa se broj kreće između 33 i 40 a u 4 vaspitne grupe je iznad 40. U ovim grupama radi po tri vaspitača a grupe su smeštene u većim radnim sobama.

Tabela 3. Programi i programski modeli koji se primenjuju u vaspitnim grupama

Program/programski model f Program nege i vaspitanja dece do 3 godine 1 Model A 16 Model B 15 Osnove programa „Godine uzleta“ 3 Σ 35

U većini gradova i opština u Srbiji, vaspitno-obrazovni rad se odvija na osnovu Pravilnika o opštim osnovama predškolskog vaspitanja (2006), koji sačinjavaju Program nege i vaspitanja dece od 6 meseci do 3 godine, programi za decu od 3 do 5.5 godina i pripremni predškolski progam, na osnovu dva modela sa zajedničkim vaspitno-obrazovnim ciljevima i načelima. Model A „gravitira otvorenom sistemu vaspitanja i akcionom razvijanju programa zavisno od interesovanja dece a Model B ima karakteristike kognitivno-raz- vojnog programa i razrađene vaspitno-obrazovne ciljeve, zadatke vaspitača i tipove aktivnsti, među kojima vaspitač može da bira i razrađuje ih, zavisno od potreba, mogućnosti i interesovanja dece“ (Opšte osnove predškolskog programa, 2006, str.24). Analiza ovih programskih modela u odnosu na dimenzije „kompetent- nost i moć“ ukazuje da se dete u Modelu A shvata kao biće sa razvojnim i individualnim potrebama i interesovanjima, koje ima uslovnu moć a u Modelu B, kao biće u deficitu u odnosu na odraslu osobu i nema moć, odrasli primenjuje program (Krnjaja i Pavlović Breneselović, 2013, str. 220). Osnove programa predškolskog vaspitanja i obrazovanja „Godine uzleta“ (2018) naglašavaju kompetencije deteta i uvažavanje dečje inicija- tive u vaspitno-obrazovnom procesu kao i delovanje odraslih za dobrobit deteta.

Rezultati

Rezultati istraživanja su pokazali da se jutarnje telesno vežbanje, u najvećem procentu odvija svakodnevno (77.14%). Prostor u kojem se odvija je najčešće radna soba a zatim sala ili dvorište. U više od polovine odgovora (57.14%) realizuje se po jutarnjem okupljanju dece i traje do 15 minuta (88.57%).

Tabela 4. Učestalost jutanjeg vežbanja na sedmičnom nivou

Učestalost jutanjeg vežbanja f % Svakodnevno jutarnje vežbanje 27 77.14 3 do 4 puta sedmično 4 11.43 2-3 puta sedmično 4 11.43 Σ 35 100

Tabela 5. Prostor u kojem se odvija jutarnje vežbanje

Prostor u kojem se odvija jutarnje vežbanje f % Uvek u radnoj sobi 8 22.86 U radnoj sobi ili sali 8 22.86 U radnoj sobi ili dvorištu 11 31.43 Uvek u sali 3 8.57 U radnoj sobi, sali ili dvorištu 5 14.28 Σ 35 100

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Tabela 6. Trajanje jutarnjeg vežbanja

Trajanje jutarnjeg vežbanja f % do 10 minuta 15 42.86 10-15 minuta 16 45.71 15-20 minuta 4 11.43 Σ 35 100

Tabela 7. Vreme u toku radnog dana kada se odvija jutarnje vežbanje

Vreme u toku radnog dana f % Uvek pre doručka 20 57.14 Uglavnom pre doručka, ponekad u toku prepodneva 6 17.14 Uvek u toku prepodneva 9 25.72 Σ 35 100

Najveći broj vaspitača (65.72%) nastoji da deca pravilno izvode sve pokrete ali je to uslovljeno i brojnošću grupe pa nisu uvek u mogućnosti da tako i postupe. Podjednak je broj (po 17.14%) onih koji su u tome istrajni i to su vaspitači sa manjim grupama dece kao i onih, sa veoma brojnim grupama, kojima je važno da deca učestvuju, bez obzira na pravilno izvođenje pokreta.

Tabela 8. Učešće dece tokom jutarnjeg vežbanja

Učešće dece f % Bitno je da se sva deca uključe, bez obzira da li pravilno 6 17.14 izvode sve pokrete Koliko je moguće, zbog brojnosti grupe, nastojimo da deca 23 65.72 pravilno izvode sve pokrete Istrajni smo u nastojanju da sva deca pravilno izvode sve 6 17.14 pokrete

Pre odgovora na pitanje o tome ko učestvuje u realizaciji, bilo nam je važno da saznamo koliko predškolskih ustanova iz našeg uzorka ima stručnog saradnika za fizičko vaspitanje. Odgovori su pokazali da je to samo 5 ustanova a od 13 vaspitača, koji rade u tim ustanovama, njih 9 je navelo da se u planiranje i realizaciju jutarnjeg fizičkog vežbanja uključuje i stručni saradnik za fizičko vaspitanje.

Tabela 9. Ko realizuje jutarnje vežbanje

Učešće u planiranju i realizaciji jutarnjeg vežban- f % ja Vaspitači 25 71.42 Vaspitači u saradnji sa stručnim saradnikom 9 25.72 Neko drugi se uključuje - roditelji 1 2.86 Σ 35 100

Odgovori ukazuju na to da su najčešće vaspitači ti koji planiraju i osmišljavaju sadržaje organizovanih/usmerenih fizičkih aktivnosti (71.42%); u ustanovama koje imaju stručnog saradnika za fizičko vaspitanje, on se uključuje zajedno sa vaspitačem (14.29%) ili ima dominantnu ulogu u ovom procesu (11.43%). U odgovoru jednog vaspitača (2.86%) naveden je roditelj. Orijentacija na saradnju sa okruženjem je jedna od zajedničkih odlika Modela A i B, pa je veoma važno da vaspitači, prvenstveno u roditeljima, imaju saradnike koji su spremni da se uključe u vaspitno-obrazovni rad.

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Tabela 10. Planiranje i osmišljavanje sadržaja organizovanih/usmerenih fizičkih aktivnosti

Učesnici u planiranju i osmišljavanju sadržaja f % Vaspitači 25 71.42 Stručni saradnik za fizičko vaspitanje 4 11.43 Vaspitač u saradnji sa stručnim saradnikom za fizičko vaspitanje 5 14.29 Vaspitač u saradnji sa roditeljima 1 2.86 Σ 35 100

Odgovori da su fizičke aktivnosti integrisane sa sadržajima ostalih oblasti, ukazuju na način pro- gramskog rada po Modelu A i Osnovama programa „Godine uzleta“ a određeno vreme tokom sedmice, kada se odvijaju usmerene aktivnosti, na rad po Modelu B. Vaspitači koji rade sa decom mlađeg uzrasta su se češće opredeljivali za prvi ponuđeni odgovor (25.72%).

Tabela 11. Organizovane/usmerene fizičke aktivnosti na sedmičnom nivou

Organizovane/usmerene fizičke aktivnosti f % Jednom sedmično 9 25.72 Dva puta sedmično 13 37.14 Integrisane u sadržaje ostalih oblasti 13 37.14 Σ 35 100

Nastojeći da od vaspitača saznamo koliko je struktura prostora u vrtiću pogodna za realizaciju fizičkih aktivnosti, prvo pitanje se odnosi na radnu sobu u kojoj deca provode najviše vremena.

Tabela 12. Prostorne mogućnosti za realizaciju fizičkih aktivnosti u radnoj sobi

Prostor za fizičke aktivnosti u radnoj sobi f % Deo prostora je uvek slobodan i dovoljan za realizaciju 22 62.86 fizičkih aktivnosti Potrebne su izmene u prostoru, pomeranjem nameštaja 13 37,14 Σ 35 100

Iako veći procenat odgovora (62.86%) ukazuje da je prostor u radnoj sobi dovoljan da bi se real- izovale fizičke aktivnosti, ipak više od trećine anketiranih vaspitača mora da izvrši izmene u prostoru, pomeranjem elemenata nameštaja, da bi deca mogla neometano da se kreću.

Tabela 13. Koji se zatvoreni prostori, sem radne sobe, koriste za fizičke aktivnosti

Zatvoreni prostori vrtića f % (moguć je veći broj odgovora) Centralni hol 9 21.43 Hodnici 9 21.43 Sala 16 38.09 Terasa 3 7.14 Ništa sem radne sobe 5 11.91 Σ 42 100

Sem radne sobe, najviše se koristi sala a zatim centralni hol i hodnici; 5 ispitanika (11.91%) je odgovorilo da nemaju mogućnosti da koriste bilo koji drugi zatvoreni prostor. Neki vrtići nemaju salu ili je ona promenila namenu - pretvorena je u dve radne sobe (1 vrtić iz ovog uzorka) ali to onda utiče i na kvalitet ostalih aktivnosti.

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Tabela 14. Prostor i opremljenost dvorišta vrtića

Proseč. Dvorište vrtića 1 2 3 4 5 ocena Prostrano, omogućava neometano kretanje, pogodno za različite / 4 7 11 13 3.94 aktivnosti Opremljeno raznovrsnim spravama 2 11 9 6 7 3.14 Sprave su bezbedne i sva deca mogu da ih koriste 5 9 7 7 7 3.06 Ima dovoljno travnatih površina 6 1 9 6 13 3.54 Postoji teren/i za grupne sportove 11 10 7 3 4 2.40 Prostor se obogaćuje i prilagođava korišćenjem različite opreme i / 2 12 11 10 3.83 rekvizita

Pitanje koje se odnosilo na prostor i opremljenost dvorišta sadržalo je šest tvrdnji a vaspitači su vrši- li procenu na petostepenoj skali. Najviša prosečna ocena se odnosi na površinu dvorišta, koja omogućava boravak i različite aktivnosti dece (3.94) a vaspitači nastoje da prostore u dvorištu prilagođavaju aktivnostima korišćenjem različite opreme i rekvizita (3.83). Međutim, iako postoje travnati tereni njih nema uvek dovoljno ili ih uopšte nema (3.54), nedostaju tereni za grupne sportove (2.40) a ni sprave nisu dovoljno bezbedne (3.06).

Tabela 15. Fizičke aktivnosti na otvorenom prostoru u okviru rasporeda dnevnih aktivnosti

Aktivnosti na otvorenom prostoru u odnosu na raspored f % dnevnih aktivnosti Raspored se uvek poštuje bez obzira na želje dece da boravak produže 14 40.00 Povremeno odstupamo od rasporeda da ne bismo prekidali igru 10 28.57 Raspored prilagođavamo dečjim interesovanjima 11 31.43 Σ 35 100

Ritam dana u vrtiću podrazumeva smenu različitih vrsta aktivnosti – rutinskih (obroci, spavanje, održavanje higijene), programskih aktivnosti i igre.Veća fleksibilnost vremenske organizacije je odlika Mod- ela A i Osnova programa predškolskog vaspitanja i obrazovanja, što podrazumeva da, poštujući inicijativu i interesovanja dece, ne bi trebalo da bude prekidana aktivnost kojom se bave kao što ne bi trebalo da bude ni „praznog hoda“ kada se čeka određeno, unapred isplanirano vreme, za početak nove aktivnosti. Odgovori vaspitača koji rade po Modelu B, da se raspored uvek poštuje, su očekivani ali na ovom uzorku su se za isti odgovor opredeljivali i vaspitači koji rade po Modelu A, i on je najviše zastupljen (40.00%).

Tabela 16. Vreme provedeno na otvorenom prostoru tokom rane jeseni, proleća i leta

Trajanje boravka na otvorenom f % 30-60 minuta 6 19.35 1-2 sata 13 41.94 više od 2 sata 12 38.71 Σ 31 100

Tabela 17. Vreme provedeno na otvorenom prostoru tokom kasne jeseni i zime

Trajanje boravka na otvorenom f % do 30 minuta 14 46.66 30 – 60 minuta 9 30.00 1-2 sata 7 23.34 Σ 30 100

Očekivano je da će se odgovori o trajanju boravka na otvorenom prostoru razlikovati i da će biti uslovljeni godišnjim dobom i meteorološkim uslovima. Vaspitači koji nisu naveli trajanje, davali su opisne odgovore – „zavisi od dečjih interesovanja“, „kada je suvo vreme“. Samo u odgovorima dva vaspitača nema razlike u trajanju u odnosu na godišnja doba, deca provode po 1-2 časa na otvorenom.

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Tabela 18. Načini dopunjavanja i obogaćivanja sredstava i rekvizita

Na koji način se obogaćuje i dopunjuje fond sredstava i rekvizita koje f % deca koriste u toku fizičkih aktivnosti? Nabavlja ih ustanova 27 29.35 Prave ih vaspitači 21 22.83 Prave ih vaspitači i roditelji, na radionicama 18 19.56 Prave ih vaspitači sa decom u toku aktivnosti 12 11.96 Kupuju/poklanjaju roditelji 11 13.04 Kupuju ih vaspitači 2 2.17 Pozamljuju ih iz školice sporta 1 1.09 Σ 35 100

Vaspitači su, u najvećem broju odgovora, ti koji obogaćuju fond sredstava i rekvizita koji se koriste za fizičke aktivnosti, bilo da ih prave sami (22.83%), sa roditeljima na radionicama (19.56%) ili sa decom u toku različitih aktivnosti (11.96%).

Tabela 19. Učestalost merenja motoričkih sposobnosti dece

Koliko puta godišnje se vrši procena/merenje dečjih motoričkih sposob- f % nosti Dva puta godišnje, na početku i na kraju radne godine 19 54.29 Jednom godišnje (u septembru) 2 5.71 3-4 puta godišnje 14 40.00 Σ 35 100

Procena dečjih motoričkih sposobnosti se najčešće vrši na početku i na kraju radne godine (54.29%) i 3-4 puta godišnje (40.00%).

Tabela 20. Ko vrši procenu/merenje dečjih motoričkih sposobnosti

Ko vrši procenu/merenje dečjih motoričkih sposobnosti? f % Vaspitači 24 68.57 Stručni saradnik za fizičko vaspitanje 1 2.86 Vaspitači po instrukcijama/u saradnji sa stručnim saradnikom za fizičko vaspitanje 8 22.86 Vaspitači članovi tima za fizičko vaspitanje 2 5.71 Σ 35 100

Merenje dečjih motoričkih sposobnosti najčešće realizuju vaspitači (68.57%) a u onim ustanovama koje imaju stručnog saradnika za fizičko vaspitanje on se uključuje zajedno sa vaspitačima ili daje instrukcije i učestvuje u timu za fizičko vaspitanje.

Tabela 21. Prilagođavanje fizičkog vežbanja u cilju stimulisanja nedovoljno razvijenih motoričkih sposobnosti

U kojoj meri vaspitači prilagođavaju fizičke vežbe f % Zbog brojnosti dece u grupi ne mogu da prilagode, svi rade iste vežbe 13 37.14 Povremeno prilagođavaju vežbe potrebama pojedine dece ili grupe dece 18 51.43 Realizuju posebne programe/vežbe sa decom koja imaju smanjenje pojedine motoričke 4 11.43 sposobnosti Σ 35 100

Najveći broj vaspitača (51.43%) povremeno radi vežbe sa decom kod kojih su zapažene slabije razvijene pojedine motoričke sposobnosti dok 37.14% to nije u mogućnosti zbog brojnosti dece pa svi rade iste vežbe; od 4 vaspitača koja su odgovorila da realizuju programe/vežbe koje prilagođavaju deci, 3 vaspi- tača rade u ustanovama koje imaju stručnog saradnika za fizičko vaspitanje, sa njim sarađuju u planiranju, realizaciji fizičkih aktivnosti i u proceni dečjih motoričkih sposobnosti; jedan vaspitač samostalno procenjuje kada je potrebno da deluje jer u njegovoj ustanovi nema stručnog saradnika. 102 UDK: 796:373.2

Poslednje pitanje u upitniku je bilo otvorenog tipa, a od vaspitača smo očekivali da navedu šta je specifično za njihov vrtić, kada je u pitanju korišćenje prostora i kako se odvija njihov rad na podsticanju razvoja motoričkih sposobnosti dece, ukoliko smatraju da nije bilo obuhvaćeno pitanjima. Petnaest vaspi- tača je detaljnije odgovorilo, opisujući situacije sa kojima se sreću u praksi. Potencijali lokalne zajednice, koji dozvoljavaju korišćenje i drugih prostora u neposrednoj blizini vrtića – sportskih terena, šume, parka sa opremljenim dečjim igralištem, utiču da se poboljšaju uslovi za realizaciju motoričkih aktivnosti dece. Kada kod dece uoče nepravilno držanje tela, a u odgovorima su najčešće navođeni poremećaji posturalnog statusa kičmenog stuba i spuštena stopala, vaspitači nastoje da utiču izborom vežbi koje realizuju grupno ili individualno – vežbe za mišiće ruku i ramenog pojasa, trbušne i leđne mišiće; hodanje bosim stopalima po neravnim površinama, takmičenje u brzom i pravilnom hodanju po različitim podlogama (unutrašnjom, spoljašnjom stranom stopala, na prstima, na peti); vežbe klikerima (hvatanje klikera prstima stopala i ubacivanje u posudu). Vaspitači takođe navode da jednom broju dece problem predstavlja korišćenje stepeništa pa sa njima rade individualno, najpre držeći ih za ruku i pružanjem verbalne podrške, dok ne uspeju samostalno da se penju i silaze; strah od penjanja i spuštanja niz tobogan savladavaju uključivnjem i ostale dece, koja u toku ove aktivnosti bodre svoje drugove pevanjem njihovih omiljenih pesmica. Pronalaze što više razloga da koriste stepeniše i penjalice u dvorištu. Vaspitači nastoje da deluju i na roditelje, ukazivanjem na određeni problem a uspešnost delovanja zavisi od toga da li oni žele da prihvate sugestiju i obrate se stručnjaku ili negiraju njegovo postojanje.

Diskusija

U odnosu na prvi zadatak istraživanja, da se ustanovi koji prostori vrtića se koriste za fizičke aktivnosti dece i na koji način se restrukturiraju, rezultati su pokazali da se radna soba najčešće koristi za jutarnje vežbanje a zatim sala ili dvorište. Prostor u radnoj sobi je uglavnom dovoljan za realizaciju fizičkih aktivnosti mada više od trećine anketiranih vaspitača mora da izvrši izmene u prostoru, pomeranjem elemenata nameštaja, da bi se omogućilo neometano kretanje dece. U toku dana se za fizičke aktivnosti, sem radne sobe, koriste i drugi zatvoreni prostori – sala, centralni hol i hodnici a na ovom uzorku je ustanovljeno da u nekim vrtićima nemaju mogućnosti da koriste druge zatvorene prostore, pa da čak nemaju ni salu ili je ona pretvorena u radne sobe. Dvorišta vrtića su uglavnom prostrana, postoje travnate površine ali ih nema uvek dovoljno, nedostaju tereni za grupne sportove a ni sprave nisu uvek bezbedne. Vaspitači nastoje da prostore u dvorištu prilagođavaju aktivnostima korišćenjem različite opreme i rekvizita. U obogaćivanje fonda sredstava i rekvizita najviše su uključeni vaspitači, koji ih izrađuju sami ili u saradnji sa roditeljima, na radionicama ili sa decom u okviru različitih aktivnosti. Potencijali lokalne zajednice i korišćenje drugih prostora, van vrtića, utiču da se poboljšaju uslovi za realizaciju motoričkih aktivnosti dece. Drugi zadatak istraživanja se odnosio na načine planiranja stimulisanja razvoja motoričkih sposobnosti i učesnike u ovom procesu. Planiranje vaspitno-obrazovnog rada treba da bude zasnovano na kon- tinuiranom posmatranju, slušanju dece i praćenju njihovih potreba i interesovanja (Pravilnik o standardima kvaliteta rada ustanove, 2018). Najčešće su vaspitači ti koji planiraju i kreiraju program fizičkih aktivnosti i vrše procenu motoričkih sposobnosti dece (2-4 puta u toku radne godine), a samo jedna četvrtina anketiranih vaspitača u ovom procesu ostvaruje saradnju sa stručnim saradnikom – pedagogom za fizičko vaspitanje. Nemaju sve predškolske ustanove stručnog saradnika za fizičko vaspitanje. Odnos vaspitnih grupa i broja stručnih saradnika određen je Pravilnikom o bližim uslovima za osnivanje, početak rada i obavljanje delatnosti predškolske ustanove (2019), kojim je predviđeno da ustanova sa više od 48 vaspitnih grupa celodnevnog i poludnevnog boravka ima stručnog saradnika drugog profila, a to je pedagog za likovno, muzičko i fizičko vaspitanje i logoped. Čak i kada je zaposlen u predškolskoj ustanovi, postavlja se pitanje koliko može da bude efikasan njegov rad na podsticanju razvoja motoričkih sposobnosti dece, u ustanovi sa velikim brojem objekata i vaspitnih grupa? Posledice sedentarnog načina života sve više se uočavaju i na predškolskom uzrastu. Autori koji su vršili merenja antropološkog statusa predškolske dece uzrasta 6 i 7 godina i dobili zabrinjavajuće rezultate, ukazuju na veliki značaj prevencije i korektivnih vežbi, koje mogu da se realizuju u okviru aktivnosti u dečjim vrtićima (Milošević i Obradović, 2008; Obradović i Milošević, 2008; Romanov, Stupar, Međedović i Brkin). Mali broj vaspitača realizuje posebne programe sa decom kod koje su uočene smanjene motoričke sposobnosti (11.43%), polovina anketiranih povremeno prilagođava vežbe (51.43%) a 37.14% to nije u mogućnosti zbog brojnosti dece u vaspitnim grupama. Treći zadatak istraživanja je bio usmeren na vremensku strukturu, odnosno, koliko je ona fleksibilna da bi se uskladila sa potrebama dece za fizičkim aktivnostima. Jutarnje fizičko vežbanje se uglavnom odvija svakodnevno (77.14% odgovora), kada je integrisano u sadržaje ostalih oblasti takođe je svakodnevno prisutno, dok se usmerene fizičke aktivnosti realizuju dva puta sedmično a jedna četvrtina od ukupnog broja odgovora pokazuje da je to samo jednom sedmično. Fleksibilnost u ritmu dana i u realizaciji aktivnosti, jedan je od pokazatelja kvaliteta rada a podrazumeva da deci treba omogućiti različite prilike za igru i učenje (Pravilnik o standardima kvaliteta rada ustanova, 2018). Kada se uporede rezultati dobijeni anketiranjem, najveći procenat odgovora (40.00%) ukazuje da je vaspitačima važnije poštovanje predviđenog rasporeda, približno jedna trećina vaspitača prilagođava raspored dečjim interesovanjima a 28.57% povremeno odstupi

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od rasporeda. Vreme koje deca provode na otvorenom prostoru zavisi od godišnjih doba i meteoroloških uslova, u zimskim mesecima je kraće, u većini odgovora je 30-60 minuta a tokom rane jeseni, proleća i leta 1-2 sata ili duže. Samo u odgovorima dva vaspitača nema razlike u trajanju u odnosu na godišnja doba, deca provode po 1-2 časa na otvorenom.

Zaključak

Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da postoji neusaglašenost u odnosu na uslove rada, broj dece u vaspitnim grupama, prostorne mogućnosti, opremljenost. Vaspitači nastoje da zadovolje zahteve u pogledu stimulisanja razvoja dečjih motoričkih sposobnosti unošenjem manjih promena i prilagođavanjem unutrašnjih prostora vrtića kao i korišćenjem raspoloživih otvorenih prostora. Svesni su značaja fizičkih aktivnosti na ranim uzrastima, koje su svakodnevno prisutne u vaspitno-obrazovnom radu ali ne u dovoljnoj meri i uglavnom bez mogućnosti individualizovanja pristupa kojim bi se kontinuirano, posebnim programima, podsticale mo- toričke sposobnosti dece koje su slabije izražene. Rešenja ovih problema bi se mogla očekivati u sistemskim promenama koje bi dovele do toga da se u vaspitno-obrazovni proces uključi veći broj stručnih saradnika za fizičko vaspitanje koji bi, zajedno sa vaspitačima, decom i roditeljima doprinosili razvoju programa.

Literatura

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od 02.08.2018. godine. Retrieved 22 November, 2019, from https://www.pedagog.rs/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/pravlnik-o-standardima-kvaliteta-rada-ustanove.pdf 15. Romanov, R., Stupar, D. Međedović, B. i Brkin, D. (2014). Posturalni satatus dece predškolskog uzrasta na teritoriji Novog Sada. Fakultet za sport i turizam, Novi Sad, TIMS Acta 8, 129-135. Re- trieved 2 December, 2019, from https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/1452-9467/2014/1452- 94671402129R.pdf 16. Tonge, K. L., Jones, R. A. & Okely, A. D. (2016). Correlates of children’s objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior in early childhood education and care services: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 89, 129-139. Retrieved 11 November, 2019, from https://ro.uow.edu.au/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3367&context=sspapers 17. Zakon o predškolskom vaspitanju i obrazovanju. Službeni glasnik RS, br. 18/10, 101/17, 113/17- drugi zakon i 10/19. Retrieved 2 November, 2019, from http://www.mpn.gov.rs/dokumenta-i-propisi/ zakonski-okvir/

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SAFETY ASPECTS OF USING MOUNTAIN ROADS

Boban Milojković1, Vladimir Miletić2 1 University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies – Department of Criminalistics, Belgrade, Serbia 2 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

By going to mountainous geospace, a man leaves behind all those modalities of safe and comfortable living in modern and urbanized city settlements. In contact with the untouched nature, a person is left only with his/her knowledge and skills to adapt more or less to the changes in the environment. Such an environment often represents an enormously small fraction of complex, dynamic, interactional, and often unpredictable phenomena and processes of universal scale. In the conditions of recklessness and inadequate ability of a person to detect, follow, prevent, reduce or to some extent mitigate the consequences of hazards that occur when moving in mountainous geospace, there are safety risks to his/her health (Alpine Skills, 2019). Most authors divide all the dangers that have the potential to cause injury and damage to health into objective and subjective ones (Čaplar, 2011). n principle, the poor state of standards and maintenance of mountain roads as a type of objective hazard in the national framework has not been sufficiently addressed in the available literature. Mutual inter- actions and relationships of this hazard with other hazards, and in particular with subjective hazards, have not been studied as well. A mountain road is an object on Earth’s topographic surface intended for safe hiking (Rulebook, 2017). According to Chaplar, it is a narrow strip of land arranged for movement in the mountain (Čaplar, 2012). Within the national framework, the construction, marking and maintenance of mountain roads are coordinated by the Mountaineering Association of Serbia through the Hiking Commission and its members - Mountaineering Clubs, direct implementers. A mountain road includes hiking trails, roads and publicly marked roads. An arranged and marked mountain road that connects several characteristic points on one or more mountains is called a transversal. A special type of a mountain road is covered by the European Hiking Road (Božović et al., 2011). By complexity, a mountain road can be easy, demanding and very demanding. Markings - markings of mountain roads in geospace can be basic, ancillary, special, winter and temporary (figure 1).

Figure 1. Markings of hiking trails in the investigated geospace (source: author’s archive)

Hiking trails are marked with the standard hiking marking. “Knafelc marking” - a white dot surround- ed by a red halo, 9-12 cm in diameter, in a ratio of 1:2 (figure 2).

Figure 2. Basic marking; Marking for the European Hiking Road; Cross-border marking (source: author’s archive) 106 UDK: 796.52:614.8

It is important that mountain road users know all types of markings, routings, signposts and position boards, and especially the demanding road markers - warning signs placed at the beginning of the journey that involve the use of hands and security elements - different pins, cables, ladders and tread inserts and very demanding routes involving the use of a helmet, climbing rope, ice axes and crampons (Čaplar, 2012; Stojanović et al., 2013; Милетич, 2018).

The aforementioned designations have been prescribed by the acts of the Mountaineering As- sociation of Serbia and set up for the safer use of the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads. The appearance and meaning of some of the markings are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Basic markings and meaning of the landing board in the surveyed geospatial (source: adaptation from the author’s archive)

In addition to mountain roads, there are alpine trails, equipped trails (ferate), tourist and other themed trails (historical, cultural, pilgrimage, scout association trails, off-road and mountain bike trails, marathon trails, trim trails, equestrian trails), which also have their markings (figure 4).

Figure 4. Markings of local and other roads in the studied geospatial (source: author’s archive)

Besides the above markings, there are markings made by other users of the mountain geospace such (figure 5), which may be similar to hiking trails.

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Figure 5. Markings made by other users in the surveyed geospatial (source: author’s archive)

As an example of good practice in business and technical terms, it is necessary to mention information and educational boards produced by the Mountaineering Clubs, Tourist Organizations and Directorates for Protected Natural Resources, often assisted by financial resources of relevant ministries, socially responsible companies and foreign partners (figure 6).

Figure 6. Dashboards in the surveyed geospatial (source: author’s archive)

However, some markings may be damaged or removed by natural processes1 or human negligence. In these circumstances, mountaineers, can often “miss the road” and thus endanger their safety and rescue operations.

In this regard, the aim of this paper was to identify and analyze the security risks of using the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads in the national geospace and to make recommendations for their reduction.

Methods

The theoretical analysis method and the topographic geospatial survey method were used (Milo- jković, 1996; Milojković i Jovanović, 2018). The archives of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia and the documentation of the authors from the field research were used to collect the data (the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads of the Fruska Gora and Tara National Parks, the Stara Planina Golija and Vrsac Mountain Nature Parks, Areas of Exceptional Features Ovcar-Kablar Gorge, Suvoborski Rajac, Gorge of the Resava and Mileševka River, Special Nature Reserve Uvac, Kukavica and Deliblatska Pescara of Radovan- 1 More recently, some Mountaineering Clubs for mountain geospace, in which the weather conditions and local conditions contribute to reducing the visibility of markings and the patency of the road, make its “digital marking” with GPS devices. Such trails are intended for experienced users who need challenges, self-validation and controlled adventure. In addition to the GPS tracks, such trails have a detailed description and photos of the points of interest. The routes are published on the Mountaineering Club websites in the form of a RAR archive in extensions readable on most GPS devices or other devices with the help of conversion software applications. GPS devices use application-based “mapping programmes” to organize and view maps, routes, tracks, and road points. The previously mentioned programmes allow a person to plan, create and estimate the weight of the desired route in a simple and purposeful way before going to the mountain.

108 UDK: 796.52:614.8 jski lug, the Ozren-Jadovnik Nature Monument, Rtanj and the Valjevo Mountains. The research timeframe is for the period 2009 to 2019.

Results and discussion

By analyzing the Rules of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia, we can conclude that there is up-to-date normative regulation of the mountain roads. Training of mountaineering staff for designing and marking of mountain roads is carried out each year through seminars for markers.

Also, mountaineering clubs should permanently control, rehabilitate and revitalize the mountain roads which they have built with the prior approval of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia. However, by analyzing the normative and the real condition, we did not find an adequate situation in the field, which was moderated to some extent by the lack of material and financial resources. Besides, the results of the field survey indicate the presence of human negligence in the mountain geospace (destruction of markings, arbitrary marking of new and alternative routes, etc.), as well as certain anomalies in the behaviour of mountain road users and owners of the parcels they pass through. Namely, since years ago, the Mountaineering Associa- tion of Serbia has not had the necessary financial resources for the work of expert commissions (there are minimal funds only for travel expenses of members of commissions), of which part of the funds is intended for the needs of the Mountaineering Terrains Commission and Mountaineering Club marking sections. In this regard, there is an acute disproportion between the available financial resources and the ongoing needs to monitor and control the maintenance, equipping, rehabilitation and revitalization of existing and construction of new marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads.

By direct insight into the standard of equipment and maintenance of the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads in the researched geospatial area, we found that in addition to the verified and registered national network of the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads, several local trails intersect or coincide with the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads (figure 7) and are marked by very het- erogeneous and productive markings of local Mountaineering Clubs, Tourist Organizations and individuals. For example, in the western part of the National Park of Fruška Gora, besides the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads, there are marked trails of the Fruška Gora Transversal, Fruška Gora and Bukovac Marathons, Blue and Health Trails (figure 4.1 and 4.2.), which partially complicates the determination, orientation and movement along the selected trail. In the National Park of Tara, we found that the following trails go into the existing marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads: the European Hiking Trail, ViaDinarika, International Cycling Trail, Walking and Health Trails of the local Tourist Organizations, and in some places, we found one or several markings on hidden or alternative routes, and even destroyed markings due to infrastructure works and changes to parcel owners who no longer allow passage through their property. The same or similar condition was observed in other researched parts of the national geospace.

Figure 7. Intersect the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads with local trails in the researched geospatial area (source: author’s archive)

Besides, the results of the field survey indicate the presence of human negligence in the mountain geospace - unprofessional of markings, arbitrary marking of new and alternative routes, (figure 8), and destruction of markings (figure 9), as well as certain anomalies in the behaviour of mountain road users and owners of the parcels they pass through. All of this contributes significantly to the likelihood of a hazard that could endanger users mountain roads.

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Figure 8. Unprofessional and arbitrary marking of new and alternative routes in the researched geospatial area (source: author’s archive)

Figure 9. Destruction and damage of markings on mountain roads in the researched geospatial area (source: author’s archive)

Also, safety problems arise in situations when the services of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia licensed guides and hikes are not used, as well as modern geo-topographic materials, orientation and positioning tools in complex geospatial and weather conditions, and when individuals go hiking unprepared, but confident (Milojković, 2001b; Čaplar, 2012; Stojanović et al., 2013; Милетич, 2018).

Conclusion

In addition to the great efforts of the National Mountaineering Organization on the normative and preventive plan to reduce the possible safety risk for the users of the mountain roads, cooperation and increased educational and informative campaign of sports, tourism and other organizations in the form of modern manuals (guides) for movement and stay on a mountain are needed, as well as, mountaineering and tourist maps with expert editorial staff of mountaineering organizations (Milojković, 2001a), information boards and boards for specific mountaineering destinations, as well as training in the use of modern systems for orientation, positioning and telecommunications (Milojković, 2001b). Also, greater funding for mountaineering activities by the state is required and more comprehensive regulation at the level of the law, not only of the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads but also of other mountain terrains, roads and facilities as is the case in Montenegro (Law on Mountain Trails, 2008). The marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads that meet the highest standards and have a high quality of equipment and maintenance should be included in the register of cultural property of national importance (Bulatović and Jokić, 2018). The above measures will not be sufficient if some individuals and groups continue to do the same as they used to. For this reason, as well as due to various technical limitations, it will continue to appear on the Mountaineering Club web pages that they do not bear any responsibility towards users of Mountain Roads, GPS tracks, nor do they take any responsibility for the conduct of the guides and that they act at their own risk.

However, if individuals and groups decide to arbitrarily refer to the mountaineering geospace for their safety when moving through the mountain roads, we advise them the following:

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• to use only marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads as the shortest, marked, landscaped, secured and walkways with licensed guide services. However, if you decide to go alone, you need to “arm” yourself with the knowledge, skills, high concentration, patience, awareness of your capabilities and limitations, and quality equipment to recognize the danger in the mountain and set markings, but also the markings of all roads and trails that can be found in the mountaineering geospace, whether approved or not by the Mountaineering Association of Serbia; • to suspend the movement by the roads in the conditions of damaged, destroyed and newly placed markings that do not comply with the Mountaineering Association of Serbia Regulations, and in the case of unfamiliar position, apply the principle of “relocation” orientation (do not continue the movement to find a destination by chance, but return to the starting position); • to suspend the movement by the roads in adverse meteorological conditions, especially in winter when avalanches, blizzards, fog, freezing rain, low winds, low temperatures, no roadways, shelters from storms and nearby settlements, and when psychophysical stress is increased due to deep snow, slippery terrain, rise and duration of the day, and orientation difficult due to identical details in the terrain, limited visibility, absence of winter markings and inability to receive GPS signals; • to suspend the movement by the roads if you have not performed adequate preparation for movement and stay in the mountain: physical preparation according to the configuration, vegetation cov- erage, communicative nature and facility construction on the land; information and communication (reporting movement to the organizational units of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia – local clubs and guides, border police, national park administrations, relatives and friends, then, direct information on the types and manner of the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads marking, information on the status of the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads patency, damage, temporary closure, deforestation, construction and other works, and possible hazards due to natural disasters; the use of connection means – radio and mobile telephony, regarding signal cover- age conditions; material and technical preparation (selection of adequate personal and collective equipment for moving and staying in the mountain according to the heaviness of the trail and other conditions prevailing on the ascent; geo-topographic preparation (provide hiking and hiking guides and maps, GPS, compasses, altimeters, official treks and other geoinformation as well as verifiable reports of excursions and hikes already organized by licensed guides.

A general safety recommendation for the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads users is to combine the use of modern geo-topographic materials, devices and systems for orientation and positioning. If they do not have the means to buy any GPS device, it is recommended that they use free positioning, navigation and monitoring applications via mobile phone and tablet along with the printed and plasticized tourist map and compass.

By the Mountaineering Club markings sections, we recommend the use of GPS field computers for GIS (higher accuracy with Internet modem and georeferenced camera) when creating the marked mountaineering hiking trails and roads tracks. Such devices can receive differential correction, export the collected data for post-processing and operate under conditions of favourable satellite geometry. As much as such equipment is expensive to purchase, they can rent the same, or, by joint means, to acquire a modular GPS sensor that they would use with their mobile phone when creating tracks

References

1. Božović, B., Mićić, B., Vuković, M., Kovačević, V., Мilojković, B., et al. (2011). RAMBLING THROUGH SERBIA AT A SLOW PACE. Belgade: Mountaineering association of Serbia & European Ramblers Association. 2. Bulatović, D., Jokić, B. (2018). The importance and role of mountaineering for the tourist valorisation of Montenegro’s natural and cultural heritage. Tourism business, 28, 37-46. 3. Милетич, В. (2018). Методика на обучение по алпинизьм. Дисертация. Национална Спортна Академия ”Васил Левски”. София. 4. Alpine Skills: Summer – Basic knowledge-Alpine hiking-Climbing-Alpinism (Translation). (2019). Ed- itor Nenad Dikić. Belgrade: Mountaineering Association of Serbia and Sports medicine association of Serbia. 5. Milojković, B. (1996). Topographic method of spring water research. In Procesiding, Mineral, thermal and spring waters - research, application and protection. Belgrade: Ecology - special edition, 45-50. 6. Milojković, B. (2001a). Cartographic modeling of hiking maps. In Procesiding, Hiking in the 3rd millennium, Belgrade: Mountaineering Association of Serbia, 101-106. 7. Milojković, B. (2001b). Mountaineering tub training for orientation and mountain climbing. In Proce- siding, Hiking in the 3rd millennium, Belgrade: Mountaineering Association of Serbia, 122-127. 8. Мilojković, B., Jovanović, J. (2018). METHOD OF TOPOGRAPHIC INVENTARIZATION AND GPS TECHNOLOGY IN MODELING GEOENVIRONMENT. Bulletin of the Serbian Geographical Society,

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98/2, 59-72. 9. Rulebook on the work of the Hiking Commission. (2015). Belgrade: Mountaineering Association of Serbia. 10. Rulebook on Planning, Designing and Marking of Hiking Trails and Roads. (2017). Belgrade: Moun- taineering Association of Serbia. 11. Stojanović, T., Savić, Z., Miletić, V. (2013). Hiking and camping. Banja Luka: Faculty of physical education and sport. 12. Čaplar, A., (2011). Mountaineering guide to Croatia. Zagreb: Mosaic Book. 13. Čaplar, A., 2012. Mountaineering textbook. Zagreb: Croatian Mountaineering Association. 14. Law on Mountain Trails, Official Gazette of Montenegro, 51/08 (2008) i 53/11 (2011).

Note

This paper is a part of the project “Effects of the applied physical activity on the locomotor, metabolic, psycho-social and educational status of the population of the Republic of Serbia”, under No III47015, and a part of the sub-project “Effects of the applied physical activity on the locomotor, metabolic, psycho-social and educational status of the population of the Police in the Republic of Serbia”, funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia – the call for scientific projects 2011-2019.

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BEZBEDNOSNI ASPEKTI KORIŠĆENJA PLANINARSKIH PUTEVA

Boban Milojković1; Vladimir Miletić2 1 Kriminalističko-policijski univerzitet - Departman kriminalistike, Beograd, Srbija 2 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Odlaskom u planinski geoprostor čovek ostavlja za sobom sve one modalitete sigurnog i komfornog života moderno urbanizovanih gradskih naselja. U kontaktu sa nedirnutom prirodom biva prepušten samo svojim znanjima i veštinama da se u odnosu na nagle izmene okruženja manje ili više prilagođava. Takvo okruženje često predstavlja veoma mali deo kompleksnih, dinamičkih, interakcijskih i često nepredvidivih pojava i procesa vasionskih razmera. U uslovima nesmotrenosti i neadekvatne sposobnosti čoveka da ot- krije, prati, spreči, smanji ili u određenoj meri ublaži posledice opasnosti koje se dešavaju prilikom njegovog kretanja u planinskom geoprostoru, nastaju bezbednosni rizici po njegovo zdravlje. Većina autora sve opasnosti koje imaju potencijal da uzrokuju povređivanje i štetu po zdravlje dele na objektivne i subjektivne (Čaplar, 201). Načelno, loše stanje standarda i održavanja planinarskih puteva kao vrsta objektivnih opasnosti u nacionalnom okviru nije dovoljno razmatrano u dostupnoj literaturu. Takođe nisu proučavani međusobni uticaji i odnosi te opasnosti sa drugim opasnostima, a naročito sa subjektivnim opasnostima.

Planinarski put je objekat na topografskoj površi Zemlje namenjen bezbednom pešačenju (Pravil- nik, 2017). Prema Čaplaru to je uzak pojas zemljišta uređen za kretanje u planini (Čaplar, 2012). U nacionalnom okviru, izgradnju, markiranje i održavanje planinarskih puteva koordinira Planinarski savez Srbije (u daljem tekstu: PSS) preko Komisije za planinarske terene i svojih članica – Planinarskih klubova, neposred- nih realizatora. Planinarski put obuhvata planinarske staze, puteve i javno markirane puteve (u daljem tekstu markirane planinarske pešačke staze i putevi – MPPSiP). Uređen i markiran planinarski put koji povezuje više karakterističnih tačaka na jednoj ili više planina naziva se transferzala (na pojedinim tačkama postavljaju se zaštitne kutije sa pečatima i upisnim knjigama). Posebnu vrstu planarskog puta obuhvata Evropski pešač- ki put (Božović et al., 2011). Po zahtevnosti planinarski put može biti lak, zahtevan i vrlo zahtevan. Markacije – oznake planinarskih puteva u geoprostoru mogu biti osnovne, pomoćne, posebne, zimske i privremene (slika 1).

Slika 1. Markacije planinarskih puteva u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Planinarske staze se označavaju standardnom planinarskom markacijom tzv. ”Knafelčevom markacijom” - bela tačka okružena crvenim oreolom, čiji je prečnik 9-12 cm, u odnosu 1:2 (slika 2).

Slika 2. Osnovna markacija; Markacija Evropskog pešačkog puta; Markacija za prekogranični put (izvor: adaptacija iz arhive autora) 113 UDK: 796.52:614.8

Za korisnike planinarskih puteva važno je da poznaju sve vrste markacija, usmeravajuće, putokaze i table pozicija, a posebno oznake za zahtevne puteve – table upozorenja postavljene na početku puta koji podrazumevaju korišćenje ruku i elemenata osiguranja – različiti klinovi, sajle, lestve i umetnuta gazišta, i veoma zahtevne puteve koji podrazumevaju korišćenje zaštitnog šlema, penjačkog užeta, cepina i dereza (Miletić, 2009; Čaplar, 2012; Stojanović et al., 2013).

Navedene ozake propisane su aktima PSS, a postavljene su u cilju bezbednijeg korišćenja planinarskih puteva. Izgled i značenje nekih od markacija prikazani su na slici 3.

Slika 3. Osnovne markacije i značenje usmeravajuće table u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: adaptacija iz arhive autora)

Pored planinarskih puteva, u planinskom goprostoru postoje alpinističke staze, opremljene staze (ferate), turističke i druge tematske staze (istorijske, kulturne, hodočasničke, staze saveza izviđača, staze za terenska vozila i planinski bicikl, staze maratona, trim staze, konjičke staze i dr.) koje takođe imaju svoje oznake (slika 4).

Slika 4. Markacije lokalnih i drugih puteva u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Pored navedenih oznaka, postoje oznake koje su izradili drugi korisnici planinskog geoprostora kao što su šumske oznake, oznake za zaštićena prirodna dobra, oznake međunarodnih pešačkih i biciklističkih puteva i dr. (slika 5), koje mogu biti slične planinarskim.

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Slika 5. Markacije koje su izradili drugi korisnici u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Kao primer dobre prakse u poslovno-tehničkom smislu potrebno je navesti informativne i obrazovne table koje su izradili planinarski klubovi, turističke organizacije i uprave zaštićenih prirodnih dobara često pomognuti finasijskim sredstvima resornih ministarstava, društveno-odgovornih kompanija i stranih partnera (slika 6).

Slika 6. Informativne table u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Međutim, pojedine oznake mogu biti oštećene ili uklonjene prirodnim procesima1 ili nemarnim pos- tupkom čoveka. U navedenim okolnostima, neretko, planinari, ljubitelje sporta, hodanja, aktivnog odmora i druženja u prirodi mogu da “promaše put” i tako ugroze sopstvenu bezbednost i akciju spasavanja. S tim u vezi, cilj ovog rada je bio da se determinišu i analiziraju bezbednosni rizici korišćenja MPPSP u planinskom geoprostoru Srbije i daju preporuke za njihovo smanjenje.

Metode

Korišćen je metod teorijske analize i topografski metod istraživanja geoprostora (Milojković, 1996; Milojković i Jovanović, 2018). Za prikupljanje podataka korišćena je arhiva Planinarskog saveza Srbije i dokumentacija autora sa terenskih istraživanja. Istraživane su MPPSiP Nacionalnog parka Fruška Gora i Tara, Parka prirode Stara Planina Golija i Vršačke planine, Predeli izuzetnih odlika Ovčarsko-kablarska klisura, Suvoborski Rajac, Klisura reke Resave i Mileševke, Specijalnog rezervata prirode Uvac, Kukavica i Deliblatska peščara, Područje od kulturnogi istorijskog značaja Radovanjski lug, Spomenik prirode Oz- ren-Jadovnik, Rtanj i Valjevske planine. Vremenski okvir istraživanja odnosi se na period od 2009 do 2019. godine. 1 U novije vreme, pojedini planinarski klubovi za delove planinskog geoprostora u kojima zub vremena i lokalni uslovi doprinose smanjenju vidljivosti markacija i prohodnosti puta, vrše njegovo “digitalno markiranje” pomoću GPS uređaja. Takve staze namenjene su iskusnim korisnicima kojima su potrebni izazovi, samopotvrđivanje i kontrolisani avanturizam. Pored osrednjenog GPS treka, takve staze imaju detaljan opis i fotografije tačaka od interesa. Rute su objavljene na web stranicama PK u obliku rar arhive u ekstenzijama čitljivim na većini GPS uređaja (Garmin, Magellan, Lowrance, Brunton i MLR ili na drugim uredjajima uz pomoć softverskih aplikacija za konverziju (GarTrax ili GPSBabel). GPS uređaji koriste aplikativni mapping program – MapSource u Garmin i Des Newman u OziExplorer okruženju koji omogućavaju organizaciju i pregled karata, ruta, tragova i putnih tačaka. Navedeni programi na jednostavan i svr- sishodan način omogućuju planiranje, kreiranje i procenu težine željene rute pre odlaska u planinu.

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Rezultati sa diskusijom

Analizom Pravilnika o radu komisije za planinarske terene i Pravilnika o planiranju, projektovanju i obeležavanju planinarskih pešačkih staza i puteva PSS, možemo konstatovati veoma dobru, konciznu i savremenu normativnu uređenost tematike planinarskih puteva po ugledu na razvijene evropske planinarske organizacije.

Obučavanje planinarskog kadra za projektovanje i markiranje planinarskih puteva, izvodi se svake godine putem seminara za markirante u organizaciji Komisije za planinarske terene. Na seminaru se teorijski i praktično obrađuju sledeće teme: postupak otvaranja planinarskih i pešačkih puteva, obeležavanje planinarskih i pešačkih staza, zaštita prirodnog i kulturnog nasleđa pri trasiranju puteva, tehnika markiranja i dr. Pored toga, planinarski klubovi imaju obavezu permanente kontrole, zanavljanja i revitalizacije planinarskih puteva koje su po predhodnoj saglasnosti PSS izgradili. Međutim, analizom normativnog i stvarnog, nismo zatekli adekvatno stanje na terenu koje je u određenoj meri moderirano nedostatkom materijalno-finanskijkih sredstava. Naime, PSS godinama unazad, ne raspolaže potrebnim finansijskim sredstvima za rad stručnih komisija (postoje minimalna sredstva samo za putne troškove članova stručnih komisija), od kojih je samo deo sredstava namenjen za potrebe Komisije za planinarske terene i sekcija za markacije planinarskih klubova. Jedan deo pomenutih sredstava koristi se za potrebe nadzora i kontrole održavanja, opremanja, sanacije i revitalizacije postojećih MPPSiP, i za potrebe kontrole projekta trasiranja i izgradnje novih puteva, označa- vanja, opremanja, osiguranja i zaštite prirode. Naročito, postoji akutna nesrazmera između raspoloživih fi- nansijskih sredstava i stalnih potreba za kontrolom i uvođenjem u registar promena na postojećim stazama - alternativni pravci, napuštanje deonice, promena u tehničkoj težini – zahtevnosti, dodatno označavanje i promena staraoca, što su znaćajne informacije za korisnike MPPSiP.

Neposrednim uvidom u standard opremanja i održavanja MPPSiP u istraživanom geoprstoru, utvrdili smo da pored verifikovane i registrovane nacionalne mreže MPPSiP postoji veliki broj lokalnih staza koje se ukrštaju ili poklapaju sa MPPSiP i koje su obeležene vrlo heterogenim i proizvodnim markacijama lokalnih planinarskih klubova, turističkih organizacija i pojedinaca. Tako na primer, u zapadnom delu NP Fruška Gora pored MPPSiP postoje obeležene: staze Fruškogorske transferzale, Fruškogorskog i Bukovačkog maratona, Plava i staza zdravlja i dr. (slika 4.1 i 4.2), što delimično otežava determinaciju, orijentaciju i kretanje duž izabrane staze. U Nacionalnom parku Tara utvrdili smo da u postojeće MPPSiP ulivaju Evropski pešački put, staza ViaDinarika, Međunarodni biciklistički put, šetne i staze zdravlja lokalnih turističkih organizacija (slika 5.3 i 6.3), na pojedinim mestima ustanovili smo postojanje jedne ili nekoliko markacija na skrivenim ili alter- nativnim pravcima (potezi Ljuto polje i Borovo brdo), pa čak i uništene markacije zbog infrastrukturnih radova i promene vlasnika parcela koji više ne dozvoljavaju prolazak kroz njihov posed (potez Manastirski stanovi i staza Kaluđerske bare – Zborište). Isto ili slično stanje zabeležili smo i u drugim istraživanim delovima nacionalnog planinskog geoprostora (slika 7).

Slika 7. Ukrštanje MPPSiP i drugih staza i puteva u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Pored toga, rezultati terenskog istraživanja ukazuju na prisustvo nemara čoveka u planinskom geoprostoru – nestručno markiranje, samovoljno markiranje novih i alternativnih pravaca (slika 7), i uništa- vanje markacija (slika 8), što značajno doprinosi verovatnoći nastanka opasnosti koja može da bezbednosno ugrozi korisnike.

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Slika 8. Nestručno i samovoljno markiranje u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Slika 8. Uništavanje i oštećivanje oznaka na MPPSiP u istraživanom geoprostoru (izvor: arhiva autora)

Takođe, bezbednosni problemi se javljaju u situacijama kada se ne koriste usluge licenciranih vodiča izleta i pohoda PSS, savremeni getopogrsfski materijali, sredstava za orijentaciju i pozicioniranje, u složenim geoprostornim i vremenskim uslovima i kada se pojedinci kreću nepripremljeni i samouvereni.

Zaključak

Pored velikih napora nacionalne planinarske organizacije na normativnom i preventivnom planu radi smanjenja mogućeg bezbednosnog rizika po korisnike planinarskih puteva, potrebna je saradnja i po- jačana edukativno-informativna i promotivna kapanja sportskih, turističkih i drugih organizacija u vidu savremenih priručnika (vodiča) za kretanje i boravak u planini, planinarsko-turističkih karata koje imaju stručnu redakciju instruktora planinarske organizacije (Milojković, 2001a), informativnih tabli i bordova za konkretne planinarske destinacije, kao i obuke u korišćenju savremenih sistema za orijentaciju, pozicioniranje i teleko- munikaciju (Milojković, 2001b).

Takođe, potrebna je veće finasiranje planinarskih aktivnosti od strane države i sveobuhvatnija nor- mativna uređenost na nivou zakona, ne samo MPPSiP, već i drugih planinskih terena, puteva i objekata kako je to slučaj u Crnoj Gori (Zakon o planinskim stazama, 2008). MPPSiP koje zadovoljavaju najviše standarde i imaju visok kvalitet opremanja i održavanja trebalo bi uvrstiti u registar kulturnih dobara od nacionalnog značaja (Bulatović i Jokić, 2018).

Navedene mere neće biti dovoljne ukoliko neki pojedinci i grupe nastave po starom. Iz tog razloga, kao i zbog raznih tehničkih ograničenja, i dalje će na web-stranicama planinarskih klubova stajati tekst da planinarska organizacija i njeni članovi – PK, ne snose nikakvu odgovornost prema korisnicima planinarskih puteva, GPS trekova, niti preuzimaju odgovornost za postupke vodiča, te da oni nastupaju uz sopstvenu odgovornost.

Međutim, ukoliko se pojedinci i grupe odluče da se samovoljno upute u planinski geoprostor, radi njihove bezbednosti prilikom kretanja planinarskim putevima, savetujemo im sledeće:

• Koristite samo MPPSiP kao najkraće, obeležene, uređene, osigurane i prohodne puteve sa uslu- gama licenciranih vodiča PSS. Ukoliko se ipak odlučite da idete sami, potrebno je da se “naoružate”

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znanjem, veštinama, visokom koncentracijom, strpljenjem, svešču o sopstvenim mogućnostima i ograničenjima, i kvalitetnom opremom da bi prepoznali opasnost u planini i postavljene markacije i oznake svih puteva i staza koji se mogu naći u planinskom geoprstoru, bilo da su odobreni ili nisu od strane PSS; • obustavite kretanja putevima u uslovima oštećenih, uništenih i novopostavljenih markacija koje nisu u skladu sa Pravilnikom PSS, a u uslovima da vam je nepoznta pozicija, primenite načelo orijntacije “relokacija” (nemojte nastaviti kretanje da bi slučajno našli odredište, već se vratite nazad na početnu poziciju); • obustavite kretanja putevima u uslovima nepovoljnih meteorološki uslovi, a posebno u zimskim uslovima kada su moguće lavine, mećave, magla, ledena kiša, slapoviti udari vetra, niska temperature, nepostojanje prohodnih puteva, skloništa od nevremena i obližnjih naselja, i kada je pojačano psihofizičko naprezanje zbog dubokog snega, klizavog terena, uspona i trajanja obdanice, aori- jentacija otežana zbog identičnih detalja u reljefu zemljišta, ograničene vidljivosti, odsustva zimskih markacija i nemogućnosti prijema GPS signala; • obustavite kretanje putevima ako niste izvršili adekvatne priprema kretanja i boravka u planini i ra- zumno planiranje dnevne etape: fizička priprema shodno konfiguraciji, pokrivenosti vegetacijom, komunikativnosti i izgrađenosti zemljišta objektima); informaciono-komunikaciona (prijava kretanja organizacionim jedinicama PSS – lokalnim klubovima i GSS, graničnoj policiji, upravama nacionalnih parkova i drugih zaštićenih prirodnih dobara, rodbini i prijateljima, zatim, neposredna obaveštenost o vrstama i načinu markiranja nacionalnih i lokalnih mreža puteva i staza, obaveštenost o stanju planinarskih puteva i staza – prohodnost, oštećenja, privremeno zatvaranje, seča šume, građevinski i drugi infrastrukturalni radovi, i moguće opasnosti usled elementarnih nepogoda, korišćenje sredstava veze – radio i mobilne telefonije, shodno uslovima pokrivenosti signala; materijalno-tehnička priprema (izbor adekvatne lične i kolektivne opreme za kretanje i boravak u planini shodno težini staze i drugim uslovima koji vladaju na dan uspona; geotopografska priprema (korišćene recen- ziranih i praktično verifikovanih planinarskih i turističkih vodiča i digitalnih karata, GPS uređaja, ručnih busola, visinomera, službnih trekova, informativnih tabli sa kartografskim vuzualizacijama i drugim slikovno-grafičkim prilozima, kao i verifikovnih izveštaja o već izvedenim izletima i pohodima koji su organizovali licencirani vodiči PSS.

Opšta bezbednosna preporuka korisnicima planinarskih puteva je da kombinovano koriste savremene getopografske materijale, uređaje i sistema za orijentaciju i pozicioniranje. Ukoliko nemaju sredstava za kupovinu bilo kakvog GPS uređaja, preporuka je da koriste besplatne aplikacije za pozicioniranje, navigaciju i praćenje preko mobilnih telefona i tableta (npr. OruxMaps) zajedno sa otprintanom i plastifici- ranom topografskom kartom terena i ručnom busolom.

Sekcijama za markacije planinarskih klubova preporučujemo korišćenje GPS terenskih računara za GIS (veće tačnosti i sa Internet modemom i georeferenciranom kamerom) prilikom izrade trekova MPPSiP. Takvi uređaji mogu da primaju diferencijalnu korekciju iz mreže permanentnih stanica (AGROS), eksportuju prikupljene podatke za naknadnu obradu geoprostornih podataka i rade u uslovima povoljne geometrije satelita. Ukoliko im je takva oprema skupa za nabavku, istu mogu da rentiraju.

Literatura

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9. Rulebook on the work of the Hiking Commission. (2015). Belgrade: Mountaineering Association of Serbia. 10. Rulebook on Planning, Designing and Marking of Hiking Trails and Roads. (2017). Belgrade: Moun- taineering Association of Serbia. 11. Stojanović, T., Savić, Z., Miletić, V. (2013). Hiking and camping. Banja Luka: Faculty of physical education and sport. 12. Čaplar, A., (2011). Mountaineering guide to Croatia. Zagreb: Mosaic Book. 13. Čaplar, A., 2012. Mountaineering textbook. Zagreb: Croatian Mountaineering Association. 14. Law on Mountain Trails, Official Gazette of Montenegro, 51/08 (2008) i 53/11 (2011).

Napomena

Ovaj rad je deo projekta „Uticaji primenjene fizičke aktivnosti na lokomotorni, metabolički, psiho-socijalni i obrazovni status stanovništva Republike Srbije“, pod brojem III47015, i deo potprojekta „Uticaj primenjene fizičke aktivnosti na lokomotorni, metabolički, psiho-socijalni i obrazovni status sta- novništva policije u Republici Srbiji“, finansiralo Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije - poziv za naučne projekte 2011-2019.

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THE IMPACT OF HALF MARATHON TRAINING ON THE FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES AND BODY COMPOSITION OF WOMEN ENGAGED IN RECREATIONAL RUNNING

Ljubica Papić; Stanimir Stojiljković; Marija Macura; Igor Ranisavljev University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Technology has advanced at a truly remarkable pace over the last decade. A negative consequence of this is that it has been associated with a huge increase in hypokinesia and unhealthy lifestyle choices. A large number of children and young people and a huge portion of the working age population fail to meet the recommended minimum amount of daily physical activity. Physicians and other health professionals point to an alarmingly large number of people suffering from this “disease of today”. To prevent modern lifestyle choices from having negative impacts on their health, more and more people are choosing to do exercise regularly either on their own or by following structured workout plans assigned to them. Choosing the type of exercise to do depends mostly on the conditions that need to be met to be doing it. For this reason, long-distance running has been growing in popularity around the globe since 1980 (Si- erra et al., 2015). Recreational athletes are appearing in increasingly large numbers in official long-distance races, with the runs ranging from three kilometres all the way to the ultramarathon. In particular, a significant increase in recreational participation by both men and women has been observed in half-marathon races. A total of 251 women completed the Belgrade Half Marathon race in 2012, while the number totalled 1,700 in 2019 (retrieved from http://www.bgdmarathon.org/rezultati.aspx, on June 20, 2019). Analysing the trend in the number of participants in the Belgrade Marathon for the period 2007- 2019, Stojiljković, Matić & Papić (2019) found that the number of participants in the Belgrade Marathon, especially of participants from Serbia, is increasing significantly, with a trend exceeding many marathons in the world; the number of female runners in the Belgrade Marathon is lower than in most marathons abroad, but the number of female participants from Serbia is increasing considerably compared to the number of male runners, which is in line with world trends. Half-marathon is a long-term endurance sport. For many recreational athletes, it takes over two hours to complete the run. Given the loads involved, proper preparation of the body for such an endeavour is crucial in order to avoid any adverse health effects. Not only has the number of recreational athletes in long-distance races been on the increase, but the number of scientific papers on the impact of training process on the bodies of recreational runners has grown as well. According to Buresh (2018), the two key parameters fortracking health and performance of long-distance runners are cardiorespiratory fitness and body mass. Also, Chen et al (2017) believe that running a half-marathon requires a good base level of cardiovascular endurance, which also serves as a defence against cardiovascular disease. VO2max, or maximal oxygen consumption, is a direct indicator of aerobic endurance of the body (Nikolić, 2003; Kukolj, 2006, p. 130; Stojiljković et al., 2012, p. 26).

The 20-m shuttle run test is a common field test used to measure aerobic fitness in controlled en- vironments (Canino et al., 2018). Overall results show that the performance score of a 20-m shuttle run test has a high criterion-related validity for estimating maximal oxygen uptake, especially when other variables, such as gender and body mass, are used (r p = 0.78-0.95) (Mayorga-Vega, 2015). Body fat assessment is the most commonly used method to assess health risk. Sport performance and fitness also depend on body fat percentage. Body composition fat component also has a high correlation with obesity, the risk of chronic diabetes, including cardiac artery disease, diabetes, hypertension, various types of cancer and hyperlipidaemia. Measuring obesity, or body composition in general, has been growing in importance in the field of health and fitness. These measurements are usually done to help achieve the goal of a person’s ideal body weight (Premović, 2019). The simplest, and for the wider population, the most accessible method is anthropometric analysis, while the bioelectrical impedance method is increasingly considered a highly reliable and valid method (Jakovljević, 2016). Studies by Välimäkiet al. (2016) indicate that acute physical exercise increases the transport of lipid oxidation products by HDL, although a different training history or genetic background may alter these acute responses. It follows that recreational running, as it helps reduce the fat component, can have positive influence on the body composition of recreational athletes, which was one of the hypotheses of the present research. The aim of this paper is to determine the impact of half-marathon training program on the functional capacity and body composition of female recreational runners. The research was aimed at determining the effects of an eight-week half-marathon training plan on a set of functional indicators and body composition of women who participate in recreational running. The study was based on the hypotheses that the training pro-

120 UDK: 796.422.015.1 cess would lead to: increased maximal oxygen consumption; improved 5km race times; improved anaerobic threshold pace; weight loss; reduced body fat percentage and decreased muscle mass.

Methods

Research procedure

This paper was based on empirical research. The first phase of the research included initial testing that served to establish overall condition of the participants. It was followed by an eight-week experimental program, at the beginning of which the participants were asked not to make any changes to their lifestyle habits (such as diet, strength workouts, sleep, walks, etc.) during the training period, in order to minimize their impact on research results. The participants completed the goal distance of 21.1 km in the penultimate microcycle of the training plan. The final testing was performed following the experimental part of the program to record possible improvements in performance. The entire experiment took place from February 2 to April 28, 2019.

Participants

A total of 19 female adults from the Belgrade Running Club (BRC) completed their participation in this study. The mean age of the participants, at ages 33-59, was 43.84 ± 6.71 years old. The coefficient of variation for the participants’ age was 15.31%, which shows that the group was homogeneous. All participants had been engaged in recreational running as members of the club for a minimum of 10 months before the start of the experimental program. Prior to the experiment, the participants were given adequate information concerning the study and all provided their informed consent. None of the participants had been actively involved in an endurance dominated sport prior to joining the training program with the club. The study had 25 subjects at the beginning of the experimental program. However, during its implementation, six runners were prevented from participating in training sessions regularly (mostly due to business trips, colds or injuries) and were therefore not included in the final processing of the results.

Sample variables and the way they were measured

The sample of variables comprised the following: • VO2max - estimated based on a 20-m shuttle run test; • Running pace at anaerobic threshold - estimated based on a 5km run test; • 5km run time - measured through maximal intensity 5 km run test; • Body mass, body fat percentage and muscle mass - measured by bioelectrical impedance, using In body 720 device.

These variables were measured pre- and post-program, the experiment lasting eight weeks.

20-m shuttle run test protocol

The participants had five minutes available for dynamic stretching excercises, followed by 15 minutes of running at Zone 1 intensity, to warm up. After that, they had three minutes to prepare for the start of the test. The goal of the test was for the participant to cover as many 20-meter sections as possible by running back and forth between two marked lines. The starting speed level was 8km/h (20m per 9s), with 0.5 km/h increments with every new minute of running. The test ended when the participant was no longer able to keep pace and gave up, i.e. when she was unable to tap the line in time three times in a row. The participant made a note of the speed level and the number of sections covered. In each individual case, the supervisor recorded the time (using a stopwatch) in which each participant finished her test. Various formulas utilizing running speed, time or level reached can be used to estimate a person’s average maximal oxygen consumption. The formula used in the present study was VO2max = (vel × 6.65 - 35.8) × 0.95 + 0.182 (Flouris, Metsios, Koutedakis, 2005), calculated based on the speed achieved on the test.

5km running test protocol

The participants had five minutes available for dynamic stretching exercises, followed by 15 minutes of running at Zone 1 intensity, to warm up. After that, they had three minutes to prepare for the start of the test. 121 UDK: 796.422.015.1

The participants ran 2.5km along a straight path until they reached a clearly marked turn around point and then headed back to the starting line. The times were recorded in minutes. This test also estimated the anaerobic threshold pace, which is of key importance in determining the runner’s intensity zones and increating a training plan based on them. The anaerobic threshold pace was calculated based on a table and formula published by Friel (1998, p. 45). For results not included in the table (where times were slower), the pace was calculated based on the same author’s formula used on one of the highest quality online training platforms - Training Peaks (retrieved from https://www.trainingpeaks.com/, on October 9, 2019).

Protocol of measuring body composition using In body 720 bioelectrical impedance analyser

The tests were done in the morning, after the first urination and before any fluid and food intake, at the premises of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade. The participants were dressed inonly underwear, with no metal items on them. The participants’ height was measured with a Martin anthropometer in the manner prescribed by Macura (2012, p. 11). Height measurements were followed by analysing body composition according to the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the In body 720 device.

Experimental program

The experimental program, described in Table 1, was implemented over a period of eight weeks. This period included the final two months of the six-month half-marathon preparation at the Belgrade Run- ning Club. The experimental program was preceded by a seven-day recovery microcycle in which initial tests were done. The eight-week period was divided into two mesocycles of four microcycles each. The final microcycles in both mesocycles were assigned for recovery. The workouts were done outside. The training plan consisted of running 3 times a week (on Mon- days, Wednesdays and Saturdays) and a training session at an athletic stadium (on Thursdays, lasting 1h:15min) which served to improve running technique and body strength. For the strength development workouts at the athletic stadium, the participants used only their own bodyweight. The method was a circuit routine with exercises for dominant leg and trunk muscles. A workout was divided into doing 6-8 exercises without restin 2-3 rounds and running one lap around the stadium track (400m) at a light pace between the rounds. Total workout time was 35minutes. The duration of individual running workouts was between 1h and 2h:30min. Each training session consisted of four phases: introductory, preparatory, main and final phases. On Mondays, the introductory phase lasted 20 minutes, divided into 5 minutes of dynamic stretching excercises and 15 minutes of strength exercises to increase muscle tone. This part involved two rounds of 3-4 exercises for leg and trunk muscles. During the training sessions on Wednesdays and Saturdays, the introductory phase lasted for 10 minutes and involved dynamic stretching excercises combined with running in place. The introductory phase on Mondays, Wednesdays and Saturdays was followed by a preparatory phase involving 15 minutes of Zone 1 running. The preparatory phase included running technique exercises/running drills: low and high skip (singl-leg or double-legs), heel kick (singl-leg or double-legs), different types of jumps and different combination of the previous drills. This phase was followed by the main workout phase, presented in Table 1. The total volume, measured in time or distance, prescribed for a specific workout involved both the preparatory and the main phase. Intensity was brought to Zone 1 again for the last five minutes of the main phase to lower the heart rate and gradually bring the body to a state of rest. The main phase was followed by the final one which involved 10 minutes of (post-workout) stretching. The participants had the plan layouts with them, so they did “homework” if they missed a workout. The homework activities were recorded with the fitness tracking app Strava and sent to the trainer (author of this paper). The trainer recorded the workout activities of each participant.

Table 1. Experimental plan for recreational runners’ half-marathon training at BRC

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40min 1-Apr 7 6x45s Z1-Z4, r 1-2min Z1 55min 6x3min Z4, r 2min Z1 60min Z1-Z2 in 40min 4x(2min Z3, 30s Z1, 30s 8-Apr 14 30min 4x30s Z1-Z4, r 1min 30s Z1 21.1km Half-marathon in Z4), r 1-2min Z1 30min 15-Apr 21 Z1-Z2 30min Z1-Z2 50min Z1-Z2 in

In Table 1, bold numbers and letters show total workout volume, expressed in minutes or kilometres. Abbreviations: Z - zone, r - rest.

The half-marathon run was followed by a transition period. According to a study by Wiewelhove et al (2018), no recovery strategy (active recovery, cold water immersion, massage and passive recovery) used immediately after the completion of the half-marathon run seemed to accelerate recovery of recreational level runners. Tests assessing fatigue done 24 hours after the race revealed that fatigue symptoms persisted during the assessment. In order to facilitate body recovery from marathon-induced fatigue, tests were repeated after the recovery microcycle.

Statistical data analysis

The study variables were presented with basic descriptive measures (arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimum value, maximum value, range and coefficient of variation), and the statistical significance of differences between the results at the initial and final measurements was assessed by a dependent sample t-test.

Results

Tables 2 and 3 show descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean – AVG, standard deviation - SD, minimum result - MIN, maximum result - MAX, range - R, coefficient of variation - CV) for the variables: age of participants - age, maximal oxygen consumption - VO2max, 5km run test result - R5km, anaerobic threshold pace - ATP, body mass - BM, body composition fat component - fat and muscle mass - muscle.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for all variables at the initial measurement

Variable AVG SD MIN MAX R CV(%) Age 43.84 6.71 33.00 59.00 26.00 15.31 VO2max (ml/kg/min) 24.29 3.33 19.87 32.51 12.64 13.73 R5km (min) 32.38 2.88 26.90 38.00 11.10 8.89 ATP (min/km) 6.86 0.55 5.80 7.93 2.13 8.06 BM (kg) 65.91 12.56 49.10 107.80 58.80 19.06 fat (%) 26.05 5.75 14.70 36.50 21.80 22.05 muscle (kg) 25.56 2.43 21.10 29.10 8.00 9.49

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for all variables at the final measurement

Variable AVG SD MIN MAX R CV(%) VO2max (ml/kg/min) 29.98 4.34 23.03 38.82 15.79 14.47 R5km (min) 30.32 2.94 24.92 35.58 10.67 9.69 ATP (min/km) 6.46 0.57 5.42 7.47 2.05 8.80 BM (kg) 65.48 12.51 49.80 107.90 58.10 19.11 fat (%) 24.96 5.56 14.60 33.10 18.50 22.28 muscle (kg) 25.97 2.74 21.50 30.10 8.60 10.56

Table 4 shows the results of the dependent sample t-test (arithmetic mean at initial measurement - AVG initial; arithmetic mean at final measurement - AVG final; t-test value - t; significance level - p) for variables of functional capacityand body composition of the same group of participants at the initial and final

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measurements: VO2max–maximal oxygen consumption; R5km - 5km run test result; ATP - anaerobic threshold pace; BM - body mass; fat - fat component of body composition; muscle - amount of muscle mass.

Table 4. Comparison of results at initial and final measurements (t-test)

Variable AVG initial AVG final t p VO2max (ml/kg/min) 24.29 29.98 -7.407 0.000 *** R5km (min) 32.38 30.32 5.773 0.000 *** ATP (min/km) 6.86 6.46 5.739 0.000 *** BM (kg) 65.91 65.48 1.200 0.248 fat (%) 26.05 24.96 2.582 0.022 * muscle (kg) 25.56 25.97 -2.612 0.021 *

Statistical significance: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.

At the maximal oxygen consumption values, the t-test results show that the difference between the initial and final measurements is statistically significant at the level of 0.001 (p = 0.000). The t-test results for the 5km run times show that the difference between the initial and final measurements is statistically significant at the level of 0.001 (p = 0.000). t-test results also show that the difference between the initial and final anaerobic threshold pace measurements for the 5km run is statistically significant at the level of 0.001 (p = 0.000). The results of the t-test show that there is no statistically significant difference in the body mass of the participants at the initial and final measurements (p = 0.248). The results of the t-test show that in terms of statistical significance, the percentage of the participants’ body fat between the initial and final measurements decreased at the significance level of 0.05 (p = 0.022). The results of the t-test show that the participants’ muscle mass was statistically significantly increased between the initial and final measurements at the level of 0.05 (p = 0.021). In the first mesocycle, the time that the participants spent running amounted to approximately 718 minutes (11h:58min), the distance covered being 103km, while in the second mesocycle, the approximate total time was 638 minutes (10h:38min) and the distance totalled 91km. The total time spent running during the 8-week experimental program was approximately 1,356 minutes (22h:36min), and the distance covered was 194 kilometres.

Discussion

The results of the study confirmed the hypothesis that the experimental program’s implementation would lead to a statistically significant increase in maximal oxygen consumption. At the initial measurement, the average result was 24.29 ml/kg/min, while the final measurement showed 29.98 ml/kg/min. VO2max improved by 5.69 ml/kg/min (23.43%). Given the norm values for maximal oxygen consumption in women, this change indicates an improvement by as much as two levels (retrieved from https://www.topendsports.com/ testing/beepcalc.htm, on September 12, 2019). In a study by Stojiljković (2003), an eight-week preparation program resulted in statistically significant changes in VO2max from 52.08 to 57.06 ml/kg/min. The VO2max value increased by 4.98 ml/kg/min (around 10%), a slightly smaller improvement than the one achieved by the participants in our study. This difference may be related to higher VO2max results at the initial measurement in the Stojiljković study. It can be said that the results of VO2max change in our study are statistically significant, because different intensities, from low to high, were used in running sessions, with different volumes in a single training microcycle. In this way, various adaptations of the body to effort were provoked and this resulted in an improvement in the variables of the participants’ functional capacity. The hypothesis that the training process would lead to a statistically significant reduction in 5km race times was also confirmed at the statistically highest level of significance. At the initial measurement, the average run time was 32.38 minutes, while at the final measurement this value was 30.32 minutes, a 2.06 minutes faster (6.36%) run time. A consequence of this result is the same statistical significance of the anaerobic threshold pace increase that was calculated based on the 5km run time. At the initial measurement, the pace at the anaerobic threshold was 6.86 minutes per kilometre, while at the final one, the value was 6.46 minutes per kilometre, i.e. the average pace changed by 24 seconds per kilometre (5.83%). At longer distances, this difference in the anaerobic threshold pace change leads to large result improvements. In the Stojiljković study (2003), the final measurement showed a 3-minute faster 5km run time, with the anaerobic threshold pace improving by 53 seconds (16%) per kilometre. These results represent a slightly higher improvement than the one achieved in our study, which corresponds to the fact that the participants in the Stojiljković study were all young men who had not been actively engaged in aerobic endurance sports prior to the experiment.

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In a study by Silva et al. (2017), a four-week period of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) led to improvements in physiological variables related to endurance performance, but it does not alter the perception of effort, pacing strategy, or overall performance during a 5-km running trial. This research lasted for a period of time half as long as our study, but it still shows that high-intensity workouts do not necessarily improve performance in endurance sports. In a study which explored body composition changes in recreational runners effected by a 12-week half-marathon training, Hottenrott, Ludyga, and Schulze (2012) found that short, intensive endurance training sessions of about 30 minutes are effective in improving aerobic fitness in recreational runners. In our research, we used the intensity that a recreational runner can maintain for 30 minutes, so it can be argued that the program in our research was adapted to the capacities of recreational athletes, with the aim of improving their performance. The results of the present study did not confirm the hypothesis that there would be a statistically significant reduction for body mass. The mean body mass values remained at approximately the same level in both measurements. Such results are explained by the effect of diet on the body mass variable, which was neither monitored nor measured in any way. However, there were statistically significant changes in the body fat percentage of body composition, a research hypothesis that was confirmed. At the initial measurement, the percentage of fat was 26.05, dropping to 24.96 at the final measurement, which is a difference of 1.09%. In Stojiljković’s (2003) study there was a decline of 0.8% in adipose tissue levels, less of an improvement when compared to our study. Such a ratio was to be expected, since the initial fat percentage measurements for the participants were far higher in our study. The hypothesis that there would be a decrease in muscle mass was not confirmed. The results indicate that there were statistically significant changes in muscle mass in terms of growth (by 1.6%), while in the Stojiljković study (2003) the training process led to a statistically significant decrease in muscle mass in kilograms, but itincreased by 0.5% in relation to body mass. The results show a redistribution of body composition occurring in the participants in our study, the amount of muscle mass increasing as a result of a reduction in the fat component. It can be assumed that the increase in muscle mass was produced by the strength workouts the participants did as part of regular training during the experimental program. Velimirović (2015) addressed a similar topic. The paper investigated changes in the functional capacity of the cardiovascular system and in anthropometric measurements (body mass, circumferences, and body mass index) under the influence of the half-marathon training program, also in the field of recreation. The experimental program lasted twelve weeks and it included running three times a week and strength workouts at the gym. The experimental program in Velimirović’s study led to statistically significant changes in all observed variables, whereas in the results of our study there were no statistically significant changes in the participants’ body mass. Velimirović’s research lasted longer, the participants were younger (24-38 years old) and they did strength workouts 2-3 times a week in the first half of the experimental program. These differences may account for the differences in body mass results from the final measurements in the two studies.

Conclusion

The eight-week experimental program had a statistically significant impact on improving all monitored variables except the participants’ body mass. Maximal oxygen consumption increased by 23.43%. The 5km run time and the anaerobic threshold pace improved by about 6%. Body mass did not change significantly in statistical terms. Nevertheless, a positive redistribution occurred: the fat component mass decreased by 1.09%, while at the same time the muscle mass increased by 1.6%. The importance of this and similar research is reflected in the fact that the program implemented should also work for other recreational runners that may wish to follow a structured workout plan, with possible changes depending on their initial fitness level. In addition, it is possible to predict with great certainty the degree of changes in functional capacities and body composition for a certain period of time. It could be argued that the flaw of this research lies in the fact that neither the participants’ diet nor the extent and intensity of the strength workouts being done by them were monitored, as these could have influenced the results to some extent. Future research should include the effects of these lifestyle habits as well as endurance training on the participants’ performance.

References

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of Cardiovascular Nursing.16(5):397-408. 4. Flouris, A.D., Metsios, G.S., Koutedakis, Y. (2005). Enhancing the efficacy of the 20 m multistage shuttle run test. Br J Sports Med. 39(3):166-70. 5. Hottenrott, K., Ludyga, S., Schulze, S. (2012). Effects of high intensity training and continuous endurance training on aerobic capacity and body composition in recreationally active runners. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 11(3):483-8. 6. Jakovljević, D.K. (2016). Metode za procenu telesne kompozicije. Praxis Medica. 45(3/4), 71-77. 7. Kukolj, M. (2006). Antropomotorika. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beo- gradu. 8. Macura, M. (2012). Biologija razvoja čoveka sa osnovama sportske medicine, praktikum. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 9. Mayorga-Vega, D., Aguilar-Soto, P., Viciana J. (2015). Criterion-Related Validity of the 20-M Shuttle Run Test for Estimating Cardiorespiratory Fitness: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 14(3):536-47. 10. Nikolić, Z. (2003). Fiziologija fizičke aktivnosti. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 11. Premović, Đ. (2019). Testovi za procijenu fizičkih sposobnosti i tjelesne structure odraslih osoba u funkciji njihovog zdravlja. (Master rad). Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 12. Sierra, A.P., Benetti, M., Ghorayeb, N., Sierra, C., Bastos, F.C., Junior, A.R., Peduti Dal Molin Kiss, M.A. (2015). Analysis of Participation and Performance in Half Marathon Runners. Journal of Sports Science 3. 96-104. 13. Silva, R., Damasceno, M., Cruz, R., Silva-Cavalcante, M.D., Lima-Silva, A.E., Bishop, D.J., Bertuzzi, R. (2017). Effects of a 4-week high-intensity interval training on pacing during 5-km running trial. Bra- zilian Journal of Medicaland Biological Research. 50(12):e6335. 14. Stojiljković, S. (2003). Efekti treninga trčanja u različitim zonama intenziteta u odnosu na anaerobni prag. (Doktorska disertacija). Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 15. Stojiljković, S., Matić, M., Papić, Lj. (2019). The Trend in the Number of Participants from Serbia in the Belgrade Marathon from 2007 to 2019: The Effect of Gender and Age. Facta Universitatis, Series Physical Education and Sport, 17(2):353-369. 16. Stojiljković, S., Mitić, D., Mandarić, S., Nešić, D. (2012). Personalni fitnes, naučna monografija. Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja i autor, Beograd. 17. Välimäki, I.A., Vuorimaa, T., Ahotupa, M., Vasankari, T. (2016). Effect of Continuous and Intermittent Exercises on Oxidised HDL and LDL Lipids in Runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 37(14):1103-1109. 18. Velimirović, M. (2015). Promene funkcionalnih sposobnosti kardiovaskularnog sistema pod uticajem postupka pripreme za trčanje polumaratona sportskih rekreativaca (Završni rad). Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 19. Wiewelhove, T., Schneider, C., Döweling, A., Hanakam, F., Rasche, C., Meyer, T., Kellmann, M., Pfeiffer, M., Ferrauti, A. (2018). Effects of different recovery strategies following a half-marathon on fatigue markers in recreational runners. PLoS One. 13(11):e0207313. 20. https://www.topendsports.com/testing/beepcalc.htm, retrieved from the website on September 12, 2019. 21. http://www.bgdmarathon.org/rezultati.aspx, retrieved from the website on June 20, 2019. 22. https://www.trainingpeaks.com/, retrieved from the website on September 10, 2019.

Note

This paper is part of a broader research within the project named “The cellular and molecular basis of malignant and cardiovascular diseases-clinical implications (III41027),” funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia - extended cycle of scientific projects 2011-2018. The paper is an excerpt from a Master’s thesis by Ljubica Papić, entitled “The impact of half-marathon training plan on the functional abilities and body composition of female recreational runners.” Master’s thesis, Belgrade, Serbia, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, 2019. The Master’s paper was done within the framework of a joint project of the Department for The- ory and Technology of Sports and Recreation and the Department for Biomedical Sciences, entitled “Monitoring of functional capacity of cardio-respiratory system of students at the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education.” The project was officially approved by Decision of the UB-FSPE Educational and Scientific Council, 02-No. 639/19-2, dated April 11, 2019.

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UTICAJ TRENINGA ZA POLUMARATON NA FUNKCIONALNE SPOSOBNOSTI I TELESNI SASTAV ŽENA REKREATIVACA

Ljubica Papić; Stanimir Stojiljković; Marija Macura; Igor Ranisavljev Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

U poslednjoj deceniji tehnologija širom sveta izuzetno velikom brzinom napreduje. Ono što je negativna posledica ove činjenice jeste takođe veliko napredovanje hipokinezije i nezdravog načina života. Veliki broj dece, odmladine, ali i radno sposobnog stanovništva ne ispunjava minimum fizičke aktivnosti na dnevnom nivou. Lekari i drugi stručnjaci iz oblasti zdravlja, alarmiraju na veliki broj obolelih od bolesti „današn- jice“. Da bi se sprečila ova negativna posledica modernog načina života i poboljšalo zdravlje, ljudi sve češće pribegavaju samostalnom ili organizovanom vežbanju. Odabir vrste vežbanja se najviše povezuje sa dostupnošću iste. Iz tog razloga trčanje na duge distance, još od 1980. godine postaje sve polularnije u svetu (Sierra i sar., 2015). Sve su masovniji nastupi rekreativaca na zvaničnim trkama na duže distance, od tri kilometra pa sve do ultramaratona. Značajan porast učešća rekreativaca se može videti, kako kod muškaraca, tako i kod žena, na distanci polumaratona. Na Beogradskom polumaratonu je 2012. godine trku završilo 251 žena, dok ih je 2019. godine bilo 1700 (http:// www.bgdmarathon.org/rezultati.aspx, preuzeto 20.06.2019.). Stojiljković, Matić i Papić (2019), analizirajući trend učesnika Beogradskog maratona u periodu od 2007-2019. godine, utvrdili su: da se broj učesnika Beogradskog maratona iz Srbije statistički značajno pov- ećava i to sa trendom koji prevazilazi svetski poznate maratone; broj žena na Beogradskom maratonu je i dalje manji nego na većini maratona u svetu, ali se broj žena iz Srbije statistički značajno povećava u odnosu na broj muškaraca, što je u skladu sa svetskim trendovima. Polumaraton spada u sportove dugotrajne izdržljivosti. Za mnoge rekreativce ova trka traje preko dva sata. Za opterećenja koja nose takvi poduhvati, neophodna je pravilna priprema organizma, kako ne bi došlo do štetnih posledica. Uporedo sa porastom broja rekreativaca na trkama dugih distanci, povećava se i broj naučnih radova na temu uticaja trenažnog procesa na organizam rekreativaca. Prema Buresh-u (2018) dva najznačajnija parametra za praćenje zdravlja i napretka trkača na duge staze su kardiorespiratorna izdržljivost i telesni sastav. Takođe, Chen i saradnici (2017) smatraju da je za trčanje polumaratona neophodna dobro razvijena kardiovaskularna izdržljivost, koja predstavlja i preventivno sredstvo protiv nastanka kardiovaskularnih bolesti. Direktni pokazatelj aerobne izdržljivosti organizma jeste vrednost maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika (Nikolić, 2003; Kukolj, 2006, str. 130; Stojiljković i sar., 2012, str. 26). „Shuttle run“ test spada u grupu terenskih testova za procenu aerobnog fitnesa, koji se radi u kontrolisanim uslovima spoljašnje sredine (Canino at all, 2018). Ovaj test ima visok kriterijum validnosti vezan za procenu maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika, pogotovo kada se uzimaju u obzir i ostale varijable, kao što su pol i telesna masa (0,78-0,95) (Mauorga-Vega, 2015). U cilju procenjivanja zdravstvenog rizika najčešće se upotrebljava procena telesnih masti. Sportski rezultat i kondicija takođe zavise od procenta telesnih masti u organizmu. Telesna struktura takođe ima visoku korelaciju sa gojaznošću, rizikom od hroničnog dijabetesa uključujući srčano arterijske bolesti, dijabe- tes, hipertenziju, razne vrste kancera i hiperlipidemija. Sve je češća potreba da se meri gojaznost odnsno telesna struktura u oblasti zdravlja i fitnesa. Ova merenja se najčešće vrše da bi se postigao cilj odnosno optimalna težina za svakog individualca (Premović, 2019). Najjednostavnija, i za širu populaciju najdos- tupnija metoda je antropometrijska, dok se metodom rastuće pouzdanosti označava metoda bioelektrične impedance (Jakovljević, 2016). Rezultati studije Valimaki i saradnika (2016) ukazuju na to da akutno fizičko vežbanje povećava transport produkata oksidacije lipida HDL-om, ali je to takođe povezano i sa istorijom treninga kao i gene- tikom. Iz navedenog proizilazi da se rekreativnim trčanjem može uticati na telesni sastav rekreativaca, na račun smanjenja masne komponente, što je bila jedna od hipoteza ovog istraživanja. Predmet ovog rada je uticaj programa treninga za polumaraton, na funkcionalne sposobnosti i telesni sastav žena koje se rekreativno bave trčanjem. Cilj rada je bio da se utvrde efekti osmonedeljnog treninga za polumaraton, na izabrane funkcionalne pokazatelje i telesni sastav žena koje se rekreativno bave trčanjem. Hipoteze ovog istraživanja bile su da će trenažni proces dovesti do: povećanja maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika; smanjenja vremena na trci od 5km; povećanja brzine trčanja na anaerobnom pragu; smanjenja telesne mase; smanjenja procenta telesne masti i smanjenja količine mišićne mase.

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Metode

Tok i postupak istraživanja

Ovaj rad je empirijskog karaktera. U prvoj fazi je obavljeno inicijalno testiranje, na osnovu čega se ustanovilo stanje ispitanika. Zatim je realizovan eksperimentalni program u trajanju od 8 nedelja, na početku koga je ispitanicima skrenuta pažnja da održe ostale životne navike (ishrana, vežbe snage, san, šetnje, itd.) kakve su bile i do tada, kako bi se njihov udeo u rezultatima ovog istraživanja sveo na minimum. U pretpos- lednjem mikrociklusu trenažnog programa je istrčana ciljana trka na 21,1km. Nakon eksperimentalnog programa izvršeno je finalno testiranje, kako bi se ustanovilo da li je i u kojoj meri, došlo do napretka testiranih sposobnosti. Celo istraživanje je obuhvatilo period od 18.02.2019. do 28.04.2019. godine.

Uzorak ispitanika

Uzorak ispitanika činilo je 19 odraslih osoba ženskog pola iz Beogradskog trkačkog kluba (BRC). Ispitanici su bili prosečne starosti 43,84 ± 6,71 godina (u rasponu od 33 – 59 godina). Koeficijent varijacije starosti ispitanika je iznosio 15,31%, što pokazuje da je grupa bila homogena. Svi ispitanici su se rekreativno bavili trčanjem u klubu najmanje 10 meseci pre početka eksperimentalnog programa. Pre uključivanja u eksperiment ispitanici su bili upoznati sa predmetom istraživanja i dali svoj pristanak da učestvuju u njemu. Do uključivanja u trenažni proces u klubu, ispitanici nisu bili aktivni sportisti u sportovima u kojima dominira izdržljivost. Na početku eksperimentalnog programa bilo je 25 ispitanika. Tokom sprovođenja trenažnog programa šest ispitanika je bilo sprečeno da redovno dolazi na treninge (najčešće zbog poslovnih putovanja, prehlada ili povreda), te zbog toga nisu ušli u završnu obradu rezultata.

Uzorak varijabli i način njihovog merenja

Uzorak varijabli činile su sledeće varijable: • VO2max – procenjena je na osnovu 20-metarskog „Shuttle run“ testa; • Tempo trčanja na anaerobnom pragu – procenjen je na osnovu testa trčanja na 5km; • Vreme na 5km – mereno je na testu trčanja maksimalnim intenzitetom na distanci od 5km; • Telesna masa, procenat telesne masti i mišićna masa – merene su bioelektričnom impedancom, model In body 720.

Navedene varijable su merene pre i posle eksperimentalnog programa koji je trajao 8 nedelja.

Protokol 20-metarskog “Shuttle run” testa

Zagrevanje je podrazumevalo 5 minuta vežbi oblikovanja, zatim 15 minuta trčanja u zoni 1. Nakon toga ispitanici su imali 3 minuta da se pripreme za početak testa. Cilj testa je bio da ispitanik povratnim trčanjem pređe što veći broj deonica dužine 20 metara. Početna brzina je 8km/h (20m za 9s), a svakog minuta brzina se povećavala za 0,5km/h. Test se prekidao kada ispitanik više nije bio u mogućnosti da prati zadati tempo i sam odustao, odnosno kada tri puta za re- dom nije stigao na vreme da pređe liniju. Ispitanik je u trenutku odustajanja zapamtio nivo i broj deonica. Za svaki slučaj osoba koja je nadgledala je zapisivala vreme (uz pomoć štoperice) na kome je svaki ispitanik završavao svoj test. Postoje različite formule pomoću kojih se na osnovu dostignute brzine, vremena ili nivoa može proceniti ispitanikova prosečna maksimalna potrošnja kiseonika. Formula koja je korišćena u ovom istraživanju je VO2max = (vel × 6.65 - 35.8) × 0.95 + 0.182 (Flouris, Metsios, Koutedakis, 2005) i računa se na osnovu dostignute brzine na testu.

Protokol testa trčanja na 5km

Zagrevanje je podrazumevalo 5 minuta vežbi oblikovnja, zatim 15 minuta trčanja u zoni 1. Nakon toga ispitanici su imali 3 minuta da se pripreme za početak testa. Ispitanici su trčali 2,5km po ravnoj stazi do jasno obeleženog okreta, a zatim nazad do linije sa koje su krenuli. Rezultat je bio izražen u minutima. Ovim testom se takođe procenio tempo trčanja na anaerobnom pragu, što je vrlo važno za određivanje zona intenziteta trkača, a zatim i formiranje trenažnog programa. Tempo trčanja na anaerobnom pragu je izračunat na osnovu tabele i formule koju je objavio Friel (1998, str. 45). Za rezultate kojih nije bilo u tabeli (jer je vreme bilo sporije), tempo je izračunat na osnovu formule istog autora koja se koristi na jednom od najkvalitetnijih trening platformi na svetu -Training peaks (https://www. trainingpeaks.com/, preuzeto 10.09.2019.).

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Protokol merenja telesnog sastava bioelektričnom impedancom In body 720

Testiranje se radilo u ranim jutarnjim časovima nakon prvog mokrenja i pre unosa tečnosti i hrane, u prostorijama Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Univerziteta u Beogradu. Ispitanici su bili u antropometri- jskoj odeći, bez metalnih detalja na sebi. Visina se merila antropometrom po Martinu na način koji opisuje Macura (2012, str. 11). Nakon izmerene visine, obavljeno je merenje telesnog sastava, po protokolu koji je propisao proizvođač aparata In body 720.

Eksperimentalni program

Eksperimentalni program, opisan u tabeli 1, se realizovao u periodu od osam nedelja. Ovaj period je obuhvatio poslednja dva meseca šestomesečne pripreme trkača za polumaraton u Beogradskom trkač- kom klubu. Eksperimentalnom programu je prethodio mikrociklus oporavka, u trajanju od 7 dana, u kome su izvršena inicijalna testiranja. Period od osam nedelja podeljen je u dva mezociklusa u trajanju od po četiri mikrociklusa. Poslednji mikrociklusi oba mezociklusa su bili namenjeni oporavku. Treninzi su se radili napolju. Osnovu trenažnog programa činilo je trčanje 3 puta nedeljno (poned- eljak, sreda i subota) i jedan trening (četvrtkom, u trajanju 1h:15min) na atletskom stadionu gde se radila tehnika trčanja i vežbe za razvoj snage. Vežbe za razvoj snage na atletskom stadionu su se radile sa sopstvenom težinom tela, bez dodatnog opterećenja. Metod rada je bio kružni, a vežbe su obuhvatale dominantno mišiće nogu i trupa. Radilo se 6-8 vežbi, bez pauze, u 2-3 serije između kojih se trčao jedan lagani krug na stadionu (400m) – ukupno 35min. Trajanje pojedinačnog treninga trčanja je bilo u rasponu od 1h do 2h:30min. Svaki trening je bio sastavljen iz četiri faze: uvodna, pripremna, glavna i završna faza. Ponedeljkom je uvodna faza trajala 20 minuta, 5 minuta vežbi oblikovanja i 15 minuta vežbi za razvoj snage, odnosno podizanja tonusa mišića. Ovaj deo je podrazumevao 3-4 vežbe za mišiće nogu i trupa, u 2 serije. Na treninzima sredom i subotom uvodna faza je trajala 10 minuta i podrazumevala je vežbe oblikovanja u kombinaciji sa trčanjem u mestu. Nakon uvodne faze ponedeljkom, sredom i subotom je sledila pripremna faza koja je podrazumevala 15 minuta trčanja u zoni 1. U okviru pripremne faze su se radile vežbe tehnike (nizak/srednji skip, zabacivanje jednom/obema potkole- nicama, visok skip jednom nogom, kombinacija prethodnih vežbi, zatim dečiji poskok i poskoci iz skočnog zgloba). Nakon ove faze sledila je glavna faza treninga koja je opisana u tebeli 1. Ukupan obim predviđen za određeni trening je podrazumevao pripremnu i glavnu fazu zajedno. Poslednjih pet minuta glavne faze se intenzitet ponovo vraćao u zonu 1, kako bi se spustio puls i organizam postepeno doveo do stanja mirovanja. Nakon glavne faze je sledila završna koja je podrazumevala 10 minuta rastezanja. Ispitanici su imali plan i program kod sebe, tako da su odrađivali “domaće zadatke” ukoliko nisu stigli na trening. Domaći zadaci su registrovani aplikacijom „Strava” i poslati treneru (autoru ovog rada) na uvid. Trener je evidentirao odrađene treninge za svakog ispitanika.

Tabela 1. Eksperimentalni plan i program treninga rekreativaca za polumaraton u BRC-u

Feb 25 40min 8x30s Z1-Z4, r 1min 30s Z1 45min 4x5min Z4, r 2min Z1 16km Z1-Z2 -Mar 3 in 35min 4-Mar 3 Z1-Z2 50min 3x6min Z3, r 2min Z1 60min Z1-Z2 in 40min 4x1km Z4, r 1min walk, 5x(3min Z3, 3min Z4), 11-Mar 17 55min BRDA Z2-Z3 75min in 1min Z1 r 1-3min Z1 40min 18-Mar 24 Z1-Z2 40min Z1-Z2 18km Z1-Z2 in 35min 25-Mar 31 6x1min Z4, r 2min Z1 50min Z1-Z2 70min Z1-Z2 in 40min 1-Apr 7 6x45s Z1-Z4, r 1-2min Z1 55min 6x3min Z4, r 2min Z1 60min Z1-Z2 in 40min 4x(2min Z3, 30s Z1, 30s 8-Apr 14 30min 4x30s Z1-Z4, r 1min 30s Z1 21.1km Polumaraton in Z4), r 1-2min Z1 30min 15-Apr 21 Z1-Z2 30min Z1-Z2 50min Z1-Z2 in

U tabeli 1 boldirani brojevi i slova predstavljaju ukupan obim izražen u minutima ili kilometrima, koji je predviđen za određeni trening. Skraćenice: Z – zona, p – pauza.

Nakon istrčanog polumaratona sledio je prelazni period. Prema studiji Wiewelhove i saradnika

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(2018) nijedna strategija oporavka (potapanje u hladnu vodu, masaža, pasivni oporavak i aktivni oporavak) neposredno nakon polumaratonske trke nije dovela do objektivnih pokazatelja ubrzanog oporavka organizma ispitanika koji su takođe bili rekreativci. Testovi koji su procenjivali veličinu zamora su se radili 24 časa nakon trke i za to vreme su i dalje trajali simptomi umora. Iz ovih saznanja, kako bi se organizam ispitanika dovoljno oporavio, ponovna testiranja su se vršila nakon jednog mikrociklusa oporavka.

Statistička obrada podataka

Varijable istraživanja su predstavljene osnovnim deskriptivnim pokazateljima (aritmetička sredina, standardna devijacija, minimalna vrednost, maksimalna vrednost, interval varijacije i koeficijent varijacije), a statistička značajnost razlika između rezultata na inicijalnom i finalnom merenju je proverena t-testom za zavisne uzorke (paired t-test).

Rezultati

U tabeli 2 i 3 su prikazani deskriptivni statistički podaci (aritmetička sredina – AVG, standardna devijacija – SD, minimalan rezultat - MIN, maksimalan rezultat - MAX, interval varijacije - IV, koeficijent varijacije – CV) za varijable: starost ispitanika – starost, maksimalna potrošnja kiseonika - VO2max, rezultat na testu trčanja od 5km – VR5km, tempo trčanja pri anaerobnom pragu - TAP, telesna masa – TM, masna komponenta telesne kompozicije – masti i količina mišićne mase – mišići.

Tabela 2. Rezultati deskriptivne statistike svih varijabli na inicijalnom merenju

varijabla AVG SD MIN MAX R CV(%) starost 43.84 6.71 33.00 59.00 26.00 15.31 VO2max (ml/kg/min) 24.29 3.33 19.87 32.51 12.64 13.73 VR5km (min) 32.38 2.88 26.90 38.00 11.10 8.89 TAP (min/km) 6.86 0.55 5.80 7.93 2.13 8.06 TM (kg) 65.91 12.56 49.10 107.80 58.80 19.06 masti (%) 26.05 5.75 14.70 36.50 21.80 22.05 mišići (kg) 25.56 2.43 21.10 29.10 8.00 9.49

Tabela 3. Rezultati deskriptivne statistike svih varijabli na finalnom merenju

varijabla AVG SD MIN MAX R CV(%) VO2max (ml/kg/min) 29.98 4.34 23.03 38.82 15.79 14.47 VR5km (min) 30.32 2.94 24.92 35.58 10.67 9.69 ТAP (min/km) 6.46 0.57 5.42 7.47 2.05 8.80 TM (kg) 65.48 12.51 49.80 107.90 58.10 19.11 masti (%) 24.96 5.56 14.60 33.10 18.50 22.28 mišići (kg) 25.97 2.74 21.50 30.10 8.60 10.56

U tabeli 4 prikazani su rezultati t-testa za zavisne uzorke (aritmetička sredina na inicijalnom merenju - AVG inicijalno; aritmetička sredina na finalnom merenju - AVG finalno; vrednost t-testa – t; nivo znača- jnosti – p) varijabli funkcionalnog sistema i telesnog sastava iste grupe ispitanika na inicijalnom i finalnom merenju: VO2max – maksimalna potrošnja kiseonika; VR5km - rezultat na testu trčanja od 5km; TAP - tempo trčanja pri anaerobnom pragu; TM – telesna masa; masti – masna komponenta telesne kompozicije; mišići - količina mišićne mase.

Tabela 4. Poređenje rezultata na inicijalnom i finalnom merenju (t-test)

varijabla AVG inicialno AVG finalno t p VO2max (ml/kg/min) 24.29 29.98 -7.407 0.000 *** VR5km (min) 32.38 30.32 5.773 0.000 *** ТAP (min/km) 6.86 6.46 5.739 0.000 *** TM (kg) 65.91 65.48 1.200 0.248

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masti (%) 26.05 24.96 2.582 0.022 * mišići (kg) 25.56 25.97 -2.612 0.021 *

Statistička značajnost: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001.

Kod vrednosti maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika rezultati t-testa pokazuju da je razlika između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja statistički značajna na nivou značajnosti 0,001 (p=0,000). Kod testa na 5km rezultati t-testa pokazuju da je razlika između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja vremena za koje se istrčala distanca, statistički značajna na nivou značajnosti 0,001 (p=0,000). Takođe, kod testa na 5km rezultati t-testa pokazuju da je razlika između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja tempa na anaerobnom pragu, statistički značajna na nivou značajnosti 0,001 (p=0,000). Rezultati t-testa pokazuju da nema statistički značajne razlike u telesnoj masi ispitanika na inicijalnom i finalnom merenju (p=0,248). Rezultati t-testa pokazuju da je procenat telesne masti ispitanika, statistički značajno smanjen između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja, na nivou značajnosti 0,05 (p=0,022). Rezultati t-testa pokazuju da je mišićna masa ispitanika, statistički značajno povećana između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja, na nivou značajnosti 0,05 (p=0,021). U prvom mezociklusu, vreme provedeno u trčanju je iznosilo približno 718 minuta (11h:58min) odnosno 103km, dok je u drugom mezociklusu približno vreme bilo 638 minuta (10h:38min) odnosno 91km. Ukupno vreme provedeno u trčanju za 8 nedelja eksperimentalnog programa je iznosilo približno 1356 minuta (22h:36min), odnosno 194 kilometara.

Diskusija

Rezultati istraživanja su potvrdili hipotezu da će primenjeni eksperimentalni program dovesti do statistički značajnog povećanja maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika. Na inicijalnom merenju je prosečan rezultat iznosio 24,29 ml/kg/min, dok je na finalnom ova vrednost iznosila 29,98 ml/kg/min. Rezultat VO2max se popravio za 5,69 ml/kg/min (23,43%). Prema normama maksimalne potrošnje kiseonika za žene ova promena ukazuje na poboljšanje za čak dva nivoa (https://www.topendsports.com/testing/beepcalc.htm, preuzeto 12.09.2019.). U istraživanju Stojiljkovića (2003) takođe osmonedeljni program pripreme doveo je do statistič- ki značajnih promena VO2max sa 52,08 na 57,06 ml/kg/min. Vrednost VO2max se povećala za 4,98 ml/kg/ min (oko 10%), što pokazuje nešto manji napredak ovih ispitanika nego kod naše studije. Ovakva razlika se može povezati sa višim rezultatima VO2max na inicijalnom merenju u studiji Stojiljkovića. Može se reći da su rezultati promene VO2max u našoj studiji statistički značajni, jer se primenjivao različit intenzitet na treningu trčanja, od niskog do visokog, sa različitim obimima u jednom trenažnom mikrociklusu. Na ovaj način su se isprovocirale različite adaptacije organizma na napor i rezultirale napretkom u varijablama funkcionalnog sistema ispitanika. Hipoteza da će trenažni proces dovesti do statistički značajnog smanjenja vremena na trci od 5km je takođe potvrđena na statistički najvišem nivou značajnosti. Na inicijalnom merenju je prosečno ostvareno vreme na trci iznosilo 32,38 minuta, dok je na finalnom merenju ova vrednost iznosila 30,32 minuta, što je za 2,06 minuta brže (6,36%). Posledica ovog rezultata je ista statistička značajnost povećanja brzine trčanja na anaerobnom pragu koji se računao na osnovu vremena na trci od 5km. Tempo trčanja na anaerobnom pragu na inicijalnom merenju je iznosio 6,86 minuta po kilometru, dok je na finalnom vremenu ova vrednost iznosila 6,46 minuta po kilometru, odnosno prosečna vrednost tempa se promenila za 24 sekunde po kilometru (5,83%). Na dužim distancama ova razlika u promeni tempa trčanja na anaerobnom pragu dovodi do velikih poboljšanja rezultata. U istraživanju Stojiljkovića (2003), vreme trčanja na 5km, na finalnom merenju se skratilo za 3 minuta, a tempo trčanja na anaerobnom pragu se poboljšao za 53 sekunde (16%) po kilometru. Ovi rezultati predstavljaju nešto veći napredak od onog koji je ostvaren u našoj studiji, što odgovara činjenici da su ispitanici u istraživanju Stojiljkovića bili mladi muškarci, koji se pre eksperimenta nisu aktivno bavili sportovima u kojima dominira aerobna izdržljivost. U studiji Silve i saradnika (2017) period od četiri nedelje visoko intenzivnog intervalnog treninga (HIIT - High-Intensity Interval Training) doveo je do poboljšanja psiholoških varijabli vezanih za performanse izdržljivosti, ali nije promenio percepciju napora, strategiju pejsa (tempa) i ukupni rezultat na testu trčanja od 5km. Ovo istraživanje je obuhvatilo duplo kraći vremenski period od našeg, ali ipak pokazuje da treninzi visokog intenziteta ne dovode nužno do poboljšanja rezultata u sportovima izdržljivosti. Hottenrott, Ludyga i Schulze (2012) su u svojoj studiji, koja je takođe istraživala prostor promena u organizmu trkača rekreativaca pod uticajem trenažnog procesa za polumaraton (u trajanju od dvanaest nedelja), zaključili da su kratki, intenzivni treninzi izdržljivosti od oko 30 minuta efikasni u poboljšanju aerobne kondicije kod trkača rekreativaca. Intenzitet koji rekreativac može da održava 30 minuta se koristio u našem istraživanju, tako da se može reći da je program našeg istraživanja prilagođen rekreativcima i njihovom poboljšanju funkcionalnih sposobnosti. Rezultati ovog istraživanja nisu potvrdili hipotezu da će doći do statistički značajnog smanjenja telesne mase. Prosečne vrednosti telesne mase su ostale na približno istom nivou na oba merenja. Ovakve re-

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zultate objašnjava uticaj ishrane na varijablu telesne mase, koja se pritom nije kontrolisala niti na neki način merila. Međutim, kod telesnog sastava došlo je do statistički značajnih promena procenta telesnih masti, te je ta hipoteza potvrđena. Procenat masti na inicijalnom merenju je iznosio 26,05, dok je na finalnom merenju ova vrednost iznosila 24,96, što pokazuje razliku od 1,09%. U istraživanju Stojiljkovića (2003) došlo je do smanjenja masnog tkiva za 0,8%, što pokazuje manji napredak u odnosu na našu studiju. Ovakav odnos je i očekivan, jer je vrednost procenta masti na inicijalnom merenju naših ispitanika bila daleko veća. Hipoteza da će doći do smanjenja količine mišićne mase nije potvrđena. Rezultati ukazuju da je došlo i do statistički značajnih promena mišićne mase u smeru povećanja (1,6%), dok je u istraživanju Stojiljkovića (2003) trenažni proces doveo do statistički značajnog smanjenja mišićnog tkiva u kilogramima, ali je poveća- no za 0,5% u odnosu na telesnu masu. Rezultati pokazuju da je kod ispitanika u našem istraživanju došlo do preraspodele telesnog sastava, gde se na račun smanjenja masne komponente povećala količina mišićne mase. Može se pretpostaviti da je povećanje mišićne mase posledica vežbi snage koje su ispitanici radili u sklopu redovnih treninga u toku eksperimentalnog programa. Velimirović (2015) je obrađivao sličnu temu. Ovaj rad je istraživao promene funkcionalnih sposobnosti kardiovaskularnog sistema i antropometrijskih dimenzija (telesne mase, obima i indeksa telesne mase) pod uticajem trenažnog programa za polumaraton, takođe u oblasti rekreacije. Eksperimentalni program je trajao dvanaest nedelja i obuhvatao je treninge trčanja tri puta nedeljno i vežbe za razvoj snage u teretani. Eksperimentalni program je doveo do statistički značajnih promena kod svih praćenih varijabli, dok u rezultatima naše studije nema statistički značajne promene u telesnoj masi ispitanika. Za razliku od naše studije, istraživanje Velimirovića je trajalo duže, ispitanici su bili mlađi (24-38 godina) i vežbe snage su se u prvoj polovini eksperimentlnog programa radile 2-3 puta nedeljno. Ove razlike se mogu dovesti u vezu sa razlikama u rezultatu telesne mase na finalnom merenju kod ove dve studije.

Zaključak

Eksperimentalni program u trajanju od osam nedelja, statistički značajno je uticao na poboljšan- je svih praćenih varijabli osim telesne mase ispitanika. Maksimalna potrošnja kiseonika se povećala za 23,43%. Vreme na 5km trčanja i tempo trčanja pri anaerobnom pragu su se poboljšali za oko 6%. Telesna masa se nije statistički značajno promenila, ali je došlo do pozitivne preraspodele: masa masne komponente se smanjila za 1,09%, dok se istovremeno mišićna masa povećala za 1,6%. Značaj ovog i sličnih istraživanja se ogleda u tome što se sprovedeni program može primeniti i u radu sa drugim rekreativcima, sa eventualnim izmenama u zavisnosti od njihove početne pripremljenosti. Takođe, može se sa dosta pouzdanosti predvideti i unapred planirati stepen promena funkcionalnih sposobnosti i telesnog sastava, za određeni period vremena. Može se reći da su nedostaci ovog istraživanja to što nije praćena ishrana, kao ni obim i intenzitet vežbi snage ispitanika, koje mogu u određenoj meri doprineti ovakvim rezultatima. Naredna istraživanja bi trebalo da obuhvate i uticaj ovih životnih navika ispitanika uporedo sa trenažnim procesom za razvoj izdržlji- vosti.

Literatura

1. Buresh, R. (2018). Should Body Size Categories Be More Common in Endurance Running Events? Current Sports Medicine Reportс. 17(5), 159–162. 2. Canino, M.C., Cohen, B.S., Redmond, J.E., Sharp, M.A., Zambraski, E.J., Foulis, S.A. (2018). The Relationship Between Soldier Performance on the Two-Mile Run and the 20-m Shuttle Run Test. Military Medicine. 183(5-6):e182-e187. 3. Chen, Y.C., Tsai, J.C., Liou, Y.M., Chan, P. (2017). Effectiveness of endurance exercise training in patients with coronary artery disease: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Europian Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing.16(5):397-408. 4. Flouris, A.D., Metsios, G.S., Koutedakis, Y. (2005). Enhancing the efficacy of the 20 m multistage shuttle run test. Br J Sports Med. 39(3):166-70. 5. Hottenrott, K., Ludyga, S., Schulze, S. (2012). Effects of high intensity training and continuous endurance training on aerobic capacity and body composition in recreationally active runners. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 11(3):483-8. 6. Jakovljević, D.K. (2016). Metode za procenu telesne kompozicije. Praxis Medica. 45(3/4), 71-77. 7. Kukolj, M. (2006). Antropomotorika. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beo- gradu. 8. Macura, M. (2012). Biologija razvoja čoveka sa osnovama sportske medicine, praktikum. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 9. Mayorga-Vega, D., Aguilar-Soto, P., Viciana J. (2015). Criterion-Related Validity of the 20-M Shuttle Run Test for Estimating Cardiorespiratory Fitness: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 14(3):536-47.

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10. Nikolić, Z. (2003). Fiziologija fizičke aktivnosti. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 11. Premović, Đ. (2019). Testovi za procijenu fizičkih sposobnosti i tjelesne structure odraslih osoba u funkciji njihovog zdravlja. (Master rad). Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 12. Sierra, A.P., Benetti, M., Ghorayeb, N., Sierra, C., Bastos, F.C., Junior, A.R., Peduti Dal Molin Kiss, M.A. (2015). Analysis of Participation and Performance in Half Marathon Runners. Journal of Sports Science 3. 96-104. 13. Silva, R., Damasceno, M., Cruz, R., Silva-Cavalcante, M.D., Lima-Silva, A.E., Bishop, D.J., Bertuzzi, R. (2017). Effects of a 4-week high-intensity interval training on pacing during 5-km running trial. Bra- zilian Journal of Medicaland Biological Research. 50(12):e6335. 14. Stojiljković, S. (2003). Efekti treninga trčanja u različitim zonama intenziteta u odnosu na anaerobni prag. (Doktorska disertacija). Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 15. Stojiljković, S., Matić, M., Papić, Lj. (2019). The Trend in the Number of Participants from Serbia in the Belgrade Marathon from 2007 to 2019: The Effect of Gender and Age. Facta Universitatis, Series Physical Education and Sport, 17(2):353-369. 16. Stojiljković, S., Mitić, D., Mandarić, S., Nešić, D. (2012). Personalni fitnes, naučna monografija. Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja i autor, Beograd. 17. Välimäki, I.A., Vuorimaa, T., Ahotupa, M., Vasankari, T. (2016). Effect of Continuous and Intermittent Exercises on Oxidised HDL and LDL Lipids in Runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 37(14):1103-1109. 18. Velimirović, M. (2015). Promene funkcionalnih sposobnosti kardiovaskularnog sistema pod uticajem postupka pripreme za trčanje polumaratona sportskih rekreativaca (Završni rad). Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 19. Wiewelhove, T., Schneider, C., Döweling, A., Hanakam, F., Rasche, C., Meyer, T., Kellmann, M., Pfeiffer, M., Ferrauti, A. (2018). Effects of different recovery strategies following a half-marathon on fatigue markers in recreational runners. PLoS One. 13(11):e0207313. 20. https://www.topendsports.com/testing/beepcalc.htm, retrieved from the website on September 12, 2019. 21. http://www.bgdmarathon.org/rezultati.aspx, retrieved from the website on June 20, 2019. 22. https://www.trainingpeaks.com/, retrieved from the website on September 10, 2019.

Napomena

Ovaj rad je deo šireg istraživanja u okviru projekta „Ćelijske i molekulske osnove malignih i kardiovaskularnih oboljenja – kliničke implikacije“, ev. broj III41027, koji finansira Ministarstvo za nauku i tehnološki razvoj Republike Srbije – produženi ciklus naučnih projekata 2011-2018. Rad je izvod iz master rada Ljubice Papić pod nazivom: Uticaj plana i programa treninga za polumaraton na funkcionalne sposobnosti i telesni sastav žena rekreativaca. Master rad, Beograd, Srbija, Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, 2019. Master rad je urađen u okviru zajedničkog projekta Katedre za teoriju i tehnologiju sporta i rekreacije i Katedre biomedicinskih nauka, pod nazivom: „Monitoring funkcionalnih sposobnosti kardio-respiratornog sistema studenata Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja“. Projekat je zvanično odobren od strane Nastavno-naučnog veća UB-FSFV, odlukom 02-br. 639/19-2, od 11.04.2019. godine

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THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL SPORTS ON HEALTH STATUS: A BRIEF REVIEW

Zvezdan Savić; Predrag Đokić; Nikola Stojanović University of Niš, Faculty of sport and physical education, Niš, Serbia

Introduction

Sport, as we know it, is present at school through the programs of physical education and within the school sports system, and as such has its place, tasks and role in the educational system. Physical education is the basis of school sport (Andrews, 1999). School physical education and school sport are interconnected through complex relationships and complement each other in the pursuit of common goals. School sport today has multiple meanings and can be viewed from many aspects. Physical education and school sports provides students to acquire physical literacy, form positive attitudes towards physical activity and sports, and enables them to improve motor skills through physical education classes and school sport competitions (Ranđelović & Savić, 2017). School sport promotes the active participation of students, as this is the main reason why students opt for it. Also, an important goal concerns the formation of a lasting interest in sports, which can contribute to engaging in sports or recreational activities throughout one’s life (Savić, Stojiljković, Ranđelović, Mitić, & Stojanović, 2014). The current society is determened by technological development and an overall decrease in physical activity. Particular issue is noted both in high-standard and middle or low-standard countries (Mathers, Stevens, & Mascarenhas, 2009). Physical education classes has a very important role, to engage students in some form of physical activity during the school year. Studies such as the European Youth Heart Study and the Pediatric Osteoporosis Prevention show an increasing occurrence of cardiovascular risk factors, insufficient muscle strength, and lower bone density in children with poor physical activity (Ericsson & Karlsson, 2014; Lindén et al., 2007). The health benefits of regular physical activity on improving the quality of life, reducing the risk of various diseases, as well as on psychological and emotional well-being are well documented (Bailey, 2006; Mathers et al., 2009; Sallis & Owen, 1998; Sayers, 2001). Increased physical activity of students has a positive effect on cardiovascular fitness (Falgairette, Gavarry, Bernard, & Hebbelinck, 1996; Janz & Mahoney, 1997), blood pressure (Ewart, Young, & Hagberg, 1998), and body fat (Barbeau, Litaker, Howe, Barry, & Gutin, 2003; Berkey et al., 2000) reduction. Moreover, physical activity has a positive impact on bone density (Bass et al., 1998; Duncan et al., 2002), anxiety and depression reduction (Jewett et al., 2014; Sanders, Field, Miguel, & Kaplan, 2000), and self-confidence (Strong et al., 2005). Decreased physical activity during childhood and adolescence represents a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease in adulthood (Beets & Pitetti, 2005). Regular physical activity is associated with many positive benefits for young people, including increased physical fitness and a reduced risk of life-long illness (Hillsdon & Foster, 2003; Lubans & Morgan, 2008). Physically active lifestyles during childhood and adolescence are also associated with good mental health and can positively affect self-esteem and self-perception (Ekeland, Heian, Hagen, Abbott, & Nordheim, 2004; Lubans & Morgan, 2008). The aim of this brief review was to stress the importance of physical education and school sports, its advantages related to health status and life-long participation in physical activity of an individual.

Methods

To locate studies regarding relationship between students’ health status and physical education/ school sports engagement, search of the electronic databases (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Medline, PubMed, and Kobson) took place in September 2019. The literature was searched by terms that reflected areas of interest (e.g., physical education, school sport), health status of students (e.g., noncommunica- ble diseases, psychological and emotional outcomes, quality lifestyle and lifespan, and health benefits), as well as methods (experimental, systematic reviews and meta-analyses). Papers were selected for detailed analysis if they met the following inclusion criteria: 1. were experimental and review papers; 2. reported on the relationship between physical education/school sport, and health status; 3. were based on school-aged children or adolescents.

Results and discussion

This brief review included thirty five papers that are closely related to the subject of this research and meet the inclusion criteria. Regular intense physical activity, which can have a positive effect on cardio-

134 UDK: 371.3:796 vascular fitness, is not sufficiently present in the daily life of adolescents, unless they train for the purpose of achieving competitive results (Cavill, Biddle, & Sallis, 2001). Thus, activities of sufficient volume and intensity to improve cardiovascular fitness most likely occur in school-sponsored sports competitions (Beets & Pitetti, 2005). Regular physical activity is an important prerequisite of preferred physical fitness for students, but do students who are not included in the system of school sports competitions have a satisfactory level of cardiovascular fitness? The standard content of physical education classes indicate the importance of improving and maintaining the level of physical fitness. However, the results of one particular study do not support this statement (Pate et al., 2006). Authors dealt with the problem of structure, quality and intensification of physical education classes, and the obtained results indicated that the current physical education is not sufficiently oriented to systematic and comprehensive physical exercise and lacks the appropriate scope and intensity that would cause adequate stimuly to develop students’ physical fitness. Beets & Pitetti (2005) compared levels of cardiovascular fitness of high school students enrolled in physical education classes who were either nonparticipants or participans in school sport using a 20-meter repeat test (Leger, Mercier, Gadoury, & Lambert, 1988). In relation to the number of sports in which they participated, it is important to point out that students who were involved in school sports were divided into two groups (1 sport for females and 1 to 2 sports for males, and more then 2 sports for females, and more then 3 sports for males). For the students in this study, as the number of school-sponsored sports increased, there was an increase in cardiovascular fitness (number of rounds completed and VO2 max level), while students who did not participate in school-sponsored sports had the lowest level of cardiovascular fitness. Dwyer, Sallis, Blizzard, Lazarus, & Dean (2001) concluded that there are health benefits for children who engage in daily exercise programs in school settings. That also indicate that it is very likely that the program at school will be successfully implemented over a long period of time, despite the practical difficulties in this field. The results of aforementioned study showed that it is possible to improve endurance with a daily physical activity program, especially if it is primarily devoted to high-intensity activity. Diastolic blood pressure has also been shown to decrease and significant changes in lipids and lipoproteins were observed too (Dwyer, Coonan, Worsley, & Leitch, 1979). There is some verification from other related areas that the lack of physical activity is associated with the development of obesity (Steinbeck, 2001). When we perceive the influence of physical activity on obesity, certain authors objectively measured the level of physical activity in students, by using pedometers (Eisenmann, Laurson, Wickel, Gentile, & Walsh, 2007) and accelerometers (Stevens et al., 2007). According to the recommendations of certain authors (Tudor-Locke et al., 2004; Vincent & Pangrazi, 2002), and based on the obtained results, it was shown that increased physical activity, which is objectively measured by pedometers and accelerometers, is a good predictor of reduced risk of overweight/obesity. Moreover, some studies have examined the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and obesity (Burke et al., 2006), and the obtained results showed that there is a moderate to high negative correlation in tested parameters. It has also been proven that different training modalities (aerobic, anaerobic, circular, strength training, Pilates and jumps) significantly contribute to the reduction of total abdominal fat and BMI (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). Furthermore, Janssen & LeBlanc (2010) in their review followed changes in bone density under the influence of physical activity. Experimental treatments in these studies mainly included moderate or intense anaerobic exercises, such as high impact weight bearing, impact resistance training, and jumping. The duration of one training ranged from 3 to 60 minutes, two to three times a week, while the experimental treatments lasted from two months to two years (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; McKay et al., 2000; Nichols, Sanborn, & Love, 2001). The results of these studies have shown that only 10 minutes of moderate or intense anaerobic activity is sufficient to exercise, in order to achieve optimal changes in mineral bone density. Therefore, we can conclude that within physical education classes and school sports, it is possible to positively influence on bone density in students. Moreover, based on the assumption, participation in school sports is significantly associated with good mental health indicators (Jewett et al., 2014). Students who continuously participated in school sports during high school reported fewer symptoms of depression, lower levels of stress, and higher levels of mental health, compared to students who had never been involved in school sports. School sports can provide students with the opportunity to connect with other students, to feel connected to their school (McBride et al., 1995) and to interact with their peers and teachers (Brettschneider, 2001), all of which can positively affect mental health (Jewett et al., 2014; McBride et al., 1995). According to Boone & Leadbeater (2006), the benefits of team sports can be seen in part in positive sports experiences, which increase social acceptance and reduce dissatisfaction with one’s own body. School sports can improve mastery, self-esteem, emotional well-being, self-concept, and quality of life, each of which is associated with better mental health (Erkut & Tracy, 2002; Pyle, Mc Quivey, Brassington, & Steiner, 2003; Snyder et al., 2010). Also, it is possible that the competitive nature and high intensity of the competitive demands of certain sports cause neuroprotective effects, which could prevent poor mental health (aan het Rot, Collins, & Fitterling, 2009). Based on the results of the aforementioned research, students should be encouraged to get involved in school sports, in order to have certain benefits related to mental health in adulthood. Simons-Morton (1994) propose that the goals of physical education related to health should be: 1) participating in physical activity of appropriate volume and intensity during a class and 2) acquiring knowledge and skills to keep an individual physically active outside of school and throughout life (Fairclough &

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Stratton, 2005). In order to see the public health benefits of physical activity, it is essential that physical education promotes the generalization of physical activity outside of school, because the recommended volume of physical activity cannot be met only through physical education classes. Physical education and teaching programs may increase physical activity throughout the day, but specialized programs need to be developed and rigorously evaluated to promote generalization (Sallis et al., 1997). According to American Medical Association, it is recommended for children and adolescents to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily (Piercy et al., 2018). However, ongoing moderate or vigorous physical activity that can improve cardiovascular fitness has little chance of becoming part of an adolescent’s daily routine unless they are training for a specific purpose or engaged in well-planned exercise (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005; Morrow & Freedson, 1994). Moreover, as adolescents grow up, they become more like adults, including similar patterns of physical activity (Welk, Corbin, & Dale, 2000). As adulthood inactivity remains problematic and attempts to change this issue remain unclear (King, Rejeski, & Buchner, 1998; Sevick et al., 2000), the role of physical education and school sport in promoting participation in physical activity throughout life becomes widely accepted (Green, 2002; Penney & Jess, 2004). The results of study conducted by Yang, Telama, & Laakso (1997) indicate that early experience with sports and physical activity in school positively predicts the participation of young people in sports, and perhaps even in later years. In addition, there are various theoretical approaches in sociology that suggest that physical and other forms of social activities, which begin at an early age, are likely to continue as long as there is adequate reward, availability of resources, and opportunities to participate (Curtis, McTeer, & White, 1999). This problem in sociology is explained by the Theory of Continuity, which is generally applied to activities during later adulthood (McPherson, 1990). As individuals age over time, they generally strive to maintain continuity in their lifestyle, because the activities that are regularly practiced are beneficial and highly valued. Conversely, supporting evidence of physical activity of young people throughout life are limited (Biddle, Gorely, & Stensel, 2004; Cale & Harris, 2004). Confirmation that physical education classes and school sport form the basis of lifelong physical activity is very low (Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Rajic, & Shephard, 1999). This could be a possible limitation of this study, which means that the relationship between extracurricular sports activities and future health status of students’ should be investigated more thoroughly due to the lack of evidence, as well as many other factors that affect physical activity engagement and physical fitness throughout life. However, while focusing on physical fitness as a productive outcome of physical education and school sports, from a behavioral standpoint there is a need for young people to acquire appropriate knowledge, understanding and behavioral skills to ensure that physical activity becomes a regular part of their daily routine of life (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005).

Conclusion

Given the importance of establishing positive health habits at early age, school boards should be encouraged to follow the policy of necessary daily physical activity, especially in primary school. In addition, significantly higher values of cardiovascular fitness and obesity reduction were observed in adolescents who, apart from physical education classes, participated in school sports competitions. The recommandations regarding muscle and bone strengthening exercises should be implemented at least 3 days a week, as well as, the majority of physical activity should be consisted of aerobic exercises. Recent research are focused on emphasizing that young people should be engaged in lifelong learning and physical activity, which may ultimately result in a gradual change in physical education programs and school sports systems. It is also important to note that there is a small but consistent association between sedentary behavior and poorer mental health in children and adolescents. Participation in school sports and physical education classes protects against poor mental health, improves physical health, as well as psychological and social status. Certainly, future research will be required to accurately determine the benefits of physical activity that can be reflected by engaging in various forms of physical activity and school sports. Students need to develop as much awareness of the importance of physical activity as possible, but also there is a necessity to offer them variety of contents in teaching and extracurricular sport activities, in order to turn them to a healthier lifestyle.

References

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BENEFITI NASTAVE FIZIČKOG VASPITANjA I ŠKOLSKOG SPORTA ZA ZDRAVSTVENI STATUS: KRATAK PREGLED

Zvezdan Savić; Predrag Đokić; Nikola Stojanović Univerzitet u Nišu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Niš, Srbija

Uvod

Sport kakav znamo je prisutan u školi kroz programe fizičkog vaspitanja i u okviru sistema školskog sporta, i kao takav ima svoje mesto, zadatke i ulogu u obrazovnom sistemu. Fizičko vaspitanje je osnova školskog sporta (Andrews, 1999). Nastava fizičkog vaspitanja i školski sport međusobno su povezani kroz složene odnose i nadopunjuju se u ostvarivanju zajedničkih ciljeva. Školski sport danas ima višestruko značenje i može se posmatrati sa mnogih aspekata. Fizičko vaspitanje i školski sport pružaju učenicima sticanje fizičke pismenosti (engl. physical literacy), formiranje pozitivnih stavova prema fizičkoj aktivnosti i sportu i omogućava im da poboljšaju motoričke sposobnosti kroz časove fizičkog vaspitanja i školska sportska takmičenja (Ranđelović & Savić, 2017). Školski sport promoviše aktivno učešće učenika, jer je to glavni razlog zašto se učenici odlučuju za školski sport. Takođe, važan cilj odnosi se na formiranje trajnog interesovanja za sport, što može doprineti bavljenju sportskim ili rekreativnim aktivnostima tokom života (Savić, Stojiljković, Ranđelović, Mitić, & Stojanović, 2014). Savremeno društvo se odlikuje tehnološkim razvojem i sveukupnim padom fizičke aktivnosti. Ovaj tred je prisutan kako u zemljama visokog standarda, tako i u zemljama srednjeg ili niskog standarda (Ma- thers, Stevens, & Mascarenhas, 2009). Nastava fizičkog vaspitanja ima veoma važnu ulogu, kako bise učenici uključili u neki oblik fizičke aktivnosti tokom školske godine. Istraživanja poput Evropske studije srca mladih i Prevencije dečije osteoporoze pokazuju sve veću pojavu kardiovaskularnih faktora rizika, nedovol- jni mišićni fitnes (mišićna sila, snaga i izdržljivost) i nižu gustinu kostiju kod dece sa smanjenom fizičkom aktivnošću (Ericsson & Karlsson, 2014; Lindén et al., 2007). Zdravstveni benefiti redovne fizičke aktivnosti na poboljšanje kvaliteta života, smanjenje rizika od raznih bolesti, psihološko i emocionalno blagostanje su naučno potkrepljeni (Bailey, 2006; Mathers et al., 2009; Sallis & Oven, 1998; Sayers, 2001). Povećana fizička aktivnost učenika ima pozitivan uticaj na kardiovaskularni fitnes (aerobnu izdržljivost) (Falgairette, Gavarry, Bernard, & Hebbelinck, 1996; Janz & Mahoney, 1997), krvni pritisak (Ewart, Young, & Hagberg, 1998) i na smanjenje telesne masnoće (Barbeau, Litaker, Hove, Barry, & Gutin, 2003; Berkey et al., 2000). Štaviše, fizička aktivnost ima pozitivan uticaj na gustinu kostiju (Bass et al., 1998; Duncan et al., 2002), smanjenje anksioznosti i depresije (Jewett et al., 2014; Sanders, Field, Miguel i Kaplan, 2000) i povećanje samopouzdanja (Strong et al., 2005). Smanjena fizička aktivnost tokom detinjstva i adolescencije predstavlja značajan faktor rizika za kardiovaskularne bolesti u odrasloj dobi (Beets & Pitetti, 2005). Redovna fizička aktivnost povezana je sa mnogim benefitima za mlade, uključujući povećani fizički fitnes (poboljšane motoričke sposobnosti) i smanjeni rizik od hroničnih bolesti (Hillsdon & Foster, 2003; Lubans & Morgan, 2008). Fizički aktivan životni stil tokom detinjstva i adolescencije takođe je povezan sa dobrim mentalnim zdravljem i može pozitivno uticati na samopoštovanje i samopercepciju (Ekeland, Heian, Hagen, Abbott, & Nordheim, 2004; Lubans & Morgan, 2008). Cilj ovog kratkog preglednog istraživanja bio je naglasiti važnost fizičkog vaspitanja i školskog sporta, njegovih prednosti u vezi sa zdravstvenim stanjem i celoživotnim učešćem u fizičkoj aktivnosti pojedinca.

Metode

U cilju pronalaženja studija u kojima je ispitivana povezanost zdravstvenog stanja učenika i njhovog angažovanja u fizičkom vaspitanju/školskom sportu, u septembru 2019. godine izvršena je pretraga elektron- skih baza podataka (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Medline, PubMed i Kobson). Literatura je pretražena na osnovu područja interesovanja (npr. fizičko vaspitanje, školski sport), zdravstveno stanje učenika (npr. nezarazne bolesti, psihološki i emocionalni ishodi, kvalitet života i životni vek, zdravstveni benefiti), kao i metode (eksperimentalne studije, sistematska pregledna istraživanja i metaanalize). Radovi su odabrani za analizu ukoliko su ispunjavali sledeće kriterijume: 1. eksperimentalni i pregledni radovi; 2. Ispitivali povezanost nastave fizičkog vaspitanja i školskog sporta sa zdravstvenim statusom; 3. Sprovedeni na uzorku ispitanika školske populacije.

Rezultati sa diskusijom

Ovo kratko pregledno istraživanje obuhvatilo je trideset pet radova koji su usko povezani sa predmetom ovog istraživanja i koji su ispunjavali kriterijume za uključivanje u analizu. Redovna intenzivna fizička

140 UDK: 371.3:796 aktivnost, koja može imati pozitivan uticaj na kardiovaskularni fitnes, nije dovoljno prisutna u svakodnevnom životu adolescenata, osim ukoliko treniraju u svrhu postizanja takmičarskih rezultata (Cavill, Biddle, & Sallis, 2001). Stoga se fizička aktivnosti dovoljnog obima i intenziteta za poboljšanje kardiovaskularnog fitnesa može uočiti na školskim sportskim takmičenjima (Beets & Pitetti, 2005). Redovna fizička aktivnost važan je preduslov željenog fizičkog fitnesa učenika, ali postavlja se pitanje da li učenici koji nisu uključeni u sistem školskih sportskih takmičenja imaju zadovoljavajući nivo kardiovaskularnog fitnesa? Standardni sadržaji časova fizičkog vaspitanja ukazuju na važnost poboljšanja i održavanja nivoa fizičkog fitnesa. Međutim, rezultati jedne studije ne podržavaju ovu tvrdnju (Pate et al., 2006). Autori su se bavili problemom strukture, kvaliteta i intenzifikacije časova fizičkog vaspitanja, a dobijeni rezultati pokazali su da trenutna nastava fizičk- og vaspitanja nije dovoljno orijentisana na sistematsko i sveobuhvatno fizičko vežbanje i da ne sadrži odgo- varajući obim i intenzitet fizičke aktivnosti koji bi predstavljali adekvatan stimulus za razvoj fizičkog fitnesa učenika.

Beets & Pitetti (2005) su upoređivali nivo kardiovaskularnog fitnesa srednjoškolaca uključenih u nastavu fizičkog vaspitanja i srednjoškolaca uključenih u nastavu fizičkog vaspitanja uz dodatak vannastavnih školskih sportskih aktivnosti, koristeći test ponavljajućeg trčanja na 20 metara (Leger, Mercier, Gadoury, & Lambert, 1988). Važno je napomenuti da su učenici koji su uključeni u vannastavne školske sportske aktivnosti bili podeljeni u dve grupe u odnosu na broj sportova u kojima su učestvovali (1 za učenice i 1 do 2 sporta za učenike, odnosno više od 2 za učenice i 3 za učenike). Učenici koji su učestvovali u većem broju sportova uključenih u sistem školskih sportskih takmičenja imali su povećane vrednosti kardiovaskularnog fitnesa (broj završenih krugova i VO2 max), dok su učenici koji nisu učestvovali zabeležili najniži nivo kardiovaskularnog fitnesa. Dwyer, Sallis, Blizzard, Lazarus, & Dean (2001) zaključili su da postoje zdravstveni benefiti za decu koja učestvuju u svakodnevnim programima vežbanja u školskim uslovima. To takođe ukazuje da je veoma verovatno da će se program u školi uspešno sprovoditi tokom dužeg vremenskog perioda, uprkos praktičnim poteškoćama u ovoj oblasti. Rezultati gorepomenute studije pokazali su da je moguće poboljšati izdržljivost svakodnevnim programom fizičke aktivnosti, posebno ako se prevashodno odnosi na aktivnosti visokog intenziteta. Takođe se pokazalo da, kao posledica takvih aktivnosti, dijastolni krvni pritisak opada, a primećene su i značajne promene lipida i lipoproteina (Dwyer, Coonan, Worsley, & Leitch, 1979). Postoje potvrde iz drugih srodnih oblasti da je nedostatak fizičke aktivnosti povezan sa razvojem gojaznosti (Steinbeck, 2001). Kada analiziramo uticaj fizičke aktivnosti na gojaznost, određeni autori su objektivno izmerili nivo fizičke aktivnosti kod učenika, korišćenjem pedometra (Eisenmann, Laurson, Wickel, Gentile, & Walsh, 2007) i akcelerometara (Stevens et al., 2007). Prema preporuci autora (Ward, Evenson, Vaughn, Rodgers, & Troiano, 2004; Tudor-Locke et al., 2004; Vincent & Pangrazi, 2002) i na osnovu dobijenih rezultata gorenavedenih istraživanja, pokazalo se da je povećana fizička aktivnost, koju objektivno možemo izmeriti uz pomoć pedometara i akcelerometara, dobar prediktor smanjenog rizika od prekomerne telesne težine/ gojaznosti. Štaviše, neke studije su ispitale vezu između kardiorespiratornog fitnesa i gojaznosti (Burke et al., 2006), a dobijeni rezultati pokazali su da postoji umerena do visoka negativna povezanost u ispitivanim parametrima. Takođe je dokazano da različiti modaliteti treninga (aerobni, anaerobni, kružni, treninzi snage, pilates i skokovi) značajno doprinose smanjenju ukupnih abdominalnih masti i BMI (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). Dalje, Janssen & LeBlanc (2010) u svom preglednom istraživanju su pratili promene u gustini košta- nog tkiva pod uticajem fizičke aktivnosti. Eksperimentalni tretmani u ovim studijama uglavnom su uključivali umerene ili intenzivne anaerobne vežbe, kao što su aktivnosti visokog inteziteta bez spoljašnjeg opterećen- ja, trening sa spoljašnjim opterećenjem i skokovi. Trajanje jednog treninga kretalo se u rasponu od 3 do 60 minuta, 2 do 3 puta nedeljno, dok su eksperimentalni tretmani trajali od dva meseca do dve godine (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; McKay et al., 2000; Nichols, Sanborn, & Love, 2001). Rezultati ovih studija pokazali su da je 10 minuta umerene ili intenzivne anaerobne aktivnosti dovoljno da bi se postigle optimalne promene mineralne gustine kostiju. Stoga možemo zaključiti da je u nastavi fizičkog vaspitanja i školskom sportu moguće pozitivno uticati na gustinu koštanog tkiva kod učenika. Učešće u školskom sportu značajno je povezano sa dobrim pokazateljima mentalnog zdravlja (Jewett et al., 2014). Učenici koji su tokom srednje škole kontinuirano učestvovali u školskom sportu, prijavili su manje simptoma depresije, niži nivo stresa i viši nivo mentalnog zdravlja u poređenju sa učenicima koji se nikada nisu bavili školskim sportom. Školski sport može pružiti učenicima mogućnost povezivanja sa drugim učenicima, osećaj povezanosti sa svojom školom (Mc- Bride et al., 1995) i interakciju sa vršnjacima i nastavnicima (Brettschneider, 2001), a sve to može pozitivno uticati na mentalno zdravlje (Jewett et al., 2014; McBride et al., 1995). Prema Boone & Leadbeater (2006), prednosti timskih sportova delom se mogu videti u pozitivnim sportskim iskustvima, koja povećavaju društ- venu prihvaćenost i smanjuju nezadovoljstvo sopstvenim telom. Školski sport može poboljšati majstorstvo u određenoj sportskoj grani, samopoštovanje, emocionalno blagostanje, self-koncept i kvalitet života, a svi ovi aspekti su povezani sa boljim mentalnim zdravljem (Erkut & Tracy, 2002; Pyle, Mc Quivey, Brassington, & Steiner, 2003; Snyder et al., 2010). Takođe, moguće je da takmičarska priroda i visok intenzitet takmičar- skih zahteva u određenim sportovima izazivaju neuroprotektivne efekte, koji mogu sprečiti loše mentalno zdravlje (aan het Rot, Collins, & Fitterling, 2009). Na osnovu rezultata pomenutog istraživanja, studente treba podstaći da se bave školskim sportom, kako bi imali određene koristi povezane sa mentalnim zdravljem u odrasloj dobi.

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Simons-Morton (1994) predlaže da ciljevi fizičkog vaspitanja u vezi sa zdravljem budu: 1) učest- vovanje u fizičkoj aktivnosti odgovarajućeg obima i intenziteta tokom nastave i 2) sticanje znanja i veština za održavanje fizičke aktivnosti pojedinca van škole i tokom čitavog života (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005). Da bi se uvidele dobrobiti fizičke aktivnosti za javno zdravlje, od suštinskog je značaja da fizičko vaspitanje podstiče generalizaciju fizičke aktivnosti van škole, jer se preporučeni obim fizičke aktivnosti ne može ispu- niti samo kroz časove fizičkog vaspitanja. Programi nastave fizičkog vaspitanja mogu uticati na povećanje fizičke aktivnost tokom dana, ali bi takođe trebalo razvijati i procenjivati specijalizovane programe, u cilju efikasnije generalizacije dobijenih rezultata dosadašnjih i budućih istraživanja (Sallis et al., 1997). Prema Američkom lekarskom udruženju, deci i adolescentima se preporučuje da učestvuju u najmanje 60 minuta umerene do intezivne fizičke aktivnosti dnevno (Piercy et al., 2018). Međutim, stalna umerena ili intezivna fizička aktivnost koja može poboljšati kardiovaskularni fitnes ima male šanse da postane deo svakodnevne rutine adolescenata, osim ukoliko ne treniraju za određeno sportsko takmičenje ili nisu uključeni u planirano sistematsko vežbanje (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005; Morrow & Freedson, 1994). Štaviše, kako adolescenti odrastaju, oni postaju više nalik odraslim ljudima, uključujući slične obrasce fizičke aktivnosti (Welk, Corbin, & Dale, 2000). Kako fizička neaktivnost u odrasloj dobi ostaje problematična, kao i pokušaji promene ovog problema (King, Rejeski, & Buchner, 1998; Sevick et al., 2000), uloga fizičkog vaspitanja i školskog sporta u promociji učešća u fizičkim aktivnostima tokom života postaje široko prihvaćena (Green, 2002; Penney & Jess, 2004). Rezultati studije koju su sproveli Yang, Telama i Laakso (1997) pokazuju da je rano iskustvo sa sportom i fizičkom aktivnošću u školi značajan prediktor učešća mladih u sportu, a možda čak i u kasnijim godinama. Pored toga, postoje različiti teorijski pristupi u sociologiji koji sugerišu da će se fizički i drugi oblici društvenih aktivnosti, koji počinju u ranoj dobi, verovatno nastaviti sve dok postoji odgovarajuća nagrada, raspoloživost resursa i mogućnosti za učešće (Curtis, McTeer, & White, 1999). Ovaj problem u sociologiji objašnjava Teorija kontinuiteta, koja se uglavnom odnosi na aktivnosti u kasnijoj odrasloj dobi (McPherson, 1990). Tokom života ljudi teže održavanju kontinuiteta u svom životnom stilu, jer su aktivnosti koje se redovno praktikuju korisne i visoko ih vrednuju. Nasuprot tome, dokazi o fizičkoj aktivnosti mladih tokom života su ograničeni (Biddle, Gorely, & Stensel, 2004; Cale & Harris, 2004). Naučna potvrda da časovi fizičkog vaspitanja i školski sport čine osnovu celoživotne fizičke aktivnosti je na niskom nivou (Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Rajic, & Shephard, 1999). Ovo bi moglo biti moguće ograničenje ove studije, što znači da vezu između vannastavnih sportskih aktivnosti i budućeg zdravstvenog stanja učenika treba detaljnije istražiti, kao i mnoge druge faktore koji utiču na bavljenje fizičkom aktivnošću i fizički fitnes tokom života. Međutim, osim fokusiranja na fizički fitnes kao produktivni ishod fizičkog vaspitanja i školskog sporta, sa bihejvioralnog stanovišta, mladi bi trebalo da steknu odgovarajuća znanja, razumevanje i motoričke veštine kako bi fizička aktivnost postala redovan deo njihove svakodnevnice tokom čitavog života (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005).

Zaključak

S obzirom na važnost uspostavljanja pozitivnih zdravstvenih navika u ranoj dobi, škole bi trebalo podsticati da prate preporuke neophodne svakodnevne fizičke aktivnosti, naročito u osnovnoj školi. Znatno veće vrednosti kardiovaskularnog fitnesa i smanjenje gojaznosti primećeni su kod adolescenata koji su osim na časovima fizičkog vaspitanja učestvovali u školskim sportskim takmičenjima. Preporuke koje se tiču vežbi za jačanje mišića i kostiju trebalo bi sprovoditi najmanje 3 dana nedeljno, a takođe, većina fizičkih aktivnosti bi trebalo da se sastoji od aerobnih vežbi. Nedavna istraživanja naglašavaju da bi mladi ljudi trebalo da budu uključeni u celoživotno učenje i fizičku aktivnost, što bi na kraju moglo rezultirati postepenom prom- enom programa fizičkog vaspitanja i sistema školskog sporta. Važno je napomenuti i da postoji mala, ali dosledna povezanost između sedentarnog ponašanja i slabijeg mentalnog zdravlja kod dece i adolescenata. Učešće u školskom sportu i nastavi fizičkog vaspitanja štiti od lošeg mentalnog zdravlja, poboljšava fizičko zdravlje, kao i psihološki i socijalni status. Svakako su neophodna buduća istraživanja kako bi se utvrdile prednosti fizičke aktivnosti, koje mogu biti posledica bavljenja različitim oblicima fizičke aktivnosti i školskim sportom. Učenici bi morali da razviju svest o važnosti fizičke aktivnosti, ali postoji i potreba da im se ponude raznovrsniji sadržaji u nastavi fizičkog vaspitanja i vannastavnim sportskim aktivnostima, u cilju formiranja zdravijih stilova života.

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THE EFFECT OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE OF MANIPULATIVE BILATERAL KINESIOLOGICAL TESTS IN SEVEN-YEAR-OLD BOYS

Franjo Lovrić; Ivana Kujundžić Lujan; Zoran Čuljak University of Mostar, Faculty of Natural Mathematical and Educational Sciences, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Introduction

The importance of fundamental motor skills is reflected in the relationship with the anthropological status of children in the period of organized kinesiological activity (Mazzardo, 2008), resulting in more developed motor, and functional skills (Sallis et al., 1999). Cole et al. (2000) state that a correlation between the quality of acquisition of these motor skills, and morphological characteristics has been proven, and overweight, and obese children have a lower level of fundamental movement skills performance compared with the normal-weight children (Franjko et al., 2012). Even though there are different categorizations of fundamental movement skills, the overall continuum encompassed is the same. Burton & Miller (1998) categorize them into two categories: locomotor and object control skills. Manipulative skills imply accurately controlling an object by throwing, catching, rolling and dribbling a ball, batting and kicking a ball. Many researchers used the body mass index (BMI) measure for determining the correlation between morphological characteristics and FMS. It has been most commonly used for overweight and obesity classification (Southall et al., 2004; Catenassi et al., 2007; D’Hondt et al., 2009).

BMI, as ratio of body weight and squared height and is not a good indicator of obesity since individuals of the same weight often have different body composition and different proportions of body fat (Sardinha et al., 1999). Bearing in mind the aforementioned limitations of BMI, in this study the relations of 3 bilateral tests assessing manipulative motor skills (Lovrić et al., 2019) to some morphological characteristics will be determined through measures of longitudinal dimensionality, voluminosity, adipose fat tissue and transverse dimensionality.

Methods

The subject sample included N=43 boys whose chronological age was 7.34±0.53 years. Parents gave their consent for children to participate in the study and the whole research protocol was carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The final sample only involved participants who were right-handed, without visible motor disturbances or injuries, and not engaged in additional organized sports activities outside of obligatory PE classes.

The variable sample included 8 measures of morphological characteristics (Body height; Body mass; Knee diameter left; Hand diameter left; Calf skinfold left; Triceps skinfold left; Calf circumference left; Mid-upper arm circumference left). To assess manipulative motor skills, three bilateral quantitative/qualitative tests will be used: Standing ball throwing, Bouncing the ball standing, and Dribbling the ball with the foot (Lovrić et al., 2019). Aside from the calculated descriptive indicators, the KS test was used to determine the normality of distribution in all the applied variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to calculate the total effect of morphological characteristics on each motor test, as well as partial effect of each morphological characteristic on test performance.

Results

The results of descriptive statistics, and distribution normality testing of morphological characteristics, and bilateral tests assessing manipulative motor skills (Table 1) indicate that in the observed sample, and the variables applied, the result distribution does not deviate significantly from normal distribution. Fur- thermore, by observing the descriptive indicators of bilateral tests assessing manipulative motor skills on the sample of seven-year-old boys, it can be seen that arithmetic means are within normal limits, with low data dispersion, which is also confirmed by a relatively low coefficient of variance in all the applied tests.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics parameters, and the results of distribution normality of the applied morphological characteristics, and bilateral tests for assessing manipulative motor skills in seven-year-old boys (AM – arithmetic mean; σ - standard deviation; CV% - coefficient of variation; Min - minimum result; Max – maximum result; α3 - coefficient of

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asymmetry of distribution; α4 – coefficient of flatness of distribution; KS-p – significance of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test )

Variables AM σ CV% Min Max α3 α4 KS - p BBRH 5.98 2.64 44.19 0.00 9.00 -1.09 0.39 > 0.20 BBLH 5.88 2.50 42.57 0.00 11.00 -0.77 0.68 > 0.20 BTR 8.19 3.07 37.49 3.00 12.00 -0.45 -1.19 < 0.20 BTL 5.49 2.74 49.84 0.00 11.67 0.08 -0.45 > 0.20 DBFR 6.47 2.56 39.54 1.33 12.00 0.11 -0.25 > 0.20 DBFL 5.91 2.56 43.29 0.00 11.00 -0.12 -0.10 > 0.20

BH 131.07 6.06 4.62 119.40 147.00 0.18 0.47 > 0.20 BM 30.33 6.39 21.06 22.50 54.90 1.68 4.24 > 0.20 KDL 7.66 0.47 6.14 6.50 9.03 0.43 1.05 > 0.20 HDL 6.15 0.37 6.07 5.50 7.27 0.62 0.73 < 0.15 CSL 12.80 4.83 37.71 5.23 28.23 1.26 2.13 > 0.20 TSL 11.35 6.55 57.74 5.70 45.43 3.68 17.40 > 0.20 CCL 27.01 2.49 9.21 22.03 33.17 0.55 0.14 > 0.20 MUACL 19.47 2.40 12.34 14.97 27.50 1.01 2.05 > 0.20

Legend: Bilateral motor tests: BBRH – Bouncing the ball standing with right hand; BBLH – Bouncing the ball standing with left hand; BTR – Standing ball throwing with right hand; BTL – Standing ball throwing with left hand; DBFR – Dribbling the ball with the foot (right leg); DBFL – Dribbling the ball with the foot (left leg); Anthropological characteristics: BH – Body height; BM – Body mass; KDL – Knee diameter left; HDL – Hand diameter left; CSL – Calf skinfold left; TSL – Triceps skinfold left; CCL – Calf circumference left; MUACL – Mid-upper arm circumference left.

The results of multiple regression analyses of the effect of anthropological characteristics on bilateral motor tests for assessing the level of acquisition of manipulative motor skills in seven-year-old boys are presented in Table 2. Both the total effect of anthropological characteristics on each test and partial effect of each morphological characteristic on test performance were calculated.

Table 2. Results of regression analysis of anthropological variables (predictors), and motor skill test variables (criteria) for boys. (β – partial effect of each predictor variable in standardized form; p – significance of β coefficient; R – coefficient of multiple correlation; R2 – coefficient of multiple determination; p – significance of the regression model)

BBRH BBLH BTR BTL DBFR DBFL β p β p β p β p β p Β p BH - 0.18 0.60 -0.28 0.41 -0.31 0.42 -0.43 0.20 -0.16 0.61 0.18 0.62 BM -0.43 0.55 -0.43 0.54 0.35 0.64 0.28 0.67 -0.71 0.27 -0.70 0.35 KDL -0.30 0.69 -0.28 0.69 0.09 0.91 -1.29 0.08 -0.14 0.83 -0.60 0.44 HDL -0.30 0.64 -0.25 0.68 0.07 0.91 0.35 0.55 0.04 0.94 0.10 0.88 CSL -1.20 0.56 -0.03 0.99 -1.81 0.42 1.29 0.51 1.73 0.35 1.99 0.36 TSL 0.21 0.45 0.06 0.81 -0.03 0.92 0.23 0.38 -0.24 0.34 0.14 0.62 CCL 1.16 0.44 1.48 0.31 -0.74 0.64 -0.43 0.76 1.90 0.16 0.81 0.61 MUACL 0.29 0..80 0.64 0.57 -0.39 0.75 0.20 0.85 0.87 0.40 1.27 0.30

R 0.49 0.55 0.34 0.58 0.63 0.41 R2 0.24 0.30 0.12 0.33 0.40 0.17 p 0.80 0.60 0.99 0.48 0.25 0.96

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leg); Anthropological characteristics: BH – Body height; BM – Body mass; KDL – Knee diameter left; HDL – Hand diameter left; CSL – Calf skinfold left; TSL – Triceps skinfold left; CCL – Calf circumference left; MUACL – Mid-upper arm circumference left.

Discussion

The regression analysis results of the effect of morphological characteristics on the quality of performance of bilateral motor tests for assessing manipulative motor skills (Table 2) indicate a lack of a statistically significant regression model, i.e., a lack of the effect of the observed morphological characteristics on performance of manipulative bilateral tests in the sample of boys. Furthermore, by observing each morphological characteristic partially, it can be noticed that neither of them has a statistically significant effect on the performance of each test for assessing manipulative motor skills. The obtained results can be compared, to some extent, to the studies that most commonly use BMI as the representative of morphological characteristics. Thus Franjko et al. (2013), in their research on the relationship between BMI and polygon for assessing fundamental movement skills (Žuvela, 2009), state that there is no statistically significant correlation between BMI and locomotor, and manipulative motor skills in eight-year-old boys and girls. Similar results were found when determining the correlation between selected morphological characteristics, and the aforementioned polygon. The obtained results have been confirmed by other previous studies, which also confirmed that the realization of basic motor skills is not related to BMI in children four to eight years of age. (Cantenassi et al. 2007; Machado et al. 2002). Furthermore, Nunes et al. (2004) state that body weight, body height, and BMI do not significantly affect the performance of locomotor, and manipulative motor skills in 6 to 7-year-old children.

Conclusion

Based on the obtained results, it can be said that performance of bilateral manipulative motor tests on the subject employed sample does not depend on morphological characteristics. The reason for this might lie in the type of the sample itself, i.e., small number of overweight, and obese children, who have a lower level of fundamental movement skills performance compared with the normal-weight children (Franjko et al., 2013; in Cole et al., 2000). The relatively small number of subjects is certainly one of the limitations of this study. Moreover, in future research it would be interesting to determine inter-relations between the applied variables on a sample of obese children.

References

1. Burton, W.A. & Miller, E.D. (1998). Movement skill assessment. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 2. Cantenassi, F.Z., Marques, I., Bastos, C.B., Basso, L., Vaz Ronque, E.R. & Gerage, A.M. (2007). Relationship between body mass index and gross motor skill in four to six-year-old children. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 13(4), 203-206. 3. Cole T.J., Bellizzi M.C., Flegal K.M., Dietz W.H. (2000). Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ; 320:1240-1243. 4. D’Hondt, E., Deforche, B., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., & Lenoir, M. (2009). Relationship between motor skill and body mass index in 5- to 10-year-old children. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly,26 (1), 21-37. 5. Franjko, I., Žuvela, F., Kuna, D., Kezić, A. (2013). Relations between Some Anthropometric Charac- teristics and Fundamental Movement Skills in Eight-Year-Old Children. Croatian Journal of Educa- tion. 15;4, 195-209. 6. Lovric, F., Jelaska, I., Clark, C., Eyre, E., Miletic, D., & Mandic, P. (2019). Bilateral tests for the assessment of manipulative skills in children: development, reliability, and validity. Human Movement, 20(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5114/hm.2019.83991. 7. Machado H.S., Campos W., Silva S.G. (2002). Relação entre composição corporal e a performance de padrões motores fundamentais em escolares. Rev Bras Ativ Fís Saúde. (1):63-70. 8. Mazzardo, Jr. O. (2008). The Relationship of Fundamental Movement Skills and Level of Physical Activity in Second Grade Children. Unpublished Doctorate, University of Pittsburgh. 9. Nunes, G.F., Campos W., Schubert, V., Mascarenhas, L.P.G., Machado, H.S., Brum, V.P.C. (2004). The influence of height, weight and body proportions on the performance of basic motor skills of loco- motion and manipulation of children aged 6-7 years old. FIEP Bulletin.74:213-6. 10. Sallis, J.F., McKenzie, T.L., Kolody, B., Lewis, M., Marshall, S. (1999). Effects of Health-Related Physical Education on Academic Achievement: Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 70, (2), 127-134. 11. Southall, J.E., Okely, A.D., & Steele, J.R. (2004). Actual and perceived physical competence in overweight and nonoverweight children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 16, 15–24.

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RELATION BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MOTOR ABILITIES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN

Mateja Beck; Zvonimir Tomac; Dražen Rastovski University J.J. Strossmayer of Osijek, Faculty of Education, Osijek, Croatia

Introduction

Physical activity is an indispensable part of young children’s everyday life. The fact that children of the same age show considerable differences in physical and mental maturity indicates that the pace of development in children belonging to the same age group differs (Kosinac, 2011). Indeed, the mechanisms of retention at the highest level of traits and abilities are not indefinite; however, exercise-induced adaptation, in addition to raising the traits and abilities, can also affect the retention of those traits and abilities at a frequently above-average level, which certainly extends the quality of life to old age (Prskalo and Sporiš, 2016:123). If children are involved in physical activities from an early age, whether it is sports or performing various daily activities, it will significantly help them develop their personality, socialization process, create work habits, and self-discipline. Today, there are a number of activities offered from which children can choose those which they find most interesting. Physical activity is usually defined as “any movement of the body associated with a muscular contraction that increases energy expenditure above resting levels” (Prskalo and Sporiš, 2016). This definition includes physical activity during leisure time (including kinesiological activities), physical activity at the workplace, as well as in and around the home. Zaciorski (1975) states that motor abilities can be defined as those aspects of motor activity that appear in moving structures that can be described by the same parametric system, measured by an identical set of measures, and in which analogous physiological, biological, and psychological processes, or mechanisms occur. Although motor skills do not have a significant impact on the protection and promotion of health, a high level of motor skills reduces the risk of falls, and similar accidents. It is important to emphasize that motor skills are not significant in and of themselves, but are essential for the development of other traits and abilities. In order to encourage the development of other traits and abilities with which motor skills are associated and to successfully perform a variety of daily tasks, it is imperative to develop motor skills to a level that is objectively achievable given the genetic predisposition. A study by Wulf, Weigelt, Poulter, and McNevin (2003) confirmed that attention focus has a significant and vital impact on the acquisition of motor skills. Motor learning is the most intense in the period of growth and development because we use all the knowledge which we acquire during that period throughout our lives. Southall, Okely, and Steele (2004) found in their study that preschool children between three and six years of age also have the best biological conditions for the development of basic motor skills. Privitellio, Caput-Jogunica, Gulan, and Boschi (2007) conducted a study on a sample of 136 children (61 girls and 75 boys) aged three to six years. They studied motor skills, which were measured at the beginning and end of the program with a series of six motor tests for explosive power, repetitive power, flexibility, agility, and balance. The results showed that the sports program improved their motor skills. A difference was found between boys who had better explosive power and coordination scores and girls in tests of receptive power, motility, and balance. Based on the results obtained, they determined the importance of physical exercise for the youngest children, especially for their growth and development, and thus that physical exercise can affect motor skills. Pejčić, Malacko, and Tomljenović conducted a survey in 2008 on a sample of 1,028 first-grade students, who were tested in 11 variables (four morphological measures, six motor tests, and one functional test – aerobic capacity). The test results are presented in mutual correlation, i.e., there is a correlation between morphological characteristics and the results of the motor tests, and they are put in relation to aerobic endurance. In such a situation, the research results show that the students achieved better results in tests of explosive and static power, coordination, and aerobic endurance if they have reduced body weight and reduced fat content, and vice versa. In 2015, Badrić and Sporiš conducted a survey comprising 434 boys enrolled in grades five through eight. The authors conducted a study to determine the differences in motor skills between the students who were divided according to the level of physical activity during their leisure time. The study measured 15 measurements of motor ability, two measurements of morphological characteristics, and the estimated time spent in physical activities during leisure time using a questionnaire. The results showed that the students who engage in additional physical activity during their leisure time achieve better results in all measurement tests of motor skills. Students who do not exercise for at least 60 minutes a day have poorer motor skills, and physically inactive students have increased body mass. Wrotniak et al. (2006) conducted a study on a sample of 65 students (34 girls and 31 boys) to examine the link between motor skills and physical activity of students aged eight to 10 years. Physical activity was assessed using an accelerometer, and motor skills were tested with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Motor Skills Test. The results showed that the motor skills of the students were positively related to the level of physical activity of moderate and moderate to strong intensity and inversely related to the percentage of

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time spent in sedentary activities. The children who scored the best in the motor skills test were also the children with the highest level of physical activity, which leads to the conclusion that motor skills are positively related to physical activity and inversely related to sedentary activities as well as that an improvement in the motor skills can be a good objective for an increase in physical activity in young children. The same sample showed that children with a higher body mass index were less physically active, spent more time in sedentary activities, and performed worse in motor tests compared to children with a lower BMI. Williams et al. (2008) conducted research for the same purpose. The sample consisted of a group of 80 three-year-olds and 118 four-year-olds. The CHAMPS6 Motor Skill Protocol was used to assess motor skills, and physical activity was measured using an accelerometer. The results proved the same findings as those obtained in the previous study. Children with poorer motor skills are less active, while children with better motor skills spend significantly less time sitting. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the correlation between physical activity and the development of motor skills and anthropometric characteristics and to uncover whether additional physical exercise has a positive effect on their development.

Methods

The study was conducted on a sample of 30 students (11 boys and 19 girls) from an elementary school in Osijek. The students were enrolled in the second grade and were nine years old. The students attended a regular PE curriculum. Subsequently, the sample of the participants was divided into two sub-samples with regards to sports. One sub-sample consisted of children who train two or more times a week, while the other sub-sample included children who do not engage in sports activities.

Measuring instruments

The measurement was conducted during May 2018. In early May, the students completed a PAQ-C questionnaire to determine their level of physical activity in the last seven days from the day the questionnaire was administered. In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, it was also administered one week after the first measurement. Six motor variables were also measured on the basis of which the students’ motor abilities could be assessed, i.e., flexibility, coordination, explosive power, static power, repetitive power, and speed. The abilities were measured with a battery of tests: polygon backward (MPOL), sit-and-reach (MPRK), 30-second hand tapping (MTR15), standing long-jump (MSD), bent arm hang (MIV), and sit-ups (MPT).

Results

The questions in the PAQ-C questionnaire explored how the students spend their free time, how active they are during PE classes, and what their level of physical activity is.

Table 1. Reliability of the physical activity assessment questionnaire using the test-retest method and the differences obtained between the first and second measurement of the items on the physical activity questionnaire

AS 1. measurement AS 2. measurement t-value df p

X2 vs. X2 F 2.26 2.19 0.39 58.00 0.70 3. activity vs. 3. activity F 4.60 4.53 0.27 58.00 0.79 4. activity vs. 4. activity F 3.23 2.90 0.93 58.00 0.36 5. activity vs. 5. activity F 2.23 2.23 0.00 58.00 1.00 6. activity vs. 6. activity F 3.43 3.07 1.09 58.00 0.28 7. activity vs. 7. activity F 3.33 2.83 1.60 58.00 0.11 8.activity vs. 8.activity F 3.37 3.00 1.32 58.00 0.19 9. activity vs. 9. activity F 3.27 3.27 0.00 58.00 1.00 10. activity vs. 10. activity F 3.26 3.06 0.98 58.00 0.33 11. activity vs. 11. activity F 3.22 3.01 1.53 58.00 0.13

*p= 0.05

The test-retest method (Table 1) established a satisfactory level of reliability of the questionnaire since there was no statistically significant difference in any part of the questionnaire or the total physical activity.

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Table 2. Basic descriptive parameters of motor ability and anthropometric characteristics of the total sample

N AS SD Min Max

bent arm hang 30.00 13.46 13.22 0.00 48.18 standing long-jump 30.00 1.14 0.19 0.82 1.40 60-second sit-ups 30.00 32.40 8.92 20.00 50.00 sit-and-reach 30.00 44.50 9.22 30.00 60.00 polygon backward 30.00 23.34 5.50 15.60 40.00 30-second hand tapping 30.00 19.47 3.14 15.00 28.00 body height 30.00 138.33 6.75 120.00 154.00 body mass 30.00 34.67 6.45 22.00 51.00

Table 2 shows that the children in the Total activity variable are not active enough since the result 1 indicates a low level of physical activity, and the result 5 a high level of physical activity.

Table 3. Correlation matrix of the questionnaire item variables, motor skills, and anthropometric characteristics

30-sec- bent arm standing 60-second sit-and- polygon body body ond hand hang long-jump sit-ups reach backward height mass tapping

X2 0.13 0.11 0.33 0.28 -0.22 0.28 0.04 -0.06 3. activity 0.17 -0.08 -0.03 0.35 -0.20 0.00 0.02 0.02 4. activity 0.06 0.21 0.16 -0.11 -0.14 0.16 0.01 -0.01 5. activity -0.05 0.00 -0.03 -0.30 0.10 0.11 -0.10 0.01 6. activity -0.02 0.05 0.12 -0.07 0.19 0.06 0.30 0.30 7. activity 0.07 0.14 0.12 0.15 -0.31 0.13 0.18 0.16 8.activity 0.11 0.17 0.18 -0.08 -0.20 0.01 -0.06 -0.19 9. activity 0.56* 0.44* 0.41* -0.35 -0.27 -0.04 -0.28 -0.47* 10. activity 0.46* 0.55* 0.60* 0.02 -0.49* 0.19 -0.30 -0.41* 11. activity 0.32 0.36* 0.40* -0.09 -0.32 0.20 -0.02 -0.11

*p= 0.05

The correlation matrix shows a positive correlation between the level of physical activity and all forms of strength or power. It is observed that more frequently active children (questions 9 and 10) have more developed strength and also lower body weight with regards to the negative correlation with this variable.

Table 4. Differences between the sub-samples with regards to the amount of training

AS sample not AS sample T-test engaged in engaged in t-value df p sports sports bent arm hang 8.69 18.24 -2.09 28.00 0.046* standing long-jump 1.08 1.19 -1.51 28.00 0.142 60-second sit-ups 28.40 36.40 -2.71 28.00 0.011* sit-and-reach 41.67 47.33 -1.74 28.00 0.093 polygon backward 25.88 20.79 2.82 28.00 0.009* 30-second hand tapping 19.40 19.53 -0.11 28.00 0.910 body height 137.80 138.87 -0.43 28.00 0.673 body mass 35.53 33.80 0.73 28.00 0.471

*p = 0.05

An analysis of the differences revealed that children who train more than twice a week have significantly more arm and torso strength and are more coordinated, which is logical given the greater amount of stimuli. Obviously, the higher the number of stimuli, the more favorable the ability development.

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Discussion

The test-retest method of the students’ Physical Activity Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ-C) achieved a satisfactory level of reliability (Table 1). This research confirmed that children with higher levels of physical activity, i.e., those who exercise two or more times a week, have more advanced abilities with an emphasis on coordination and arm strength. Also, Haga (2007) found that children with higher levels of physical activity achieve better overall scores in the motor skills assessment test and the two items assessing upper extremity coordination. The study was conducted on a sample of 67 children aged 9 and 10 years, whereby he found a relatively high and significant association between motor test results and physical activity. Children who are more involved in physical activity achieved better results in motor skills tests, which included manual ability, balance, and ball manipulation. Ara et al. (2007) conducted a study to determine a statistically significant difference in the overall development of motor skills in children of different levels of physical activity. The sample consisted of 1,068 children aged between 7 and 12 years. Physically more active boys have been shown to perform better in motor skills than their less active peers, while in girls, the exception is hand tapping and fist clenching – tests in which both groups of active and inactive girls achieved the same results. Also, higher levels of physical activity have a positive effect on lower body mass (Table 3, questions 9 and 10).

Conclusion

From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the role of physical activity is significant, both for children and adults. Also, it is a fact that a healthy lifestyle and healthy habits originate from a young age and that they should be instilled in young children. At an early age, children meet their needs for companion- ship and socialization through games, sports, and recreation. It is during that period that it would be best to encourage a child to engage in some sport or other kinesiological activity. In this way, children are exposed to proper growth and development, acquire useful social skills that will serve them throughout their life, and more easily withstand the daily stress and obligations that await them. It has been proven, both in earlier studies and in this one, that more physically active students achieve better results in motor skills tests. It is precisely the improvement of motor skills that can be a good goal and motivation to increase the physical activity of young school children, and thus have a higher chance of continuing to be physically active in the future. Therefore, they are one step closer to a fuller and better quality of life. Practicing physical activity has been shown to facilitate functioning in different areas of life, raise self-esteem and mood, improve self-image, reduce psychosocial stress, depression, and anxiety, and ultimately provide real pleasure and satisfaction. This research found a statistically significant correlation between the level of physical activity and the development of motor skills and skills, and it was proved that the level of physical activity also influences weight loss, which is one of the major problems that the youth faces today. It is never too late for an active life, but this is another research that proves that engaging in activities from a young age changes life from the ground up and the beginnings for the better.

References

1. Ara, I., Moreno, L.A., Leiva, M.T., Gutin, B., Casajús, J.A. (2007). Adiposty, Physical Activity, and Physical Fitness Among Children From Aragón, Spain. Obesity, 15 (8), 1918-1924. 2. Badrić, M., Sporiš, G. (2015). Razlike u motoričkim sposobnostima učenika prema razini tjelesne aktivnosti u slobodno vrijeme. Hrvatski športskomedicinski vijesnik, 30, 91-97. 3. Haga, M. (2008). The relationship between physical fitness and motor competence in children. Child: care, health and development, 34 (3), 329-334. 4. Kosinac, Z. (2011). Morfološko – motorički i funkcionalni razvoj djece uzrasne dobi od 5. do 11. godine. Split : Savez školskih športskih društava grada Splita. 5. Prskalo, I., Sporiš, G. (2016). Kineziologija. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. 6. Southall, J.E., Okely, A.D., Steele, J.R. (2004). Actual and perceived physical competence in overweight and nonoverweight children. Pediatric Exercise Science 7. Pejčić, A., Malacko, J., Tomljenović, B. (2008). Relations between morphological and motor-functional variables and their effects on aerobic capacity of boys and girls in the first class of elementary school. Zagreb 8. Zaciorski, V. M. (1975). Fizička svojstva sportiste. Beograd: Partizan. 9. Williams, H.G., Pfeiffer, K.A., O’Neill, J.R., Dowda, M., McIver, K.L., Brown, W.H., Pate, R.R. (2008). Motor Skill Performance and Physical Activity in Preschool Children. Obesity, 16 (6), 1421-1426. 10. Wrotniak, B.H., Epstein, L.H., Dorn, J.M., Jones, K.E., Kondilis V.A. (2006). The Relationship Be- tween Motor Proficiency and Physical Activity in Children. Pediatrics, 118 (6), 1758-1765.

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SPORT AS A MEANS OF DIPLOMACY

Dragan Kolev University of Belgrade, Faculty for Diplomacy and Security, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

“Sport has a unique and irreplaceable capacity to unite people, regardless of their ethnic, religious or social differences. I am convinced that sport can be a long-term instrument in the service of peace“ Prince Albert II

The main point of reference in this paper is the often repeated claim that “athletes are the best ambassadors of their country”. People who have the attributes of sports success behind them are also ambassadors of the country they come from. The moment an athlete competes in an international tournament and wears a jersey with the symbol of the country he represents, he became the ambassador of his country. So, he not only promotes himself and his team, but also his country.

We look at this topic in a broader political sense, because diplomacy is only a manifestation of a country’s foreign policy. Sport has long been a part of politics, and thus part of diplomacy, but politics and thus diplomacy have also become part of sport. Sport, and especially top sport, was often a hostage of politics, but politics was also a hostage of sport. There are many positive examples of harmonization and cooperation between sports and diplomacy.

Significant efforts were inputing daily to increase the prestige, and reputation of the state in international relations, with the help of sports and sports results. Some countries have become “sports forces” in some sports. Conducting a designed and planned sports policy (sports policy) is a highly ranked imperative in many countries. Therefore, it is difficult to find a state that does not have a special Ministry of Sports in its government. This fact speaks of the growing awareness of the importance of sports, both for the vitality of the nation, and for the recognizability of a country in the global map of the world. In this sense, states hire athletes to improve diplomatic relations, and use sporting events to calm tensions or test the foundations for future policies.

Redeker Robert considers that it is safe to say that there are no countries that do not show some kind of interest in sports, which makes sports suitable for the exchange of political messages (Redeker, 2008). This can be said especially for football3. In that sense, Roger Levermore and Adrian Buss note that in the post-Cold War period, the newly formed states primarily sought to join the International Olympic Com- mittee, and the World Football Federation rather than the United Nations (Levenmore and Buss, 2004). Sport has had a special social status since ancient times. The ancient Olympic Games were held in a holy place during the holy holiday, and meant the cessation of all conflicts and the participation of representatives of the warring parties. It is an obvious example of the peaceful role of sport. Due to such global power of sport, and its role in the integration of multicultural societies, the United Nations recognizes it as an effective tool for the development of various spheres of life and work (health, education, sustainable development, peacekeeping and communication) and with that intention development of peace ”(Office on Sport for Devel- opment and Peace - UNO SDP).

Djordje Stakic claims that “there are frequent cases, and examples that what classical diplomacy cannot or, for various reasons, does not want to do in certain circumstances, and situations of especially aggravated interstate, interethnic conflicts, and conflicts, is very successfully done by sport itself and especially respectable personalities from the world of sports, international sports institutions, in appropriate, and suitable occasions, meeting the search for appropriate political solutions, ie acting in the direction of creating conditions for peaceful resolution of problems and conflicts. “ Thus, sport and sports diplomacy have played a significant role in the history of human society in preventing social conflicts and bringing and maintaining peace. The most drastic example is the cessation of war conflicts, and other hostilities during the Olympics in ancient Greece (Štakić, 2000).

The importance of sport, and its general impact on society is great. Most importantly, viewed from the state-building level - it strengthens national cohesion, and preserves the health of the nation. From the international level, sport has contributed to tolerance, and reduction of tensions between countries, but sport can also create the image of the state, sport can brand countries. Sport has a specific social and political weight. The “soft power” of sport is most clearly manifested in the ability to solve interstate problems even when classical diplomacy is not able to do so. Then the activities of sports-diplomatic missions often go

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beyond the framework of sports. Stuart Murray, and Allen Geoffrey Pigman believe that the relationship between diplomacy, and sports is insufficiently studied, although it is very obvious as a phenomenon (Murray and Pigman, 2014). Gianna Lusha is of the opinion that the use of sports as a means of diplomacy is advo- cated by the representatives of the constructivist theory of international relations (Luša, 2016).

The use of sport in the realization of state interests in the international community, for examining the possibilities of future negotiations, points to the conclusion that sport has become an invisible and intangible part of foreign policy. Gianna Lusha claims that this intangible power of sports stems from a combination of public, and cultural diplomacy. In this sense, Trevor Taylor also points to the need for theorists of international relations to pay much more attention to sport, because it, as a significant social factor, strongly influences, and articulates international relations. American scientist of international relations Katharine L. Winstanley points out that sport occupies the so-called “Silent space” in international relations, and suggests that the academic study of international relations should overcome the established strict boundaries that separate the political and non-political, which is a reflection of the constructivist interpretation of international relations. Barrie Houlihan defines five basic points of contact between sport and international politics: a) diplomacy, b) ideology, c) nation building, e) accessibility and e) money. In addition to these points of contact, it is possible to mention numerous other similarities and connections between sports and diplomacy (table 1).

Table 1. Similarities, points of contact, and connections between sports and diplomacy

DIPLOMACY SPORTS 1 Diplomatic protocol (ritual) Sports protocol (rituals) 2 Foreign policy marketing (state branding) Marketing in sports (branding of clubs and athletes) Proxemic (spatial) aspect of sport (space struggle / space Proxemic (spatial) aspect of diplomacy (territorial integrity) 3 defense) 4 Diplomacy is a game (homo ludens) Sport is a game (only in a game does a man become a man) 5 Diplomatic conventions Game rules (unique in the whole world) 6 Diplomatic sanctions Sanctions in sports 7 Diplomatic (political) power Sport has a kind of "soft power" 8 Diplomatic success is important Winning is important (not just participation) 9 Use / abuse (expulsion of diplomats) Use / abuse (sports sanctions, match-fixing, espionage, etc.) 10 Foreign Policy Strategies and Tactics (Gloved Diplomacy) In sports strategy and tactics 11 Diplomatic incident (Diplomatic war) Sports Incident (Sports War) 12 Diplomatic espionage Sports espionage 13 Arcanic (esoteric) content of diplomacy Arcane sports content 14 Diplomatic sport (tennis) Sports diplomacy Diplomacy has become part of sport (sport as a hostage of Athletes became diplomats 15 politics) 16 Diplomacy can be (mis) used Sport can be (mis) used 17 Diplomatic relations International sports relations 18 Diplomatic solidarity Sports solidarity 19 Violence in diplomacy (so called bulldozer diplomacy) Violence in sports Sport - one of the most important unconventional communication Diplomacy - a foreign policy communication platform 20 platforms 21 Diplomacy as a means of achieving peace Sport as a means of achieving peace

Thus, sport generates many benefits, and is therefore politically significant (Jackson and Haigh, 2008). Therefore, sport, politics, and diplomacy have long since become compatible. Numerous questions about the relationship between sports and diplomacy open up and seek answers:

What is the nature and what is the essence of sports diplomacy?; What are its diplomatic achievements and possibilities?; Why is it possible to instrumentalize sport as a soft power for diplomatic purposes?; Because sport has power, specific power, and because sport and diplomacy (in the broader sense of politics) are similar in many ways, that is, they have numerous points of contact?

We will try to keep track of the answers to these and many other questions concerning the relationship between sports and diplomacy. Contrary to the realistic power that implies the material aspect of power,

154 UDK: 796:341.7 the theory of constructivism emphasizes the importance of “soft power”. In that sense, our intention to explain the importance of sport as a means of diplomacy through the prism of “soft power” is justified.

Definition of basic terms

The basic terms used in this paper are: sports diplomacy, and “soft power”. As there is no single definition of any of these terms, we need to pay attention to them shortly. The term “sports diplomacy”

What is diplomacy? Numerous definitions of this phenomenon existed, and here the one offered by Ivan Anastasovski stands out for this occasion. He believes that diplomacy is a term that has many meanings, but everyone has in common touching the sphere of international relations and foreign policy, and in that sense it implies “ability, knowledge, skills, methods of communication, maintaining international relations, negotiating, resolving conflict situations.” That is what concerns general diplomacy as a concept, but for that we must slowly but surely open the way to diplomacy that takes place through sports or the so-called. “Sports diplomacy”, which is still not seriously treated in this area (Atanasovski, 2014). With the appearance of a new phenomenon (connection between sports and diplomacy), new terms appear, such as the phrase “sports diplomacy”. It has significantly affirmed and established itself with its precise semantic content, but also with empirically exact facts. It will have a more complete theoretical and methodological foundation, in order to establish itself as a scientific discipline. Sports diplomacy is one of the areas in which the process of transformation of classical diplomacy is taking place. Just as there is diplomatic sport (tennis, golf), so there is sports diplomacy or sports diplomacy. When sports diplomacy is mentioned, then we have in mind its positive connotation, because it has managed to help resolve many disputes, to bring peoples and countries closer. Sports diplomacy is just one specific form of public diplomacy. That is, the principles of classical diplomacy (abilities, skills, knowledge, reputation, etc.) are applied in the field of sports diplomacy. The mission of sports diplomacy, and classical diplomacy are the same, only they take place through different channels. They complement each other, cooperate, although they act separately and in parallel. We can talk about “parallel diplomatic missions” (classical and sports diplomacy). If we keep in mind that classical diplomacy through accredited missions has the basic function of representing, and protecting the interests of its country in the host country, it is clear that sports diplomacy can also help in achieving that goal.

Within the framework of international sports cooperation, sports diplomacy takes place on two levels:

1. at the first level, national interests are realized through sports diplomacy (sports representations af- firm the reputation, and prestige of states with their successes, the position of the “sports nation” is confirmed, etc.) and 2. through club international sports competitions where, in addition to national interests, the motives of sports business, and profit come to the fore. Ljubodrag Simonović-Duci, one of the best former basketball players in the world, and now one of the loudest critics of the abuse of sports and modern Olympism, wrote a lot about that. His most famous books are: “Robot Rebellion” (1981), “Sport-Cap- italism-Destruction” (1995), “Philosophical Aspects of Modern Olympism” (2001), “Olympic Prank” (2007), “A New World is Possible” (2007 ), “Get up, worker!” (2011), “The Last Revolution” (2013) and others.

That is how the European Union recognized the concept of sports diplomacy in 2015. and formed an expert group on sports diplomacy (Europska Unija, 2019). Pamment James is of the opinion that sports diplomacy as an area of research has an important role in conceptualizing the connections between different diplomatic protocols, but also their impact on international relations (Pamment, 2016). Marc Keech views sports diplomacy in a broader sense, and explains its essence through a series of international contacts, and competitiveness, which have implications for overall relations between states. According to the author, sports diplomacy is usually viewed as a form of public diplomacy (Keech, 2001). Beata Ociepka points out that sport plays a significant role in public diplomacy in order to strengthen the country’s international reputation (Ociepka, 2019). Likewise, Stuart Murray believes that sports diplomacy is an integral part of public diplomacy (Murray, 2018), while Mabillard Vincent, and Jadi Daniel are of the opinion that sport is closer in character to cultural diplomacy (Mabillard and Jadi, 2011).

Leo Muzhikbeav believes that sports diplomacy involves formal, and informal actions of the state, diplomatic missions, sports leaders, athletes, and other actors to implement foreign policy with the help of sports (Muzhikbaev, 2014). Stuart Murray, and Allen Geoffrey Pigman have an interesting approach to sports diplomacy. They claim that “when we call traditional diplomacy a means of foreign policy, then we should know that sports diplomacy is a means of that means.” They emphasize two basic categories of practical application of sports diplomacy: a) the use of sports achievements as instruments of diplomacy (sports com-

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petitiveness), and b) the use of sports as a means of communication, negotiation and sending diplomatic messages (Murray and Pigman, 2014).

The 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations is an international agreement, which defines the framework for diplomatic relations between states. It determines the privileges of a diplomatic mission that allow diplomats to perform their function, without fear of coercion or harassment by the host country. This is the legal basis for diplomatic immunity. Its members are considered the foundations of modern international relations. By February 2017, the convention had been ratified by 191 states. Sports diplomacy should also adhere to the principles of the diplomatic convention. The term “soft power”

In recent years, in the professional literature dealing with geopolitical problems, great attention has been paid to the so-called “soft power”. As if the term itself has a magical appeal. It sounds more modern than the many terms used in diplomacy. What is meant by the definition of “soft power”? It is of fundamental importance to precisely clarify its meaning, to define its semantic content, to objectively present complete information, to consider its most important characteristics, to provide a balanced and integral approach. Before that, we will present its history in brief.

As in the case of many other phenomena, “soft power” is a phenomenon with a very long tradition, while the exact notion is of a recent date. Also, this kind of power is as old as the history of mankind. As a new term, it has become unavoidable within the global integration process. The term came into wide public use, which led to its different understanding, and was most often used as a synonym for all terms that were not directly related to military power. Although the authorship of the term “soft power” is attributed to Joseph Nye, it is necessary to note that, to our knowledge, it is not originally his. The prevailing view is that he made the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of “soft power” by defining the term as “the ability to influence others through co-operative resources shaping the agenda, persuading, and encouraging positive attraction in order to achieve the desired outcome” (Nye, 2004). It is important to point out that this term is mostly used in the analysis of international relations. It is becoming more and more important, because political leaders have realized that it can be more efficient than hard power.

Examples of (MISS) use of sport in diplomacy

Everything in this world, which possesses any kind of power, can be used for the benefit of man, but also abused against man. So it is with sports. Vincent Mabillard and Daniel Jadi cite various examples of the use of sport as a geopolitical weapon (boycott of world sports competitions), as a means of radicalizing relations between states, as a means of strengthening nationalism, but also as a means of building nation states and identities, as a medium for conveying positive political messages, encouraging dialogue and integration in multicultural societies (Mabilard and Jadi, 2011).

a) Examples of positive instrumentalization of sports in diplomacy

There are numerous examples of instrumentalization of the soft power of sport in the realization of national interests. We will, for the sake of illustration, list only the following:

Example no. 1. Sport and diplomacy are multifunctionally and multi-layered, and influence each other. Diplomacy affects sport just as sport affects diplomacy. Since when were the first Olympic Games organized in 776. b.c. to this day they have been a festival of sports, games and have formed a specific symbiosis with politics. Sport entered diplomacy a long time ago, and diplomacy entered sport. Therefore, the relationship between sports and diplomacy is not only correlated but also causal. Just as diplomacy opens the door to international sporting events, there are numerous examples when sport has opened the door to diplomacy. That is why many terms from sports are reflected in diplomacy, such as ping-pong diplomacy. The XXII Olympic Winter Games in Sochi (XXII Olympic Winter Games, 2014) and the World Cup in football (2018 FIFA World Cup Russia, 2018) can be considered the two most significant diplomatic victories of Russia, although there were ideas to boycott of this championship. Nowhere is “sending a message” to the world so clearly articulated as through organizing world sports events. All UN member states have their representatives in the Olympic Committee. When diplomats prepare for a diplomatic mission, they study the culture and customs of the people of the country they are going to. In that sense, they study sports, and the attitude towards sports. An example is Portugal, where football is a “kind of religion”, a part of culture, a part of tradition, and where our diplomats state that diplomatic talks often started with sports topics. Therefore, the diplomatic corps should take into

156 UDK: 796:341.7 account that fact as well. States compete, and lobby (diplomacy has a big role in that) to get the organization of international sports competitions, and when they succeed in that, they invest large financial resources and efforts to be good hosts of such events, and to present themselves in the best light. How much did China fight to get the organization of the 2019 World Basketball Championship? Special attention is paid to the security aspect (safety of athletes), and the prevention of incidents and terrorism (asymmetric conflicts - conflict is an extension of policy only by other means). On the other hand, the preparation of national teams, which will take part in world sports competitions, is given significant attention because they also demonstrate the sports power of the state (how they behave, how they fight for the result). The presence of embassy staff at important competitions, as a support to their national team, also speaks about that. They also organize receptions at embassies. Strategic planning in sports has long been a tradition in many countries.

Example no. 2. Many deserving athletes are celebrated as national heroes, and receive diplomatic passports, thus gaining diplomatic immunity. Many athletes have been named ambassadors of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) as honorary titles that promote universal values. Thus, for example, Novak Djokovic, and Ana Ivanovic received the title of UNICEF ambassador. One of the world’s most famous examples of athletes entering politics is the appointment of football player George Weah, the winner of the Golden Ball, as the president of Liberia.

Example no. 3. Both small (and territorially small) countries can be sports Davids, who successfully fight against Goliath in the sports arena. If we take Serbia as an example of a case study, we can single out one of the basic theses: Serbia has not used sports potentials for diplomatic purposes. This requires will, knowledge and skills. Many countries have sports development strategies that emphasize sports diplomacy. An example is Australia’s strategy, called “Sport and Diplomacy until 2030”, which aims to improve its position in international relations through sports diplomacy.

Example no. 4. Sport also contributes to changes in international relations. Thus, for example, Japan and South Korea, which do not have significant diplomatic relations, announced their candidacy for the World Football Cup. Nelson Mandela from prison says that he has the desire to hear the cheering from the stadium in South Africa, which has built nine stadiums.

Example no. 5. The Royal Football Club Madrid, colloquially known as Real Madrid (Real Madrid Club de Fútbol), is often cited as an example of the importance of sport in diplomacy. He became the most successful football club in the world during the time of the Spanish Prime Minister Francisco Franco (Generalissimo Francisco Franco), because he considered this club to be “the best Spanish embassy”. FIFA ranked him on its list as the best club of the 20th century.

Example no. 6. There is a lot of talk about fair play in sports and diplomacy. In sports, the rules of the game are precisely prescribed for each sport. In diplomacy, it is a diplomatic protocol largely prescribed by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 18 April 1961 (Vienna convention, 1964).

Example no. 7. Clubs, national teams, athletes are branded, especially if they have continuity (repetition of success) in preserving the achieved sports results. As such, they raise the sports reputation of the country, the nation they come from. Sport branding is a long-term process that requires patience and significant invest- ments, but which has a positive impact on the perception of a country. Sport has become a mechanism that shows the situation in the country. The name of a country is most easily heard through sports (“What quality of sport - such is the state”). Through the so-called the “soft power” of sport different influences are spreading in the world. The key word is the influence on one’s perception of the country where the athletes come from.

Example no. 8. One of the most well-known examples of the positive diplomatic use of sport is often the well-known event called “ping-pong diplomacy”. It is a term used to describe the exchange of table tennis (ping-pong) players between the United States and the People’s Republic of China in the early 1970s. This event opened the process of warming P.R.C. -American relations, and a little later, it enabled the visit of the President of the USA, Richard Nixon, to China. Namely, the United States viewed China as its geopolitical enemy, and pursued a policy of restraint towards it, which included an economic embargo. For almost two decades, there were no economic or diplomatic relations between the two countries, and one sporting event (the 1971. World Table Tennis Championships held in Japan) served as an occasion to open up to each other (The

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causes were deeper, and concern the strategic interests of both countries: China saw the establishment of closer relations with the United States as an adequate response to its increasingly strict relationship with the USSR, and the United States considered it important for peace agotiations with North Vietnam). The event that provided an opportunity for both China and the United States to establish cooperative relations happened quite by accident in April 1971. American table tennis player Glen Cowen missed his team’s bus, because he trained a little longer with the Chinese player, but he invited him to get on the Chinese team’s bus. Then, the Chinese player Zhuang Cedung (three-time world champion) gave him a picture of Mount Huangshan on a silk cloth. The journalists took a photo of the meeting of athletes from China, and the United States, which appeared on the front pages of numerous Japanese newspapers and attracted great world attention. Sources say that Mao Zedong also saw this picture, and decided to call the US Table Tennis Team, while it was remembered that he uttered the following sentence: “Zhuang Zedong is not only a good table tennis player, but also a good diplomat (Ping-Pong Diplomacy, 2019).” This was followed by a visit of the American table tennis delegation to China, where they spent a whole week sightseeing Chinese sights (the Great Wall, the Summer Palace, the Forbidden City, etc.) and playing revival matches. It was the first Amer- ican delegation to come to China since 1949. Political visits followed. At the beginning of 1972. The visit of US Presidents Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger to Shanghai was organized, when the “Shanghai Com- muniqué” was issued, stating that both countries would work on normalizing their relations, that the United States would recognize Taiwan as part of China, and lift sanctions against China. So, in this case, “ping-pong diplomacy” was successful in establishing relations between these two countries.

Example no. 9. Garret Mattingly also cites an example that happened in 1520 in northern France, and which is related to two emperors - the Meeting of Francois I and Henry VIII. They organized a competition of soldiers in archery in order to strengthen interstate relations in accordance with the Anglo-French agreement from 1514 (Mattingly, 1938).

Example no. 10. Stephen J. Jackson and Stephen Haigh cite numerous examples of the peaceful influence of sport, which have occurred in recent conflict history. They especially emphasize the cessation of the conflict during the First World War on Christmas 1914, in order to play football matches between enemy British and German soldiers.

Example no. 11. Joint performance of both Koreas in ice hockey at the 2018 Winter Olympics, but also at the 2019 Men’s Handball World Championship.

Example no. 12. In the early 1970s, the Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Germany began to use sport as an instrument of peace policy towards developing countries in order to alleviate negative prejudices about Ger- many (Auswaertiges Amt, 2010).

Example no. 13. James Rupert cites the example of the 2002 Kashmir crisis which brought India, and Pakistan to the brink of war. Those countries in 2004 held a series of cricket matches to reduce tensions, and examine the possibility of normalizing relations, opening borders and continuing negotiations. Likewise, after the terrorist attacks in Mumbai in 2008, relations were frozen again, and cricket was again used as a diplomatic instrument to normalize relations between India and Pakistan (Rupert, 2011).

Example no. 14. A similar, positive role was played by the initiative of the so-called baseball diplomacy in order to improve relations between the United States, and Cuba.

Example no. 15. An example of using sports events for diplomatic purposes is organizing the so-called football diplomacy, which repaired the bad bilateral relations between Turkey and Armenia (Murray and Pigman, 2014).

Example no. 16. Sport also made it possible to achieve peace. In that sense, the ABA Basketball League (Adriatic Basketball League), in which clubs from the former republics of Yougoslavia (Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovi- na, Northern Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro) have competed since 2001, is often cited as an example of good practice. Due to sports (Olympic Games), the Greek states stopped the wars. The cessation of the conflict enabled the representatives of the warring parties to come to the competition, and they were guaranteed security. The renewal of the Olympic Games in the 19th century was also aimed at universal values - peace, solidarity, cooperation, etc.

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Example no. 17. After the victory of the Republic of South Africa at the World Rugby Championship in 1995 sport was used as an instrument of national unification after suffering crises caused by apartheid.

b) Examples of negative instrumentalization of sports in diplomacy

There are numerous examples of abuse of sports in diplomacy. We illustrate this tendency with the following examples. Example no. 1. Stuart Marie and Allen Jeffrey Pigman warn that there have been numerous examples in the history of sports when sports events have caused conflicts between countries. As the most famous example of a sports incident, which was used for social conflict, the so-called “Football War” (Spanish la guerra del fútbol, English football war, Russian футбольная война) or also known as the “Hundred Hours’ War”. It was a short-lived seven-day (July 14-20, 1969) war fought by El Salvador and Honduras. Like many times in the history of warfare, the causes are much deeper, and the reasons are often very prosaic. This war had economic causes (land reforms in Honduras), and the migration of the population from El Salvador to Hon- duras. The reason was the riots that broke out during the second round of qualifications for the World Cup, which was to be held in the following 1970. During the third game, Salvadar cut off all diplomatic relations with Honduras. The army of El Salvador invaded the territory of Honduras, but the Organization of American States managed to end the armed conflicts through negotiations and to persuade El Salvador to withdraw its armed forces from the area of Honduras. The outcome is the status quo ante bellum in diplomatic vocabulary, ie everything has been returned to the state “as it was before the war”. Enemy military forces were returned to the territories where they were before the outbreak of the conflict. A decade later (at the end of October 1980), these states signed a peace agreement, and resolved the dispute over Fonseca Bay, and at the end of the 20th century, they signed a demarcation agreement. Honduras got 374.5 km². He estimates that over 3,000 participants were killed on both sides.

Example no. 2. The abuse of sport in diplomacy was especially evident at the XI Summer Olympic Games in Ger- many (Berlin), which the Nazis used to promote their ideology “about the superman” (German Ibermensch).

Example no. 3. The biggest sports events served to promote the ideologies of the regime, to send negative diplomatic messages (boycott of the Olympic Games), etc.

Conclusion and suggestions

The statement that “athletes are the best ambassadors of their country” has already taken root. Why did this happen? Because sport, among other things, enables in modern international relations that both small nations and territorially smaller countries can be superpowers in some sports, that is, that their athletes, and national teams achieve great sporting success. This increases their “visibility” on the world (geo) political scene. Athletes allow the flag to be raised, and the anthem to be played as symbols of the country they come from. This fact clearly shows that sport has a “soft power” that can also contribute to diplomatic efforts. That is why countries invest significant funds in sports so that their athletes, teams, coaches, selectors are recognizable brands on the world sports scene, and because they transfer part of that positive perception to the country they come from (they come from). In some countries, sport is raised to the level of sacredness. Efforts to maintain the continuity (repetition) of sports success play a significant role in that, which is not an easy task. In that sense, the practice of lobbying has been developed, in order for certain representatives of the state to become leaders in world sports associations, but also for winning the organization of major sports competitions. The benefits are significant, if we keep in mind that the countries are in the focus of the world’s attention (“the whole world is watching them”), especially thanks to the modern mass media. Many countries have realized that sports diplomacy, as part of public diplomacy, has a crucial role in winning and organizing world and continental sports championships, Olympic Games and the like. This significantly contributes to the branding of countries, because it is in the function of its positive representation, which relaxes the efforts of classical diplomacy. That is why athletes have long since stopped being not only athletes but also ambassadors of their country, especially if they have the attribute of successful.

Sport could also play a significant role in establishing co-operation in the Balkans. A good example could be the organization of regional sports competitions “Balkan Sports Games” before the First World War, which sought to improve the cooperation of the then countries of this region. We believe that the idea of reorganizing such a sports event would deserve attention. The fact is that in international relations, priority is still given to political, economic and military diplomacy. Therefore, there are educational institutions that deal with the training of personnel for classical, economic and military diplomacy. To our knowledge, there are no institutions in this area that deal with sports diplomacy. Even at the faculties that deal with sports or physical culture, it is difficult to find a syllabus of subjects that treat this issue. We believe that the construc- 159 UDK: 796:341.7

tion of sports diplomacy should be approached systematically. Trained sports ambassadors (ambassadors in sports) already exist at some embassies as sports attachés. Bearing in mind that the European Union is in its Strategy for Priorities until 2022 included the development of sports diplomacy, then it is a good reason to pay adequate attention to this issue in our country as well. The “European University of Madrid” (Universidad Europea de Madrid - UEM), which has a master’s degree in “Diplomacia en deportes”, can also serve as an example of good practice. We are also committed to the development of an authentic national strategy for sports diplomacy in Serbia, as a large number of countries have already developed their models of sports diplomacy.

If all the above is taken into account, then it is not meaningful to suggest that the subject “Sports Diplomacy” be introduced in the curriculum of the “Faculty of Sports and Physical Education”. I believe that there are reasonable and justified reasons for that. We have tried to offer some of these reasons in this paper.

References

1. Europska unija 2019“, Sport diplomacy, Source: https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/ publication/0efc09a6-025e-11e8-b8f5-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF (12. 3. 2020). 2. Ping-Pong Diplomacy and a Changing World [ChinesePod Weekly], The Official ChinesePod Blog. (9. 12. 2019). 3. Anastasovski Ivan (2014). Sportska diplomatija, Source: http://savremenisport.com/teorija-sporta/osnove-sporta/1/44/sportska-diplomatija (23. 3. 2020). 4. Auswaertiges Amt (2010). People on the Move: Overcoming Borders, Source: http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN /Ausshenpolitik/KulturDialog/Initiativen/Sport2010-Konzept_node.html (3. 3. 2020). 5. Bečka konvencija o diplomatskim odnosima (1964). “Službeni list SFRJ”, dodatak, 2/64, Beograd: Službeni list SFRJ. 6. Bloomberg, Source: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/cricket-diplomacy-at-world-cup-may-smoothtension-between-india-pakistan) (3. 3. 2020). 7. Houlihan Barrie (1994). Sports and International Politics. Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf. 8. Jackson J. Steven and Haigh Stephen (2008). “Between and Beyond Politics: Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World”, Sport in Society, Vol. 1, № 4, pp. 349 – 358., Source: https://doi. org/10.1080/17430430802019169 (3. 3. 2020). 9. Keech Marc (2001). “The Ties that Bind: South Africa and Sport diplomacy 1958–1963”. The Sport Historian, Vol. 21, № 1, pp. 71 – 93. Source: https://doi.org/10.1080/17460260109443377 (3. 3. 2020). 10. Levermore Roger and Buss Adrian (2004). Sport and International Relations: an emerging relationship. New York: Routledge, Source: https://doi.org/10.4324/978020 3497234 (3. 3. 2020). 11. Luša Đana (2016). „Sport, politika i diplomacija: analiza iz konstruktivističke perspektive”, u Konstruk- tivističke teorije međunarodnih odnosa (ur. Jović Dejan), Zagreb: Političke analize, str. 229 – 283. 12. Mabillard Vincent and Jadi Daniel (2011). Sports as Cultural Diplomacy How Sport Can Make a Dif- ference in Intercultural Relations, Institute for Cultural diplomacy. 13. Mattingly Garret (1938). “An Early Nonaggression Pact”, Journal of Modern History,Vol. 10, № 1, pp. 1 – 30. 14. Murray Stuart (2018). Sports Diplomacy: Origins, Theory and Practice, London: Routledge; Murray Stuart (2011). “Sports Diplomacy: A Hybrid of Two Halves”, Cultural Diplomacy, 15. Izvor: http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf/participant-papers/2011-symposium/ Sports-Diplomacy-a-hybrid-of-two-halves--Dr-Stuart-Murray.pdf (4. 2. 2020). 16. Murray Stuart and Pigman Geoffrey Allen (2014). “Mapping the relationship between international sport and diplomacy”, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, Vol. 17, № 9, pp. 1098 – 1118. Izvor: https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2013.856616 (3. 3. 2020). 17. Muzhikbaev Leo (2014). “The Phenomenon of Sports Diplomacy in Modern International Relations”, Izvor: https://sites.google.com/site/ culthuman/proceedings-2014/the-phenomenon-of-sports-diplomacy–in-modern-international-relations (3. 3. 2020). 18. Nye S. Joseph (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics,. New York: PublicAffairs, pp. 40. 19. Ociepka, Beata (2013). Miękka siła i dyplomacja publiczna Polski, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Nau- kowe Scholar. 20. Pamment James (2016). “Rethinking Diplomatic and Development Outcomes through Sport: Toward a Participatory Paradigm of Multi-Stakeholder Diplomacy”, Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 27, № 2, pp. 231 – 250, Source: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2016.1169787 (3. 3. 2020). 21. Redeker Robert (2008). “Sport as an Opiate of International Relations: The Myth and Illusion of Sport as a Tool of Foreign Diplomacy”, Sport in Society, Vol. 11, № 4, pp. 494 – 500. https://doi. org/10.1080/17430430802019482 (3. 3. 2020). 22. Rupert James (2011). Cricket Diplomacy May Smooth Tension Between India, Pakistan, 23. Štakić Đorđe (2000). Sociologija sporta, Beograd: Univerzitet u Beogradu, str. 124.

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24. Taylor Trevor (1986). “Sport and International Relations: A Case of Mutual Neglect”, In ed. Allison L., The Politics of Sport, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 27 – 49. 25. Winstanley L. Katharine (2009). „Scottish Football and Northern Ireland: The Role of Sport in Commu- nal Identification and Ethnonationalc Conflict“, Canadian Political Science Association Conference. Ottawa: Carlton University, pp. 27 – 29. Source: https://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2009/Winstanley. pdf (12. 2. 2020).

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SPORT KAO “MEKA MOĆ” DIPLOMATIJE

Dragan Kolev Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za diplomatiju i bezbednost, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

“Sport ima jedinstveni i nezamenljivi kapacitet da ujedini ljude, bez obzira na njihove etničke, verske ili socijalne razlike. Uveren sam da sport može biti dugoročni instrument u službi mira” Princ Albert II

Osnovno uporište u ovom radu imamo u često ponavljanoj tvrdnji da su „sportisti najbolji ambasadori svoje zemlje“. Osobe koje imaju iza sebe atribute sportskih uspeha su ujedno i ambasadori države iz koje dolaze. Onog trenutka kad se sportista takmiči na nekom međunarodnom turniru i obuče dres sa sim- bolom države koju predstavlja, on je eo pso postao i ambasador svoje zemlje. Dakle, on ne promoviše samo sebe i svoj tim već i svoju državu. Ovu temu posmatramo u širem političkom značenju, jer je diplomatija samo manifestacija spoljne politike neke države. Sport je odavno postao deo politike, a samim tim i deo diplomatije, ali je i politika a samim tim i diplomatija postala deo sporta. Sport, a pogotovo vrhunski sport je često bivao i talac politike, ali je i politika bivala taocem sporta. Brojniji su pozitivni primeri usklađenosti i saradnje sporta i diplomatije. Značajna su nastojanje da se poveća prestiž i ugled države u međunarodnim odnosima uz pomoć sporta i sportskih rezultata. Pojedine države su postale „sportske sile“ u nekom od sportova. Vođenje osmišljene i planske politike sporta (sportske politike) je u mnogim državama visoko rangiran imperativ. Stoga je teško naći državu koja u svojoj Vladi nema posebno Ministarstvo za sport. Ta činjenica govori o narasloj svesti o značaju sporta, kako za vitalnost nacije, tako i za prepoznatljivost neke države u globalnoj mapi sveta. U tom smislu države angažuju sportiste za poboljšanje diplomatskih odnosa, te koriste sportske događaje u svrhu smirivanja napetosti ili testiranja temelja za primjenu budućih politika. Redeker Robert (Redeker Robert) smatra da se slobodno može reći da nema države koja ne iska- zuju neku vrstu interesa prema sportu, što sport čini pogodnim za razmenu političkih poruka. Posebno se to može reći za fudbal. U tom smislu Rodžer Levermor i Andrian Bus (Roger Levermore and Adrian Buss) primećuju da su posthladnoratovskom periodu novonastale države prvenstveno nastojale da se učlane u Međunarodni olimpijski komitet i Svetsku fudbalsku federaciju pre nego u Ujedinjene nacije. Sport je imao poseban društveni status još od antičkih vremena. Antičke Olimpijske igre održavane su na svetom mestu tokom svetog praznika i podrazumevale su prekid svih sukoba i učešće predstavnika zaraćenih strana. To je očigledan primer mirotvorne uloge sporta. Zbog takve globalne moći sporta i njegove uloge u integraciji multikulturnih društava, Ujedinjene nacije ga prepoznaju kao efikasno sredstvo za razvoj različitih sfera života i rada (zdravlje, obrazovanje, održivi razvoj, očuvanje mira i komunikacija) i s tom namerom su formirale „Kancelariju za sport i razvoj mira“ (Office on Sport for Development and Peace - UNO SDP). Đorđe Štakić tvrdi da su „česti slučajevi i primeri da ono što ne može ili, iz raznih razloga ne želi, da učini klasična diplomatija u određenim okolnostima i situacijama posebno zaoštrenih međudržavnih, međuetničkih sukoba i konflikata, to vrlo uspešno čini sam sport i posebno ugledne ličnosti iz sveta sporta, međunarodnih sportskih institucija, u odgovarajućim prigodnim i pogodnim prilikama, izlazeći u susret traženju odgovarajućih političkih rešenja, odnosno delujući u pravcu stvaranja uslova za mirno rešavanje problema i konflikata“. Dakle, sport i sportska diplomatija su imali značajnu ulogu i istoriji ljudskog društva u sprečavanju društvenih konflikata i donošenju i održavanju mira. Kao najdrastičniji primer najčešće se navode obustavljanje ratnih sukoba i drugih neprijateljstava u vreme održavanja Olimpijada u antičkoj grčkoj. Značaj sporta i njegovog generalnog uticaja na društvo je veliki. Najznačajnije je, posmatrano sa državotvornog nivoa - on jača nacionalnu koheziju i čuva zdravlje naciji. Sa međunarodnog nivoa sport je doprineo toleranciji i smanjivanju tenzija među državama, ali se sportom može kreirati i imidž države, sportom se mogu države brendirati. Sport ima specifičnu društvenu i političku težinu. „Meka moć“ sporta se najjasnije očituje u mogućnosti da rešava međudržavne probleme i kada klasična diplomatija to nije u mogućnosti. Tada delovanje sportsko-diplomatskih misija često izlaze iz okvira sporta. Stjuart Meri i Alan Džefri Pigman (Stuart Murray and Allen Geoffrey Pigman) smatraju da se odnos diplomatije i sporta nedovoljno proučava, iako je veoma očigledan kao pojava. Đana Luša je mišljenja da korišćenje sporta kao sredstva diplomatije zagovaraju upravo predstavnici konstruktivističke teorije međunarodnih odnosa. Upotreba sporta u realizaciji državnih interesa u međunarodnoj zajednici, za ispitivanjue mogućno- sti budućih pregovor upućuje na zaključak da je sport postao nevidljivi i neopipljivi deo spoljne politike. Đana Luša tvrdi da ta neopipljiva moć sporta proističe iz kombinacije javne i kulturne diplomatije. U tom smislu i Trevor Tejlor (Trevor Taylor) ukazuje na potrebu da teoretičari međunarodnih odnosa mnogo više pažnje obrate na sport, jer on kao značajan društveni faktor snažno utiče i artikuliše međunarodne odnose. Amer- ička naučnica međunarodnih odnosa Katarina Vinstanli (Katharine L. Winstanley) ukazuje da sport okupira

162 UDK: 796:341.7 tzv. „tihi prostor“ (silent space) u međunarodnim odnosima i sugeriše da bi akademsko proučavanje međun- arodnih odnosa trebalo da prevlada uspostavljene stroge granice koje razdvajaju političko i nepolitičko, što je odraz konstruktivističke interpretacije međunarodnih odnosa. Bari Hulihan (Barrie Houlihan) definiše pet osnovnih dodirnih tačaka sporta i međunarodne politike: a) diplomatija, b) ideologija, c) izgradnja nacije, d) pristupačnost i e) novac. Pored ovih dodirnih tačaka moguće je navesti i druge brojne sličnosti i veze sporta i diplomatije (tabela 1).

Tabela 1. Sličnosti, dodirne tačke, veze sporta i diplomatije

DIPLOMATIJA SPORT 1 Diplomatski protokol (ritual) Sportski protokol (rituali) 2 Spoljnopolitički marketing (brendiranje države) Marketing u sportu (brendiranje klubova i sportist) Proksemički (spacijalni) aspekt diplomatije (teritorijalni Proksemički (spacijalni) aspekt sporta (borba za prostor / odbrana 3 integritet) prostora) 4 Diplomatija je igra (homo ludens) Sport je igra (tek u igri čovek postaje čovek) 5 Diplomatske konvencije Pravila igre (jedinstvena u celom svetu) 6 Diplomatske sankcije Sankcije u sportu 7 Diplomatska (politička) moć Sport poseduje svojevrsnu „meku moć" 8 Važan je diplomatski uspeh Važna je pobeda (ne samo učešće) Upotreba/zloupotreba (sportske sankcije, nameštanje utakmica, Upotreba/zloupotreba (proterivanje diplomata) 9 špijunaža i sl.) 10 Strategije i taktika spoljne politike (diplomatija u rukavicama) U sportu strategija i taktika 11 Diplomatski incident (Diplomatski rat) Sportski incident (Sportski rat) 12 Diplomatska špijunaža Sportska špijunaža 13 Arkanski (ezoterijski) sadržaj diplomatije Arkanski sadržaj sporta 14 Diplomatski sport (tenis) Sportska diplomatija 15 Diplomatija je postala deo sporta (sport kao talac politike) Sportisti postali diplomate 16 Diplomatija može da bude (zlo)upotrebljena Sport može da bude (zlo)upotrebljen 17 Diplomatski odnosi Međunarodni sportski odnosi 18 Diplomatska solidarnost Sportska solidarnost 19 Nasilje u diplomatiji (tzv. buldožer diplomatija) Nasilje u sportu Sport – jedna od najznačajnijih nekonvencionalnih komunikativnih Diplomatija - spoljnopolitička komunikativna platforma 20 platformi 21 Diplomatija kao sredstvo postizanja mira Sport kao sredstvo postizanja mira

Dakle, sport generiše mnoge dobrobiti i stoga je i politički značajan. Stoga su sport, politika i diplomatija odavno postali kompatibilni.

Brojna pitanja o odnosu sporta i diplomatije se otvaraju i traže odgovor: • Kakva je priroda i šta je suština sportske diplomatije? • Koliki su njeni diplomatski dometi i mogućnosti? • Zašto je moguće instrumentalizovati sport ko meku moć u diplomatske svrhe? Zato što sport poseduje moć, specifičnu moć i zato što su sport i diplomatija (u širem smislu politika) po mnogo čemu slični, odnosno imaju brojne dodirne tačke?

Mi ćemo nastojati da u radu budemo na tragu traženja odgovora na ova kao i mnoga druga pitanja koja se tiču odnosa sporta i diplomatije. Suprotno realističkoj moći koja podrazumeva materijalni aspekt moći, teorija konstruktivizma naglašava značaj „meke moći“ U tom smislu je opravdana naša namera da kroz prizmu „meke moći“ objasnimo značaj sporta kao sredstva diplomatije.

Određenje osnovnih pojmova

Kao osnovni pojmovi koji se koriste u ovom radu su: sportska diplomatija i „meka moć“. Kako nema jedinstvenog određenja ni o jednom od ovih pojmova potrebno je da im u najkraćem posvetimo pažnju. Pojam „sportska diplomatija“

Šta je diplomatija? Bojne su definicije ovog fenomena, a ovde se za ovu priliku izdvaja ona koju je ponudio Ivan Anastasovski. On smatra da je diplomatija pojam koji ima „mnogobrojna značenja ali je svima

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zajedničko dodirivanje sfere međunarodnih odnosa i spoljne politike“ i u tom smislu podrazumeva „sposobnost, znanje, veštinu, metode komuniciranja, održavanje međunarodnih odnosa, pregovaranje, rešavanje konfliktnih situacija. To je ono što se tiče opšte diplomatije kao pojma, ali za to moramo polako ali sigurno da otvaramo put diplomatiji koja se odigrava preko sporta ili tzv. „sportska diplomatija“, koja još uvek na ovim prostorima nije ozbiljno tretirana“. Sa pojavom novog fenomena (povezanosti sporta i diplomatije) nastaju i novi termini kao što je i sintagma „sportska diplomatija“. On se u značajnoj meri afirmisao i utemeljio svojim preciznim semantičkim sadržajem, ali i empirijski egzaktnim činjenicama. Predstoji mu potpunije teorijsko i metodološko zasnivanje, kako bi se etablirao i kao naučna disciplina. Sportska diplomatija jedno je od područja na kojem se odvija proces transformacije klasične diplomatije. Kao što postoji diplomatski sport (tenis, golf) tako postoji i diplomatija sporta odnosno sportska diplomatija. Kad se pomene sportska diplomatija, onda imamo na umu njenu pozitivnu konotaciju, jer je ona uspela da pomogne rešavanju mnogi sporova, da približi narode i države. Sportska diplomatija je samo jedan specifičan oblik javne diplomatije. Odnosno principi i klasične diplomatije (sposobnosti, veštine, znanje, ugled i sl.) se primenjuju u području sportske diplomatije. Misija sportske diplomatije i klasične diplomatije se istovetni, samo što se odvijaju drugačijim kanalima. One se nadopunjuju, sarađuju, iako deluju odvojeno i paralelno. Može se govoriti o „paralelnim diplomatskim misija- ma“ (klasična i sportska diplomatija). Ako se ima na umu da klasična diplomatija putem akreditovanih misija ima za osnovnu funkciju predstavljanje i zaštitu interesa svoje zemlje u zemlji prijema, jasno je da i sportska diplomatija može da pomogne u ostvarenju tog cilja. Sportska diplomatija se u okviru međunarodne sportske saradnje odvija na dva nivoa: 1. na prvom nivou se sportskom diplomatijom realizuju nacionalni interesi (sportske reprezentacije svojim uspesima afirmišu ugled i prestiž država, potvrđuje se pozicija „sportske nacije“ i sl.) i 2. kroz klupska međunarodna sportska takmičenja gde pored nacionalnih interesa, dolaze do izražaja i motivi sportskog biznisa i profita.

Tako je i Evropska unija koncept sportske diplomatije prepoznala 2015. god. i formirala ekspertsku grupu za sportsku diplomaciju. Pement Džejms (Pamment James) je mišljenja da sportska diplomatija kao područje istraživanja ima važnu ulogu u konceptualizaciji veza između različitih diplomatskih koncepata, ali i njihovog uticaja na međunarodne odnose. Mark Kič (Marc Keech) sportsku diplomatiju posmatra u širem smislu i objašnjava njenu suštinu nizom međunarodnih kontakata i kompetitivnosti, koji imaju implikacije na sveukupne odnose između država. Sportska se diplomatija, smatra autor, uobičajeno posmatra kao oblik javne diplomatije. Beata Ocepka (Beata Ociepka) ističe da sport ima značajnu ulogu u javnoj diplomatiji u funkciji jačanja međunarodnog ugleda zemlje. Isto tako i Stjuart Mari (Stuart Murray) smatra da je sportska diplomatija sastavni deo javne diplomatije dok su Mabilard Vinsent i Džudi Daniel (Mabillard Vincent and Jadi Daniel) mišljenja da je sport po svom karakteru bliži kulturnoj diplomatiji. Leo Mužikovav (Leo Muzhikbeav) smatra da sportska diplomatija podrazumeva niz formalnih i ne- formalnih akcija države, diplomatskih misija, sportskih rukovodilaca, sportista i drugih aktera radi imple- mentacije spoljne politike uz pomoć sporta. Zanimljiv pristup sportskoj diplomatiji imaju Stjuart Mari i Alen Džefri Pigman (Stuart Murray and Allen Geoffrey Pigman) koji tvrde da „kada tradicionalnu diplomatiju nazivamo sredstvom spoljne politike, onda treba da znamo da sportska diplomatija predstavlja sredstvo tog sredstva”. Oni ističu dve osnovne kategorije praktične primene sportske diplomatije: a) upotreba sportskih postignuća kao instrumenata diplomatije (sportska kompetitivnost) i b) upotreba sporta kao sredstva komu- nikacije, pregovaranja i slanja diplomatskih poruka. Bečka konvencija o diplomatskim odnosima iz 1961. godine je međunarodni sporazum, koji definiše okvir za diplomatske odnose između država. Ona određuje privilegije diplomatske misije koje omogućavaju diplomatama da izvršavaju svoju funkciju, bez straha od prinude ili uznemiravanja od strane zemlje domaći- na. Ovo predstavlja pravnu osnovu za diplomatski imunitet. Njeni članovi se smatraju temeljima savremenih međunarodnih odnosa. Do februara 2017. konvenciju je ratifikovalo 191 država. Principa diplomatske konvencije bi trebalo da se pridržava i sportska diplomatija.

Pojam „meka moć“

Poslednjih godina se u stručnoj literaturi koja se bavi geopolitičkim problemima velika pažnja posvećuje takozvanoj „mekoj moći“ (soft power). Кao da sam termin ima magičnu privlačnost. Zvuči mod- ernije od brojnih pojmova koji se koriste u diplomatiji. Šta se podrazumeva pod određenjem „meke moći“? Od principijelne važnosti je precizno razjasniti njegovo značenje, definisati njegov semantički sadržaj, objektivno predstaviti celovitu informaciju, sagledati njegove najbitnije karakteristike, pružiti uravnotežen i integralni prilaz. Pre toga ćemo izneti njegov istorijat u kratkim crtama. Kao i u slučaju mnogih drugih fenomena i „meka moć“ je pojava sa veoma dugom tradicijom, dok je sam pojam skorašnjeg datuma. I ova vrsta moći je stara koliko i istorija čovečanstva. Kao nov termin postao je nezaobilazan u okviru globalnog procesa integracije. Pojam je ušao u široku javnu upotrebu, što je dovelo do njegovog različitog shvatanja i najčešće je korišćen kao sinonim za sve pojmove koji nisu neposredno

164 UDK: 796:341.7 vezani za vojnu moć. Iako se Džozefu Naju (Joseph Nye) pripisuje autorstvo pojma „meka moć“ neophodno je napomenuti da ona prema našim saznanjima i nije izvorno njegova. Prevladava mišljenje da je on dao najveći doprinos razvoju koncepta „meke moći“ definirajući taj pojam kao „sposobnost da se na druge utiče putem kooptivnih resursa uobličavanja agende, ubeđivanja i podsticanja pozitivne privlačnosti kako bi se postigao željeni ishod“. Značajno je istaći da se ovaj pojam najviše koristi u analizi međunarodnih odnosa. Postaje sve značajniji, jer su politički lideri uvideli da ona može da bude efikasnija od tvrde moći.

Primeri (zlo)upotrebe sporta u diplomatiji

Sve se na ovom svetu, što poseduje bilo koju vrstu moći, može upotrebiti za dobrobit čoveka, ali i zloupotrebiti protiv čoveka. Tako je i sa sportom. Vinsent Mabilard i Daniel Džadi (Vincent Mabillard and Daniel Jadi) navode razne primere korišćenje sporta kao geopolitičkog oružja (bojkot svetskih sportskih takmičenja), kao sredstvo radikalizacije odnosa među državama, kao sredstvo jačanja nacionalizma, ali i kao sredstvo izgradnje nacionalnih država i identiteta, kao medij za prenošenje pozitivnih političkih poruka, podsticanja dijaloga i integracije u multikulturalnim društvima.

a) Primeri pozitivne instrumentalizacije sporta u diplomatiji

Brojni su i primeri instrumentalizacije meke moći sporta u ostvarenju nacionalnih interesa. Mi ćemo, ilustracije radi, navesti samo sledeće:

Primer br. 1. Sport i diplomatija su multifunkcionalno i višeslojno povezani i utiču jedan na drugoga. Diplomatija utiče na sport kao što sport utiče na diplomatiju. Od kada su organizovane prve Olimpijske igre 776. god. pre Hrista do danas one su bile festival sporta, igre i činile su specifičnu simbiozu sa politikom. Sport je odavno ušao u diplomatiju, a diplomatija u sport. Dakle, odnos sporta i diplomatije nije samo korelacioni već i kau- zalni, odnosno uzročno-posledični. Kao što diplomatija otvara vrata međunarodnim sportskim događajima, postoje i brojni primeri kada je sport otvarao vrata diplomatiji. Zato su mnogi pojmovi iz sporta našli svoj odraz u diplomatiji, kao na primer ping-pong diplomatija. XXII Zimske Olimpijske igre u Sočiju (XXII Olympic Winter Games, 2014. god.) i Svetsko prvenstvo u fudbalu (2018 FIFA World Cup Russia, 2018. god.) mogu se smatrati za dve najznačajnije diplomatske pobede Rusije, iako je bilo ideja o bojkotovanju ovog prvenstva. Nigde se „slanje poruke“ svetu tako jasno ne artikuliše kao kroz organizovanje svetskih sportskih događaja. U Olimpijskom komitetu sve zemlje članice UN imaju svoje predstavnike. Kada se diplomate spremaju za diplomatsku misiju izučavaju kulturu i običaje naroda zemlje u koju odlaze. U tom smislu izučavaju i sport i odnos prema sportu. Kao primer može se navesti Portugalija u koji je fudbal „vrsta religije“, deo kulture, deo tradicije i gde naše diplomate navode da su često puta diplomatski razgovori počinjali sa sportskim temama. Dakle, diplomatski kor treba da vodi računa i o toj činjenici. Države se takmiče i lobiraju (diplomatija u tome ima veliku ulogu) da dobiju organizaciju međunarodnih sportskih takmičenja, a kada u tome uspeju onda ulažu velika finansijska sredstva i napore da budu dobri domaćini takvih događaja i da se predstave i najboljem svetlu. Koliko se Kina borila da dobije organizaciju Svetskog prvenstva u košarci 2019. god? Posebna pažnja se pridaje bezbednosnom aspektu (bezbednosti sportista) i sprečavanju incidenta i terorizma (asimetrični sukobi – sukob je produženje politike samo drugim sredstvima). S druge strane, pripremama državnih reprezentacija, koje će uzeti učešće u svetskim sportskim takmičenjima se pridaje značajna pažnja jer i one demonstriraju sportsku moć države (kako se ponašaju, kako se bore za rezultat). O tome govori i prisustvo osoblja ambasada na važnim takmičenjima, kao podrš- ka svojoj reprezentaciji. Priređuju im i prijeme u ambasadama. Strateško planiranje u sportu je već odavno postalo tradicija u mnogim državama.

Primer br. 2. Mnogi zaslužni sportisti se slave kao nacionalni heroji i dobijaju diplomatske pasoše, čime stiču diplomatski imunitet. Mnogi sportisti su proglašavani ambasadorima „Dečjeg fonda Ujedinjenih nacija“ (United Nations Children’s Fund – UNICEF), kao počasne titule koji promovišu univerzalne vrednosti. Tako su, na primer, Novak Đoković i Ana Ivanović dobili zvanje ambasadora UNICEFA-a. Jedan od najpoznatijih svetskih primera ulaska sportista u politiku je imenovanje fudbalera Džordža Vea (Georgea Weaha) osvajača Zlatne lopte, za predsednika Liberije.

Primer br. 3. I malobrojne (i teritorijalno male) zemlje mogu da budu sportski Davidi, koji se u sportskoj areni us- pešno bore protiv Golijata. Ako Srbiju uzmemo za primer studije slučaja (case study) kao jednu od osnovnih teza možemo izdvojiti: Srbije ni izdaleka nije iskoristila sportske potencijale u diplomatske svrhe. Za to treba

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volje, znanja i umeća (veština). Mnoge države poseduju strategije razvoja sporta u kojima se akcenat stavlja i na sportsku diplomatiju. Kao primer se može navesti strategija Australije, koja se i naziva „Sport i diplomatija do 2030“ koja ima za cilj da kroz sportsku diplomatiju unapredi svoju poziciju u međunarodnim odnosima

Primer br. 4. Sport doprinosi i promeni međunarodnih odnosa. Tako, na primer, svoju kandidaturu za Svetsko prvenstvo u fudbalu su najavili i Japan i Južna Koreja, koji nemaju značajnije diplomatske odnose. Nelson Mandela iz zatvora poručuje da ima želju da čuje navijanje sa stadiona u Južnoj Africi, koja je napravila devet stadiona.

Primer br. 5. Kao primer značaja sporta u diplomatiji često se navodi Kraljevski fudbalski klub Madrid, kolokvijal- no poznatiji kao Real Madrid (Real Madrid Club de Fútbol). On je postao najuspešniji fudbalski klub u svetu za vreme španskog premijera Fransiska Franka (Generalissimo Francisco Franco), jer je on smatrao da je ovaj klub „najbolja španska ambasada“. FIFA ga je na svojoj listi rangirala као najbolji klub XX veka.

Primer br. 6. O fer pleju se mnogo priča u sportu i u diplomatiji. U sportu su tu pravila igre precizno propisana za svaki sport. U diplomatiji je to diplomatski protokol u najvećoj meri propisan Bečkom konvencijom o diplomatskim odnosima (Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations od 18. aprila 1961. god).

Primer br. 7. Brendiraju se klubovi, reprezentacije, sportisti, pogotovo ako imaju kontinuitet (ponavljanje uspeha) u očuvanju postignutih sportskih rezultata. Kao takvi podižu i sportski ugled zemlje, nacije iz koje dolaze. Brendiranje sporta je dugotrajan proces koji zahteva strpljenje i značajna ulaganja, ali koji ima pozitivan uticaj na percepciju jedne države. Sport je postao mehanizam kojim se pokazuje stanje u zemlji. Najlakše se ime neke zemlje čuje posredstvom sporta („Kakav sport – takva i država“). Posredstvom tzv. „meke moći“ sporta širi se uticaj u svetu. Ključna reč je uticaj na nečiju percepciju države odakle sportisti dolaze.

Primer br. 8. Kao jedan od najpoznatijih primera pozitivne diplomatske upotrebe sporta često se navodi poznati događaj nazvan „ping-pong diplomatija“ (ping pong diplomacy). To je pojam kojim se označava razmena stonoteniskih (ping-pong) igrača između Sjedinjenih Američkih Država i Narodne Republike Kine početkom 1970-ih. Ovaj događaj je otvorio proces otopljavanja kinesko-američkih odnosa, a nešto kasnije i omogućio posetu predsednika SAD Ričarda Niksona Kini. Naime, Sjedinjene Američke Države su Kinu posmatrale kao svog geopolitičkog neprijatelja i prema njoj su sprovodile politiku obuzdavanja, koja je podrazumevala i ekonomski embargo. Gotovo dve decenije između ove dve države nisu postojali ni ekonomski ni diplomatski odnosi, a jedan sportski događaj (Svetsko prvenstvo u stonom tenisu 1971. god. koje se održavalo u Japa- nu) je poslužio kao povod za otvaranju jedne prema drugoj. Događaj koji je pružio priliku i Kini i SAD da uspostave odnose saradnje se desio sasvim slučajno aprila 1971. god. Američki stonoteniser Glen Kauen je propustio autobus svog tima, jer je trenirao nešto duže sa kineskim igračem, ali ga je on pozvao da uđe u autobus kineskog tima. Tada mu je u Kineski igrač Džuang Cedung (trostruki svetski prvak) poklonio sliku planine Huangšan na svilenom platnu. Novinari su napravili fotografiju susreta sportista Kine i SAD, koja je osvanula na naslovnim stranicama brojnim japanskih novina i privukla veliku svetsku pažnju. Izvori kažu da je i Mao Cedung video ovu sliku i odlučio da pozove Stonoteniski tim SAD, pri čemu je ostalo upamćeno da je izgovorio sledeću rečenicu: „Džuang Cedung je ne samo dobar stonoteniser, već je i dobar diplomata“. Usledila je poseta američke stonoteniske delegacije Kini gde su proveli celu sedmicu u razgledanju kineskih znamenitosti (Veliki zid, Letnju palatu, Zabranjeni grad i sl.) i igrajući revijalne mečeve. Bila je to prva amer- ička delegacija koja je došla u Kinu od 1949. godine. Usledile su posete političkog karaktera. Počet- kom 1972. god. je organizovana posete predsednika SAD Ričarda Niksona i Henrija Kisindžera Šangaju, kada je izdat „Šangajski kominike“ u kome se navodi da će obe države raditi na normalizaciji svojih odnosa, da će SAD priznati Tajvan kao deo Kine i ukinuti sankcije prema Kini. Dakle, u ovom slučaju je „ping-pong diplomatija“ bila uspešna u uspostavljanju odnosa između ove dve države.

Primer br. 9. Garet Matingli (Garret Mattingly) navodi i primer koji se desio 1520. godine u severnoj Francuskoj, a koji je vezan za dvojicu careva - Miting Francoisa I i Henrika VIII. Oni su organizovali takmičenje vojnika u streljaštvu kako bi ojačali međudržavne odnosa shodno anglo-francuskom sporazumu iz 1514. godine.

Primer br. 10. Stiven Dž. Džekson i Stifen Hej (Stiven J. Jackson and Stephen Haigh) navode brojne primere miroljubivog uticaja sporta, koji su se dogodili u novijoj istoriji sukoba. Posebno ističu prekid sukoba tokom Prvoga svetskog rata na Božić 1914. god., da bi se odigrala fudbalska utakmice između neprijateljskih bri- tanskih i nemačkih vojnika.

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Primer br. 11. Zajednički nastup obe Koreja u hokeju na ledu na Zimskim olimpijskim igrama 2018, ali i na muš- kom rukometnom Svetskom prvenstvu 2019. g.

Primer br. 12. Savezno ministarstvo spoljnih poslova Nemačke je početkom sedamdesetih godina XX veka poče- lo da koristi sport kao instrument mirovne politike prema zemljama u razvoju sa ciljem da se ublaže negativne predrasude o Nemačkoj.

Primer br. 13. Džems Rupert (James Rupert) navodi primer Kašmirska kriza 2002. god. koja je dovela Indiju i Pakistan na rub rata. Te su države 2004. god. održale niz kriket mečeva radi smanjivanja napetosti i ispitivanja mogućnosti normalizacije odnosa, otvaranja granica i nastavka pregovora. Isto tako i posle terorističkih napada u Mumbaiju 2008. god., odnosi su ponovo zamrznuti, a kriket je iznova iskorišćen kao diplomatski instrument za normalizaciju odnosa između Indije i Pakistana.

Primer br. 14. Sličnu, pozitivnu ulogu je imala i inicijativa tzv. bejzbol diplomacije u cilju poboljšavanja odnosa između SAD i Kube.

Primer br. 15. Primer korišćenja sportskih događaja u diplomatske svrhe je organizovanje tzv. fudbalske diplomatije, kojom su popravljani loši bilateralni odnosa Turske i Jermenije.

Primer br. 16. Sport je omogućavao i postizanje mira. U tom smislu se kao primer dobre prakse navodi često ABA liga u košarci (Jadranska košarkaška liga) u kojoj se takmiče klubovi iz bivših republika SFRJ (Srbija, Bosna i Hercegovina, Severna Makedonija, Slovenija, Hrvatska i Crna Gora) od 2001. god. Zbog sporta (olimpijskih igara) su grčke državice prekidale ratove. Obustavljanje sukoba je omogućavalo da na takmičenje dođu i predstavnici zaraćenih strana i garantovana im je bezbednost. I obnavljane Olimpijskih igara u XIX veku je imalo za cilj univerzalne vrednosti – mir, solidarnost, saradnju i sl.

Primer br. 17. Posle pobede Južnoafričke Republike na Svetskom ragbi prvenstvu 1995. god. sport je iskorišćen kao instrument ujedinjenja nacije posle pretrpljenih kriza uzrokovanih aparthejdom.

b) Primeri negativne instrumentalizacije sporta u diplomatiji

Brojni su i primeri zloupotrebe sporta u diplomatiji. Mi sledećim primerima ilustrujemo ovu tendenci- ju.

Primer br. 1. Stjuart Mari i Alen Džefri Pigman upozoravaju da je u istoriji sporta bilo i brojnih primera kada su sportski događaji izazivali sukobe između zemalja. Kao najpoznatiji primer sportskog incidenta, koji je isko- rišćen za socijalni sukob često se navodi tzv. „Fudbalski rat“ (španski la guerra del fútbol, engleski football war, ruski футбольная война) ili poznat i kao „Stosatni rat“. To je kratkotrajan sedmodnevni (od 14. do 20 jula 1969. god.) rat koji su vodile Salvador i Honduras. Kao mnogo puta u istoriji ratovodstva uzroci su mnogo dublji, a povodi četo puta vrlo prozaični. Ovaj rat je imao ekonomske uzroke (zemljišne reforme u Hondu- rasu) i migraciju stanovništva iz Salvadora u Honduras. Povod su bili neredi, koji su izbili u toku druge runde kvalifikacija za Svetsko prvenstvo u fudbalu, koje se trebalo održati naredne 1970. god. U toku treće utakmice Salvadar je prekinuo sve diplomatske odnose sa Hondurasom. Vojska Salvadora je upala na teritoriju Hondurasa, ali je Organizacija američkih država uspela da pregovorima prekine oružane sukobe i da privoli Salvador da povuče svoje oružane snage sa prostora Hondurasa. Ishod je diplomatskim rečnikom rečeno status quo ante bellum, odnosno sve je vraćeno na stanje „kao što je bilo pre rata“. Vojne neprijateljske snage su vraćene na teritorije gde su bile pre izbijanja sukoba. Deceniju kasnije (krajem oktobra 1980. god.) su ove države potpisale mirovni sporazum i rešile spor oko Zaliva Fonseka a krajem XX veka su potpisale sporazum o razgraničenju. Honduras je dobio 374.5 km². Procenjuje da je na obe strane poginulo preko 3.000 učesnika. Primer br. 2. Zloupotreba sporta u diplomatiji je naročito došla do izražaja na XI Letnjim olimpijskim igrama u Nemačkoj (Berlin) koju su nacisti iskoristili za promociju svoje ideologije „o nadčoveku“ (nemački ibermenš).

Primer br. 3. Najveće sportske priredbe poslužile su promociji ideologija režima, slanju negativnih diplomatskih poruka (bojkot Olimpijskih igara) i sl. 167 UDK: 796:341.7

Zaključak i predlozi

Već se dobrano uvrežila konstatacija da su „sportisti najbolji ambasadori svoje zemlje“. Zašto se to dogodilo? Zato što sport, pored ostalog, omogućava u savremenim međunarodnim odnosima da i malobrojni narodi i teritorijalno manje zemlje mogu da budu velesile u nekim sportovima, odnosno da njihovi sportisti i reprezentacije postignu velike sportske uspehe. Time se njihova „vidljivost“ na svetskoj (geo)političkoj sceni povećava. Sportisti omogućavaju da se podiže zastava i svira himna kao simboli države iz koje dolaze. Ova činjenica jasno pokazuje da sport poseduje „meku moć“ koja može da doprinese i diplomatskim naporima. Zato države ulažu značajna sredstva u sport kako bi njihovi sportisti, timovi, treneri, selektori bili prepoznatljivi brendovi na svetskoj sportskoj sceni, jer deo te pozitivne percepcije prenose i na državu iz koje dolaze (potiču). U pojedinim državama sport se podiže do nivoa sakralnosti. U tome značajnu ulogu imaju nastojanja da se održi kontinuitet (ponavljanje) sportskih uspeha, što nikako nije lak zadatak. U tom smislu je razvijena praksa lobiranja, kako bi se pojedini predstavnici države postali rukovodioci u svetskim sportskim asocijacijama, ali i za dobijanja organizacija velikih sportskih takmičenja. Benefiti su značajni, ako se ima u vidu da su države u fokusu pažnje svetske javnosti („gleda ih celi svet“) pogotovo zahvaljujući savremenim masovnim medijima. Mnoge zemlje su shvatile da sportska diplomatija, kao deo javne diplomatije, ima pre- sudnu ulogu u dobijanju i organizovanju svetskih i kontinentalnih sportskih prvenstava, olimpijskih igara i sl. To značajno doprinosi brendiranju zemalja, jer je u funkciji njenog pozitivnog predstavljanja, što relaksira napore klasične diplomatije. Zato su sportisti odavno prestali da budu samo sportisti već i ambasadori svoje zemlje, pogotovo ako imaju atribut uspešnih.

Sport bi mogao odigrati i značajnu ulogu i u uspostavljanu saradnje na prostoru Balkana. Kao dobar primer mogao bi da posluži i organizovanje regionalnih sportskih takmičenja „Balkanskih sportskih igara“ pre Prvog svetskog rata kojima se nastojalo unaprediti saradnja tadašnjih država ovog regiona. Smatramo da bi ideja ponovnog organizovanja ovakve sportske manifestacije zasluživala pažnju. Činjenica je da se u međunarodnim odnosima primat još uvek daje političkoj, ekonomskoj i vojnoj diplomatiji. Stoga i postoje edukativne ustanove koje se bave osposobljavanjem kadrova za klasičnu, ekonomsku i vojnu diplomatiju. Po našem saznanju na ovom prostorima nema institucija koje se bave sportskom diplomatijom. Pa i na fakultetima koji se bave sportom ili fizičkom kulturom teško se može naći i silabus predmeta koji tretira ovu problematiku. Smatramo da bi trebalo sistemski pristupiti izgradnji sportske diplomatije. Školovani sportski ambasadori (ambasadori u sportu) već postoje pri nekim ambasadama kao sportski atašei. Ako se ima na umu da je Evropska unija u svojoj Strategiji za prioritete do 2022. god. uvrstila i razvoj sportske diplomatije onda je to dobar povod da se i kod nas ovom pitanju posveti adekvatna pažnja. Kao primer dobre prakse može da posluži i „Evropski univerzitet u Madridu“ (Universidad Europea de Madrid - UEM) koji ima master studije „Diplomatija u sportu“ (Diplomacia en deportes). Zalažemo se i za izradu autentične nacionalne strategije sportske diplomatije Srbije, kao što je velik broj zemalja već razvio svoje modele sportske diplomatije.

Ako se ima u vidu sve napred navedeno onda nije suvislo predložiti da se u nastavni program „Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja“ uvede predmet „Sportska diplomatija“. Verujem da za to postoje ra- zumni i opravdani razlozi. Deo tih razloga smo nastojali ponuditi u ovom radu.

Literatura

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11. Luša Đana (2016). „Sport, politika i diplomacija: analiza iz konstruktivističke perspektive”, u Konstruk- tivističke teorije međunarodnih odnosa (ur. Jović Dejan), Zagreb: Političke analize, str. 229 – 283. 12. Mabillard Vincent and Jadi Daniel (2011). Sports as Cultural Diplomacy How Sport Can Make a Dif- ference in Intercultural Relations, Institute for Cultural diplomacy. 13. Mattingly Garret (1938). “An Early Nonaggression Pact”, Journal of Modern History,Vol. 10, № 1, pp. 1 – 30. 14. Murray Stuart (2018). Sports Diplomacy: Origins, Theory and Practice, London: Routledge; Murray Stuart (2011). “Sports Diplomacy: A Hybrid of Two Halves”, Cultural Diplomacy, 15. Izvor: http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf/participant-papers/2011-symposium/ Sports-Diplomacy-a-hybrid-of-two-halves--Dr-Stuart-Murray.pdf (4. 2. 2020). 16. Murray Stuart and Pigman Geoffrey Allen (2014). “Mapping the relationship between international sport and diplomacy”, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, Vol. 17, № 9, pp. 1098 – 1118. Izvor: https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2013.856616 (3. 3. 2020). 17. Muzhikbaev Leo (2014). “The Phenomenon of Sports Diplomacy in Modern International Relations”, Izvor: https://sites.google.com/site/ culthuman/proceedings-2014/the-phenomenon-of-sports-diplomacy–in-modern-international-relations (3. 3. 2020). 18. Nye S. Joseph (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics,. New York: PublicAffairs, pp. 40. 19. Ociepka, Beata (2013). Miękka siła i dyplomacja publiczna Polski, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Nau- kowe Scholar. 20. Pamment James (2016). “Rethinking Diplomatic and Development Outcomes through Sport: Toward a Participatory Paradigm of Multi-Stakeholder Diplomacy”, Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol. 27, № 2, pp. 231 – 250, Source: https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2016.1169787 (3. 3. 2020). 21. Redeker Robert (2008). “Sport as an Opiate of International Relations: The Myth and Illusion of Sport as a Tool of Foreign Diplomacy”, Sport in Society, Vol. 11, № 4, pp. 494 – 500. https://doi. org/10.1080/17430430802019482 (3. 3. 2020). 22. Rupert James (2011). Cricket Diplomacy May Smooth Tension Between India, Pakistan, 23. Štakić Đorđe (2000). Sociologija sporta, Beograd: Univerzitet u Beogradu, str. 124. 24. Taylor Trevor (1986). “Sport and International Relations: A Case of Mutual Neglect”, In ed. Allison L., The Politics of Sport, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 27 – 49. 25. Winstanley L. Katharine (2009). „Scottish Football and Northern Ireland: The Role of Sport in Commu- nal Identification and Ethnonationalc Conflict“, Canadian Political Science Association Conference. Ottawa: Carlton University, pp. 27 – 29. Source: https://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2009/Winstanley. pdf (12. 2. 2020).

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CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING THE PROGRESSION OF TRAINING IN THE REHABILITATION OF ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURY

Stefan Radojičić1; Marko Ćosić2 1 Fitness club “Life active”, Belgrade 2 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

The increasing efforts, to which athletes are exposed, among other things, entail an increased risk of injury. Also, if an injury occurs, the goal is to minimize the interruption of the training process and one of the criteria for classifying the severity of injuries, can certainly be the time period required for the rehabilitation of the athlete. In this context, the Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) injury certainly deserves the attention of the profession. However, despite its relatively high frequency, and above all its complexity and the most common need for surgery, a large number of insufficiently clear and incomplete rehabilitation protocols that coaches apply, especially when it comes to preparing athletes to return to highly specific and intensive training and competition activities. Schmitt, Paterno, & Hewett (2012) state that the current criteria for return to sport are not sufficiently clear and rely on a personal interpretation of literature that does not have empirically based criteria.

The integral elements of the rehabilitation process that an athlete goes through during recovery are: • Stages - through which the athlete goes through the process, which should be defined by certain abilities that will be developed (and / or maintained) within them, and whose duration depends on the achieved (satisfactory) level of ability (by no means defined in time); • Criteria - which must be met to establish progression of ability, both within and between stages; • Goals - to be established at the beginning of each phase, which should be dependent on the previous goals (existence of interdependence of goals / abilities).

If these parts of the rehabilitation process are not closely related and clearly defined, the rehabilitation process becomes less effective in terms of returning the athlete to sports activities in a safe manner, on time and with a reduced risk of recurrence. When it comes to research, there are few who have identified how coaches work during the recovery process, or how to evaluate athletes’ training during ACL injury rehabilitation. Namely, the largest number involved determining the part concerning the validity of individual tests (Bolgla & Keckula,1997; Hopper, 2002; Fitzgerald, Axe & Snyder-Mackler, 2000; Munro & Herrington,2011; Reid, Birminghan, Strat- ford, Alcock & Giffin, 2007; Thomeé, Kaplan, Kvist, Myklebust & Witvrouw, 2011), as welland group of tests (Barber-Westin & Noyes, 2011; Engelen-van Melick, van Cingel, Tijssen & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, 2013; Narducci, Waltz, Gorski, Leppla & Donaldson, 2011; Herbst, Hoser, Hildebrandt, Raschner, Hepperger & Fink, 2015; Hildebrandt, Müller, Zisch, Huber, Fink & Raschner, 2015; Rambaud, Semay, Samozino, Morin, Testa, Philippot & Edouard, 2017; Williams, Heidloff, Haglage, Schumacher & Campbell, 2016) as criteria for the athlete’s return to intensive training and competitive activities. The problem of this research involves criteria for assessing the progression of athlete training in rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament injury. The subject of this research is to define the criteria for assessing the progression of training of athletes in the rehabilitation of ACL injury, while the aim of the research is to determine the criteria that coaches apply most within the 3 basic elements of the rehabilitation process: the phases through which the athlete goes through the rehabilitation process, the criteria for progression within and between stages and goals within stages.

Methods

For the purposes of this research, a survey was conducted, which was approached by 30 conditioning coaches (30 men), who work or worked in team sports, in the highest-ranking clubs (highest national or international). The survey was created exclusively for the purpose of work, while the criterion for approaching the completion of the survey was that the coaches have at least two successfully conducted ACL recovery. The respondents who took part in the survey were from four sports branches: soccer, basketball, volleyball and handball. The survey was of an anonymous type, with the respondents (coaches) first being acquainted with the aim of this research and the purpose of the survey, and then proceeded to fill the part related to the sports branch in which they carried out recovery and the part containing two scales (grades 1 to 5), which established criteria for assessing the progression of training in the rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament injury. The criteria that make up the survey were compiled on the basis of existing theoretical considerations and literature, as well as on the basis of practical experience. The authors sought to cover the spectrum of all

170 UDK: 796:616-001 potential answers, i.e. to make the answers mutually exhaustive. There was an assumption that all coaches successfully recovered athletes, regardless of grade. Part of the coaches completed the survey in written form (21 coaches), while 9 coaches (who were not able to complete it in writing) completed the survey elec- tronically. The next chapter presents the layout and interpretation of the questionnaire that the trainers filled out, first the scale in which the first part of the criteria (phases and sub-criteria) is shown, and then the second scale, i.e. the second part of the criteria (goals).

I - Phases of the rehabilitation process and criteria for the transition to the next phase

1. - I do not apply clearly defined phases and criteria / I apply phases according to the criterion of experience (absence of phases and criteria; the process is based on subjective assessment) 2. - I apply phases according to the criterion of time, experience 3. - I apply phases that include range of motion, strength, neuromuscular control, running programs, agility, change of direction, plyometrics and sports - specific exercises, where the basic criteria for moving to the next phase is: assessment of the desired form of exercise (absence of pain, fear, good range of motion, good flexibility, speed of execution, reaction…) 4. - I apply phases that include range of motion, strength, neuromuscular control, running programs, agility, change of direction, plyometrics and sports - specific exercises, where the basic criteria for the transition to the next phase are: assessment and evaluation of a certain defined exercise 5. - I apply phases that include range of motion, strength, neuromuscular control, running programs, agility, change of direction, plyometrics and sports - specific exercises, where the transition to the next phase is determined by assessing and evaluating the performance of defined exercises, technology, various tests ( physical, psychological) and in cooperation with other professionals (experts in the field of medicine).

1 2 3 4 5

II - Objectives within the phases of the rehabilitation process

1. - I do not have clearly defined goals 2. - The main goal is to return the athlete to the training / competition process as soon as possible (emphasis on time) 3. - I have several goals that are not hierarchically defined (unplanned development of abilities / without a clearly defined order) 4. - I have hierarchically defined goals that are independent of the goals and criteria of the previous stages (abilities are continuously developed, regardless of whether they have reached a certain (planned) level 5. - I have hierarchically defined goals that depend on and rely on the goals and criteria of the previous stages (during the process, one goal (ability) depends on the previous level of that ability).

1 2 3 4 5

Within the first scale, the existence of a clear definition of the phases and sub-criteria (the first part of the criteria) during the process of rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament injury was assessed. The rating of 1 indicated that there were no clearly defined stages and sub-criteria, but that the whole process was based on subjective assessment. A grade of 2 implied that the basic criteria for progression were experience and time. Coaches with grades 3 and 4 had clearly defined stages within their processes that included the development of all necessary abilities (range of motion, strength, running programs, changes in running direction, agility, plyometric, sport-specific movements). The main difference was related to the sub-criterion for progression, which in the grade 3 referred to the assessment of the desired form of performing a defined exercise / movement, while in the grade 4, in addition to the assessment, the exercise / movement was evaluated. Grade 5 was rounded off by trainers who, in addition to the sub-criteria listed for the previous two grades, apply modern technology, various tests (physical, psychological) in their work and cooperate with other experts (experts in the field of medicine) throughout the recovery process. With regard to the second scale, it referred to the assessment of the clear definition of objectives (the second part of the criteria) within the recovery process. Grade 1 implied the absence of clearly defined goals, while the goal for grade 2 was time, that is, the earliest return of the athlete to a specific training and competitive process. A grade of 3 referred to unplanned development of ability / no planned order, that is, goals that were not hierarchically defined. Grades 4 and 5 imply hierarchically defined goals, which in grade 4 are not dependent on complete “satisfaction” of goals and sub-criteria of previous stages (continuous development of ability, without taking into account complete “satisfaction” of previous levels of that ability). With a grade of 5, the goals relied on the goals and sub-criteria of the previous stages, with one goal (ability) - depending on the previous level of that ability. For the purposes of data processing, the specialized software SPSS 21.0, computer and Microsoft

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Office Excel 2007 were used. The statistical procedures included the elements of descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency (mean), measures of absolute dispersion (standard deviation), measures of relative dispersion (variance), minimum, maximum value and their range, as well as measures of proportionality of data distribution (Skewness, Kurtosis).

Results and discussion

Table 1 shows the sports branches and the number of coaches who performed rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament injury within them. Based on the survey results, four sports branches were singled out: soccer, basketball, volleyball and handball. Out of the total, soccer and basketball were clearly distinguished (n = 15), followed by volleyball (n = 8), while the fewest coaches who participated in this survey conducted rehabilitation within handball (n = 4).

Table 1. The sport and the number of coaches who have performed ACL recovery within it

Sport Number of conducted rehabilitations (n) Soccer 15 Basketball 15 Volleyball 8 Handball 4

Table 2 shows the survey results (I and II scales) by sports branches (frequency of grades), as well as the basic descriptive parameters of the results obtained for each sports branch. Regarding the frequency of grades in scale I, for the sports field of soccer, the following results were obtained: a grade 5 was given by 8 coaches, a grade 4 was given by 5 coaches, and a grade 3 was given by 2 coaches, while the grade 2 was given by 1 coach. There was no grade 1. The average grade within the soccer for I scale was 4.4, with a standard deviation of 0.71. The maximum grade was 5, the minimum 2, while the rating range was 3. For the II scale, the following data were obtained: a rating of 5 was given by 10 coaches; a rating of 4 was given by 5 coaches, while there was not grade of 3, 2 and 1. The average grade within the soccer for II scale was 4.67, with a standard deviation of 0.47. The maximum grade was 5, the minimum grade was 4, while the rating range was 1.

Regarding the frequency of grades in the I scale, for the sport branch of basketball, the following results were obtained: a rating of 5 was given by 10 coaches, a rating of 4 was given by one coach, a grade of 3 was given by 3 coaches, while a grade was given 2 by 1 coach. There was no grade 1. The average grade within the basketball for I scale was 4.33, with a standard deviation of 1.01. The maximum grade was 5, minimum 2, while the range of grades was 3. For the II scale, the following data were obtained: a grade 5 was given by 9 coaches; a grade of 4 was given by 6 coaches, while grades of 3, 2 and 1 were absent. The average grade within the basketball for scale II was 4.6, with a standard deviation of 0.49. The maximum grade was 5, the minimum grade was 4, while the rating range was 1. Regarding the frequency of grades in the I scale, for the sport field of volleyball, the following results were obtained: a rating of 5 was given by 4 coaches, a rating of 4 was given by 2 coaches, a rating of 3 was given by 3 coaches, while the grades 2 and 1 were absent. The average grade within the volleyball for scale I was 4.25, with a standard deviation of 0.83. The maximum grade was 5, the minimum 3, while the range of grades was 2. For the II scale, the following data were obtained: a grade 5 was given by 6 coaches; a grade 4 was given by 2 coaches, while there was not grade of 3, 2 and 1. The average grade within the volleyball for scale II was 4.75, with a standard deviation of 0.43. The maximum grade was 5, the minimum grade was 4, while the rating range was 1. Regarding the frequency of grades in the I scale, for the sport field of handball, the following results were obtained: a rating of 5 was given by 1 coach, a rating of 4 was given by 2 coaches, a rating of 3 was given by 1 coach, while the grades 2 and 1 were absent. The average grade within the handball for I scale was 4, with a standard deviation of 0.71. The maximum grade was 5, minimum 3, while the range of grades was 2. For the II scale, the following data were obtained: a rating of 5 was given by 3 coaches; a rating of 4 was given by 1 coach, while there was not grade of 3, 2 and 1. The average grade within the handball for II scale was 4.75, with a standard deviation of 0.43. The maximum grade was 5, the minimum grade was 4, while the rating range was 1. Based on the results in I scale, the highest number of coaches in the field of ACL injury recovery in soccer (n = 15), basketball (n = 14), volleyball (n = 9) and handball (n = 4) rounded out the scores 3, 4 and 5, which implied the existence of criteria (phase and sub-criteria) to evaluate the progression of athletes trainability. When it comes to II scale, the highest number of coaches in all sports, soccer (n = 15), basketball (n = 15), volleyball (n = 8) and handball (n = 4) rounded out the grades 4 and 5, which

172 UDK: 796:616-001 implied the existence of a definition of a second part of the criteria (goals) for assessing the progression of athletes trainability.

Table 2. Frequency of grades in four sports and basic descriptive parameters

Soccer Basketball Volleyball Handball Grades I scale II scale I scale II scale I scale II scale I scale II scale 5 8 10 10 9 4 6 1 3 4 5 5 1 6 2 2 2 1 3 2 - 3 - 2 - 1 - 2 1 - 1 - - - - - 1 ------M 4.4 4.67 4.33 4.6 4.25 4.75 4 4.75 SD 0.71 0.47 1.01 0.49 0.83 0.43 0.71 0.43 Max 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Min 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 Range 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1

Legend: M – mean; SD – standard deviation; Max – maximum; Min – minimum.

Table 3 shows the results of the total frequency of ratings, their expected results and the differences between the two values for I and II scales. Based on the results obtained in Table 3, it can be seen that out of 30 respondents (coaches), the highest number of coaches rated I scale with grade 5 (n = 15), almost twice less coaches gave a grade 4 (n = 8), and a slightly lower grade of 3 (n = 6), while a grade of 2 was given by the smallest number of coaches (n = 1). There was no grade 1. Expected results and residual (difference) show that there are significant deviations from expected values for grades 2 and 5 (for grade 2 there was a difference of 6.5 in favor of expected results, while for grade 5 the difference was the largest and was 7.5 in favor of the results obtained by the survey). The differences for grades 3 and 4 were minimal (for grade 3 there was a difference of 1.5 in favor of expected results, while for grade 4 this difference was even smaller and was 0.5 in favor of the results obtained by the survey). When it comes to II scale, it could be seen that out of 30 respondents (coaches), the highest number of coaches gave a grade 5 (n = 21), while the rest of the respondents (n = 9) gave a grade 4. There was no grade 1, 2 and 3. The values of expected results and residuals (differences) show that there were significant differences between the results obtained by the survey and the expected results (for the grade 4 there was a significant difference of 6 in favor of the expected results, while for the grade 5 this difference was also 6, but in the benefit of the research results. When all survey results were considered, without considering the sports field, the results are similar. Specifically, in I scale, the highest number of coaches rounded the grades 5 (n = 15), the grade 4 (n = 8) and the grade 3 (n=6), which implied the existence of criteria (phase and subcriteria) to evaluate the progression of athletes’ trainability. In II scale, the highest number of coaches rounded out a grade 5 (n = 21), while the other coaches (n = 9) rounded out a grade 4. Both grades implied that there was a definition of a second part of the criteria (goals) for assessing the progression of athletes’ trainability.

Table 3. Total frequency of scores, expected results and grades difference for I and II scale

I scale II scale Survey results Expected Residual Survey results Expected Residual Grades (n) results (n) (difference (n) results (n) (difference) 1 7.5 -6.5 2 - - - 6 7.5 -1.5 3 - - - 8 7.5 0.5 4 9 15.0 -6.0 15 7.5 7.5 5 21 15.0 6.0 30 Total 30

Table 4 shows the descriptive statistics of the obtained results of I and II scale, regardless of the sports branch. Based on this frequency, the following data for the I scale were obtained by descriptive statistics: mean score = 4.23, with a standard deviation of 0.888 and a variance of 0.806. The minimum grade for I scale was 2 and the maximum grade was 5, while the range of the grades was 3. The median of this set was 4.50. Also, negative values of two parameters were obtained which show data distribution (skewness,

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kurtosis). Namely, the negative values of these two parameters (skewness = -0.804; kurtosis = -0.465), mean that there was a curvature to the left (highest grade 5). On this basis, it can be said that there was a disproportionate distribution of data (Hi square test: 13,467; p=0.004). For the II scale, the following data were obtained: mean score = 4.70, with a standard deviation of 0.466 and a variance of 0.217. The minimum grade for the II scale was 4 and the maximum 5, while the range of the grades was 1. The median of this set was 5. Negative values of these two parameters (skewness = -0,920; kurtosis = -1,242) were also obtained in this scale, which in this case means that there was a curvature to the left (highest grade 5). Based on this, it can be said that there was a disproportionate distribution of data on the II scale (Hi square test: 4,800; p=0.028).

Table 4. Descriptive parameters of results of I and II scale

I scale II scale 4.23 M 4.70 0.898 SD 0.466 0.806 Variance 0.217 5 Max 5 2 Min 4 3 Range 1 4.5 Median 5 -0.804 Skewness -0.920 -0.465 Kurtosis -1.242

Legend: M – mean; SD – standard deviation; Max – maximum; Min – minimum.

Conclusion

The results of the survey showed that the largest number of coaches (in all four sports branches) apply the defined criteria for evaluating the progression of athletes’ trainability in the rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament injury. Namely, most coaches have stages in which the skills that will be developed during the process are clearly defined, have sub-criteria that they use to evaluate the progression of abilities within and between the stages, as well as goals that are set at the beginning of each phase and which are hierarchically defined and dependent of those objectives and sub-criteria from the previous phase. It is necessary to take into account that for the purposes of the survey, a survey was applied, which, although of an anonymous type, also carries with its deficiencies (the subjectivity of the trainer in assessing his work, honesty, incomprehensibility of the question etc.). Also, the survey was conducted on a sample of 30 coaches, which is a small sample to generalize the results. In order to look at the broader picture of the process of rehabilitation of the anterior cruciate ligament, it is necessary to determine the following important points in addition to the criteria for assessing the progression of the training: • Percentage of athlete’s return to training and competitive activities; • The existence of re-injury; • Career duration after rehabilitation; • Trainingaids used in the work.

Taking these items into account, it is possible to identify the second part of the recovery process, which is related to the evaluation of the success of the applied trainingcriteria, aids and methods during the process itself.

References

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5. Herbst, E., Hoser, C., Hildebrandt, C., Raschner, C., Hepperger, C., Pointner, H., & Fink, C. (2015). Functional assessments for decision-making regarding return to sports following ACL reconstruction. Part II: clinical application of a new test battery. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 23(5), 1283-1291. 6. Hildebrandt, C., Müller, L., Zisch, B., Huber, R., Fink, C., &Raschner, C. (2015). Functional assessments for decision-making regarding return to sports following ACL reconstruction. Part I: development of a new test battery. Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy, 23(5), 1273-1281. 7. Hopper, D. M., Goh, S. C., Wentworth, L. A., Chan, D. Y., Chau, J. H., Wootton, G. J., ... & Boyle, J. J. (2002). Test–retest reliability of knee rating scales and functional hop tests one year following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Physical Therapy in Sport, 3(1), 10-18. 8. Munro, A. G., & Herrington, L. C. (2011). Between-session reliability of four hop tests and the agility T-test. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(5), 1470-1477. 9. Narducci, E., Waltz, A., Gorski, K., Leppla, L., & Donaldson, M. (2011). The clinical utility of functional performance tests within one-year post-acl reconstruction: a systematic review. International journal of sports physical therapy, 6(4), 333. 10. Rambaud, A. J., Semay, B., Samozino, P., Morin, J. B., Testa, R., Philippot, R., ... & Edouard, P. (2017). Criteria for Return to Sport after Anterior Cruciate Ligament reconstruction with lower rein- jury risk (CR’STAL study): protocol for a prospective observational study in France. BMJ open, 7(6), e015087. 11. Reid, A., Birmingham, T. B., Stratford, P. W., Alcock, G. K., &Giffin, J. R. (2007). Hop testing provides a reliable and valid outcome measure during rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Physical therapy, 87(3), 337-349. 12. Schmitt, L. C., Paterno, M. V., & Hewett, T. E. (2012). The impact of quadriceps femoris strength asymmetry on functional performance at return to sport following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Journal of orthopaedic& sports physical therapy, 42(9), 750-759. 13. Thomeé, R., Kaplan, Y., Kvist, J., Myklebust, G., Risberg, M. A., Theisen, D., ... &Witvrouw, E. (2011). Muscle strength and hop performance criteria prior to return to sports after ACL reconstruction. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 19(11), 1798. 14. Williams, D., Heidloff, D., Haglage, E., Schumacher, K., Cole, B. J., & Campbell, K. A. (2016). Anterior cruciate ligament functional sports asssessment. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine, 24(1), 59-64.

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KRITERIJUMI ZA PROCENU PROGRESIJE TRENIRANOSTI PRI REHABILITACIJI POVREDE PREDNJEG UKRŠTENOG LIGAMENTA

Stefan Radojičić1; Marko Ćosić2 1 Fitness klub “Life active” 2 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Sve veći napori kojima su sportisti izloženi, između ostalog za sobom povlače i povećan rizik od povređivanja. Takođe, ukoliko do povrede dođe, cilj je da se prekid trenažnog procesa svede na minimum i jedan od kriterijuma za klasifikovanje težine povreda, svakako može biti i vremenski period potreban za reha- bilitaciju sportiste. U tom kontekstu, povreda prednjeg ukrštenog ligamenta (eng. Anterior Cruciate Ligament - ACL) svakako da zavređuje pažnju struke. Međutim, i pored njene relativno velike učestalosti, a pre svega njene složenosti i najčešće potrebe za operativnim zahvatom, i dalje se pojavljuje veliki broj nedovoljno jas- nih i nepotpunih rehabilitacionih protokola koje treneri primenjuju, naročito kada je reč o pripremi sportiste za povratak u visoko specifične i intenzivne trenažno-takmičarske aktivnosti. Schmitt, Paterno, & Hewett (2012) navode da su trenutni kriterijumi za povratak u sport nedovoljno jasni i da se oslanjaju na lično tumačenje literature koja nema empirijski zasnovane kriterijume. Sastavne elemente rehabilitacionog procesa kroz koji sportista prolazi tokom oporavka čine:

• Faze - kroz koje sportista prolazi tokom procesa, koje bi trebalo da budu definisane određenim sposobnostima koje će se u okviru njih razvijati (i/ili održavati), a čije trajanje zavisi od dostignutog (zadovoljenog) nivoa sposobnosti (nikako vremenski definisano); • (Pot)kriterijumi - koje je potrebno zadovoljiti da bi se uspostavila progresija sposobnosti, kako unutar, tako i između faza; • Ciljevi - koje je potrebno uspostaviti na početku svake faze, a koji bi trebalo da budu zavisni od prethodnih ciljeva (postojanje međuzavisnosti ciljeva / sposobnosti).

Ukoliko ovi delovi rehabilitacionog procesa nisu usko povezani i jasno definisani, rehabilitacioni proces postaje manje efikasan u smislu vraćanja sportiste u sportske aktivnosti na bezbedan način, na vreme i sa smanjenim rizikom od ponovnog povređivanja. Kada je reč o istraživanjima, mali je broj onih koja su se bavila utvrđivanjem načina rada trenera u toku procesa oporavka, odnosno načina za procenu treniranosti sportista u toku rehabilitacije povrede ACL. Naime, najveći broj je podrazumevao utvrđivanje dela koji se tiče validnosti pojedinačnih testova (Bolgla & Keckula, 1997; Hopper, 2002; Fitzgerald, Axe & Snyder-Mackler, 2000; Munro & Herrington,2011; Reid, Bir- minghan, Stratford, Alcock & Giffin, 2007; Thomeé, Kaplan, Kvist, Myklebust & Witvrouw, 2011), kao i grupa testova (Barber-Westin & Noyes, 2011; Engelen-van Melick, van Cingel, Tijssen & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, 2013; Narducci, Waltz, Gorski, Leppla & Donaldson, 2011; Herbst, Hoser, Hildebrandt, Raschner, Hepperger & Fink, 2015; Hildebrandt, Müller, Zisch, Huber, Fink & Raschner, 2015; Rambaud, Semay, Samozino, Morin, Testa, Philippot & Edouard, 2017; Williams, Heidloff, Haglage, Schumacher & Campbell, 2016) kao kriterijuma za povratak sportiste u intenzivne trenažno-takmičarske aktivnosti. Problem ovog istraživanja obuhvata kriterijume za procenu progresije treniranosti sportista prireha- bilitaciji povrede ACL. Predmet ovog istraživanja je definisanje kriterijuma za procenu progresije treniranosti sportista pri rehabilitaciji povrede ACL, dok se cilj istraživanja odnosi na utvrđivanje kriterijuma koje treneri najviše primenjuju u okviru 3 osnovna elementa rehabilitacionog procesa: faza kroz koje sportista prolazi u okviru rehabilitacionog procesa, kriterijuma za progresiju unutar i između faza i ciljeva u okviru faza.

Metode

Za potrebe istraživanja sprovedeno je anketiranje, kome je pristupilo 30 kondicionih trenera (30 muškaraca), koji rade ili su radili u timskim sportovima, i to u klubovima najvišeg ranga (savezni ili međun- arodni). Anketa je kreirana isključivo za potrebe rada, dok je kriterijum za pristupanje popunjavanju ankete bio je da treneri imaju barem dva uspešno sprovedena oporavka ACL. Ispitanici koji su uzeli učešće u anketi bili su iz četiri sportske grane: fudbala, košarke, odbojke i rukometa. Anketiranje je bilo anonimnog tipa, pri čemu su ispitanici (treneri) najpre bili upoznati sa ciljem rada i svrhom ankete, a potom pristupali popunjavanju dela vezanog za sportsku granu u kojoj su sprovodili oporavak i dela koji sadrži dve skale (ocene od 1 do 5), kojima su se utvrđivali kriterijumi za procenu progresije treniranosti pri rehabilitaciji povrede ACL. Kriterijumi koji čine anketu sastavljeni su na osnovu postojećih teorijskih razmatranja i literature, kao i na osnovu iskustava iz prakse. Autori su težili da pokriju spektar svih potencijalnih odgovora, odnosno da odgovori budu međusobno iscrpni. Takođe, postojala je pretpostavka da su svi treneri uspešno oporavili sportiste, bez

176 UDK: 796:616-001 obzira na ocenu. Deo trenera anketu je popunjavao pismenim putem (21 trener), dok je 9 trenera (koji nisu bili u mogućnosti da istu popune pismeno), anketu popunilo u elektronskoj formi. U narednom poglavlju prikazani su izgled i tumačenje anketnog lista koji su treneri popunjavali, i to najpre I skala u kojoj je prikazan prvi deo kriterijuma (faze i potkriterijumi), a zatim i II skala, odnosno drugi deo kriterijuma (ciljevi).

I - Faze rehabilitacionog procesa i kriterijumi za prelazak u narednu fazu

1. - Ne primenjujem jasno definisane faze i kriterijume / primenjujem faze po kriterijumu iskustva (nepostojanje faza i kriterijuma; proces se zasniva na subjektivnoj proceni) 2. - Primenjujem faze po kriterijumu vremena, iskustva 3. - Primenjujem faze koje obuhvataju opseg pokreta, jačinu, neuromuskularnu kontrolu, programe trčanja, agilnosti, promene pravca kretanja, pliometrije i sport - specifične vežbe, gde je osnovni kriterijum za prelazak u narednu fazu: procena željene forme izvođenja vežbi (odsustvo bola, straha, dobra amplitude pokreta, dobra fleksibilnost, brzina izvođenja, reakcija…) 4. - Primenjujem faze koje obuhvataju opseg pokreta, jačinu, neuromuskularnu kontrolu, programe trčanja, agilnosti, promene pravca kretanja, pliometrije i sport - specifične vežbe, gde su osnovni kriterijumi za prelazak u narednu fazu: procena i ocenjivanje izvođenja određene definisane vežbe 5. - Primenjujem faze koje obuhvataju opseg pokreta, jačinu, neuromuskularnu kontrolu, programe trčanja, agilnosti, promene pravca kretanja, pliometrije i sport - specifične vežbe, gde se prelazak u narednu fazu određuje procenom i ocenjivanjem izvođenja definisanih vežbi, primenom tehnologije, različitih testova (fizičkih, psiholoških) i uz saradnju sa drugim stručnim licima (stručnjaci iz oblasti medicine)

1 2 3 4 5

II - Ciljevi u okviru faza rehabilitacionog procesa

1. - Nemam jasno definisane ciljeve 2. - Osnovni cilj je da se sportista što pre vrati u trenažni / takmičarski proces (akcenat na vremenu) 3. - Imam više ciljeva koji nisu hijerarhijski definisani (neplaniran razvoj sposobnosti / bez jasno definisa- nog redosleda) 4. - Imam hijerarhijski definisane ciljeve koji su nezavisni od ciljeva i kriterijuma prethodnih faza (sposobnosti se kontinuirano razvijaju, bez obzira da li su dostigle određeni (planirani) nivo) 5. - Imam hijerarhijski definisane ciljeve koji zavise i oslanjaju se na ciljeve i kriterijume prethodnih faza (u toku procesa, jedan cilj (sposobnost) zavisi od prethodnog nivoa te sposobnosti)

1 2 3 4 5

U okviru prve skale, procenjivalo se postojanje jasne definisanosti faza i potkriterijuma (prvog dela kriterijuma) tokom procesa rehabilitacije povrede ACL. Ocenom 1 treneri su označavali nepostojanje jasno definisanih faza i potkriterijuma, već da se čitav proces zasniva na subjektivnoj proceni. Ocena 2 podrazumevala je da su osnovni potkriterijumi za progresiju - iskustvo i vreme. Treneri sa ocenama 3 i 4 imali su u okviru svojih procesa jasno definisane faze koje su obuhvatale razvoj svih potrebnih sposobnosti (opseg pokreta, jačina, snaga, programe trčanja, promene pravca trčanja, agilnosti, pliometrije, sport-specifičnih pokreta). Osnovna razlika odnosila se na potkriterijum za progresiju, koji se kod ocene 3 odnosio na procenu željene forme izvođenja definisane vežbe/kretanja, dok se kod ocene 4 pored procene, sprovodilo i ocenjivanje vežbe/kretanja. Ocenu 5, zaokruživali su treneri koji pored potkriterijuma koji su navedeni za prethodne dve ocene, primenjuju u svom radu savremenu tehnologiju, različite testove (fizičke, psihološke) i tokom čitavog procesa oporavka sarađuju sa drugim stručnim licima (stručna lica iz oblasti medicine). Kada je reč o drugoj skali, ona se odnosila na procenu jasne definisanosti ciljeva (drugog dela kriterijuma) u okviru procesa oporavka. Ocena 1 je podrazumevala nepostojanje jasno definisanih ciljeva, dok je cilj kod ocene 2 bio vreme, odnosno što raniji povratak sportiste u specifični trenažno-takmičarski proces. Ocena 3 se odnosila na neplaniran razvoj sposobnosti bez planiranog redosleda, odnosno na postojanje ciljeva koji nisu hijerarhijski definisani. Ocene 4 i 5 su podrazumevale hijerarhijski definisane ciljeve, koji kod ocene 4 nisu zavisni od potpunog „zadovoljavanja“ ciljeva i potkriterijuma prethodnih faza (kontinuiran razvoj sposobnosti, bez uzimanja u obzir potpunog „zadovoljavanja“ prethodnih nivoa te sposobnosti). Kod ocene 5, ciljevi su se oslanjali na ciljeve i potkriterijume prethodnih faza, pri čemu jedan cilj (sposobnost) - zavisi od prethodnog nivoa te sposobnosti. Za potrebe obrade podataka korišćen je specijalizovani softver SPSS 21.0, računari Microsoft Office Excel 2007. Od statističkih procedura korišćeni su elementi deskriptivne statistike: mere centralne tendencije (srednja vrednost), mere apsolutne disperzije (standardna devijacija), mere relativne disperzije (varijansa), minimalna, maksimalna vrednosti njihov opseg, kao i mere srazmernosti distribucije podataka (Skewness, Kurtosis).

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Rezultati sa diskusijom

U Tabeli 1 prikazane su sportske grane i broj trenera koji su u okviru njih sprovodili oporavak povrede ACL. Na osnovu rezultata ankete, izdvojile su se četiri sportske grane: fudbal, košarka, odbojka i rukomet. Od ukupnog broja, jasno se izdvajaju fudbal i košarka (n=15), zatim sledi odbojka (n=8), dok je najmanji broj trenera koji su učestvovali u ovoj anketi sprovodio oporavak u rukometu (n=4).

Tabela 1. Sportska grana i broj trenera koji su u okviru nje sprovodili oporavak ACL

Sportska grana Broj oporavaka (n) Fudbal 15 Košarka 15 Odbojka 8 Rukomet 4

U Tabeli 2 prikazani su rezultati ankete (I i II skala) po sportskim granama (frekvencija ocena), kao i osnovni deskriptivni parametric dobijenih rezultata za svaku sportsku granu. Kada je reč o frekvenciji ocena u I skali, za sportsku granu fudbal, dobijeni su sledeći rezultati: ocenu 5 dalo je 8 trenera, ocenu 4 dalo je 5 trenera, ocenu 3 dala su 2 trenera, dok je ocenu 2 dao 1 trener. Ocene 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u fudbalu za I skalu iznosi 4,4, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,71. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna2, dok opseg ocena iznosi 3. Za II skalu, dobijeni su sledeći podaci: ocenu 5 dalo je 10 trenera, ocenu 4 dalo je 5 trenera, dok ocena 3, 2 i 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u fudbalu za II skalu iznosi 4,67, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,47. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna 4 dok opseg ocena iznosi 1. Kada je reč o frekvenciji ocena u I skali, za sportsku granu košarka, dobijeni su sledeći rezultati: ocenu 5 dalo je 10 trenera, ocenu 4 dao je 1 trener, ocenu 3 dala su 3 trenera, dok je ocenu 2 dao 1 trener. Ocene 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u košarci za I skalu iznosi 4,33, sa standardnom devijacijom od 1,01. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna 2, dok opseg ocena iznosi 3. Za II skalu, dobijeni su sledeći podaci: ocenu 5 dalo je 9 trenera, ocenu 4 dalo je 6 trenera, dok ocena 3, 2 i 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u košarci za II skalu iznosi 4,6, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,49. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna 4, dok opseg ocena iznosi 1. Kada je reč o frekvenciji ocena u I skali, za sportsku granu odbojka, dobijeni su sledeći rezultati: ocenu 5 dalo je 4 trenera, ocenu 4 dala su 2 trenera, ocenu 3 dala su 3 trenera, dok ocena 2 i 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u odbojci za I skalu iznosi 4,25, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,83. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna3, dok opseg ocena iznosi 2. Za II skalu, dobijeni su sledeći podaci: ocenu 5 dalo je 6 trenera, ocenu 4 dala su 2 trenera, dok ocena 3, 2 i 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u odbojci za II skalu iznosi 4,75, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,43. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna 4, dok opseg ocena iznosi 1. Kada je reč o frekvenciji ocena u I skali, za sportsku granu rukomet, dobijeni su sledeći rezultati: ocenu 5 dao je 1 trener, ocenu 4 dala su 2 trenera, ocenu 3 dao je 1 trener, dok ocena 2 i 1 nije bilo. Proseč- na ocena u rukometu za I skalu iznosi 4, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,71. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna 3, dok opseg ocena iznosi 2. Za II skalu, dobijeni su sledeći podaci: ocenu 5 dala su 3 trenera, ocenu 4 dao je 1 trener, dok ocena 3, 2 i 1 nije bilo. Prosečna ocena u rukometu za II skalu iznosi 4,75, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,43. Maksimalna ocena bila je 5, minimalna 4, dok opseg ocena iznosi 1. Na osnovu rezultata u I skali, najveći broj trenera koji su sprovodili oporavak povrede ACL u fudbalu (n=15), košarci (n=14), odbojci (n=9) i rukometu (n=4), zaokružio je ocene 3, 4 i 5, koje su podrazumevale postojanje kriterijuma (faza i potkriterijuma) za procenu progresije treniranosti sportista. Kada je reč o II skali, najveći broj trenera u svim sportskim granama, fudbalu (n=15), košarci (n=15), odbojci (n=8) i rukometu (n=4), za- okružio je ocene 4 i 5, koje su podrazumevale postojanje definisanosti drugog dela kriterijuma (ciljeva) za procenu progresije treniranosti kod sportista.

Tabela 2. Frekvencija ocena u četiri sportske grane i osnovni deskriptivni parametri

Fudbal Košarka Odbojka Rukomet Ocene I skala II skala I skala II skala I skala II skala I skala II skala 5 8 10 10 9 4 6 1 3 4 5 5 1 6 2 2 2 1 3 2 - 3 - 2 - 1 - 2 1 - 1 - - - - - 1 ------M 4.4 4.67 4.33 4.6 4.25 4.75 4 4.75 SD 0.71 0.47 1.01 0.49 0.83 0.43 0.71 0.43

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Max 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Min 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 Opseg 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1

Legenda: M – srednja vrednost; SD – standardna devijacija; Max – maksimum; Min – minimum.

U Tabeli 3 prikazani su rezultati ukupne frekvencije ocena, njihovi očekivani rezultati, kao i razlike između te dve vrednosti za I i II skalu. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata u Tabeli 3. može se videti da je od 30 ispitanika (trenera), najveći broj I skalu ocenio ocenom 5 (n=15), gotovo duplo manje trenera dalo je ocenu 4 (n=8), a nešto manje ocenu 3 (n=6), dok je ocenu 2 dao najmanji broj trenera (n=1). Ocene 1 nije bilo. Očekivani rezultati i rezidual (razlika) pokazuju da kod ocena 2 i 5 postoje značajna odstupanja od očekivanih vrednosti (za ocenu 2 postoji razlika od 6,5 u korist očekivanih rezultata, dok je za ocenu 5 razlika najveća i iznosi 7,5 u korist rezultata dobijenih istraživanjem). Razlike za ocene 3 i 4 su minimalne (za ocenu 3 postoji razlika od 1,5 u korist očekivanih rezultata, dok je za ocenu 4 ta razlika još manja i iznosi 0,5 u korist rezultata dobijenih istraživanjem). Kada je reč o II skali, može se videti da je od 30 ispitanika (trenera), najveći broj dao ocenu 5 (n=21), dok je preostali deo ispitanika (n=9) dao ocenu 4. Ocena 1, 2 i 3 nije bilo. Vrednosti očekivanih rezultata i reziduala (razlike) pokazuju da postoje značajne razlike izmedju rezultata dobijenih istraživanjem i očekivanih rezultata (za ocenu 4 postoji značajna razlika od 6 u korist očekivanih rezultata, dok je za ocenu 5 ta razlika takođe 6, ali u korist rezultata dobijenih istraživanjem. Kada se uzmu u obzir svi rezultati ankete, bez obzira na sportsku granu, rezultati su slični. Naime, u I skali, najveći broj trenera zaokružio je ocene 5 (n=15), ocenu 4 (n=8) i ocenu 3 (n=6), koje su podrazumevale postojanje kriterijuma (faza i potkriterijuma) za procenu progresije treniranosti sportista. U II skali, najveći broj trenera zaokružio je ocenu 5 (n=21), dok je drugi deo trenera (n=9) zaokružio ocenu 4. Obe ocene su podrazumevale postojanje definisanosti drugog dela kriterijuma (ciljeva) za procenu progresije treniranosti kod sportista.

Tabela 3. Ukupna frekvencija ocena, očekivani rezultati i razlika rezultata za I i II skalu

I skala II skala Dobijeni Očekivani Dobijeni Očekivani Razlika Ocene Razlika rezultati (n) rezultati (n) rezultati (n) rezultati (n) 1 7.5 -6.5 2 - - - 6 7.5 -1.5 3 - - - 8 7.5 0.5 4 9 15.0 -6.0 15 7.5 7.5 5 21 15.0 6.0 30 Ukupno 30

Tabela 4 prikazuje deskriptivnu statistiku dobijenih rezultata I i II skale, bez obzira na sportsku granu. Na osnovu ovakve frekvencije ocena, deskriptivnom statistikom dobijeni su sledeći podaci za I skalu: srednja ocena = 4,23, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,898 i varijansom od 0,806. Minimalna ocena za I skalu je 2, a maksimalna 5, dok je opseg ocena 3. Medijana ovog skupa iznosi 4,50. Takođe, dobijene su negativne vrednosti dva parametra koji pokazuju distribuciju podataka (skewness, kurtosis). Naime, negativne vrednosti ova dva parametra (skewness = -0,804; kurtosis = -0,465), znače da postoji zakrivljenost u levo (najviše ocena 5). Na osnovu toga se može reći da postoji nesrazmerna distribucija podataka (Hi kvadrat test: 13,467; p=0,004). Za II skalu, dobijeni su sledeći podaci: srednja ocena = 4,70, sa standardnom devijacijom od 0,466 i varijansom od 0,217. Minimalna ocena za I skalu je 4, a maksimalna 5, dok je opseg ocena1. Medijana ovog skupa iznosi 5. I kod ove skale dobijene su negativne vrednosti ova dva parametra (skewness = -0,920; kurtosis = -1,242), što i u ovom slučaju znači da postoji zakrivljenost u levo (najviše ocena 5). Na osnovu toga se može reći da i kod II skale postoji nesrazmerna distribucija podataka (Hi kvadrat test: 4,800; p=0,028).

Tabela 4. Deskriptivni parametri rezultata I i II skale

I skala II skala 4.23 M 4.70 0.898 SD 0.466 0.806 Varijansa 0.217 5 Max 5 2 Min 4

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3 Opseg 1 4.5 Medijana 5 -0.804 Skewness -0.920 -0.465 Kurtosis -1.242

Legenda: M – srednja vrednost; SD – standardna devijacija; Max – maksimum; Min – minimum.

Zaključak

Rezultati ankete pokazali su da najveći broj trenera (u sve četiri sportske grane) primenjuje definisane kriterijume za procenu progresije treniranosti sportista pri rehabilitaciji povrede prednjeg ukrštenog ligamenta. Naime, većina trenera ima faze u kojima su jasno definisane sposobnosti koje će se u toku procesa razvijati, ima potkriterijume koje koristi za procenu progresije sposobnosti unutar i između faza, kao i ciljeve koje postavljana početku svake faze i koji su hijerarhijski definisani, odnosno zavise od onih ciljeva i potkriterijuma iz prethodne faze. Neophodno je uzeti u obzir da je za potrebe istraživanja primenjena anketa, koja iako anonimnog tipa, sa sobom nosi i nedostatke (subjektivnost trenera pri proceni svog rada, iskrenost, nerazumljivost pitanja itd.). Takođe, istraživanje je sprovedeno na uzorku od 30 trenera, što je relativno mali uzorak da bi se rezultati generalizovali. Kako bi se sagledala šira slika procesa rehabilitacije povrede prednjeg ukrštenog ligamenta, potrebno je pored kriterijuma za procenu progresije treniranosti, utvrditi i sledeće bitne stavke: • procenat povratka sportiste u trenažno-takmičarske aktivnosti; • postojanje ponovne povrede; • trajanje karijere nakon završene rehabilitacije; • trenažna sredstva koja se primenjuju u radu.

Uzimanjem u obzir ovih stavki, moguće je utvrditi drugi deo procesa oporavka koji se odnosi na procenu uspešnosti primenjenih kriterijuma, sredstava, i metoda u toku samog procesa.

Literatura

1. Barber-Westin, S. D., & Noyes, F. R. (2011). Factors used to determine return to unrestricted sports activities after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy: the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery, 27(12), 1697-1705. 2. Bolgla, L. A., &Keskula, D. R. (1997). Reliability of lower extremity functional performance tests. Jour- nal of Orthopaedic& Sports Physical Therapy, 26(3), 138-142. 3. Engelen-van Melick, N., van Cingel, R. E., Tijssen, M. P., & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. (2013). As- sessment of functional performance after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review of measurement procedures. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 21(4), 869-879. 4. Fitzgerald, G. K., Axe, M. J., & Snyder-Mackler, L. (2000). A decision-making scheme for returning patients to high-level activity with nonoperative treatment after anterior cruciate ligament rupture. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 8(2), 76-82. 5. Herbst, E., Hoser, C., Hildebrandt, C., Raschner, C., Hepperger, C., Pointner, H., & Fink, C. (2015). Functional assessments for decision-making regarding return to sports following ACL reconstruction. Part II: clinical application of a new test battery. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 23(5), 1283-1291. 6. Hildebrandt, C., Müller, L., Zisch, B., Huber, R., Fink, C., &Raschner, C. (2015). Functional assessments for decision-making regarding return to sports following ACL reconstruction. Part I: development of a new test battery. Knee surgery, sports traumatology, arthroscopy, 23(5), 1273-1281. 7. Hopper, D. M., Goh, S. C., Wentworth, L. A., Chan, D. Y., Chau, J. H., Wootton, G. J., ... & Boyle, J. J. (2002). Test–retest reliability of knee rating scales and functional hop tests one year following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Physical Therapy in Sport, 3(1), 10-18. 8. Munro, A. G., & Herrington, L. C. (2011). Between-session reliability of four hop tests and the agility T-test. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(5), 1470-1477. 9. Narducci, E., Waltz, A., Gorski, K., Leppla, L., & Donaldson, M. (2011). The clinical utility of functional performance tests within one-year post-acl reconstruction: a systematic review. International journal of sports physical therapy, 6(4), 333. 10. Rambaud, A. J., Semay, B., Samozino, P., Morin, J. B., Testa, R., Philippot, R., ... & Edouard, P. (2017). Criteria for Return to Sport after Anterior Cruciate Ligament reconstruction with lower rein- jury risk (CR’STAL study): protocol for a prospective observational study in France. BMJ open, 7(6), e015087.

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11. Reid, A., Birmingham, T. B., Stratford, P. W., Alcock, G. K., &Giffin, J. R. (2007). Hop testing provides a reliable and valid outcome measure during rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Physical therapy, 87(3), 337-349. 12. Schmitt, L. C., Paterno, M. V., & Hewett, T. E. (2012). The impact of quadriceps femoris strength asymmetry on functional performance at return to sport following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Journal of orthopaedic& sports physical therapy, 42(9), 750-759. 13. Thomeé, R., Kaplan, Y., Kvist, J., Myklebust, G., Risberg, M. A., Theisen, D., ... &Witvrouw, E. (2011). Muscle strength and hop performance criteria prior to return to sports after ACL reconstruction. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 19(11), 1798. 14. Williams, D., Heidloff, D., Haglage, E., Schumacher, K., Cole, B. J., & Campbell, K. A. (2016). Anterior cruciate ligament functional sports asssessment. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine, 24(1), 59-64.

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ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES IN 13-15 YEARS OLD FEMALE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS

Daliborka Stanković1; Goran Nešić2; Nikola Majstorović2 1 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia 2 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Volleyball is a full of fast and all-round body movements such as jumps, rolls and throws, with quick reactions to different situations. The position of the body when setting a ball, spiking and blocking it is very useful for good posture. Volleyball is an intermittent activity and very lively, combative, attractive, complex and dynamic sports branch, as well as interesting because of frequent trades (attack-defense with counter-attack). Players are required to be resourceful, concentration and responsive in a variety of situations. Success depends on the technical and tactical readiness of each player, but also on the collective spirit of the players and their joint commitment. The basic volleyball elements include a range of motor actions in order to perform them properly, simultaneously and effectively. Therefore, it is understandable and fully justified to expect that training will improve these elements and develop motor abilities (Stojanovic, 2011; Nesic et al. 2013). In volleyball, as in all other sports activities, there is no technical element that can be properly performed without adequate motor abilities, nor can motor abilities be manifested without optimal morphological features. Morphological features, such as transversal and longitudinal dimensionality, have an impact on the performance of elements of volleyball technique, and consequently on the success of their performance, as well as in determining the player’s position in the team. Modern volleyball requires from all players a high level of general motor abilities as well as specific ones - inherent to volleyball and certain player positions (Martinovic et al. 2011). Competition in volleyball contains (Nesic, 2006): spatial-motor structure (jumps, falls, stepping, running, hitting the ball), time structure (active and passive playing time, total game duration and total game time plus warm-up time), technical-tactical structure, which means the technical-tactical elements of volleyball. In view of this systematization, it is necessary to determine the profile of anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities in order to see how certain variables can influence the performance of movement activities and the elements of the technique and it is necessary to understand which abilities should be given special attention. Players must be prepared to perform every technical-tactical element perfectly. During the learning, adoption or perfect implementation of these elements, maximum care must be taken so that they can be performed correctly, quickly, vigorously, accurately. Respecting the gradual and methodical nature of the training process, it is necessary to find an adequate “shortest path” from volleyball players beginners to volleyball players who possess a range of volleyball knowledge and skills that they can effectively manipu- late (Jurko et al., 2013). Therefore, the training phases of the basic elements of volleyball technique, in the younger competitive categories (as in volleyball schools), will never cease to be the primary imperative – an indispensable part of the process of “creating” a quality volleyball player (Nesic, 2005).

In addition to training volleyball technique, it is very important to know the sensitive periods, the age at which certain motor abilities are the most effectively affected, which leads to the proper development of volleyball player and to injury prevention above all, as well as to greater success in mastering training and in-game tasks. Tested anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities help us determine the playing positions in the field (e.g. explosiveness of arms and shoulder girdle is very important in the spiking), as well as the execution of the elements of the technique (e.g. explosiveness of the leg extensors in jump test largely determines the success of the performance block). By evaluating anthropometric characteristics, we can initially preventively influence the health of an athlete and reduce the possibility of injury, but also the success of performing motor actions. In order to determine the specificities of anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities of volleyball players, a cross-sectional study was conducted. The aim of this research is to present and analyze 13-15 years old female players’ anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities which are the most needed in volleyball, as well as to compare these results with the results of pilot studies in which untrained girls, basketball players and swimmers of the same or approximate age were tested.

Methods

The method used is empirical. Instruments and techniques for data collection were standardized, and included Martin anthropometer, transport scales – Tanita, dynamometer, optojump, bench for sit and reach, stick for shoulder flexibility test, photo cells. Regarding statistical procedures for data processing, descriptive statistics were used - mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, skewness, kurtosis

182 UDK: 796.325:796.012.1 and coefficient of variation of the tested variables. The sample consisted of 39 female volleyball players of volleyball school „DIF“, ages 13-15. The sample variable included two groups of variables, explaining anthropometric and motor domain. Variables which explain anthropometric characteristics were: body height (BH), body weight (BM), arm span (AS), Body Mass Index (BMI), fat percentage (FP), percentage of muscle (MP). The variables that explain the motor abilities were: maximum hand grip (maximum force), speed of development of maximum hand grip force (explosiveness), time required for maximal hand grip (maximal force reaching time), the time at which the rate of development of maximal hand grip force is reached (the time from the beginning of the force action to the moment when the maximum hand grip force is reached), counter-movement jump (explosive power of leg muscles), shoulder flexibility test with stick (flexibility of shoulder muscles), sit and reach (flexibility of hamstrings), X test (agility), medicine ball throw – MBT (the speed power for both arm and shoulder).

Results

In Table 1 is shown descriptive statistic indicators of the anthropometric characteristics of the exam- ines in this study.

Table 1. Results of anthropometric characteristics measurement

SKEW- Variable MIN МАX STDEV MEAN KURTOSIS CV(%) NESS BH (cm) 134.90 169.20 9.47 -0.50 155.67 -0.77 6.09 AS (cm) 134.40 175 10.67 -0.15 156.20 -0.74 6.83 BW (kg) 30.50 72.30 11.27 0.24 49.23 -0.56 22.90 BMI (%) 14.19 25.73 2.97 0.21 20.07 -0.81 32.14 FP 7.70 33.90 6.99 0.22 21.77 -0.84 32.14 MP 29.60 39.40 2.55 -0.16 34.67 -0.90 7.36

MIN – minimum, MAX – maximum, STDEV – standard deviation, SKEWNESS, MEAN – arithmetic mean, KURTOSIS, CV - coefficient of variation, BH – body height, AS – arm span, BW – body weight, BMI – body mass index, FP – fat percentage, MP – muscle percentage

Table 2. Results of motor abilities assessment

SKEW- Variable МIN МАX STDEV MEAN KURTOSIS CV(%) NESS D_Fmax (N) 107 334 52.56 0.52 195.33 -0.04 26.91 D_RFDmax 642 2086 353.71 0.16 1331.13 -0.58 26.57 (N/s) D_tFmax (s) 0.20 1.54 0.37 0.73 0.71 -0.58 51.90 D_tRFDmax 0.10 0.18 0.02 1.60 0.12 2.50 14.15 (s) L_Fmax (N) 99 276 44.14 0.005 182.46 -0.62 24.19 L_RFDmax 622 2037 334.50 0.18 1236.69 0.20 27.05 (N/s) L_tFmax (s) 0.24 1.94 0.40 0.75 0.83 0.11 48.01 L_tRFDmax 0.10 0.18 0.01 1.79 0.12 5.57 11.48 (s) JUMP (cm) 9.80 34 5.67 -0.38 22.58 -0.20 25.11 SFT (cm) 35 103 18.14 -0.42 72.64 -0.41 24.97 SiR (cm) 7 32 6.19 -0.01 17.90 -0.53 34.58 X TEST (s) 8.49 11.74 0.78 0.38 9.75 -0.30 8.05 MBT (m) 3.90 7.40 0.95 0.82 5.13 -0.13 18.56

Fmax – maximum hand grip force (maximum force), RFDmax – rate of development of maximum hand

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grip force (explosiveness), tFmax – time required for maximum hand grip (maximum force reaching time), tRFDmax – time at which the rate of development of maximum hand grip force is reached (the time from the beginning of the force action to the moment when the maximum hand grip force is reached), JUMP – counter-movement jump, SFT – shoulder flexibility test with stick, SiR – sit and reach, X TEST, MBT – medicine ball throw, R – right hand, L – left hand

Based on the results obtained by testing the anthropometric characteristics shown in Table 1, it can be seen that the BH, AS, and MP estimation tests show negative asymmetry, while the BW, BMI, and FP estimation tests show positive asymmetry. Increasing body height proportionally leads to an increase in arm span, and even the AS variable in some cases exceeds body height. The distribution of results is relatively normal for all anthropometric indicators, but some measures have a higher coefficient of variation, such as BMI and FP. Based on the results obtained by testing the motor abilities shown in Table 2, it can be seen that the coefficient of variation of the hand grip force is in the zone of value less than 30%, indicating very homogeneous results for most variables, and only two variables are in the zone of 30-60%, indicating moderately homogeneous results. The results of this study showed that the force of the right hand was slightly higher than the left hand. We hypothesize that is the reason for reaching the maximum hand grip force of the right hand faster. Based on the results obtained – it can be seen that the lowest coefficient of variation in the agility test can be attributed to the fact that it represents the synthesis of almost all physical abilities (highest speed, power and coordination). The highest coefficient of variation appears in the flexibility test – sit and reach. This can be due to the time of day, ambient temperature and emotional state. Also, the period of flexibility development coincides with the age of tested volleyball players from 12-15 years, after which this motor ability reaches its maximum (Guzalovski, 1984). Some tested volleyball players have reached the maximum in the development of this motor ability. The tRFDmax variables of the right and left hands have slightly higher skewness and kurtosis than the other variables for estimating the characteristics of hand grip force. It can be seen from the Table 2 that the values for skewness are above 1, indicating that the distribution of the results is positively asymmetric, which further means that there is relatively small number of results larger than the mean. When we look at kurtosis, the values are somewhat greater and this indicates a leptokurtic distribution, i.e. a distribution that is more elongated (has a higher peak) than the normal distribution and therefore indicates a distribution in which results are very far from the mean.

Discussion

Comparing this research with another one (Nesic et al. 2014) examining the anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities of 13-15-year-old volleyball players, it can be seen that the height for 13-year-old volleyball players is 158.97 ± 10.52 (while in our research height is 155.67 cm), TM 49.4 ± 11.96 (49.23 kg in this research), BMI 19.32 ± 2.98 kg / m² (BMI in our research is 20.07 kg / m²) and the fat percentage is 17.47 (while in our research the percentage of fat is 21.77). Malina et al. (2014), for example, reported that girls age 13 ± 0.5 years in America have a body weight of about 47-52 kg on average, which is somewhat less than the volleyball players’ average. One pilot study, conducted for the purpose of a graduate work (Stojkovic, 2014), included 40 untrained girls aged 14-15 years (± 6 months), a student of Elementary School “Svetozar Markovic” from Kragu- jevac. Testing was performed by using the following tests: shoulder flexibility test with stick, sit and reach and X test. The results of the average value of the variable for assessing the flexibility of the arms and shoulder (test with a stick), in volleyball players is 72.64 cm, and in untrained girls it is 69.85 cm, which indicates that volleyball players are probably more flexible in the area of arms and shoulders under the influence of specificity of volleyball training and performing technical elements like service, forearm set… The coefficient of variability of the X test results in untrained girls and volleyball players does not differ too much (8.31% in untrained girls; 8.05% in volleyball players), while the difference in the average value is slightly more than 2 seconds, also in favor of the volleyball players (average time for girls volleyball players is 9.75 seconds and for untrained girls 11.84 seconds). The cause for such results could be that other motor abilities such as speed, power, strength, that develop through training mostly during this period of child development play a role in agility. The average value of the variable for assessing flexibility in the hip joint and hamstrings (sit and reach) was 17.90 cm for volleyball players and -3.63 cm for untrained girls. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that girls who are in the training process are much more flexible than untrained, which indicates that good flexibility is an important prerequisite for successful movement performance, as well as prevention of injuries of musculoskeletal structures (Beaulieu, 1980; Sapega , 1981; Prentice, 1983). Another pilot study, also for the purpose of a graduate work (Knezevic, 2017), was performed on swimmers aged 16 years. The sample consisted of 12 swimmers who are members of PK “Valis” from Valje- vo. The tests used to assess motor abilities are medicine ball throw and X test agility. The average value of the test results for estimating the speed of arm strength in volleyball players is 5.13 m, while in swimmers it

184 UDK: 796.325:796.012.1 is 4.40 m. The results shown for the medicine ball throw test are expected – volleyball-specific movements such as spikes, develop the speed of arm strength, and therefore better results are obtained for this variable. The average score of the X test for assessing agility in volleyball players is 9.75 seconds, while for swimmers it is 9.99 seconds. No large differences were shown, indicating insufficient work to develop this motor ability in volleyball players, although the age difference of the athletes tested should also be taken into account. The next pilot study, also for the purpose of a graduate work (Stulic, 2015), was conducted on a sample of 25 basketball female players aged 12-13 years from three Belgrade clubs: ZKK “Radivoj Korac”, ZKK “Art basket” and ZKK “Partizan”. Agility assessment tests (T test, where the distance was approximately the same as in the X volleyball test, with a distance of 9 m to the middle cone and from the middle to the left and right 4.5 m, while in the X test, the distance from the start to each cone was 4.5 m), leg muscle explosive power (Sargent test) and arm and shoulder muscle explosive force (throwing medicine) were used. In the agility assessment test (T test), volleyball players achieved an average time of 9.75 seconds, while basketball players achieved an average of 11.09 seconds. By measuring the explosive power of the leg-stretcher muscles, volleyball players in the counter-movement jump test had an average value of 22.58 cm, while basketball players in the Sargent test had an average value of 34.6 cm. In the last test, to assess the explosive power of the arm and shoulder girdle muscles, volleyball players achieved an average score of 5.13 m, while basketball players achieved a score of 3.36 m. Volleyball players are better in almost all tests. It is assumed that the anthropometric characteristics of the volleyball players are better (with a higher percentage of muscle mass in volleyball players being 34.67 on average, and 33.30 in basketball players and also a lower percentage of fat in volleyball players on average 21.77, while in basketball players 23.20), have led to a better performance of most motor status tests, except in the Sargent test.

Conclusion

The main objective of this research was to present and analyze those anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities of volleyball players aged 13-15 years, which are most needed in volleyball. It can be seen from the sample examined in this study that an increase in body height was accompanied by an increase in arm span and even exceeded these values. This can lead to a positive impact on the effective performance of the technical elements specific to volleyball.

When we talk about motor abilities, the assumption is that the speed of reaching the maximum grip strength depends on the strength of the hand grip, so in our research, both the maximum grip force and the maximum grip force are higher for the right hand than for the left hand. In other tests for assessing motor abilities, we can see the advantage of volleyball players over the untrained girls in the pilot study we used (Stojkovic, 2014). Assumed assumptions relate to agility and flexibility. When we compared volleyball players to basketball players and swimmers of the same age from the pilot studies (Stulic, 2015., Knezevic, 2017), volleyball players have probably achieved better results in motor abilities tests at the expense of better results of anthropometric characteristics, but also the specificity of volleyball playing and volleyball training. Volleyball training has benefits in improving agility, coordination, speed, balance. Due to the rapid changes in pace, playing volleyball requires a lot of skills. During the game, players must serve, dig, set, spike and block the ball. Mastering these skills requires good flexibility, balance, strength and speed. This work can assist coaches working with young girls to better define training goals and objectives, identify strengths and weaknesses, or monitor their athletes’ preparedness levels, all based on knowledge of the biological and developmental characteristics of this age. A disadvantage of this research - the insufficiently large sample of respondents, as well as the het- erogeneity of the sample in terms of the level of training. Despite the limitations of this research, the results obtained can be a significant initial basis for examining the relation between anthropometric parameters and motor abilities, which makes a relevant theoretical contribution to existing knowledge in this field. On the other hand, we can look at the reasons for the overall better success of the tested volleyball players compared to swimmers and basketball players. Namely, in our country, the situation in women’s volleyball is much better than in women’s basketball or swimming. This fact points to a much easier process of talent identification and selection process, because the selection is very large and it is easy for volleyball coaches to choose the best and most promising 15 girls to compete with and who will work on further specialization and orientation towards professional sports.

References

1. Beaulieu, J. E. (1981). Developing a stretching program. Physician and Sports Medicine, 9 (11): 5-65. 2. Гужаловский, А.А. (1984). Проблема критических периодов онтогенеза и ее значение для теории и практики физического восптания. Физкультура и спорт, С. 211–224 3. Jurko, D., Nesic, G., Stojanovic, T. (2013). Does Precompetitive Anxiety affect Perceived Competitive Efficacy of Volleyball Players?. Facta Universitatis. Series, Physical Education and Sport, ISSN 1451- 740X. [Štampano izd.], vol. 11, no. 1, str. 57-64

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4. Malina, R. M.,Bouchard,C.,& Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturationandphysicalactivity. Champaign: Human Kineties 5. Martinovic, J., Dopsaj, V., Stevuljevic, J. Kotur., Dopsaj, M., Vujovic, A., Stefanovic, A., Nesic, G.(2011). Oxidative stress biomarker monitoring in elite women volleyball athletes during a 6-week training period. Journal of strength and conditioning research, ISSN 1064-8011, vol. 25, iss. 5, str. 1360-1367 6. Nesic, G. (2006). Struktura takmičarske aktivnosti odbojkašica : doktorska disertacija. Godišnjak : stručno-informativni glasnik Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu , ISSN 1452-5917, br. 14, str. 89-111. 7. Nesic, G., Majstorovic, N., Ilic, D., Grbic, V., Osmankac, N. (2013). Uticaj treninga na opšte i specifične motoričke sposobnosti odbojkašica uzrasta 13-14 godina. SportLogia 9 (2). 119-127. 8. Nesic, G., Majstorovic, N., Sikimic, M., Markovic, S., Ilic, D., Grbic, V., Osmankac, N., Savic, Z.(2014). Anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities in 13-15 year old female volleyball players. Facta Universitatis. Series, Physical Education and Sport, ISSN 1451-740X., vol. 12, no. 3, str. 327-339. 9. Stojanovic, T., Nesic, G., Stojanovic, N. (2011). Metric Characteristics of New Tests Constructed to Assess Jumping Agility. Serbian Journal of Sports Sciences : quarterly scientific journal, ISSN 1820- 6301. Štampano izd., god. 5, br. 1-4, str. 51-59 10. https://fedorabg.bg.ac.rs/fedora/get/o:14537/bdef:Content/get 11. https://fedorabg.bg.ac.rs/fedora/get/o:8340/bdef:Content/get 12. https://fedorabg.bg.ac.rs/fedora/get/o:9774/bdef:Content/get

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PROFIL ANTROPOMETRIJSKIH KARAKTERISTIKA I MOTORIČKIH SPOSOBNOSTI ODBOJKAŠICA UZRASTA 13-15 GODINA

Daliborka Stanković1; Goran Nešić2; Nikola Majstorović2 1 Univerzitet u Beogradu, Medicinski fakultet, Beograd, Srbija 2 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Odbojka obiluje brzim i svestranim pokretima tela, kao što su skokovi, kotrljanja i bacanja, sa brzim reakcijama na različite situacije. Položaj tela pri oberučnom odbijanju lopte, smečiranju i blokiranju veoma je koristan za pravilno i lepo držanje tela. Sama odbojka je intermitentna aktivnost i veoma živa, borbena, atraktivna, kompleksna i dinamična sportska grana, a zbog čestih obrta (napad-odbrana sa protivnapadom) je vrlo zanimljiva. Od igrača se traži trenutna snalažljivost, koncentracija i brzo reagovanje u raznovrsnim situcijama. Uspeh zavisi od tehničke i taktičke uigranosti igrača, ali i od kolektivnog duha igrača i njihovog zajedničkog zalaganja. S obzirom da osnovni odbojkaški elementi uključuju čitav niz motoričkih akcija kako bi se izvodili pravilno, istovremeno i efikasno, razumljivo je i potpuno opravdano očekivati da će trening za poboljšanje ovih elemenata uticati na razvoj motoričkih sposobnosti (Stojanović, 2011; Nešić i sar., 2013). U odbojci, kao i u svim drugim sportskim aktivnostima, ne postoji tehnički element koji se može valjano izvesti bez adekvatnih motoričkih sposobnosti, niti se motorička sposobnost može u punoj meri ispoljiti bez optimalnih morfoloških osobina. Morfološke osobine poput transverzalne i longitudinalne dimenzionalnosti, imaju uticaj na izvođenje elemenata odbojkaške tehnike, a samim tim na uspešnost njihovog izvođenja, kao i na određivanje igračke pozicije u timu. Moderna odbojka zahteva od svih igrača visok nivo opštih motoričkih sposobnosti, kao i specifične – karakteristične motoričke sposobnosti za odbojku i određene pozicije igrača (Martinović i sar., 2011). Takmičarska aktivnost u odbojci u sebi sadrži (Nešić, 2006): prostorno-motoričku strukturu (skokovi, padovi, koračanje, trčanje, udarci po lopti), vremensku strukturu (aktivno i pasivno vreme igre, ukupno trajanje utakmice i ukupno trajanje utakmice plus vreme za zagrevanje), tehničko-taktičku strukturu, što podrazumeva tehničko-taktičke elemente odbojkaške igre. Imajući u vidu ovu sistematizaciju, potrebno je odrediti profil antropometrijskih karakteristika i motoričkih sposobnosti u cilju sagledavanja kako određene varijable mogu da utiču na izvođenje kretnih radnji kao i elemenata tehnike i potrebno je shvatiti na koje sposobnosti treba obratiti posebnu pažnju. Igrači moraju biti pripremljeni da perfektno izvedu svaki tehničko-taktički element. Fazi učenja, usvajanja ili perfektnog izvođenja ovih elemenata, mora se posvetiti maksimalna pažnja, kako bi se oni mogli izvesti pravilno, brzo, snažno, precizno. Poštujući postupnost i metodičnost u procesu obuke, neophodno je pronaći adekvatan „najkraći put“ od odbojkaša početnika do odbojkaša koji poseduju čitav niz odbojkaških znanja i umenja kojima može efikasno da manipuliše (Jurko i sar., 2013). Zato, faze obučavanja osnovnih elemenata odbojkaške tehnike, u mlađim takmičarskim kategorijama (kao i u školama odbojke), nikada neće prestati da budu primaran imperativ – neizostavan deo procesa „stvaranja“ kvalitetnog odbojkaša (Nešić, 2005). Pored obučavanja odbojkaške tehnike, veoma je bitno poznavati senzitivne periode, tj. uzrast u kome se najefikasnije deluje na određene motoričke sposobnosti, što dovodi do pravilnog razvoja odbojkaša i prevencije povreda pre svega, kao i do veće uspešnosti u savladavanju zadataka na treningu i u igri. Testi- rane antropometrijske karakteristike i motoričke sposobnosti pomažu nam pri određivanju igračkih pozicija na terenu (npr. eksplozivnost ruku i ramenog pojasa je važna kod smečera), kao i izvođenja elemenata tehnike (npr. eksplozivnost mišića opružača nogu u skoku sa počučnjem, određuje u velikoj meri uspešnost izvođenja bloka). Procenom antropometrijskih karakteristika prvobitno možemo preventivno uticati na zdravlje sportiste i smanjiti mogućnost povređivanja, ali i uticati na uspešnost izvršavanja motoričkih radnji. Da bismo utvrdili specifičnosti antropometrijskih i motoričkih karakteristika odbojkašica, sprovedeno je transverzalno istraživanje. Cilj ovog istraživanja je prikaz i analiza onih antropometrijskih karakteristika i motoričkih sposobnosti odbojkašica uzrasta 13-15 godina, koje su najviše potrebne u odbojkaškoj igri, kao i upoređivanje dobijenih rezultata sa rezultatima pilot studija u kojima su testirane netrenirane devojčice, košarkašice i plivačice istog ili približnog uzrasta

Metode

Metod korišćen u radu je empirijskog karaktera. Instrumenti i tehnike za prikupljanje podataka su standardizovani, a u istraživanju su korišćeni sledeći: antropometar po Martinu, transportabilna vaga – tanita, dinamometar, optojump, klupa za pretklon u sedu, skalarna palica za iskret, foto-ćelije. Što se tiče statističkih procedura za obradu podataka, korišćena je deskriptivna statistika, odnosno aritmetička sredina, standardna devijacija, minimalna i maksimalna vrednost testiranih varijabli, skjunis, kutrozis i koeficijent varijacije. Uzorak ispitanika ovog istraživanja je grupa od 39 devojčica – odbojkašica škole odbojke „DIF“, uzrasta 13-

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15 godina. Uzorak varijabli obuhvata dve grupe varijabli, odnosno one koje objašnjavaju antropometrijske i motoričke karakteristike. Varijable koje objašnjavaju antropometrijske karakteristike u radu su: telesna visina (TV), telesna masa (ТМ), raspon ruku (RR), indeks telesne mase (BMI), procenat masti (PМ), procenat mišića (%М). Var- ijable koje objašnjavaju motoričke karakteristike u radu su: maksimalni stisak šake (maksimalna silа), brzina razvoja maksimalne sile šake (eksplozivnost), vreme potrebno za maksimalni stisak šake (vreme postizanja maksimalne sile), vreme u kojem je dostignuta brzina razvoja maksimalne sile šake (vreme od početka delovanja sile do trenutka kada je postignuta maksimalna sila stiska šake), skok sa počučnjem (skočnost, eksplozivnost mišića nogu), iskret palicom (fleksibilnost ramenog pojasa), pretklon u sedu (fleksibilnost zadnje lože butina), Х test (agilnost), bacanje medicinke – BM (brzinska snaga ramenog pojasa).

Rezultati

U Tabeli 1 su dati deskriptivni statistički pokazatelji antropometrijskih karakteristika ispitanika u ovom istraživanju.

Tabela 1. Prikaz rezultata antropometrijskih testova

SKEW- Varijabla MIN МАX STDEV MEAN KURTOSIS CV(%) NESS ТV (cm) 134.90 169.20 9.47 -0.50 155.67 -0.77 6.09 RR (cm) 134.40 175 10.67 -0.15 156.20 -0.74 6.83 TM (kg) 30.50 72.30 11.27 0.24 49.23 -0.56 22.90 BMI (%) 14.19 25.73 2.97 0.21 20.07 -0.81 32.14 PM 7.70 33.90 6.99 0.22 21.77 -0.84 32.14 %М 29.60 39.40 2.55 -0.16 34.67 -0.90 7.36

МIN – minimum, МАX – maksimum, STDEV – standardna devijacija, SK – skjunis, M – srednja vrednost, KU – kurtozis, cV – koeficijent varijacije, ТV – telesna visina, ТМ – telesna masa, BMI – indeks telesne mase, RR – raspon ruku, PМ – procenat masti, %М – procenat mišića

Tabela 2. Prikaz rezultata motoričkih testova

SKEW- Variabla МIN МАX STDEV MEAN KURTOSIS CV(%) NESS D_Fmax (N) 107 334 52.56 0.52 195.33 -0.04 26.91 D_RFDmax 642 2086 353.71 0.16 1331.13 -0.58 26.57 (N/s) D_tFmax (s) 0.20 1.54 0.37 0.73 0.71 -0.58 51.90 D_tRFDmax 0.10 0.18 0.02 1.60 0.12 2.50 14.15 (s) L_Fmax (N) 99 276 44.14 0.005 182.46 -0.62 24.19 L_RFDmax 622 2037 334.50 0.18 1236.69 0.20 27.05 (N/s) L_tFmax (s) 0.24 1.94 0.40 0.75 0.83 0.11 48.01 L_tRFDmax 0.10 0.18 0.01 1.79 0.12 5.57 11.48 (s) JUMP (cm) 9.80 34 5.67 -0.38 22.58 -0.20 25.11 SFT (cm) 35 103 18.14 -0.42 72.64 -0.41 24.97 SiR (cm) 7 32 6.19 -0.01 17.90 -0.53 34.58 X TEST (s) 8.49 11.74 0.78 0.38 9.75 -0.30 8.05 MBT (m) 3.90 7.40 0.95 0.82 5.13 -0.13 18.56

Fmax – maksimalni stisak šake (maksimalna sila), RFDmax – brzina razvoja maksimalne sile stiska šake (eksplozivnost), tFmax – vreme potrebno za maksimalni stisak šake (vreme postizanja maksimalne sile), tRFDmax – vreme u kojem je dostignuta brzina razvoja maksimalne sile šake (vreme od početka delovanja sile do trenutka kada je postignut max sile), SKOK – skok sa počučnjem, ISKRET – iskret palicom, PUS –

188 UDK: 796.325:796.012.1 pretklon u sedu, Х TEST, BM – bacanje medicinke, D – desna šaka, L –leva šaka

Na osnovu rezultata dobijenih testiranjem antropometrijskih osobina prikazanih u Tabeli 1, može se videti da testovi za procenu TV, RR i %M pokazuju negativnu asimetriju, dok testovi za procenu TM, BMI i PM pokazuju pozitivnu asimetriju. Povećanjem telesne visine, proporcionalno dolazi do povećanja raspona ruku, pa čak varijabla RR u nekim slučajevima i premašuje telesnu visinu. Distribucija rezultata je relativno normalna za sve antropometrijske pokazatelje, ali pojedine mere imaju veći koeficijent varijacije, kao što su npr. BMI I PM. Na osnovu rezultata dobijenih testiranjem motoričkih sposobnosti prikazanih u Tabeli 2, može se videti da se koeficijent varijacije sile stiska šake nalazi u zoni vrednosti manjoj od 30%, što ukazuje na veoma homogene rezultate kod većine varijabli, a samo su dve varijable u zoni od 30-60%, što ukazuje na umereno homogene rezultate. Rezultati ovog istraživanja pokazali su da je sila desne šake nešto veća u odnosu na levu šaku. Pretpostavka je da je to razlog bržeg postizanja maksimalne sile stiska desne šake. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata može se videti da je najmanji koeficijent varijacije u testu agilnosti, što se može pripisati činjenici da ona predstavlja sintezu skoro svih fizičkih sposobnosti (najviše brzine, snage i koordinacije). Najveći koeficijent varijacije se pojavljuje u testu fleksibilnosti – pretklon u sedu. Razlog tome mogu da budu doba dana, temperatura spoljašnje sredine i emocionalno stanje. Takođe, period razvoja gipkosti se poklapa sa uzrastom testiranih odbojkašica od 12-15 godina, nakon čega ova motorička sposobnost dostiže svoj maksimum (Gužalovski, 1984). Neke testirane odbojkašice su i dostigle maksimum u razvoju ove motoričke sposobnosti. Varijabla tRFDmax desne i leve šake imaju nešto veći skjunis i kurtozis od ostalih varijabli za procenu karakteristika sile stiska šake. Iz Tabele 2 može da se vidi da su vrednosti za skjunis iznad 1, što ukazuje na to da je distribucija rezultata pozitivno asimetrična, što dalje znači da ima relativno mali broj rezultata većih od aritmetičke sredine. Naime, kada pogledamo kurtozis, vrednosti su nešto veće i to govori o leptokurtičnoj distribuciji, tj. distribuciji koja je izduženija (ima viši vrh) od normalne distribucije i takavkurtozis ukazuje na raspodelu u kojoj ima rezultata veoma udaljenih od aritmetičke sredine.

Diskusija

U poređenju ovog istraživanja sa istraživanjеm (Nešić i sar. 2014) u kojem su ispitivane antropometrijske karakteristike i motoričke sposobnosti odbojkašica od 13 do 15 godina, može se videti da je proseč- na visina za odbojkašice uzrasta 13 godina 158.97 ± 10.52 (dok je u ovom radu prosečna visina 155.67 cm), ТМ 49.4 ± 11.96 (u ovom radu je 49.23 kg), BMI 19.32±2.98 kg/m² (BMI u ovom radu je 20.07 kg/m²), а procenat masti 17.47 (dok je u ovom radu procenat masti 21,77). Malina i sar. (2014), navode da devojčice uzrasta 13 ± 0.5 godina u Americi, imaju telesnu masu u proseku oko 47-52 kg, što je neznatno manje od proseka testiranih odbojkašica. U jednoj pilot studiji, koja je realizovana za potrebe pisanja diplomskog rada (Stojković, 2014), uključeno je 40 netreniranih devojčica uzrasta 14-15 godina (± 6 meseci) učenica Osnovne škole „Svetozar Marković“ iz Kragujevca. Testiranje je vršeno baterijom motoričkih testova: iskret palicom, pretklon u sedu i X test. Prosečne vrednosti varijable za procenu fleksibilnosti ruku i ramenog pojasa (test iskret palicom), kod odbojkašica iznosi 72.64 cm, a kod netreniranih devojčica iznosi 69.85 cm, što govori o tome da su odbojkašice verovatno fleksibilnije u predelu ruku i ramenog pojasa pod uticajem specifičnosti samog odbo- jkaškog treninga i izvođenja tehničkih elemenata poput servisa, čekića. Koeficijent varijabilnosti rezultata X testa kod netreniranih devojčica i odbojkašica se ne razlikuju previše (8.31% kod netreniranih; 8.05% kod odbojkašica), dok je razlika u prosečnoj vrednosti malo više od 2 sekunde u korist odbojkašica (prosečno vreme za odbojkašice je 9.75 sekundi, a za netrenirane devojčice 11.84 sekundi). Razlog tome može biti što u ispoljavanju agilnosti određenu ulogu imaju i druge motoričke sposobnosti poput brzine, snage, jačine – koje se razvijaju treningom najviše u ovom periodu razvoja deteta. Prosečna vrednost varijable za procenu fleksibilnosti u zglobu kuka i zadnjoj loži buta (pretklon u sedu), kod odbojkašica iznosi 17.90 cm, a kod netreniranih devojčica iznosi -3.63 cm. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata, može se zaključiti da su devojčice koje su u procesu treninga dosta fleksibilnije od netreniranih, što ističe važnost gipkosti kao bitnog preduslova za uspešnije izvođenje aktivnosti, kao i sprečavanju povreda mišićno-vezivnih struktura (Beaulieu, 1980; Sapega, 1981; Prentice, 1983). Druga pilot studija, takođe za potrebe pisanja diplomskog rada (Knežević, 2017), sprovedena je na uzorku plivačica uzrasta 16 godina. Uzorak je činilo 12 plivačica koje su članice PK „Valis“ iz Valjeva. Testovi koji su korišćeni za procenu motoričkih sposobnosti su bacanje medicinke i X test agilnosti. Prosečna vrednost rezultata testa za procenu brzinske snage ruku kod odbojkašica je 5.13 m, dok je kod plivačica 4.40 m. Pokazani rezultati za test bacanje medicinke su očekivani – kod odbojkašica prilikom specifičnih udaraca kao što je smeč razvija se brzinska snaga ruku, pa su samim tim dobijeni i bolji rezultati za ovu varijablu. Proseč- na vrednost rezultata X testa za procenu agilnosti kod odbojkašica je 9.75 sekundi, dok je kod plivačica 9.99 sekundi. Ove razlike u agilnosti između odbojkašica i plivačica nisu velike, što može ukazati na nedovoljan rad na razvoju ove motoričke sposobnosti kod odbojkašica, mada treba uzeti u obzir i razliku u godinama testiranih sportistkinja.

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Sledeća pilot studija, takođe za potrebe pisanja diplomskog rada (Štulić, 2015), vršena je na uzorku od 25 košarkašica uzrasta 12-13 godina iz tri beogradska kluba: ŽKK „Radivoj Korać“, ŽKK „Art basket“ i ŽKK „Partizan“. Korišćeni su testovi za procenu agilnosti (TT test, gde je pređena putanja bila približno ista kao u X testu kod odbojkašica, sa distancom od 9 m do srednjeg čunja i od srednjeg do levog i desnog po 4.5 m, dok je u X testu udaljenost od starta do svakog čunja bila 4.5 m), eksplozivne snage mišića nogu (Sardžent test) i eksplozivna snaga mišića ruku i ramenog pojasa (bacanje medicinke). U testu za procenu agilnosti (TT test), odbojkašice su ostvarile prosečno vreme od 9.75 sekundi, dok su košarkašice ostvarile 11.09 sekundi. Merenjem eksplozivne snage mišića opružača nogu, odbojkašice u testu skok sa počučnjem su ostvarile prosečnu vrednost od 22.58 cm, dok su košarkašice u Sardžent testu ostvarile prosečnu vrednost od 34.6 cm. U poslednjem testu, za procenu eksplozivne snage mišića opružača ruku i ramenog pojasa, odbojkašice su ostvarile prosečan rezultat od 5.13 m, dok su košarkašice ostvarile rezultat od 3.36 m. Odbojkašice su se pokazale za nijansu bolje u skoro svim testovima. Pretpostavlja se da su bolje antropometrijske karakteristike odbojkašica (gde se prvenstveno misli na veći % mišićne mase kod odbojkašica, koji je u proseku 34.67, a kod košarkašica 33.30, a takođe i manji procenat masti – kod odbojkašica u proseku je oko 21.77, dok je kod košarkašica 23.20), uticale na bolje izvođenje većine testova za procenu motoričkog statusa, osim u Sardžent testu.

Zaključak

Osnovni cilj ovog istraživanja je bio da se prikažu i analiziraju one antropometrijske osobine i mo- toričke sposobnosti odbojkašica uzrasta 13-15 godina koje su najviše potrebne u odbojkaškoj igri. Na uzorku koji je ispitivan u ovom istraživanju može se videti da je povećanje telesne visine praćeno povećanjem raspona ruku, pa čak i prevazilaženjem tih vrednosti. Posledica toga može biti pozitivan uticaj na efikasno izvođenje tehničkih elemenata specifičnih za odbojkašku igru. Kada je reč o motoričkim sposobnostima, pretpostavka je da od jačine stiska šake zavisi i brzina dostizanja maksimalne jačine stiska, pa su tako u našem istraživanju i maksimalna sila stiska šake i brzina dostizanja maksimalne sile stiska šake veći za desnu nego za levu šaku. U ostalim testovima za procenu motoričkih sposobnosti, vidi se prednost odbojkašica u odnosu na netrenirane devojčice iz pilot studije koju smo iskoristili za potrebe pisanja ovog rada (Stojković, 2014). Potvrđene pretpostavke se odnose na agilnost i fleksibilnost. Kada je u pitanju poređenje odbojkašica sa košarkašicama i plivačicama približnog uzrasta iz pilot studija koje smo iskoristili za potrebe pisanja ovog rada (Štulić, 2015., Knežević, 2017), odbojkašice su postigle bolje rezultate na testovima motoričkih sposobnosti. Po našim pretpostavkama, dobijeni rezultati bi verovatno mogli da se pripišu boljim rezultatima na testovima antropometrijskih karakteristika, ali i samoj specifičnosti odbojkaške igre i odbojkaškog treninga. Odbojkaški trening ima beneficije u poboljšanju agilnosti, koordinacije, brzine, ravnoteže. Zbog brzih promena tempa, igranje odbojke zahteva od igrača veliki broj veština. Tokom igre, igrači moraju da ser- viraju, prime, dignu, udare i blokiraju loptu. Savladavanje ovih veština zahteva dobru fleksibilnost, ravnotežu, snagu i brzinu. Ovaj rad može biti od pomoći trenerima koji rade sa devojčicama uzrasta 13-15 godina, u smislu boljeg definisanja ciljeva i zadataka u treningu, identifikovanja prednosti i slabosti na osnovu primenjenih testova za procenu sposobnosti i karakteristika, odnosno praćenja nivoa pripremljenosti svojih sportistkinja, a sve na osnovu poznavanja bioloških i razvojnih karakteristika ovog uzrasta. Kao nedostatak ovog istraživanja može da se navede nedovoljno veliki uzorak ispitanika, kao i heterogenost uzorka u pogledu nivoa treniranosti. Uprkos ograničenjima ovog istraživanja, dobijeni rezultati mogu biti značajna osnova za ispitivanje relacije antropometrijskih parametara i motoričkih sposobnosti, što omogućava relevantan teorijski doprinos postojećim saznanjima u ovoj oblasti. S druge strane, razloge celokupno boljeg uspeha testiranih odbojkašica u odnosu na plivačice i košarkašice, možemo potražiti i malo dublje. Naime, u našoj zemlji, situacija u ženskoj odbojci je znatno bolja u odnosu na žensku košarku ili plivanje. Ta činjenica ukazuje na mnogo lakši proces identifikacije talenata i proces selekcije, jer je izbor veoma veliki i odbojkaškim trenerima je lako da izaberu 15 najboljih i najperspektivnijih devojčica koje će se takmičiti i sa kojima će raditi na daljoj specijalizaciji i usmeravanju ka profesionalnom sportu.

Literatura

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Oxidative stress biomarker monitoring in elite women volleyball athletes during a 6-week training period. Journal of strength and conditioning research, ISSN 1064-8011, vol. 25, iss. 5, str. 1360-1367 6. Nesic, G. (2006). Struktura takmičarske aktivnosti odbojkašica : doktorska disertacija. Godišnjak : stručno-informativni glasnik Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu , ISSN 1452-5917, br. 14, str. 89-111. 7. Nesic, G., Majstorovic, N., Ilic, D., Grbic, V., Osmankac, N. (2013). Uticaj treninga na opšte i specifične motoričke sposobnosti odbojkašica uzrasta 13-14 godina. SportLogia 9 (2). 119-127. 8. Nesic, G., Majstorovic, N., Sikimic, M., Markovic, S., Ilic, D., Grbic, V., Osmankac, N., Savic, Z.(2014). Anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities in 13-15 year old female volleyball players. Facta Universitatis. Series, Physical Education and Sport, ISSN 1451-740X., vol. 12, no. 3, str. 327-339. 9. Stojanovic, T., Nesic, G., Stojanovic, N. (2011). Metric Characteristics of New Tests Constructed to Assess Jumping Agility. Serbian Journal of Sports Sciences : quarterly scientific journal, ISSN 1820- 6301. Štampano izd., god. 5, br. 1-4, str. 51-59 10. https://fedorabg.bg.ac.rs/fedora/get/o:14537/bdef:Content/get 11. https://fedorabg.bg.ac.rs/fedora/get/o:8340/bdef:Content/get 12. https://fedorabg.bg.ac.rs/fedora/get/o:9774/bdef:Content/get

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THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPORTANCE OF ROWING AS A SPORTS DISCIPLINE AT THE MILITARY ACADEMY

Svetislav Šoškić; Uroš Kostić; Dušan Stošić University of Defence, Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

At the Military Academy, the educational influence is extremely important, in order to establish a cadet as an officer, sport is an indispensable part of everyday life, and we strive to work through serious pedagogical work with young people, and by professional senior officers, and professors, who they have great experience, create habits that will remain in the subconscious of the young officer, and thus work later in the unit to bring the overall operational, and functional capability of the Serbian Army (Грчић 2006). As sport is an indispensable part of everyday life at the Military Academy, the rowing section also occupies an important place in sports activities, and achieves significant results in its existence. Rowing as a sport gathers around the world many young people, middle-aged people, and even those in advanced years (www.worldrowing.com). Lakes, rivers, and sea shores abound in natural beauty, and fresh air, so rowing in such an environment can be attractive, and interesting for everyone. The basic technique needed to practice rowing is simple, and easy to master. A large number of muscles of the legs, torso, and arms participate in the movements, so the entire musculature of the human body is properly loaded. The loads on the heart, and lungs can be dosed very successfully, which is achieved by slow or fast paddling, ie by the duration of the rowing itself. Due to that, rowing is very widespread as a pastime, as a means of recreation and as a very beautiful competitive sport (Ivančević, Ivančević 1962). Since rowing is a collective sport, it leads to the development, and improvement of a sense of unity, humanism, and collective spirit, which in many ways is important, specifically in the military environment. One of the basic tasks is to educate the will, perseverance, character, and discipline that develop by overcoming various difficulties, which are important personality traits of a member of the Army (Група аутора 1968). This means that the rower, by gradually mastering the rowing technique, strengthens his will, character, and discipline in himself, which are important characteristics of every member of the Serbian Army, and for this reason, great attention is paid to rowing at the Military Academy. It is considered that rowing is one of the healthiest activities, both because of the hygienic conditions in which it is performed, and because of the different effect it has on the body. Staying in the fresh air, water, and sun has a positive effect on a person’s health, and systematic physical effort while rowing only increases this effect. Rowing with moderate effort, for leisure, as well as rowing trainings, and competitions, based on the age characteristics of the individual, will positively influence the development of their morphological, and psycho-physical characteristics, and especially the development of endurance and strength (Жежељ, 1978).

Rowing components

Health and hygiene component of rowing

Rowing is a very complex way of moving, because the movements of almost all the muscles of the body are coordinated in the movements of the rowers, from the tips of the toes to the tips of the fingers on the hands. It is important to note that the muscles of the front, and back of the torso are strengthened, which directly affect the maintenance of a normal upright posture (Mazzone, 1988). A certain intensity of rowing affects the increased work of the heart, and lungs, which supports the blood flow in both directions, from the heart to the limbs, and vice versa. Increased muscle work requires more oxygen-enriched blood, which leads to the lungs, ie the chest muscles deepening breathing, and thus improving the intake of oxygen-rich air into the lungs. Rowers are among the more developed athletes, which is confirmed by the values of some anthropometric measures of our senior rowers. Average height-184.36 cm; body weight 80 kg, and vital lung capacity 6100 cm3 (Андрић at all, 1995). Rowing is characterized by significant physical effort, which often leads to an increase in the heart of the rower. With such a heart, the way it works at rest, during, and after exercise, changes, with an overall increase in functional abilities (deVris, 1976). The heart rate during rest at trained rowers with a longer rowing experience is around 40-50 beats per minute. The minute volume of the heart, ie the amount of blood that the heart chamber expels in one minute, is one of the greatest in athletes during rowing effort. The frequency of breathing in rowers is closely related to the rhythm of rowing, and reaches a value of 30-40 per minute. Maximum lung ventilation, ie the amount of air that passes through the respiratory organs in one minute during maximum work during intensive training or competitions, can reach the value of 90-150 liters per minute (Mitrović, 1995).

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These described functional abilities to this extent are found only in well-trained rowers with rowing experience of several years. Within recreational rowing, as in the case of beginner rowers, where efforts are less, and less frequent, these changes are limited in scope, but their health value is still of great importance.

Educational component of rowing

Educational tasks are interconnected, and intertwined, so we can label them as pedagogical, ie educational, where we mean the acquisition of moral, and character traits of personality and educational, where we primarily mean the improvement of movement (motor skills) (Mitrović, 2003). Will, character, and conscious discipline cannot be developed by chance, but through meaningful, and planned exercise in the training process, through the creation of such situations in training that lead the human will to certain positive actions. Rowing largely shows an act of will, which is aided by various situations, such as the existence of visible observations of space (water surface), which allows other rowers to be seen as well as the space to be traversed. The rower must maintain the speed of the boat, the rhythm and pace, which is determined in training, that is, not to increase the speed too early, and to overcome the moment of crisis, because at that moment of the peak of effort the rower gives his maximum. Through rowing, one must systematically get used to orderliness, accuracy, and discipline, conscious, and disciplined attitude towards the crew of the boat in which he is rowing, which leads to the formation of interpersonal assistance in order to achieve greater mutual success, which is also applicable in the military environment (Грчић, 2006). The indiscipline of rowers in training, non-compliance with some laws that govern the water, can lead to various inconveniences, as the conditions that govern the water can be very complex (wind, waves, storms, water traffic). Therefore, it is necessary that the set tasks are performed correctly. One of the tasks of those who are engaged in rowing is to store complex rowing equipment. Disposal of oars, boats, and other equipment requires one order. This is necessary, and at the same time it develops in the rowers a sense of responsibility, and safekeeping of property (Група аутора, 1968). Rowing training programms on Military academy

Rower training programs have been described to a significant extent in the sports literature (Ropret, 1968). In the application of rowing in the army and in military schools, it is necessary to create a concise, and simple approach to training in terms of saving time, and uniformity of approach, as is usual in training, for example, cadets of the military academy. The following is an example, as one of the possible choices of a simplified approach to rower training, which in this case is sufficient, desirable, and justified.

Strength training

The highest level of specificity is training on the water, in which we apply muscular force during each stroke. These exercises exitace the muscles, but also help emphasize the correct order of applying forces for maximum rowing efficiency (Stanić, 1972). Rowing with elastic rubber - This works best in a skiff. It is necessary to tie an elastic rubber (about 1 cm thick) around the bow somewhere halfway between the ball and the breakwater. This is how a boat is created that is a competitive skiff, but with the characteristics of a training boat due to disturbed hydrodynamics. As a result the catch will be very difficult, and the rower will be forced to paddle harder to speed up the boat. This setting will allow the rower a real load in the grip, and an emphasis on strong, and timely engagement of the legs. The elastic band is most effective if you train for 15-30 minutes with the tape, and then it is removed for the rest of the training. This is important in order to convey the feeling of strong connection with water, and strong inclusion of the legs in normal conditions (Körner, Schwanitz, 1985). A similar effect is achieved by rowing in pairs in a quadruple or eight, or even in a situation where one rower paddles in a quadruple scull (Rajković at all, 2011). The same effect can be achieved, if in a situation when the crew is full in a group boat, one rower starts with 15 strokes at full strength while the others rest. It is possible to change the rower every 15 strokes. After repeating this exercise several times, it is possible to start with one rower, and then add one rower every 10 strokes, until at the end they all reach full speed (Rajković at all, 2011). Regatta start as a method is also applicable in strength training. The maximum force produced during the first few strokes of the race is about 40% higher than the average force measured during the race (Rajković, 2014). If rowing race will be set on a distance of 250 m, different athletes with significantly different training would be recruited for rowing. Much more energy is invested in the paddle here to achieve the racing speed. So, training consisting of a sequence of starts is in fact a very good method of achieving a specific muscle load. Modifications that are possible to additionally burden the rowers during the start can be an elastic band around smaller boats, or a tethered object in the water for larger boats. When using the mentioned method (two to three starts), it is necessary to get rid of the additional load in order for the rower to get the feeling of force transfer even in normal conditions (McArthur, 2000).

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Cardiovascular training

Cardiovascular fitness is usually what many people mean when they talk about “general fitness” (deVris, 1976). Although there are very few physical activities that cannot be used to train the heart, lungs and vascular composition, each activity has its own specific training effect. When an activity changes to one that has not been trained for, the untrained weaknesses in the new activity will be the ones that will limit performance, forcing specific training. “General physical fitness” best describes the ability needed to perform the activities that most people do, which forms a group of highly specific tasks. The general rule of cardiovascular training involves raising the heart rate to the value of its theoretical maximum for a certain time, in the activity for which it is trained. In practice, this means that the average 18-22 year old must train hard enough to raise the heart rate to approximately 160 to 200 per minute for ten to twenty minutes, in order to achieve optimal training stimulus (Ilić, Rajković, 2009).

Muscle strength and endurance training

Muscle fibers are most often divided into two types - strong or fast - contracting fibers, and durable or slow - contracting fibers, although in reality we have a continuous range from one to the other with a ge- netically determined distribution. Fast - contracting fibers are massive, strong fibers that are recruited in small numbers, and get tired quickly. They can fall into the area of “lack of oxygen” and rely on glycogen stores in the muscles as a source of energy. Slow-contracting fibers are thinner, weaker fibers that rely on aerobic res- piration, and can withstand longer stresses at lower loads (Grujić at all, 2016). All muscle fibers are affected by the same training effect after overload. Under a light load of one particular muscle, only slow-contracting fibers are recruited. The only way to achieve overload in that case is time - e.g. two hours of ergometer on light load. Only the recruited, and sequentially exposed fibers will be trained, and the progress in the form must be optimized for trainings of two hours and longer! At increased load, fast - contracting fibers are also affected, as long as the load is such that maximum recruitment is achieved, typically about 40%. With high - load / less - repetition training, a certain part of the affected fibers will be exhausted with each repetition, while the other will be recruited. Training for temporary muscle failure from 8 to 12 repetitions is enough to stimulate, and overload a large percentage of all fibers. This can be achieved at one - minute intervals per muscle group, and benefits all types of muscle fibers resulting in advances in strength as well as endurance (Ilić, Rajković, 2009).

Basic training on rowing ergometers

Basic training is divided into three phases: warm-up, main part of training and relaxation. The warm- up should last 12 minutes, the peak workout 15-75 minutes (depending on the ideal pulse for training) and relaxation 10 minutes (Koprivica, 2013). Warming up makes the body ready for the more demanding exercises that follow. Since a lot of time is spent sitting during training, it is necessary to relax the joints, stretch the muscles, tendons, and ligaments; to prepare the cardiovascular system. After that, the body is ready for the period of effort.

Warming up

It has three phases: Rowing for 4 minutes with minimal resistance, and with frequency twice as slow as usual. This rowing will slightly increase the temperature of the rower’s body. The rower’s muscles will be “warmed up” so that the rower will be able to stretch properly. After a slight warm-up, stretching follows: Stretching the biceps, and pectoral muscles, stretching the shoulders in the kneeling position, stretching the upper back, and shoulders, stretching the lower leg ten- don with crossed legs, stretching the ankles in the sitting position, stretching the quadriceps. All need to be done for both sides of the body (Nilsen, 2002). Rowing on the ergometer again for 4 minutes, but now the pace is a bit higher, and closer to the regatta pace.

The main part of the training

After warming up, check the pulse by measuring for 10 seconds and multiplying by 6. The pulse should be approximately 30 beats faster than before warming up. Since everyone follows their idea of good shape, a gradual approach to the intensive rowing phase is recommended. The number of days a week to exercise depends on the goal of the workout (cardiovascular exercise

194 UDK: 797.123:378 or weight control). To reach the form of the cardiovascular system, an exercise frequency of at least three times a week is necessary. To control your weight, you need to row at least four times a week. As time goes on, the form of the rowers and the capacity for training will improve. Testing is possible every four weeks in terms of redefining the load. One of the possibilities is rowing 10 minutes after warming up in the most favorable rhythm for the rower. After checking the pulse and records, it is possible to set new levels as tasks for the adaptation of the organism. A rough guideline can be an exercise that benefits the heart, and lungs and is 50% of the maximum. If you exercise at a load less than the above, there will be no significant effects.

Relaxation

After a period of main exercises, it is time to relax. The phases of relaxation take place as follows: 5 minutes of rowing slower, with decreasing resistance, in order to allow the body to recover slowly, and prevent the negative effects of abrupt cessation of exercise. A sudden cessation of rowing could lead to a feeling of weakness, so the task of slower rowing is set at the level of half or ¾ of the previous one. For example if rowing at a speed of 20 strokes per minute, it is necessary to slow down to 10-12 strokes per minute. After 5 minutes of such rowing, it is possible to continue with stretching exercises with the idea of relaxing the muscles. Exercises are repeated from a minimum of 5 and a maximum of 10 times. Properly, and gradually starting, and ending training reduces the risk of injuries, and complications that can discourage rowers from training. While training, it is always necessary to listen to your body. Most injuries are caused by overly intense training. For beginner rowers in this case, cadets of the military academy, it is important to collect, sum- marize, and generalize the advice during training, so in that direction, an overview of the main sources of discomfort, and injuries, and treatment for overcoming them during rowing training is given (table 1).

Table 1. Complications, causes, and treatments during beginners rowing training

complications causes treatments My heart is behaving strangely (working Reduce the intensity of rowing and see a Row too hard. fast / slow, skipping, etc.). doctor. Reduce the intensity of rowing and see a I have a sharp pain or pressure in my chest. Row too hard. doctor. You row too hard, the blood supply to the Reduce the intensity of rowing and see a I feel dizzy and weak, I almost fainted, etc. brain is insufficient. doctor. 5-10 minutes after rowing, my heart beats Exercise under a lower load on the heart. If Row too hard. faster and I run out of breath. that’s not enough go to the doctor. Rowing is too hard for you or you need bet- Work under a lower load on the heart, pro- You vomit or vomit after rowing. ter relaxation. long the relaxation phase. I'm tired the day after rowing or I'm con- Reduce heart rate. Progress more slowly or Row too hard. stantly tired. increase rest periods. Row at least three hours before sleeping or I can't sleep after rowing. Row too hard or do it late at night. reduce the load. Although I paddle my nerves are tense, I Reduce the chase, reduce the intensity of Too much rowing or too much competition. am nervous or hyperactive. exercise or change the activity for a while. Elan is weakened, or my once favorite ac- Reduce the chase, reduce the intensity of Too much rowing or too much competition. tivity is bored. exercise or change the activity for a while. During the first minutes of rowing, I lose my Warm up longer (at least 10 minutes) until Improper warming up. breath. you gain an ideal exercise pulse.

Interval training on ergometers

Improving athletic performance in rowing is usually related to raising the anaerobic threshold (Mitro- vić, 1995). Research has shown that interval training, ie. a series of repeated strenuous exercises combined with rest periods (usually in the form of lighter exercises) is the best method for raising the threshold, and simulating the requirements of the competition (Herberger, 1984). In this case, too, short instructions are needed for beginner rowers, who approach the exercise on their own, while significantly avoiding giving unnecessary information, and controversy about the approach to training. One method is to simply compare multiple approaches with an explanation of their effects.

In the case of rowing with the highest intensity for one minute, the organism will be exhausted. In the case of alternating rowing of, for example, 10 seconds at maximum intensity, with a break of 30 seconds,

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and 6 such series, the same rowing volume will be achieved as in the case of continuous rowing of one minute. There will be one important difference. The degree of fatigue that the rower will feel after interval training will be significantly lower than with continuous rowing.

Interval training can be performed according to different plans. In this case, too, for beginners, and cadets of the military academy, uniformity, and observance with the application of individualization are desirable only in the later period of rowers’ development (table 2).

Table 2. Interval training plan for distances of 2000 meters

First week Sixth week 2*3:00 (rest 3:00) 1 1 Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 1:00) day day 2*1:30 (rest 3:00)

4*0:40 (rest 1:50) Rest 2:00 2 2*2:00 (rest 4:00) 2 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) Rest 2:00 Rest 2:00 day 1*2:00 (rest 4:00) day 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) Rest 2:00 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 8*0:20 (rest 1:00) 3 3 1*4:30 (rest 2:15) Rest 2:00 2*3:30 (rest 1:45) day 8*0:20 (rest 1:00) day Second week Seventh week 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 1 3*2:00 (rest 4:00) 1 Rest 2:00 Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) day 2*2:00 (rest 4:00) day Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) 4*0:40 (rest 4:00) 2 Rest 2:00 2 8*0:20 (rest 2:00) 3*3:30 (rest 3:30) day Rest 2:00 day 8*0:20 (rest 1:00) 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 3 3 Rest 2:00 4*3:00 (rest 3:00) 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) day day Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) Thirth week Eighth week

4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 1 4*2:00 (rest 4:00) 1 Rest 2:00 Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45 day 2*1:20 (rest 2:40) day Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45)

4*0:40 (rest 2:00) Rest 2:00 2 4*0:40 (rest 2:00) 2 Rest 2:00 3*3:30 (rest 3:30) day 4*0:40 (rest 2:00) day Rest 2:00 4*0:40 (rest2:00) 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 3 2*3:00 (rest 3:00) 3 Rest 2:00 Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) day 2*1:20 (rest 2:40) day Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) Fourth week Ninth week

1 1 2*3:00 (rest 3:00) 4*3:00 (rest 3:00) Rest 2:00 day day 2*1:30 (rest 3:00) 4*0:40(rest 1:50) 4*0:40 (rest 1:55) Rest 2:00 2 Rest 2:00 2 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 8*0:20 (rest 0:55) Rest 2:00 day Rest 2:00 day 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 8*0:20 (rest 0:55) Rest 2:00 4*0:40 (rest 1:50)

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3 3 2*5:00 (rest 2:30) 4*2:00 (rest 2:00) Rest 2:00 day day 3*1:30 (rest 3:00) Fifth week 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 1 Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) day Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) 2 5*2:00 (rest 4:00) day 4*0:40 (rest 1:50) 3 Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45) day Rest 2:00 8*0:20 (rest 0:45)

Applicability of professional rowing programs in the Serbian army

The applicability of professional rowing programs in the Serbian Army is obvious and realistic. The application of these programs is important, first of all, for the psychophysical ability of the members of the armed forces of our country. The paper already highlights the health-hygienic, and educational component of rowing, and all personality traits that develop in rowing (conscious discipline, collective spirit, and sense of interpersonal help, responsibility, orderliness, will, character, and accuracy) fully agree with character traits that a professional member of the Serbian Army needs to possess.

The process of training in the rowing section at the Military Academy, improved by the application of professional rowing programs, could greatly contribute to the greater success of the rowing team in both water competitions, and ergometer competitions. The application of professional programs in the training process would contribute to better conditioning, greater endurance, strength, and explosiveness (Грчић, 2006). Training on the Concept II machine on which cadets trains in winter conditions, indoors, on the rowing section at the Military Academy, brings many benefits to the cadet (who does not have to be a member of the section). It enables him to develop the entire musculature of the body: shoulder joint, upper back, torso, and arms, legs; which enables him to better, and easier master the training that requires physical exertion of the organism, and to improve his motor skills.

Conclusion

This paper explains the components of rowing important for the application of rowing in the army, as well as a simplified professional training program for novice rowers, ie cadets of the Military Academy. Row- ing through the centuries has a rich and interesting history. Today rowing as a sport and as a recreation has totally changed its significance and direction. By rowing, constant, and proper training, the mental structure of the personality is enriched, and strengthened, and the human body develops properly and healthily. Given the applicability of rowing in armed actions performed by members of the armed forces of the Serbian Army, it is concluded that this type of physical activity, but also sports discipline, and its application is important for the efficiency, and speed of certain tasks, and for comprehensive development of the modern professional soldier. The presented materials are used daily in the preparation, and training of rowers, and within the rowing section at the Military Academy in Belgrade.

References

1. Грчић, M. (2006): Снаст чамца на весла,чамци у РМ, одржавање чамаца, Семинарски рад, Војна академија, Универзитет одбране. 2. Група аутора (1968): Правило за веслање и једрење у чамцима ратне морнарице, Државни Секретаријат за народну одбрану, Сплит. 3. Жежељ, А. (1978): Веслање, Спортска књига, Београд. 4. Ivančević, V., Ivančević, S. (1962): Sportovi na vodi, NIP „Sportska knjiga“, Beograd. 5. Andrić, M., Grujić, N., Kovač M., Lukač D. (1995): Ergometrijski i ehokardiografski parametri mereni u pripremnom periodu i u toku takmičarske sezone veslača, Zbornik sažetaka, Fizička aktivnost i

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zdravlje, Međunarodno savetovanje, Skupština grada Novog Sada, Novi Sad. 6. Grujić, N., Barak, O., Drapšin, M., Karaba Jakovljević, D., Klašnja, A., Lukač, D., Baćanović, M., Brkić, P., Vasić, G., Drenjančević, I., Ibročić, P., Jakovljević, Đ., Mitrović, D., Ponorac, N., Radoš, B., Rajković, Ž., Ćeranić, S. (2016): Fiziologija sporta, Medicinski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Petrovaradin. 7. deVris, H. (1976): Fiziologija fizičkih napora u sportu i fizičkom vaspitanju, Republička zajednica fizičke kulture, SR Srbije, Beograd. 8. Ilić, N., Rajković, Ž. (2009): Monitoring treninga kroz puls i brzinu u različitim zonama intenziteta u cikličnim sportovima tipa izdržljivosti, Prvi nacionalni seminar za sportske trenere Republike Srbije - Izazovi novog olimpijskog ciklusa, Republički Zavod za Sport, Beograd. 9. Koprivica, V. (2013): Teorija sportskog treninga, SIA, Beograd. 10. Körner, T., Schwanitz, P. (1985): Veslanje, Sportverlag, Berlin. 11. Mazzone, T. (1988): Kinesiology of the rowing stroke, NSCA Journal, Volume 10, Number 2. 12. McArthur, J. (2000): High Performance Rowing, The Crowood Predd Ltd, Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire. 13. Mitrović, D. (1995): Funkcionalne sposobnosti veslača, magistarski rad, Fakultet fizičke kulture, Beo- grad. 14. Mitrović, D. (2003): Veslanje, skripte, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd. 15. Nilsen, T. S. (2002): „Be a coach“ Handbook level 1, FISA The International Rowing Federation, Lausanne, Switzerland. 16. Rajković, Ž., Ilić, D., Mrdaković, V., Mitrović, D., Janković, N. (2011): Evaluation of learning rowing technique in a twelwe-oared school boat galley, Facta Universitatis, Series: Physical Education and sport Vol.9, 3, 329-347. 17. Rajković, Ž. (2014): Promena biomeaničkih varijabli zaveslaja pod uticajem veslanja 2000m maksimalno mogućom brzinom na veslačkom ergometru, Doktorska disertacija, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd. 18. Ropret, J. (1968): Veslanje, program rada za dečije i omladinske sportske škole, Partizan – Novinsko izdavačko propagandna ustanova, Beograd. 19. Stanić, M. (1972): Veslanje kao deo programa nastave fizičkog vaspitanja studenata na Beograds- kom univerzitetu, Fizička kultura, 1-2, 49-53. 20. Herberger, E. (1984): Veslanje Trening , Trenerska tribina, Jugoslovenski Zavod za Fizičku Kulturu i Medicinu Sporta, Beograd. 21. www.worldrowing.com посећено 15.5.2020. 22. www.veslackisavezsrbije.org посећено 15.5.2020.

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RAZVOJ I ZNAČAJ VESLANJA KAO SPORTSKE DISCIPLINE NA VOJNOJ AKADEMIJI

Svetislav Šoškić; Uroš Kostić; Dušan Stošić Univerzitet odbrane, Vojna Akademija, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Na Vojnoj Akademiji od izuzetnog značaja je upravo vaspitno-obrazovni uticaj, kako bi se kadet oformio kao oficir, sport je neizostavni deo svakodnevnice, te se nastoji da se kroz ozbiljan pedagoški rad sa mladim ljudima, a od strane stručnih starijih oficira i profesora, koji imaju veliko iskustvo, stvore navike koje će ostati u podsvesti mladog oficira, i tako radom kasnije u jedinici doneti sveukupnu operativnu i funkcional- nu sposobnost Vojske Srbije (Grčić 2006). Kako je sport neizostavni deo svakodnevnice na Vojnoj akademiji, značajno mesto u sportskim aktivnostima zauzima i sekcija veslanja i u svom postojanju ostvaruje značajne rezultate. Veslanje kao sportska grana okuplja širom sveta mnogo omladinaca, ljudi srednjeg doba pa i one u poodmaklim godinama (www.worldrowing.com). Jezera, reke i obale mora obiluju prorodnim lepotama i svežim vazduhom, pa veslanje u takvom ambijentu može da bude privlačno i interesantno za svakoga. Os- novna tehnika koja je potrebna da bi se bavilo veslanjem jednostavna je i lako se savladava. U pokretima učestvuje veliki broj mišića nogu, trupa i ruku, pa se pravilno opterećuje čitava muskulatura ljudskog tela. Veoma uspešno se mogu dozirati opterećenja srca i pluća, što se postiže laganim ili snažnim zaveslajem, odnosno trajanjem samog veslanja. Zbog toga je veslanje vrlo rašireno kao razonoda, kao sredstvo rekreacije i kao veoma lep takmičarski sport (Ivančević, Ivančević, 1962). Pošto je veslanje kolektivan sport, dovodi do razvijanja osećaja za jedinstvo, humanizam i kolektivni duh, što u mnogome može dovesti i do poboljšanja istih, konkretno u vojnoj sredini. Jedan od osnovnih zadataka je vaspitanje volje, upornosti, karaktera i discipline koji se razvijaju savladavanjem raznih teškoća, što predstavlja važne osobine ličnosti jednog pripadnika Vojske (Grupa autora 1968). To znači da veslač postepenim savladavanjem tehnike veslanja jača svoju volju, karakter i disciplinu kod sebe, što su važne odlike svakog pripadnika Vojske Srbije iz ovog razloga veslanju se na Vojnoj akademiji pridaje velika pažnja. Smatra se da je veslanje jedno od najzdravijih aktivnosti, kako zbog higijenskih uslova u kojima se izvodi, tako i zbog različitog dejstva koje vrši na organizam. Boravak na čistom vazduhu, na vodi i suncu pozitivno se odražava na zdravstveno stanje čoveka, a sistematski fizički napor pri veslanju samo uvećava ovaj učinak (www.veslackisavezsrbije.org). Veslanje sa umerenim naporom, za razonodu, kao i veslački treninzi i takmičenja, zasnovani na uzrasnim osobinama pojedinca, pozitivno će uticati na razvoj njihovih morfoloških i psiho-fizičkih osobina, a posebno na razvoj izdržljivosti i snage (Žeželj, 1978).

Komponente veslanja

Zdravstveno-higijenska komponenta veslanja

Veslanje predstavlja vrlo složen način kretanja, jer je u pokretima veslača usklađen rad gotovo svih mišića tela, od vrhova nožnih prstiju, do vrhova prstiju na rukama. Važno je napomenuti da se jačaju mišići prednje i zadnje strane trupa koji direktno utiču na održavanje normalnog uspravnog stava (Mazzone, 1988). Određeni intenzitet veslanja utiče na pojačani rad srca i pluća, čime se potpomaže krvotok u oba pravca, od srca ka udovima i obratno. Pojačani rad mišića zahteva više krvi obogaćene kiseonikom, što dovodi do toga da i pluća, odnosno mišići grudnog koša produbljuju disanje i time poboljšavaju unošenje vazduha bogatog kiseonikom u pluća) (Grujić i ostali, 2016). Veslači spadaju među razvijenije sportiste. što nam potvrđuju vrednosti nekih antropometrijskih mera naših veslača seniora (prosečna visina-184 cm, telesna masa 80 kg i vitalni kapacitet pluća 6100 cm3) (Andrić i ostali, 1995). Sportsko veslanje odlikuje značajan fizički napor, što često dovodi do povećanja srca veslača. Kod ovakvog srca menja se način njegovog rada u mirovanju, pri opterećenju i posle njega, uz ukupno povećanje funkcionalnih sposobnosti (deVris, 1976). Frekvencija srčanog rada za vreme mirovanja kod utreniranih veslača sa dužim veslačkim stažom se kreće oko 40-50 otkucaja u minuti. Minutni volumen srca, odnosno količina krvi koju srčana komora izbaci za jedan minut, za vreme napora kod veslača spada među najveće koje se nalaze kod sportista. Frekvencija disanja kod veslača je u bliskoj zavisnosti sa ritmom veslanja i dostiže vrednost od 30-40 u minuti. Maksimalna plućna ventilacija, odnosno količina vazduha koja za jedan minut prođe kroz disajne organe pri maksimalnom radu kod intenzivnog treninga ili na takmičenjima može dostići vrednost 90-150 litara u minuti (Mitrović, 1995). Ove opisane funkcionalne sposobnosti u ovakvom obimu nalaze se samo kod dobro treniranih veslača sa veslačkim stažom od više godina. U okviru rekreativnog veslanja, kao i kod veslača početnika, gde su napori manji i ređi, ove promene su ograničenog obima, ali je njihova zdravstvena vrednost i dalje od velikog značaja.

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Vaspitno obrazovna komponenta veslanja

Vaspitno-obrazovni zadaci su međusobno povezani i isprepleteni pa ih možemo označiti kao ped- agoške, odnosno vaspitne, gde se misli na sticanje moralnih i karakternih osobina ličnosti i obrazovne, gde se pre svega misli na usavršavanje kretanja (motorike) (Mitrović, 2003). Volja, karakter i svesna disciplina se ne mogu slučajno razvijati, već kroz smišljeno i plansko vežbanje u trenažnom procesu, kroz stvaranje takvih situacija u treningu koje navode čovekovu volju na određene pozitivne postupke. Veslanje u velikoj meri pokazuje akt volje, koji je potpomognut raznim situacijama, kao postojanjem vidnih opažanja prostora (vodene površine), koji omogućuje da se vide ostali veslači kao i prostor koji treba da se pređe. Veslač mora da održava brzinu kretanja čamca, ritam i tempo, koji je utvrđen na treningu, odnosno da suviše rano ne poveća brzinu i da momenat krize savlada, jer u tom momentu vrhunca napora veslač daje svoj maksimum. Kroz veslanje mora se sistematski navikavati na urednost, tačnost i disciplinu, svestan i disciplinovan odnos prema posadi čamca u kome vesla, što dovodi do formiranja međuljudskog pomaganja radi postizanja većeg zajedničkog uspeha, što je takođe primenljivo u vojnoj sredini (Grčić, 2006). Nedisciplina veslača na treningu, ne pridržavanje nekih zakonitosti koje vladaju na vodi, mogu da dovedu do raznih neprijatnosti, pošto uslovi koji vladaju na vodi mogu biti vrlo složeni (vetar, talasi, nevreme, saobraćaj na vodi). Zato je neophodno da se postavljeni zadaci tačno izvršavaju. Jedan od zadataka onih koji se bave veslanjem je čuvanje složene opreme za veslanje. Odlaganje vesala, čamaca i ostale opreme iziskuje jedan red. Ovo je neophodno, a ujedno kod veslača razvija smisao za odgovornost i čuvanje imovine (Grupa autora, 1968).

Programi treninga veslanja na Vojnoj akademiji

Programi treninga veslača su u značajnom obimu opisani u sportskoj literaturi (Ropret, 1968). U primeni veslanja u vojsci i u vojnim školskim ustanovama potrebno je sačiniti sažet i jednostavan pristup treningu u smislu uštede vremena i uniformisanosti pristupa, kako je to i uobičajeno u obuci, na primer kadeta vojne akademije. Sledi takav primer, kao jedan od mogućih odabira pojednostavljenog pristupa treningu veslača, koji je u ovom slučaju dovoljan, poželjan i opravdan.

Trening sile

Najviši nivo specifičnosti je trening na vodi u kojem primenjujemo mišićnu silu tokom svakog zaveslaja. Ove vežbe podražavaju mišiće, ali i pomažu naglašavanju pravilnog redosleda uključivanja sila za maksimalnu efikasnost zaveslaja (Stanić, 1972). Veslanje sa elastičnom gumom - Ovo najbolje deluje u skifu. Potrebno je vezati elastičnu gumu (debelu oko 1cm) oko pramca negde na pola puta između loptice i valobrana. Tako se kreira čamac koji je takmičarski skif, ali sa karakteristikama trening - čamca zbog poremećene hidrodinamike. Kao posledica zahvat će bit vrlo težak, i veslač će biti prisiljen veslati snažnije da bi ubrzao čamac. Ovakva postavka će veslaču omugućiti pravo preopterećenje u zahvatu i naglasak na snažnom i pravovremenom uključivanju nogu. Elastična traka je najefikasnija ako se trenira 15-30 minuta sa trakom, a zatim se odstrani za ostatak treninga. Ovo je važno radi prenošenja osećaja snažne povezanosti sa vodom i snažnim uključivanjem nogu u normalnim uslovima (Körner, Schwanitz, 1985). Sličan efekat se postiže veslajući u parovima u četvercu ili osmercu, ili čak u situaciji kada jedan veslač vesla u četvercu skul (Rajković i ostali, 2011). Isti efekat je moguće postići, ako u situaciji kada je puna posada u grupnom čamcu jedan veslač krene sa 15 zaveslaja punom snagom dok ostali odmaraju. Svakih 15 zaveslaja moguće je menjati veslača. Nakon ponavljanja ove vežbe nekoliko puta, moguće je početi sa jednim veslačem i zatim dodati po jednog veslača svakih 10 zaveslaja, dok na kraju svi zajedno ne postignu punu brzinu provlaka (Rajković i ostali, 2011).

Regatni start kao metoda je takođe primenljiva u treningu snage. Maksimalna sila proizvedena tokom prvih nekoliko zaveslaja trke je oko 40% viša od prosečne sile izmerene tokom staze (Rajković, 2014). Ako bi se veslalo na deonici od 250 m, za veslanje bi se regrutovali drugačiji sportisti sa bitno drugačijim treningom. Ovde se ulaže mnogo veća energija na veslo da bi se postigla regatna brzina. Dakle, trening koji se sastoji od sekvenci startova u stvari je vrlo dobra metoda postizanja specifičnog mišićnog opterećenja. Modifikacije koje su moguće da bi se dodatno opteretili veslači za vreme starta može biti elastična traka oko manjih čamaca, ili privezani predmet u vodi za veće čamce. Pri korišćenju navedene metode (dva do tri starta), potrebno je osloboditi se modifikacija da bi osećaj prenosa sile veslač dobio i u normalnim uslovima (McArthur, 2000).

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Kardiovaskularni trening

Kardiovaskularna sprema je obično ono što mnogi ljudi podrazumevaju kad govore o “opštoj telesnoj spremi” (deVris, 1976). Iako postoji jako malo fizičkih aktivnosti koje se ne mogu upotrebiti pri treningu srca, pluća i krvožilnog sastava, svaka aktivnost ima svoj osobeni trening efekt. Kada se aktivnost promeni na onu za koju se nije treniralo, netrenirane slabosti u novoj aktivnosti će biti te koje će ograničavati perfo- manse, primoravajući na specifični trening. “Opšta fizička sprema” najbolje opisuje sposobnost potrebnu za obavljanje aktivnosti koje čini većina ljudi, a koja formira grupu visoko specifičnih zadataka. Uopšteno pravilo kardiovaskularnog treninga uključuje podizanje broja otkucaja srca na vrednost njegovog teoretskog maksimuma za određeno vreme, u aktivnosti za koju se trenira. U praksi to znači da prosečni 18 -22 godišnjak mora trenirati dovoljno teško da podigne broj otkucaja na priblizno 160 do 200 u minuti deset do dvadeset minuta, u cilju postizanja optimalnog trening nadražaja (Ilić, Rajković, 2009).

Trening mišićne snage i izdržljivosti

Mišićna vlakna se najčešće dele u dve vrste - snažna ili brzo - kontraktirajuća vlakna, i izdržljiva ili sporo - kontraktirajuća vlakna, iako u stvarnosti imamo kontinuirani raspon od jednih ka drugima sa ge- netski određenom raspodelom. Brzo - kontrahirajuća vlakna su masivna, snažna vlakna koja se regrutuju u malom broju i brzo se umaraju. Mogu zapasti u područje “manjka kiseonika” i oslanjaju se na glikogenske zalihe u mišićima kao izvor energije. Sporo kontrahirajuća vlakna su tanja, slabija vlakna koja se oslanjaju na aerobnu respiraciju i mogu duže vremena izdržati napore kod manjih opterećenja (Grujić i ostali, 2016). Sva mišićna vlakna su pogođena istim trening efektom nakon preopterećenja. Pod laganim opterećenjem jednog određenog mišića, regrutuju se samo sporo-kontrahirajuća vlakna. Jedini način da se postigne preop- terećenje u tom slučaju je vreme - npr. dva sata ergometra na laganom opterećenju. Samo regrutovana i re- dom izložena naporu vlakna će biti trenirana i napredak u formi se mora optimizovati za treninge od dva sata i duže! Na povećanom opterećenju brzo - kontrahirajuća vlakna su takođe pogođena, sve dok je opterećenje takvo da je postignuta maksimalna regrutacija, tipično oko 40%. Sa treningom visoko - opterećenje / manje - ponavljanja određeni deo pogođenih vlakana biće premorena sa svakim ponavljanjem, dok će druga biti regrutovana. Trening privremenog mišićnog otkaza od 8 do 12 ponavljanja je dovoljan da se stimuliše i preoptereti veliki postotak svih vlakana. To se može postići u jedno - minutnim intervalima po mišićnoj grupi i koristi svim tipovima mišićnih vlakana rezultujući napretkom u snazi kao i u izdržljivosti (Ilić, Rajković, 2009).

Osnove treninga na veslačkim ergometrima

Osnovni trening je rasčlanjen na tri faze: zagrevanje, glavni deo treninga i opuštanje. Zagrevanje treba da traje 12 minuta, vrhunac rada 15-75 minuta (što zavisi od idealnog pulsa za trening) i opuštanje 10 minuta (Koprivica, 2013). Zagrevanje čini telo spremnim za zahtevnije vežbe koje slede. Pošto se u toku treninga provodi dosta vremena sedeći, neophodno je da se opuste zglobovi, protegnu mišići, tetive i ligamenti; da se pripremi kardiovaskularni sistem. Posle toga telo je spremno za period napora.

Zagrevanje

Ima tri faze: Veslanje 4 minuta pri minimalnom otporu i pri broju zaveslaja dvostruko sporijem od uobičajenog. Ovo veslanje će malo povećati temperaturu veslačevog tela. Mišići veslača će biti „ zagrejani “ tako da će veslač biti u mogućnosti da se pravilno isteže. Posle laganog zagrevanja sledi istezanje i to: Istezanje bicepsa i pektoralnih mišića, istezanje ramena u klečećem položaju, istezanje gornjeg dela leđa i ramena, istezanje potkolenične tetive skrštenih nogu, istezanje članaka u sedećem položaju, istazanje kvadricepsa. Sve celine potrebno je uraditi za obe strane tela (Nilsen, 2002). Sledi ponovno veslanje na ergometru u trajanju od 4 minuta ali je sada tempo nešto veći i bliži re- gatnom.

Glavni deo treninga

Posle zagrevanja sledi provera pulsa metodom merenja u trajanju od 10 sekundi i množenjem sa 6. Puls bi trebao da bude za otprilike 30 udaraca brži nego pre zagrevanja. Pošto svako sledi svoju ideju o dobroj formi, preporučuje se postepeni pristup intenzivnoj fazi veslanja. Broj dana u nedelji za vežbanje zavisi od cilja treninga (kardiovaskularna uvežbanost ili kontrola težine). Za

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dostizanje forme kardiovaskularnog sistema učestalost vežbanja od najmanje tri puta nedeljno je neophodna. Da bi kontrolisali težinu potrebno je veslati najmanje četiri puta nedeljno. Kako vreme prolazi forma veslača i kapacitet za vežbanje će se poboljšavati. Na svakih četiri nedelje moguće je testiranje u smislu redefinisanja opterećenja. Jedna od mogućnosti je veslanje 10 minuta posle zagrevanja u najpovoljnijem ritmu za veslača. Po proveri pulsa i evidenciji moguće je postaviti nove nivoe kao zadatke za adaptaciju organizma. Grubi orijentir može biti vežbanje koje donosi korist srcu i plućima i koje iznosi 50% od maksimalnog. Ako se vežba pri opterećenju manjem od navedenog neće biti značajnih efekata.

Opuštanje

Posle perioda glavnih vežbi vreme je za opuštanje. Faze opuštanja se odvijaju na sledeći način: 5 minuta veslanja sporije, pri opadajućem otporu, da bi se dozvolio polagani oporavak organizma i sprečili negativni efekti naglog prekida vežbanja. Nagli prestanak veslanja mogao bi dovesti do osećaja malaksalosti pa se zato postavlja zadatak sporijeg veslanja i to na nivou polovine ili ¾ od prethodnog. Npr. ako se veslalo brzinom od 20 zaveslaja u minuti, potrebno je usporiti na 10-12 zaveslaja u minuti. Posle 5 minuta takvog veslanja, moguće je nastaviti sa vežbama istezanja uz prestavu opuštanja mišića. Vežbe se ponavljaju od minimum 5 a maksimum 10 puta. Pravilno i postepeno počinjući i završava- jući trening smanjuje se rizik od povreda i komplikacija koje veslača mogu da obeshrabre u treniranju. Dok se trenira uvek je potrebno osluškivati svoje telo. Većina povreda biva prouzrokovana pretera- no intenzivnim treningom. Za veslače početnike u ovom slučaju kadete vojne akademije značajno je sažimanje, sumiranje i uopštavanje saveta tokom vežbanja, pa je u tom smeru dat pregled glavnih izvora neugodnosti i povređivan- ja i tretman za njihovo prevazilaženje tokom treninga veslanja (tabela 1).

Tabela 1. Komplikacije, uzroci i tretmani tokom treninga veslanja kod početnika

komplikacije uzroci tretmani Srce mi se čudno ponaša (radi brzo/sporo, Smanjite intenzitet veslanja i posetite dok- Veslate suviše oštro. preskače itd.). tora. Smanjite intenzitet veslanja i posetite dok- Javlja mi se oštar bol, ili pritisak u grudima. Veslate suviše oštro. tora. Osećam vrtoglavicu i slabost, skoro sam se Veslate suviše oštro, dotok krvi u mozak je Smanjite intenzitet veslanja i posetite dok- onesvestio, itd. nedovoljan. tora. 5-10 minuta posle veslanja srce mi lupa Vežbajte pod manjim opterećenjem srca. Veslate suviše oštro. brže i ostajem bez daha. Ako to ne bude dovoljno idite doktoru Povraća vam se, ili povraćate posle vaslan- Veslanje vam je preoštro ili vam je Vežbajte pod manjim opterećenjem srca, ja. potrebno bolje opuštanje. produžite fazu opuštanja. Smanjite srčano opterećenje. Umoran sam dan posle veslanja ili sam Veslate suviše oštro. Napredujte sporije, ili povećajte periode stalno umoran. odmora. Posle veslanja ne mogu da Veslate suviše oštro, ili to radite kasno Veslajte najmanje tri sata pre spavam. uveče. spavanja ili smanjite opterećenje,

Iako veslam živci su mi napeti, Suviše vaslanja, ili suviše Smanjite jurnjavu, snizite intenzitet vežbi, ili nervozan sam, ili takmičenja. promenite aktivnost na neko vreme. hiperaktivan.

Oslabio je elan ili dosadila mi je nekad omil- Suviše vaslanja, ili suviše Smanjite jurnjavu, snizite intenzitet vežbi, ili jena aktivnost. takmičenja. promenite aktivnost na neko vreme. Zagrevajte se duže (bar 10 Tokom prvih minuta veslanja ostajem bez Nepravilno zagrevanje. minuta) dok ne steknete idealni puls za daha. vežbanje.

Intervalni trening na ergometrima

Poboljšanje sportske performanse u veslanju obično je vezano za podizanje anaerobnog praga (Mitrović, 1995). Istraživanja su pokazala da intervalni trening tj. serije ponovljenih napornih vežbi kombi- novanih sa periodima odmora (obično u vidu lakših vežbi) predstavlja najbolji metod za podizanje praga i simuliranje zahteva takmičenja (Herberger, 1984). I u ovom slučaju potrebna su kratka uputstva za veslače početnike, koji samostalno pristupaju vežbanju uz značajno izbegavanje davanja suvišnih informacija i polemika oko pristupa treningu. Jedna od metoda je prosto poređenje više pristupa sa objašnjenjem njihovih efekata.

U slučaju veslanja najvećim intenzitetom u trajanju od jednog minuta, organizam će biti iscrpljen. U

202 UDK: 797.123:378 slučaju naizmeničnog veslanja od na primer 10 sekundi najvećim intenzitetom, sa pauzom od 30 sekundi i 6 takvih serija postićiće se isti obim veslanja, kao i prilikom neprekidnog veslanja od jedne minute. Postojaće jedna bitna razlika. Stepen umora koji će veslač osetiti posle intervalnog treninga biće znatno manji nego kod neprekidnog veslanja.

Intervalni trening može da se izvodi po različitim planovima. I u ovom slučaju kod početnika i kadeta vojne akademije poželjna su uniformnost i uoštavanje uz primenu individualizacije tek u kasnijem periodu razvoja veslača (tabela 2).

Tabela 2. Plan intervalnog treninga za distance od 2000 metara

Prva nedelja Šesta nedelja 2*3:00 (odmor 3:00) 1 1 Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 1:00) dan dan 2*1:30 (odmor 3:00)

4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) Odmor 2:00 2 2*2:00 (odmor 4:00) 2 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) Odmor 2:00 Odmor 2:00 dan 1*2:00 (odmor 4:00) dan 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) Odmor 2:00 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 8*0:20 (odmor 1:00) 3 3 1*4:30 (odmor 2:15) Odmor 2:00 2*3:30 (odmor 1:45) dan 8*0:20 (odmor 1:00) dan Druga nedelja Sedma nedelja 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 1 3*2:00 (odmor 4:00) 1 Odmor 2:00 Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) dan 2*2:00 (odmor 4:00) dan Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) 4*0:40 (odmor 4:00) 2 Odmor 2:00 2 8*0:20 (odmor 2:00) 3*3:30 (odmor 3:30) dan Odmor 2:00 dan 8*0:20 (odmor 1:00) 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 3 3 Odmor 2:00 4*3:00 (odmor 3:00) 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) dan dan Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) Treće nedelja Osma nedelja

4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 1 4*2:00 (odmor 4:00) 1 Odmor 2:00 Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45 dan 2*1:20 (odmor 2:40) dan Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45)

4*0:40 (odmor 2:00) Odmor 2:00 2 4*0:40 (odmor 2:00) 2 Rest 2:00 3*3:30 (odmor 3:30) dan 4*0:40 (odmor 2:00) dan Odmor 2:00 4*0:40 (rest2:00) 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 3 2*3:00 (odmor 3:00) 3 Odmor 2:00 Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) dan 2*1:20 (odmor 2:40) dan Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) Četvrta nedelja Deveta nedelja

1 1 2*3:00 (odmor 3:00) 4*3:00 (odmor 3:00) Odmor 2:00 dan dan 2*1:30 (odmor 3:00)

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4*0:40(odmor 1:50) 4*0:40 (odmor 1:55) Odmor 2:00 2 Odmor 2:00 2 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 8*0:20 (odmor 0:55) Odmor 2:00 dan Odmor 2:00 dan 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 8*0:20 (odmor 0:55) Odmor 2:00 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50)

3 3 2*5:00 (odmor 2:30) 4*2:00 (odmor 2:00) Odmor 2:00 dan dan 3*1:30 (odmor 3:00) Peta nedelja 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 1 Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) dan Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) 2 5*2:00 (odmor 4:00) dan 4*0:40 (odmor 1:50) 3 Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45) dan Odmor 2:00 8*0:20 (odmor 0:45)

Primenljivost profesionalnih programa veslanja u vojsci Srbije

Primenljivost profesionalnih programa veslanja u Vojsci Srbije je očigledna i realna. Sama primena ovih programa značajna je najpre za psihofizičku osposobljenost pripadnika oružanih snaga naše države. U radu su već istaknute zdravstveno-higijenska i vaspitno-obrazovna komponenta veslanja i sve osobine ličnosti, koje se pri bavljenju veslanjem razvijaju svesna disciplina, kolektivni duh i osećaj za međuljudsko pomaganje, odgovornost, urednost, volja, karakter, tačnost) u potpunosti se slažu sa karakternim osobinama, koje je potrebno da poseduje profesionalni pripadnik Vojske Srbije.

Sam proces treniranja na veslačkoj sekciji na Vojnoj akademiji poboljšan primenom profesionalnih programa veslanja mogao bi u velikoj meri da doprinese većim uspesima veslačke ekipe, kako na takmičen- jima na vodi, tako i na takmičenjima na ergometrima. Primena profesionalnih programa u procesu treniranja doprinela bi boljem kondicioniranju, većoj izdržljivosti, snazi i eksplozivnosti (Grčić, 2006).

Vežbanje na Concept II mašini na kojoj se trenira u zimskim uslovima, u zatvorenom prostoru, na veslačkoj sekciji na Vojnoj akademiji, kadetu (koji i ne mora biti član sekcije) donosi mnogo koristi. Omoguća- va mu da razvije celokupnu muskulaturu tela: ramenog sklopa, gornjeg dela leđa, trupa, ruku, nogu, što mu omogućava da bolje i lakše savlada obuku u kojoj se traži fizičko naprezanje organizma i da unapredi svoje motoričke sposobnosti.

Zaključak

U ovom radu objašnjene su komponente veslanja značajne za primenu veslanja u vojsci, kao i pojednostavljeni profesionalni program treniranja veslača početnika tj pitomaca Vojne akademije. Veslanje kroz vekove ima bogatu i zanimljivu istoriju, danas je veslanje kao sport i kao rekreacija totalno promenila svoj značaj i smer. Bavljenjem veslanjem, konstantnim i pravilnim treniranjem obogaćuje se i jača mentalna struktura ličnosti, pravilno se i zdravo razvija čovečje telo. S obzirom na primenljivost veslanja u oružanim dejstvima koje izvode pripadnici oružanih snaga Vojske Srbije dolazi se do zaključka, da je ova vrsta fizičke aktivnosti, ali i sportske discipline i njena primena od bitnog značaja, kako za efikasnost i brzinu izvršavanja određenih zadataka, tako i za sveobuhvatan razvoj savremenog profesionalnog vojnika. Prikazani materijali se koriste svakodnevno u pripremi i treningu veslača i unutar veslačke sekcije na Vojnoj akademiji u Beogradu.

Literatura

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4. Ivančević, V., Ivančević, S. (1962): Sportovi na vodi, NIP „Sportska knjiga“, Beograd. 5. Andrić, M., Grujić, N., Kovač M., Lukač D. (1995): Ergometrijski i ehokardiografski parametri mereni u pripremnom periodu i u toku takmičarske sezone veslača, Zbornik sažetaka, Fizička aktivnost i zdravlje, Međunarodno savetovanje, Skupština grada Novog Sada, Novi Sad. 6. Grujić, N., Barak, O., Drapšin, M., Karaba Jakovljević, D., Klašnja, A., Lukač, D., Baćanović, M., Brkić, P., Vasić, G., Drenjančević, I., Ibročić, P., Jakovljević, Đ., Mitrović, D., Ponorac, N., Radoš, B., Rajković, Ž., Ćeranić, S. (2016): Fiziologija sporta, Medicinski fakultet, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Petrovaradin. 7. deVris, H. (1976): Fiziologija fizičkih napora u sportu i fizičkom vaspitanju, Republička zajednica fizičke kulture, SR Srbije, Beograd. 8. Ilić, N., Rajković, Ž. (2009): Monitoring treninga kroz puls i brzinu u različitim zonama intenziteta u cikličnim sportovima tipa izdržljivosti, Prvi nacionalni seminar za sportske trenere Republike Srbije - Izazovi novog olimpijskog ciklusa, Republički Zavod za Sport, Beograd. 9. Koprivica, V. (2013): Teorija sportskog treninga, SIA, Beograd. 10. Körner, T., Schwanitz, P. (1985): Veslanje, Sportverlag, Berlin. 11. Mazzone, T. (1988): Kinesiology of the rowing stroke, NSCA Journal, Volume 10, Number 2. 12. McArthur, J. (2000): High Performance Rowing, The Crowood Predd Ltd, Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire. 13. Mitrović, D. (1995): Funkcionalne sposobnosti veslača, magistarski rad, Fakultet fizičke kulture, Beo- grad. 14. Mitrović, D. (2003): Veslanje, skripte, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd. 15. Nilsen, T. S. (2002): „Be a coach“ Handbook level 1, FISA The International Rowing Federation, Lausanne, Switzerland. 16. Rajković, Ž., Ilić, D., Mrdaković, V., Mitrović, D., Janković, N. (2011): Evaluation of learning rowing technique in a twelwe-oared school boat galley, Facta Universitatis, Series: Physical Education and sport Vol.9, 3, 329-347. 17. Rajković, Ž. (2014): Promena biomeaničkih varijabli zaveslaja pod uticajem veslanja 2000m maksimalno mogućom brzinom na veslačkom ergometru, Doktorska disertacija, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Beograd. 18. Ropret, J. (1968): Veslanje, program rada za dečije i omladinske sportske škole, Partizan – Novinsko izdavačko propagandna ustanova, Beograd. 19. Stanić, M. (1972): Veslanje kao deo programa nastave fizičkog vaspitanja studenata na Beograds- kom univerzitetu, Fizička kultura, 1-2, 49-53. 20. Herberger, E. (1984): Veslanje Trening , Trenerska tribina, Jugoslovenski Zavod za Fizičku Kulturu i Medicinu Sporta, Beograd. 21. www.worldrowing.com посећено 15.5.2020. 22. www.veslackisavezsrbije.org посећено 15.5.2020.

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INFLUENCE OF LOWER EXTREMITY BODY COMPOSITION PARAMETERS ON TMG RESPONSE IN KNEE JOINT MUSCLES

Lazar Toskić1; Milivoj Dopsaj2; Milan Marković2 1 University of Priština - Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of sport and physical education, Leposavić, Serbia 2 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Tensiomyography (TMG) is a method for assessment of contractile characteristics of muscles stimulated by electrical stimulation (Macgregor, Hunter, Orizio, Fairweather, & Ditroilo, 2018; Valenčič & Knez, 1997). This method has proven to be valid, reliable (Križaj, Šimunič, & Žagar 2008; Martín-Rodríguez, Lotur- co, Hunter, Rodríguez-Ruiz, & Munguia-Izquierdo, 2017; Šimunič, 2012) and is applicable in sports training, injury prevention. physical therapy and rehabilitation (Macgregor et al., 2018; Rey, Lago-Peñas, & Lago-Bal- lesteros, 2012; Tous-Fajardo, Moras, Rodríguez-Jiménez, Usach, Doutres, & Maffiuletti, 2010).

As with any other method, the validity and reliability of TMG measurements depend on several factors, i.e. many factors influence the response of the muscle to electrical stimuli and parameters of TMG. It has shown that TMG parameters are sensitive to fatigue (Garcia Manso, Rodríguez-Ruiz, Rodríguez-Ma- toso, de Saa, Sarmiento, & Quiroga, 2011; Garcia Manso et al., 2012), they depend on the type of muscle fibers (Dahmane, Djordjevic, Simunic, Valencic, 2005; Simunic, Degens, Rittweger, Narici, Mekjavic, & Pisot, 2011), mechanical characteristics of muscles (Rey et al., 2012; Tous-Fajardo et al., 2010), muscle force (Toskic, Dopsaj, Stankovic, & Markovic, 2019), electrodes and sensors position (Wilson, Johnson, & Francis, 2018; Simunic, 2019), etc.

Considering that previous studies have shown that muscle response to electrical stimulation depends on the amount of subcutaneous fat (Petrofsky, 2008; Petrofsky, Suh, Gunda, Prowse, & Batt, 2008), it can be assumed that TMG measurements also depend on the proportion of adipose tissue and other parameters of body composition. Unfortunately, the relationship between TMG parameters and body composition has not been extensively investigated to date (Calvo-Lobo, Díez-Vega, García-Mateos, Molina-Martín, Díaz- Ureña, & Rodríguez-Sanz, 2018; Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2017).

In accordance with the aforementioned, the problem of this study is the influence of certain parameters of body composition on the muscle contractions caused by electrical stimulation applied by the TMG method. The aim of this study is to investigate the correlation and influence of certain parameters of lower extremity body composition, that is, lean and fat body mass, on the TMG parameters in the knee joint extensor and flexor muscles. It can be assumed that body composition parameters will have some significant effect on TMG parameters. Based on the results of this study, we can inform about the factors that determine the validity and reliability of TMG measurements, as well as the relationship between body composition parameters and mechanical and contractile muscle properties, which can contribute to the development of sports diagnostics, sports training, physical therapy and rehabilitation and other areas which are related to the human anthropological characteristics.

Methods

The sample consisted of 60 individuals (30 men - Age = 25.3 ± 3.7 years, TV = 180.9 ± 6.6 cm, TM = 82.3 ± 10.4 kg; and 30 women - Age = 22.5 ± 2.3 years, TV = 169.4 ± 6.04 cm, TM = 60.7 ± 7.2 kg). The subjects were individuals from the group of physically inactive people and students of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education and the Criminal Police Academy. All subjects were healthy, aware of the purpose and procedures of measurements, and voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. All measurements were conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Sport and Phys- ical Education, University of Belgrade.

Body composition parameters were measured using bioelectrical impedance (In Body 720, Bio- space Co., Ltd). Body composition measurements were performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions and based on previous similar research (Bankovic, Dopsaj, Terzic, & Nesic, 2018; Dopsaj et al., 2017; Völgyi, Tylavsky, Lyytikäinen, Suominen, Alén, & Cheng, 2008). The measurements were performed in the morning and the temperature in the room where the tests were performed was between 20 and 25 degrees. The procedure participants had to follow before testing was: • participans did not intake food for at least 2 hours before the measurement; • participans did not exercise for 12 hours before the measurement;

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• participans did not consume alcohol for 48 hours before the measurement; • participans did not consume diuretics (coffee, chocolate) 24 hours before the measurement; • participans did not use the sauna before the measurement; • participans performed their physiological needs before to the measurement

Participants spent 5 minutes in standing position before the measurement. The subjects were only in their underwear and they were required to remove all metal from themselves if they had one. Prior to measurement, all subjects were familiar with the procedure. Respondents were first asked to stand on the scale and place their hands and feet on contact surfaces. During the measurement, the subjects were asked to stand upright, to be calm and relaxed, i.e. not to clench their arms, legs and torso, to look forward, to breathe normally and not to talk. The measurements took about two minutes.

By the TMG method (TMG-BMC Ltd, Ljubljana) parameters of the main knee joint extensor and flexor muscles of the dominant leg were measured; rectus femoris (RF) and biceps femoris (BF). Respon- dents lay in a relaxed position on their back or abdomen, depending on the measured muscles (Rey et al., 2012; Toskic, Dopsaj, Koropanovski, & Jeknic, 2016; Toskic et al., 2017; 2019). The angle in knee joint was about 120˚. Before placing the electrodes, the subjects were asked to perform a voluntary contraction to determine the desired muscle by the method of palpation (Toskić et al., 2016; 2017; 2019). After determination, two self-adhesive electrodes were positioned on the central part of the muscle, emitting an electrical impulse, proximal and distal, at a distance of about 5 cm from the desired measuring position (Figure 1).

A sensor was placed between the electrodes, which detects changes in the muscle belly caused by an electrical stimulus and based on which we obtain data on muscle contractile properties. The sensor was positioned relative to the direction of of the fibers and their positioning (Fabok, Dopsaj, Leontijević, & Tomić, 2018). The electrical impulse was achieved by an electrostimulator, 1 ms duration, and the initial pulse was of intensity 25 mA, with increasing intensity by 20 mA to the maximum, that is, until the reaction of the muscles to increase of the amplitude was no longer possible (Toskić et al., 2016; 2017; 2019). The maximum amplitude ranged from 80 to 110 mA. The pause between pulses was about 5 s for muscles to be able to relax. The two best scores are saved, and the average is calculated based on them.

Figure 1. Method of electrode and sensor positioning

All measurements were performed under the same conditions, the subjects were healthy, rested and followed the pre-measurement procedures required of them. All measurements were made by the same experienced individuals in the Methodological Research Laboratory of the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade.

The sample of variables consisted of 2 variables for assessment body composition and 4 variables for assessment of muscles contractile properties: • lean body mass of dominant leg – LBM (kg); • fat body mass of dominant leg – FM (kg); • contraction time of rectus femoris muscle – Tc (ms); • contraction time of biceps femoris muscle – Tc (ms);

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• maximal displacement of rectus femoris muscle – Dm (mm); • maximal displacement of biceps femoris muscle – Dm (mm).

Of the statistical procedures, in the study descriptive statistics (Mean, SD, cV, Min, Max) was applied to describe the measured variables, Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated, and linear regression analysis was applied to determine the correlation and influence of body composition parameters on TMG parameters. All statistical procedures were conducted in SPSS19 (IBM).

Results

Table 1 shows descriptive indicators of body composition and TMG parameters. It can be observed that men have higher LBM values (by 40.5%), lower FM values (by 15.7%) longer Tc of RF muscle (by 8.08%), shorter Tc of BF muscle (by 17.2%), higher Dm of RF muscle (by 8.8 %) and lower Dm of BF muscle (by 30.6%) than women. It can also be noticed that the main muscle of the knee joint has lower values of Tc and Dm (16.3%, 3.09%, respectively) than the main muscle of the knee joint flexor. Based on the values of the coefficient of variation (cV), it can be concluded that this group of subjects has lower homogeneity when it comes to the parameters FM (cV = 33.4%), RF Dm (cV = 35.05%) and BF Dm (cV = 38.6%).

Table 1. Descriptive values of body composition and TMG parameters

Mean SD cV Min Max LBM (kg) 10.4 1.2 12.2 8.6 12.7 FM (kg) 1.9 0.8 45.03 0.8 4.2 RFtc (ms) 32.1 5.5 17.2 23.3 46.7 Men RFdm (mm) 5.89 2.11 35.8 1.47 9.31 BFtc (ms) 33.1 9.1 27.6 14.9 47.5 BFdm (mm) 5.05 2.13 42.3 0.06 9.74 LBM (kg) 7.4 0.9 12.5 5.8 9.1 FM (kg) 2.2 0.4 21.9 1.3 3.4 RFtc (ms) 29.7 5.2 17.6 20.1 39.9 Women RFdm (mm) 5.41 1.85 34.3 1.36 9.61 BFtc (ms) 38.8 8.7 22.5 22.8 57.9 BFdm (mm) 6.60 2.30 34.9 1.51 10.63

Table 2 and Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5 show the results of correlation and regression analysis, that is, the correlation and influence of body composition parameters on TMG parameters. It can be concluded that there is a statistically significant correlation and influence of LBM parameter on the Dm of BF muscle in men and women (r = - 0.377, R² = 0.142, R² adj. = 0.112, p = 0.039; r = - 0.498, R² = 0.248. R² adj. = 0.219, p = 0.007, respectively), parameter FM on Dm of BF muscle in men (p = - 0.447, R² = 0.200, R² adj. = 0.171, p = 0.013) as well as on Tc of BF muscle in women (r = 0.384, R² = 0.148, R² adj. = 0.115, p = 0.043).

Table 2. Correlation between body composition and TMG parameters

RFtc RFdm BFtc BFdm r 0.083 - 0.239 - 0.075 - 0.377* LBM p 0.659 0.201 0.693 0.039 Men r - 0.284 - 0.232 - 0.131 -0.447* FM p 0.127 0.215 0.487 0.013 r 0.020 - 0.271 0.067 - 0.498** LBM p 0.916 0.161 0.732 0.007 Women r 0.146 - 0.152 0.384* - 0.249 FM p 0.458 0.439 0.043 0.200

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Figure 2. Influence of lean body mass (LBM) of dominant leg on maximal displacement (Dm) of biceps femoris muscle in men

Figure 3. Influence of lean body mass (LBM) of dominant leg on maximal displacement (Dm) of biceps femoris muscle in women

Figure 4. Influence of body fat mass (FM) of dominant leg on maximal displacement (Dm) of biceps femoris muscle in men

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Figure 5. Influence of body fat mass (FM) of dominant leg on contraction time (Tc) of biceps femoris muscle in women

Discussion

In this study, on the sample of 60 subjects of both sexes, the influence of lower extremity body composition parameters on the TMG response in the knee joint extensor and flexor muscles was examined. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the lean body mass and body fat mass of the dominant leg has a significant influence on the TMG parameters of the main knee joint flexor muscle. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the lean body mass and fat mass of the dominant leg has a significant influence on the TMG parameters of the main knee joint flexor muscle. Consid- ering that muscle mass in main part of the lower limb lean body mass (Pomeroy, Macintosh, Wells, Cole, & Stock, 2018), and that correlation is negative, it can be concluded that muscle mass has a negative relationship with muscle stiffness and tone, which parameter Dm is assessing (Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Ro- dríguez et al., 2017; Rey et al., 2012). This data points to the fact that individuals with higher muscle mass also have higher muscle stiffness, that is, individuals with lower muscle mass have lower muscle tone, and that an increase in muscle mass leads to an increase in muscle stiffness and tone and vice versa. In men, there was also a significant negative correlation between dominant leg fat mass and muscle stiffness, that is, individuals with a greater amount of lower limb fat mass have higher muscle tone and stiffness of the main knee joint flexor muscle. In women it was shown that the amount of fat tissue in the legs has a significant effect on the time needed for muscle to contract under the influence of electrical stimulation, that is, it has been shown that people with higher values of segmental fat tissue have slower muscle contractions and that the increase in fat tissue leads to a decrease in contraction speed. These results are somewhat expected. Previous research has shown that there is an association between muscle mass and muscle stiffness (Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2017; Rey et al., 2012), so the statistically significant correlation between lean and fat body mass of dominant leg and maximal displacement is clear and expected. On the other hand, the negative correlation between adipose tissue and muscle stiffness is somewhat unexpected, since it has been shown that muscle stiffness as measured by the TMG method increases to some extent with level of physical activity (Toskić et al., 2016; 2019), so it can be assumed that individuals who regularly engage in physical activity have higher muscle stiffness but also lower adipose tissue values. These results can be attributed to the effect of adipose tissue on muscle contraction caused by electrical stimulation. Namely, as mentioned previously, it has been shown that the amount of subcutaneous adipose tissue has a significant effect on muscle contractions caused by electrical stimulation, that is, on conducting electricity (Petrofsky, 2008; Petrofsky et al., 2008). It can be assumed that even with TMG measurements, the greater amount of fat tissue influences the conductivity of the electrical current to the muscle, and therefore the muscle’s response to the electrical current is smaller. In the end, the results of this study showed that lower values of lower limb fat tissue lead to faster contractions of the main knee joint flexor muscle, which was to some extent unknown. The correlation between body composition and TMG parameters is slightly higher in women (r = 0.441, p = 0.025, on average) than in men (r = 0.412, p = 0.026, on average), that is, in women, the influence of muscle mass and fat tissue on muscle stiffness and contraction time is higher than in men. These results can be explained by the existing differences in body composition between men and women (Power & Schulkin, 2008). It can be concluded that significant correlation between lean body mass, fat mass, muscle stiffness, and the contraction time, regarding to muscle groups and measured parameters, was obtained with the main knee joint flexor muscle (r = 0.426, p = 0.025, on the average), while no statistically significant correlations were obtained with the main knee joint extensor muscle (r = 0.178, p = 0.397, on average). These results indicate that the expression of muscle stiffness and contraction time of different muscles and muscle groups does not depend on the same factors. Also, it has shown that lean and fat body mass have a more

210 UDK: 796:612.766 significant influence on muscle stiffness and tone (r = 0.440, p = 0.019, on average) than on muscle contraction time (r = 0.384, p = 0.043, on average), which is expected regarding that the parameter Dm is related to the mechanical characteristics of the muscle (Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2017; Rey et al., 2012), whereas the parameter Tc is related to the type of muscle fibers (Dahamne et al., 2005; Simunic et al., 2011). The main limitation of this study is the measured parameters of body composition. Future studies should focus on examining the correlation between TMG parameters and other body composition parameters such as subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intermuscular adipose tissue.

Conclusion

It has been shown that men and women who have higher values of dominant leg muscle mass have higher muscle stiffness and that lower extremity fat values affect muscle stiffness in men and the speed of muscle contraction when it comes to women. In general, it can be concluded that the reaction of the main knee joint flexor muscle to electrical stimulation, as measured by the tensiomyography method, depends to a certain extent on the proportion of adipose tissue and lean body mass i.e. lower extremity muscle mass.

References

1. Bankovic, V., Dopsaj, M., Terzic, Z., & Nesic, G. (2018). Descriptive Body Composition Profile in Female Olympic Volleyball Medalists Defined Using Multichannel Bioimpedance Measurement: Rio 2016 Team Case Study. International Journal of Morphology, 36(2), 699-708. 2. Calvo-Lobo, C., Díez-Vega, I., García-Mateos, M., Molina-Martín, J. J., Díaz-Ureña, G., & Rodrí- guez-Sanz, D. (2018). Relationship of the skin and subcutaneous tissue thickness in the tensiomyography response: A novel ultrasound observational study. Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira, 64(6), 549-553. 3. Dahmane, R., Djordjevič, S., Šimunič, B., & Valenčič, V. (2005). Spatial fiber type distribution in normal human muscle: histochemical and tensiomyographical evaluation. Journal of Biomechanics, 38(12), 2451-2459. 4. Dopsaj, M., Marković, M., Kasum, G., Jovanović, S., Koropanovski, N., Vuković, M., & Mudrić, M. (2017). Discrimination of different body structure indexes of elite athletes in combat sports measured by multi frequency bioimpedance method. International Journal of Morphology, 35(1), 199-207. 5. Fabok, M., Dopsaj, M., Leontijević, B., & Tomić, L. (2018). Functional – mechanical characteristics of rectus femoris and biceps femoris in the top football players measured by the tensiomyography method (TMG). In D. Suzović, N. Janković, G. Prebeg, & M. Ćosić (Eds.) Book of proceedings of international scientific conference „Effects of applying physical activity on anthropological status of children, adolescents and adults” (pp. 314-321). Belgrade, Serbia: Faculty of sport and physical education, University of Belgrade. 6. García-Manso, J. M., Rodríguez-Matoso, D., Sarmiento, S., de Saa, Y., Vaamonde, D., Rodrí- guez-Ruiz, D., & Da Silva-Grigoletto, M. E. (2012). Effect of high-load and high-volume resistance exercise on the tensiomyographic twitch response of biceps brachii. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(4), 612-619. 7. García-Manso, J. M., Rodríguez-Ruiz, D., Rodríguez-Matoso, D., de Saa, Y., Sarmiento, S., & Quiro- ga, M. (2011). Assessment of muscle fatigue after an ultra-endurance triathlon using tensiomyography (TMG). Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(6), 619-625. 8. Križaj, D., Šimunič, B., & Žagar, T. (2008). Short-term repeatability of parameters extracted from radial displacement of muscle belly. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 18(4), 645-651. 9. Macgregor, L.J., Hunter, A.M., Orizio, C., Fairweather, M.M., & Ditroilo, M. (2018). Assessment of skeletal muscle contractile properties by radial displacement: The case for tensiomyography. Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1607-1620. 10. Martín-Rodríguez, S., Loturco, I., Hunter, A.M., Rodríguez-Ruiz, D., & Munguia-Izquierdo, D. (2017). Reliability and measurement error of tensiomyography to assess mechanical muscle function: A systematic review. Jornal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(12), 3524-3526, 2017. 11. Petrofsky, J. (2008). The effect of the subcutaneous fat on the transfer of current through skin and into muscle. Medical Engineering & Physics, 30(9), 1168-1176. 12. Petrofsky, J. S., Suh, H. J., Gunda, S., Prowse, M., & Batt, J. (2008). Interrelationships between body fat and skin blood flow and the current required for electrical stimulation of human muscle. Medical Engineering & Physics, 30(7), 931-936. 13. Pomeroy, E., Macintosh, A., Wells, J. C., Cole, T. J., & Stock, J. T. (2018). Relationship between body mass, lean mass, fat mass, and limb bone cross‐sectional geometry: Implications for estimating body mass and physique from the skeleton. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 166(1), 56-69.

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14. Power, M. L., & Schulkin, J. (2008). Sex differences in fat storage, fat metabolism, and the health risks from obesity: possible evolutionary origins. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(5), 931-940. 15. Rey, E., Lago-Peñas, C., & Lago-Ballesteros, J. (2012). Tensiomyography of selected lower-limb muscles in professional soccer players. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(6), 866-872. 16. Šimunič, B. (2012). Between-day reliability of a method for non-invasive estimation of muscle composition. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(4), 527-530. 17. Šimunič, B. (2019). Two-dimensional spatial error distribution of key Tensiomyographic parameters. Journal of Biomechanics, 92, 92-97. 18. Šimunič, B., Degens, H., Rittweger, J., Narici, M., Mekjavic, I. B., & Pišot, R. (2011). Noninvasive estimation of myosin heavy chain composition in human skeletal muscle. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 43(9), 1619-1625. 19. Toskić, L., Dopsaj, M., Koropanovski, N., & Jeknić, V. (2016). The neuromechanical functional contractile properties of the thigh muscles measured using tensiomyography in male athletes and non-athletes. Physical Culture, 70(1), 34-45. 20. Toskić, L., Dopsaj, M., Stanković, V., & Marković, M. (2019). Concurrent and predictive validity of isokinetic dynamometry and tensiomyography in differently trained women and men. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 27(1), 31-39. 21. Toskić, L., Dopsaj, M., Stanković, V., Marković, M., Đurić, S., Živković, M., & Marović, I. (2017). Cor- relation between contraction time and muscle torque of the knee flexor and extensor muscles. In V. Stanković, & T. Stojanović (Eds.) Book of Proceedings of the fourth international scientific conference – Anthropological and teo-anthropological views on physical activity from the time of Constantine the Great to modern times (pp. 115-121). Kopaonik, Serbia: Faculty of sport and physical education, Uni- versity of Priština - Kosovska Mitrovica. 22. Tous-Fajardo, J., Moras, G., Rodríguez-Jiménez, S., Usach, R., Doutres, D. M., & Maffiuletti, N. A. (2010). Inter-rater reliability of muscle contractile property measurements using non-invasive tensiomyography. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 20(4), 761-766. 23. Valenčič, V., & Knez, N. (1997). Measuring of skeletal muscles’ dynamic properties. Artificial Organs, 21(3), 240-242. 24. Völgyi, E., Tylavsky, F. A., Lyytikäinen, A., Suominen, H., Alén, M., & Cheng, S. (2008). Assessing body composition with DXA and bioimpedance: effects of obesity, physical activity, and age. Obesity, 16(3), 700-705. 25. Wilson, H. V., Johnson, M. I., & Francis, P. (2018). Repeated stimulation, inter-stimulus interval and inter-electrode distance alters muscle contractile properties as measured by Tensiomyography. PloS one, 13(2), e0191965.

Note

This research was done as part of the project of the Ministry of Science of the Republic of Serbia, no III47015: Effects of applied physical activity on locomotor, metabolic, psycho-social and educational status of the school population in the Republic of Serbia.

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UTICAJ PARAMETARA TELESNOG SASTAVA DONJIH EKSTREMITETA NA TMG ODGOVOR KOD MIŠIĆA ZGLOBA KOLENA

Lazar Toskić1; Milivoj Dopsaj2; Milan Marković2 1 Univerzitet u Prištini - Kosovska Mitrovica, Fakultet za sport i fizičko vaspitanje, Leposavić, Srbija 2 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Tenziomiografija (TMG) je metoda za procenu kontraktilnih karakteristika mišića izazvanih elek- tričnom stimulacijom (Macgregor, Hunter, Orizio, Fairweather, & Ditroilo, 2018; Valenčič & Knez, 1997). Ova metoda se pokazala kao validna, pouzdana (Križaj, Šimunič, & Žagar 2008; Martín-Rodríguez, Loturco, Hunter, Rodríguez-Ruiz, & Munguia-Izquierdo, 2017; Šimunič, 2012) i ima primenu u sportskom treningu, prevenciji povreda, fizikalnoj terapiji i rehabilitaciji (Macgregor et al., 2018; Rey, Lago-Peñas, & Lago-Balles- teros, 2012; Tous-Fajardo, Moras, Rodríguez-Jiménez, Usach, Doutres, & Maffiuletti, 2010).

Kao i kod svake druge metode, validnost i pouzdanost merenja TMG-om zavisi od brojnih faktora odnosno brojni činioci utiču na reakciju mišića na električne stimulanse i parametre TMG-a. Pokazalo se da su parametri TMG-a osetljivi na zamor (Garcia Manso, Rodríguez-Ruiz, Rodríguez-Matoso, de Saa, Sarmiento, & Quiroga, 2011; Garcia Manso et al., 2012), da zavise od tipa mišićnih vlakana (Dahmane, Đorđevič, Šimunič, Valenčič, 2005; Šimunič, Degens, Rittweger, Narici, Mekjavic, & Pišot, 2011), mehaničkih karakteristika mišića (Rey et al., 2012; Tous-Fajardo et al., 2010), mišićne sile (Toskić, Dopsaj, Stanković, & Marković, 2019), načina postavljanja elektroda i senzora (Wilson, Johnson, & Francis, 2018; Šimunič, 2019) itd.

S obzirom da su određena prethodna istraživanja pokazala da odgovor mišića na električnu stimulaciju zavisi od količine potkožnog masnog tkiva (Petrofsky, 2008; Petrofsky, Suh, Gunda, Prowse, & Batt, 2008), može se pretpostaviti i da merenja TMG-om zavise i od udela masnog tkiva i drugih parametara telesnog sastava u organizmu. Nažalost, do sada nije u velikoj meri istraživana povezanost između parametara TMG-a i telesnog sastava (Calvo-Lobo, Díez-Vega, García-Mateos, Molina-Martín, Díaz-Ureña, & Rodrí- guez-Sanz, 2018; Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2017).

U skladu sa prethodno navedenim, problem ovog rada je uticaj određenih parametara telesnog sastava na mišićne kontrakcije izazvane električnom stimulacijom primenjenu metodom TMG-a. Cilj rada je da se ispita povezanost i uticaj određenih parametara telesnog sastava donjih ekstremiteta, odnosno bezmasne i masne telesne mase na TMG parametre kod mišića opružača i pregibača zgloba kolena. Može se pretpostaviti da će parametri telesnog sastava imati određeni značajan uticaj na parametre TMG-a. Na osnovu rezultata ovog istraživanja možemo dobiti saznanja o faktorima od kojih zavisi validnost i pouzdanost merenja TMG-om kao i povezanosti između parametara telesnog sastava i mehaničkih i kontraktilnih kark- teristika mišića čime se može doprineti razvoju sportske dijagnostike, sportskog treninga, fizikalne terapije i rehabilitacije i drugih oblasti koja su u vezi sa antropološkim karakteristikama čoveka.

Metode

Uzorak ispitanika je činilo 60 osoba (30 muškaraca – Uzrast = 25.3 ± 3.7 godina, TV = 180.9 ± 6.6 cm, TM = 82.3 ± 10.4 kg; i 30 žena – Uzrast = 22.5 ± 2.3 godina, TV = 169.4 ± 6.04 cm, TM = 60.7 ± 7.2 kg). Ispitanici su bile osobe iz grupe netreniranih, tj. osobe koje ne upražnjavaju svakodnevne fizičke aktivnosti i studenti Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja i Kriminalističko-policijske akademije. Svi ispitanici su bili zdravi, upoznati su sa svrhom i načinom merenja i dobrovoljno su pristali na učešće u istraživanju. Sva merenja su sprovedena u skladu sa etičkim principima Etičke komisije Fakulteta za sport i fizičko vaspitanje Univerziteta u Beogradu.

Parametri telesnog sastava su mereni pomoću bioelektrične impedance (In Body 720, Biospace Co., Ltd). Merenja telesnog sastava su izvršena prema uputstvima proizvođača i na osnovu prethodnih sličnih istraživanja (Bankovic, Dopsaj, Terzic, & Nesic, 2018; Dopsaj et al., 2017; Völgyi, Tylavsky, Lyytikäin- en, Suominen, Alén, & Cheng, 2008). Testiranja su izvršena u jutarnjim časovima i temperatura u sobi gde su izvršena testiranja je bila između 20 i 25 stepeni. Procedura koju si ispitanici morali da ispoštuju pre testiranja je: • ispitanici nisu unosili hranu najmanje 2 sata pre merenja; • ispitanici nisu upražnjavali fizičke aktivnosti 12 sati pre merenja;

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• ispitanici nisu konzumirali alkohol 48 sati pre merenja; • ispitanici nisu konzumirali diuretike (kafa, čokolada) 24 sati pre merenja; • ispitanici nisu koristili saunu pre merenja; • ispitanici su izvršili fiziološke potrebe pre merenja.

Ispitanici su proveli 5 minuta u stojećem stavu pre merenja. Za vreme testiranja ispitanici su bili samo u donjem vešu i od njih je zahtevano da skinu sav metal sa sebe ako ga imaju. Pre testiranja su svi ispitanici upoznati sa načinom merenja. Od ispitanika je pre svega zatraženo da stanu na vagu i da postave ruke i noge na kontaktne površine. Za vreme merenja od ispitanika je zatraženo da stanu uspravno, da budu mirni i opušteni odnosno da ne stežu ruke, noge i trup, da gledaju napred, dišu normalno i ne pričaju. Merenja su trajala oko dva minuta.

Metodom TMG-a (TMG-BMC Ltd, Ljubljana) su mereni parametri glavnih mišića opružača i preg- ibača zgloba kolena dominantne noge; rektus femoris (RF) i biceps femoris (BF). Ispitanici su ležali u relak- siranom položaju na leđima ili stomaku, u zavisnosti od merenih mišića (Rey et al., 2012; Toskić, Dopsaj, Koropanovski, & Jeknić, 2016; Toskić et al., 2017; 2019). Ugao između potkolenice i natkolenice je bio oko 120˚. Od ispitanika je, pre postavljanja elektroda, zatraženo da izvrše voljnu kontrakciju kako bi se metodom palpacije odredio željeni mišić (Toskić et al., 2016; 2017; 2019). Nakon određivanja, na središnji deo mišića su postavljene dve samolepljive elektrode koje emituju električni impuls, proksimalno i distalno, na razmaku od oko 5 cm od željene pozicije za merenje (Slika 1).

Između elektroda je postavljan senzor koji detektuje promene u trbuhu mišića izazvanih električnim stimulansom i na osnovu kojih dobijamo podatke o kontraktilnim karakteristikama mišića. Senzor se postavl- jao u odnosu na pravac pružanja vlakana i njihovo pozicioniranje (Fabok, Dopsaj, Leontijević, & Tomić, 2018). Električni impuls je ostvarivan pomoću elktrostimulatora, bio je trajanja od 1 ms, i početni impuls je bio intenziteta 25 mA, sa povećavanjem intenziteta za 20 mA do maksimuma, odnosno dok reakcija mišića na povećanje amplitude nije više moguća (Toskić et al., 2016; 2017; 2019). Maksimalna amplituda se kretala od 80 do 110 mA. Pauza između impulsa je bila oko 5 s, kako bi mišić bio u stanju da se relaksira. Dva najbolja rezultata su sačuvana, i na osnovu njih je izračunat prosek.

Slika 1. Način postavljanja elektroda i senzora

Sva merenja su izvršena u istim uslovima, ispitanici su bili zdravi, odmorni i ispoštovali su procedure pre merenja koje su od njih zahtevane. Sva merenja su izvršena od strane istih iskusnih merilaca u Metodološko-istraživačkoj laboratoriji Fakulteta sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu.

Uzorak varijabli je činilo 2 varijable za procenu telesnog sastava i 4 varijable za procenu kontraktilnih karakteristika mišića: • bezmasna telesna masa dominantne noge – LBM (kg); • masna telesna masa dominantne noge – FM (kg); • vreme kontrakcije mišića rektus femoris – Tc (ms); • vreme kontrakcije mišića biceps femoris – Tc (ms);

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• maksimalno vertikalno pomeranje mišića rektus femoris – Dm (mm); • maksimalno vertikalno pomeranje mišića biceps femoris – Dm (mm).

Od statističkih procedura, u radu je primenjena deskriptivna statistika (Mean, SD, cV, Min, Max) kako bi se opisale merene varijable, izračunat je Pirsonov koeficijent korelacije i primenjena je linearna re- gresiona analiza kako bi se utvrdila povezanost i uticaj parametara telesnog sastava na TMG parametre. Sva statistička procedura je sprovedena u programu SPSS19 (IBM).

Rezultati

Na Tabeli 1 su prikazani deskritpivni pokazatelji parametara telesnog sastava i TMG parametara. Može se uočiti da muškarci imaju veće vrednosti LBM (za 40.5 %), manje verednosti FM (za 15.7 %) duže Tc mišića RF (za 8.08 %), kraće Tc mišića BF (za 17.2 %), veće Dm mišića RF (za 8.8 %) i manje Dm mišića BF (za 30.6 %) od žena. Takođe, može se uvideti da glavni mišić opružač zgloba kolena ima manje vrednosti Tc i Dm (za 16.3 %, za 3.09 %, respektivno) od glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena. Na osnovu vrednosti koeficijenta varijacije (cV) može se zaključiti da ova grupa ispitanika ima smanjenu homogenost kada su u pitanju parametri FM (cV = 33.4 %), RF Dm (cV = 35.05 %) i BF Dm (cV = 38.6 %).

Tabela 1. Deskriptivni pokazatelji telesnog sastava i TMG parametara

Mean SD cV Min Max LBM (kg) 10.4 1.2 12.2 8.6 12.7 FM (kg) 1.9 0.8 45.03 0.8 4.2 RFtc (ms) 32.1 5.5 17.2 23.3 46.7 Muškarci RFdm (mm) 5.89 2.11 35.8 1.47 9.31 BFtc (ms) 33.1 9.1 27.6 14.9 47.5 BFdm (mm) 5.05 2.13 42.3 0.06 9.74 LBM (kg) 7.4 0.9 12.5 5.8 9.1 FM (kg) 2.2 0.4 21.9 1.3 3.4 RFtc (ms) 29.7 5.2 17.6 20.1 39.9 Žene RFdm (mm) 5.41 1.85 34.3 1.36 9.61 BFtc (ms) 38.8 8.7 22.5 22.8 57.9 BFdm (mm) 6.60 2.30 34.9 1.51 10.63

Na Tabeli 2 i Grafikonima 1, 2, 3 i 4 su prikazani rezultati korelacione i regresione analize odnosno povezanosti i uticaja parametara telesnog sastava na TMG parametare. Može se zaključiti da postoji statis- tički značajna povezanost i uticaj parametara LBM na parametar Dm mišića BF kod muškaraca i žena (r = - 0.377, R² = 0.142, R² adj. = 0.112, p = 0.039; r = - 0.498, R² = 0.248, R² adj. = 0.219, p = 0.007, respektivno) parametra FM na Dm mišića BF kod muškaraca (p = - 0.447, R² = 0.200, R² adj. = 0.171, p = 0.013) kao i na Tc mišića BF kod žena (r = 0.384, R² = 0.148, R² adj. = 0.115, p = 0.043).

Tabela 2. Povezanost između telesnog sastava i TMG parametara

RFtc RFdm BFtc BFdm r 0.083 - 0.239 - 0.075 - 0.377* LBM p 0.659 0.201 0.693 0.039 Muškarci r - 0.284 - 0.232 - 0.131 -0.447* FM p 0.127 0.215 0.487 0.013 r 0.020 - 0.271 0.067 - 0.498** LBM p 0.916 0.161 0.732 0.007 Žene r 0.146 - 0.152 0.384* - 0.249 FM p 0.458 0.439 0.043 0.200

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Grafikon 1. Uticaj bezmasne telesne mase dominantne noge (LBM) na maksimalno vertikalno pomeranje (Dm) mišića biceps femoris (BF) kod muškaraca

Grafikon 2. Uticaj bezmasne telesne mase dominantne noge (LBM) na maksimalno vertikalno pomeranje (Dm) mišića biceps femoris (BF) kod žena

Grafikon 3. Uticaj masne telesne mase dominantne noge (FM) na maksimalno vertikalno pomeranje (Dm) mišića biceps

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Grafikon 4. Uticaj masne telesne mase dominantne noge (FM) na vreme kontrakcije (Tc) mišića biceps femoris (BF) kod žena

Diskusija

U ovom radu na uzorku od 60 ispitanika oba pola, ispitivan je uticaj parametara telesnog sastava donjih ekstremiteta na TMG odgovor kod mišića opružača i pregibača zgloba kolena. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata može se zaključiti da bezmasna telesna masa i masna telesna masa dominantne noge imaju značajan uticaj na TMG parametre glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata može se zaključiti da bezmasna telesna masa i masna telesna masa dominantne noge imaju značajan uticaj na TMG parametre glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena. S obzirom da veći deo bezmasne telesne mase donjih ekstremiteta čine mišići (Pomeroy, Macintosh, Wells, Cole, & Stock, 2018), kao i da je povezanost negativna, može se zaključiti da mišićna masa ima negativnu povezanost sa mišinom krutošću odnosno tonusom, što se pokazalo da parametar Dm procenjuje (Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2017, Rey et al., 2012). Ovaj podatak ukazuje na činjenicu da pojedinci koji imaju veću mišićnu masu imaju i kruće mišiće, odnosno da pojedinci sa manjom mišićnom masom imaju manji mišićni tonus, kao i da povećanje u mišićnoj masi dovodi do povećanja krutosti i tonusa mišića i obratno. Kod muškaraca je takođe dobijena značajna negativna povezanost između masne telesne mase dominantne noge i mišićne krutosti, odnosno pojedinci sa većom količinom masnog tkiva donjih ekstremiteta imaju veći tonus i krutost glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena. Kod žena se pokazalo da količina masnog tkiva nogu ima značajan uticaj na vreme potrebno da se mišić kontrahuje pod uticajem električne stimulacije, odnosno pokazalo se da osobe sa većim vrednostima segmentarnog masnog tkiva imaju sporije mišićne kontrakcije, kao i da povećanje masnog tkiva dovodi do smanjenja brzine kontrakcije. Ovi rezultati su donekle očekivani. Prethodna istraživanja su pokazala da postoji povezanost između mišićne mase i mišićne krutosti (Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2017, Rey et al., 2012), pa je povezanost između bezmasne telesne mase dominantne noge i maksimalnog vertikalnog pomeranja mišića jasna i očekivana. Sa druge strane, negativna povezanost između masnog tkiva i mišićne krutosti je donekle neočekivana, s obzirom da se pokazalo da mišićna krutost merena metodom TMG-a raste do određene mere sa upražnjavanjem fizičkih aktivnosti (Toskić et al., 2016; 2019), pa se može pretpostaviti da pojedinci koji upražnjavaju fizičke aktivnosti imaju kruće mišiće, ali i manje vrednosti masnog tkiva. Ovi rezultati se mogu pripisati uticaju masnog tkiva na mišićnu kontrakciju izazvanu električnom stimulacijom. Naime, kao što je prethodno pomenuto, pokazalo se da količina potkožnog masnog tkiva ima značajan uticaj na mišićne kontrakcije izazvane električnom stimulacijom, odnosno na sprovođenje struje (Petrofsky, 2008; Petrofsky et al., 2008). Može se pretpostaviti da i kod merenja metodom TMG-a veća količina masnog tkiva utiče na provodljivost struje do mišića, pa je samim tim reakcija mišića na električnu struju manja. Na kraju, rezultati ovog istraživanja su pokazali da manje vrednosti masnog tkiva donjih ekstremiteta dovode do bržih kontrakcija glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena, što je donekle bila nepoznanica. Povezanost između parametara telesnog sastava i TMG parametra je nešto veća kod žena (r = 0.441, p = 0.025, u proseku) nego kod muškaraca (r = 0.412, p = 0.026, u proseku), odnosno kod žena je uticaj mišićne mase i masnog tkiva na mišićnu krutost i brzinu kontrakcije veća nego kod muškaraca. Može se pretpostaviti da su posledica ovih rezultata postojeće razlike u telesnom sastavu između muškaraca i žena (Power & Schulkin, 2008). Kada je u pitanju povezanost između bezmasne telesne mase, masne telesne mase, mišićne krutosti i brzine mišićne kontrakcije u odnosu na mišićne grupe i merene parametre, može se zaključiti da je značajna povezanost dobijena samo kod glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena (r = 0.426, p = 0.025, u proseku), dok kod glavnog mišića opružača kolena nisu dobijene statistički značajne korelacije (r = 0.178, p = 0.397, u proseku). Ovi rezultati nam ukazuju na činjenicu da ispoljavanje mišićne krutosti i brzine kontrakcije različitih mišića i mišićnih grupa ne zavisi od istih faktora. Takođe, pokazalo se da bezmasna i

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masna telesna masa imaju veći uticaj na mišićnu krutost i tonus (r = 0.440, p = 0.019, u proseku) nego na brzinu mišićne kontrakcije (r = 0.384, p = 0.043, u proseku), što je i očekivano s obzorom da se pokazalo da parametar Dm ima povezanost sa mehaničkim karakteristikama mišića (Macgregor et al., 2018; Martín-Ro- dríguez et al., 2017, Rey et al., 2012), dok je prametar Tc povezan sa tipom mišićnih vlakana (Dahamne et al., 2005; Šimunič et al., 2011). Glavno ograničenje ovog istraživanja jesu mereni parametri telesnog sastava. Buduća istraživanja bi se trebala fokusirati na ispitivanje povezanost između parametara TMG-a i drugih parametara telesnog sastava poput potkožnog, intramuskularno i intermuskularnog masnog tkiva.

Zaključak

Pokazalo se da muškarci i žene koji imaju veće vrednosti mišićne mase dominantne noge imaju kruće mišiće kao i da vrednosti masnog tkiva donjih ekstremiteta utiču na mišićnu krutost kod muškaraca odnosno brzinu mišićne kontrakcije kada su pitanju žene. Generalno se može zaključiti da reakcija glavnog mišića pregibača zgloba kolena na električnu stimulaciju pimenjenu metodom tenziomiografije do određene mere zavisi od udela masnog tkiva i bezmasne telesne mase odnosno mišićne mase donjih ekstremiteta.

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1. Bankovic, V., Dopsaj, M., Terzic, Z., & Nesic, G. (2018). Descriptive Body Composition Profile in Female Olympic Volleyball Medalists Defined Using Multichannel Bioimpedance Measurement: Rio 2016 Team Case Study. International Journal of Morphology, 36(2), 699-708. 2. Calvo-Lobo, C., Díez-Vega, I., García-Mateos, M., Molina-Martín, J. J., Díaz-Ureña, G., & Rodrí- guez-Sanz, D. (2018). Relationship of the skin and subcutaneous tissue thickness in the tensiomyography response: A novel ultrasound observational study. Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira, 64(6), 549-553. 3. Dahmane, R., Djordjevič, S., Šimunič, B., & Valenčič, V. (2005). Spatial fiber type distribution in normal human muscle: histochemical and tensiomyographical evaluation. Journal of Biomechanics, 38(12), 2451-2459. 4. Dopsaj, M., Marković, M., Kasum, G., Jovanović, S., Koropanovski, N., Vuković, M., & Mudrić, M. (2017). Discrimination of different body structure indexes of elite athletes in combat sports measured by multi frequency bioimpedance method. International Journal of Morphology, 35(1), 199-207. 5. Fabok, M., Dopsaj, M., Leontijević, B., & Tomić, L. (2018). Functional – mechanical characteristics of rectus femoris and biceps femoris in the top football players measured by the tensiomyography method (TMG). In D. Suzović, N. Janković, G. Prebeg, & M. Ćosić (Eds.) Book of proceedings of international scientific conference „Effects of applying physical activity on anthropological status of children, adolescents and adults” (pp. 314-321). Belgrade, Serbia: Faculty of sport and physical education, University of Belgrade. 6. García-Manso, J. M., Rodríguez-Matoso, D., Sarmiento, S., de Saa, Y., Vaamonde, D., Rodrí- guez-Ruiz, D., & Da Silva-Grigoletto, M. E. (2012). Effect of high-load and high-volume resistance exercise on the tensiomyographic twitch response of biceps brachii. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(4), 612-619. 7. García-Manso, J. M., Rodríguez-Ruiz, D., Rodríguez-Matoso, D., de Saa, Y., Sarmiento, S., & Quiro- ga, M. (2011). Assessment of muscle fatigue after an ultra-endurance triathlon using tensiomyography (TMG). Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(6), 619-625. 8. Križaj, D., Šimunič, B., & Žagar, T. (2008). Short-term repeatability of parameters extracted from radial displacement of muscle belly. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 18(4), 645-651. 9. Macgregor, L.J., Hunter, A.M., Orizio, C., Fairweather, M.M., & Ditroilo, M. (2018). Assessment of skeletal muscle contractile properties by radial displacement: The case for tensiomyography. Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1607-1620. 10. Martín-Rodríguez, S., Loturco, I., Hunter, A.M., Rodríguez-Ruiz, D., & Munguia-Izquierdo, D. (2017). Reliability and measurement error of tensiomyography to assess mechanical muscle function: A systematic review. Jornal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(12), 3524-3526, 2017. 11. Petrofsky, J. (2008). The effect of the subcutaneous fat on the transfer of current through skin and into muscle. Medical Engineering & Physics, 30(9), 1168-1176. 12. Petrofsky, J. S., Suh, H. J., Gunda, S., Prowse, M., & Batt, J. (2008). Interrelationships between body fat and skin blood flow and the current required for electrical stimulation of human muscle. Medical Engineering & Physics, 30(7), 931-936. 13. Pomeroy, E., Macintosh, A., Wells, J. C., Cole, T. J., & Stock, J. T. (2018). Relationship between body mass, lean mass, fat mass, and limb bone cross‐sectional geometry: Implications for estimating body mass and physique from the skeleton. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 166(1), 56-69.

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14. Power, M. L., & Schulkin, J. (2008). Sex differences in fat storage, fat metabolism, and the health risks from obesity: possible evolutionary origins. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(5), 931-940. 15. Rey, E., Lago-Peñas, C., & Lago-Ballesteros, J. (2012). Tensiomyography of selected lower-limb muscles in professional soccer players. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(6), 866- 872. 16. Šimunič, B. (2012). Between-day reliability of a method for non-invasive estimation of muscle composition. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(4), 527-530. 17. Šimunič, B. (2019). Two-dimensional spatial error distribution of key Tensiomyographic parameters. Journal of Biomechanics, 92, 92-97. 18. Šimunič, B., Degens, H., Rittweger, J., Narici, M., Mekjavic, I. B., & Pišot, R. (2011). Noninvasive estimation of myosin heavy chain composition in human skeletal muscle. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 43(9), 1619-1625. 19. Toskić, L., Dopsaj, M., Koropanovski, N., & Jeknić, V. (2016). The neuromechanical functional contractile properties of the thigh muscles measured using tensiomyography in male athletes and non-athletes. Physical Culture, 70(1), 34-45. 20. Toskić, L., Dopsaj, M., Stanković, V., & Marković, M. (2019). Concurrent and predictive validity of isokinetic dynamometry and tensiomyography in differently trained women and men. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 27(1), 31-39. 21. Toskić, L., Dopsaj, M., Stanković, V., Marković, M., Đurić, S., Živković, M., & Marović, I. (2017). Cor- relation between contraction time and muscle torque of the knee flexor and extensor muscles. In V. Stanković, & T. Stojanović (Eds.) Book of Proceedings of the fourth international scientific conference – Anthropological and teo-anthropological views on physical activity from the time of Constantine the Great to modern times (pp. 115-121). Kopaonik, Serbia: Faculty of sport and physical education, University of Priština - Kosovska Mitrovica. 22. Tous-Fajardo, J., Moras, G., Rodríguez-Jiménez, S., Usach, R., Doutres, D. M., & Maffiuletti, N. A. (2010). Inter-rater reliability of muscle contractile property measurements using non-invasive tensiomyography. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 20(4), 761-766. 23. Valenčič, V., & Knez, N. (1997). Measuring of skeletal muscles’ dynamic properties. Artificial Organs, 21(3), 240-242. 24. Völgyi, E., Tylavsky, F. A., Lyytikäinen, A., Suominen, H., Alén, M., & Cheng, S. (2008). Assessing body composition with DXA and bioimpedance: effects of obesity, physical activity, and age. Obesity, 16(3), 700-705. 25. Wilson, H. V., Johnson, M. I., & Francis, P. (2018). Repeated stimulation, inter-stimulus interval and inter-electrode distance alters muscle contractile properties as measured by Tensiomyography. PloS one, 13(2), e0191965.

Napomena

Ovo istraživanje je urađeno kao deo projekta Ministarstva nauke Republike Srbije, br. III47015: Efekti primenjene fizičke aktivnosti na lokomotorni, metabolički, psiho-socijalni i vaspitni status populacije Republike Srbije.

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THERAGUN AS A RECOVERY TOOL IN RECREATIONAL EXERCISE

Marko Ćosić; Nenad Baša; Stanimir Stojiljković; Goran Prebeg University of Belgrade - Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

The past 50 years have seen the intensive pursuit of a physical activity model designed to meet the needs of modern man in today’s society (Prebeg, 2011). Fitness philosophy, a healthy lifestyle and regular exercise are at the core of current trends and habits among the general public, accompanied by a growing demand for applicable expert knowledge (Stojiljković, 2012). The recovery phase is a required segment of the exercise process implying the use of various tools, requisites and devices. An increasing number of sports and fitness centres engaged in devising suitable beginner programmes have begun to include elements that contribute to faster recovery in the broadest sense of the word. As far as requisites and equipment for recovery are concerned, the trend has placed more demands on sports and training equipment manufacturers. From year to year, ever more effective and efficient solutions are discovered for the prevention and healing of injuries acquired as a consequence of inappropriate physical activity. A sizeable body of research (Behm, 2011; Kim, 2014; Veqar, 2014; Pournot, 2016) points to the results and effects achieved by these devices. Unlike active and pro-active recovery, massage is a passive method of recovery (Kellmann, 2002). The Theragun is an electric massage device which may be classed as a medicinal or physical recovery tool. This paper intends to present a theoretical review of the Theragun as an efficient tool in the recovery process, followed by a description of its basic principles and effects, including any limitations and adverse effects arising from its use.

Term of recovery

Recovery plays a crucial role in the exercise process in sports and fitness alike, restoring the player or athlete’s ability its initial level. For the purposes of this article, recovery may be regarded as a regenera- tion process, primarily related to the physiological aspect of recovery, while “monitoring” fatigue arising from training or competition. It includes baths, massages, sleep and e.t.c. (Kellmann, Beckmann, 2018). Recovery takes place in two phases: the first is that of functional change and refers to the early period, leading to a relatively speedy restoration of homeostasis; in the second phase, significant functional and structural changes occur in the organs and tissues as a result of adaptation. The outward manifestation of this adjustment is an increase in physical performance, impact, and in the results of exercise or sports. These changes are more lasting, but are reversible if not maintained by exercise (Koprivica, 2013). Besides professional sport where recovery plays a key role in the preparation of athletes, there is growing recognition of its importance in the field of fitness. There is an increasing tendency on the part of those who exercise recreationally to increase their training load as a consequence of emerging competitions in recreational sport. As an effort to improve competitive performance, intensity of the training is often drastically increased in intensity, but even more so in scope, i.e. the number of daily, weekly and monthly training hours, which in many cases leads to stress, and traumatisation of the muscle tissue and sometimes to injury. In fitness, recovery plays a leading preventive role, something which the fitness industry has recently begun to recognise. Professionals engaged in the training of recreational, and amateur athletes are paying more attention to finding new recovery tools which will contribute to accelerating these processes. The speed of recovery varies. Research has shown that in the first third of the period it occurs about 60%, with 30% in the second third, which is of great importance for training practice, particularly when planning, and programming the elements which comprise the microstructure of athletic coaching (Koprivica, 2013). However, even if recovery is viewed as a multifaceted (physiological, and psychological), time-dependent process of restoring homeostasis (Kellmann et al. 2018), it is certainly possible to shorten it by applying certain procedures. The use of the Theragun device is undoubtedly one of these.

The THERAGUN

The Theragun is a hand-held electrical device intended primarily for athletes, and amateurs but which may be used by anyone engaging in physical exercise or complaining of conditions of the type that arise after exercising. It is applied by therapists, and other sports professionals, by coaches, and the users themselves, which would indicate a broad range of consumers. The manufacturer’s web page describes it is as a self-massage device, which indicates that it is intended for individual use, although there are versions intended for use by trained professionals. The tool falls within the category of electric massagers, and operates on replaceable batteries. The first Theragun was manufactured in 2009 and was designed by Dr Jason Wersland (www.theragun.com)

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Technical Description

Unlike similar devices, the basic characteristic of the Theragun is that the head has a working amplitude of 16 mm (except for the mini model which is 12 mm). Depending on the pressure applied, this provides a percussive effect in addition to vibration. There are four models of the 4th, and last generation of these devices. Teble 1 gives the technical details.

Table 1. Specifications (www.theragun.com)

Head position, Speed Dimension Weight Model number of attach- Other (rpm) (cm) (kg) ments PRO 1750, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2400 25,5x18x7,6 1,3 4 sa 6 att OLED, Force Meter i Smart app Elite 1750, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2400 24x17x7,4 1 Fixed 5 att OLED, Force Meter i Smart app Prime 1750, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2400 22,5x16x7,3 1 Fixed 4 att Smart app Mini 1750, 2100, 2400 15,2x13,5x7,7 0,65 Fixed 1 att

Legend: rpm (revolutions per minute), LED (organic light-emitting diode)

The main part of the massager is the gearbox which contains the micro-motors and all electro-technical support to the mechanism; then comes the handle which the user grips during use, and the functional part of the device which has a fixed and mobile part. Both are connected by a narrow profile metal piston which transfers movement from the electric motor to the mobile part. The mobile part has an adapter holding the extensions which come into direct contact with the tissue being treated. The device has a rechargeable battery whose duration depends on the model, the amount of pressure applied to the tissue, and the way in which the device is used. Picture 1 shows the PRO model of the last Theragun generation.

Picture 1. PRO model of the Theragun device (www.theragun.com/eu/en-fr/pro-eu.html)

Each new generation of the device brought certain innovations. The number of extensions varies from model to model, and in the PRO model of the last generation they come in six different shapes. These are: • super soft – for vibration therapy and tender or bony areas; • dampener – for the whole body, especially delicate areas and around bones; • standard ball – the most frequently used, for small and large muscle groups; • wedge – for shoulder blades and IT bands, flushing out lactic acid; • thumb – for sore spots, trigger points and the lower back; • cone – for pinpoint and/or deep impact on the muscles, hands and feet.

All extensions, with the exception of the super-soft, are made of closed-cell foam which makes for easy hygienic maintenance. The shapes are selected depending mainly on the surface, or body part being treated, i.e. size and type of the muscle group, and the purpose of treatment. The guiding principle for the extensions is size. A large-dimension extension is intended for treatment of large muscle groups, those with less sensitivity or greater tolerance to vibration from multiple percussive impact by the mobile part of the device, while the smaller extensions are primarily intended for smaller muscle groups which require a more pinpoint approach. The softness or hardness of the extensions reflects the sensitivity of the tissue being treated. Narrow profile extensions that come in contact with the tissue are intended for a more intensive impact, and for parts of the body requiring pinpoint accuracy.

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The more advanced 4th generation models (PRO and Elite) feature a pressure dial, while in the PRO model (the latest and the previous G3 and G2 generations) the mobile part of the device can rotate into four different positions or angles. Certain angles enable self-massage of the more inaccessible parts of the body which makes the tool very practical. The mobile part can deliver from 1750 to 2400 percussions per minute (more advanced models offer a choice of any frequency in the given range), i.e. a frequency of 40Hz.

Application of the Theragun

The difference between percussive, and vibration therapy lies in the 60% greater depth reached by percussive therapy; this is the base line for its use and for the effects the device provides (www.theragun. com). The same source also states that the benefits of percussive therapy include increased blood circulation, faster warm-up, reduction of inflammation, and a contribution to better sleep. In this context, we may assume that as a result of these benefits, conditions are also created for improvement in various other capacities. Although the device is widely available, there are few academic articles reporting personal research. Guzman et al., 2020, observes that the implementation of Theragun in a duration of 5 minutes leads to significant changes in the range of mobility in the hip, and knee joints compared to merely passive rest. The authors explain the changes by citing neural manipulation, and acute changes in muscle tone. Further, the use of the Theragun device acutely affects circulation in the skeletal muscles (Blanchet et al., 2020). Oth- er research into similar therapeutic methods have shown that recovery by mechanical vibration contributes to reducing soreness, and the concentration of lactate dehydrogenase 48 hours after the physical activity (Imtiyaz et al., 2014), and that the positive effects of such therapy are reflected in an enhanced range of motion (Sands et al., 2006). However, although the most frequent use of the Theragun is after a training session, it can also be used beforehand or even during training to increase range of movement, and circulation or to reduce muscle tone. The mechanism by which the device acts on the tissue is the percussive vibration system delivered by the mobile part of the device. The high frequency also acts on the deep layers of soft tissue, enabling the muscles to contract and relax quickly, thus improving circulation. This in turn ensures a surplus of oxygen, and nutritive substances in the tissue. Deep massage also contributes to the recovery of targeted abnormalities deep in the muscles, and fascia (Pournot, 2016). The great popularity of this device is based on simplicity of use in all workout regimes. For the correct use of the device, we must define three parameters: • pressure – tenderness, and size of the muscle group, subjective feeling of the person exercising • direction – the extension of the fibres of the treated muscle, and • duration – less than 10 seconds activation, 30 seconds warm-up and preparation, up to 2 minutes for recovery.

Pressure

The user begins treatment of the soft tissue or muscles by applying the appropriate extension to the target area. Once contact is established, treatment begins with slow, light movement across the zone, gradually increasing pressure. There are several guidelines for the amount of the pressure that should be used: sensitivity of the muscle group to vibration, its size, current tension of the muscle group, subjective sensation on the part of the user, and any history of injuries to that part of the soft tissue. In the case of inflammatory processes in the muscles, it is possible to carry out the treatment over those muscle groups with a foam extension while exerting considerably less pressure.

Direction

Movement should be in the direction of the extension of the muscle fibres and be distributed so that vibration and percussion do not impact directly on the bone, due to the immediate proximity of the percussive system. It is recommended to move in the direction of the flow of venous blood, but as yet there is no evidence of damage occurring from movement in the opposite direction.

Duration

The time frame for carrying out the treatment has been defined by the manufacturer, who states that the main objective of use of the requisite is based on defining the time required. The tool is moved slowly, about 2.5cm per second. If the goal is to prepare or warm up a muscle group for a workout or training session, 30 seconds of treatment on the muscle group is quite sufficient; recovery in the concluding phase of the training, or between training segments when about to move on to another set of exercises, requires up to 2 minutes of treatment.

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Adverse effects

Apart from the adverse effects of too much pressure when using the device, there are no limitations to its use, except of course where manual massage is contraindicated. In this sense, the use of the Theragun device (and other devices operating on a similar principle) should be restricted or avoided in cases of trauma, bone fractures, torn ligaments, major muscle strain, joint dislocation, osteoporosis, serious cases of varicose veins, hypertension, and the like. The manufacturer states that the tool must not be applied to certain parts of the body, specifically the Adam’s apple and C4 (the neck), the genital area, the head, or in the case of open wounds, fractures and other situations when massage is inappropriate. Pregnant women are advised to consult a doctor prior to using the device.

Conclusion

Increasing the intensity and volume of training with amateurs can lead to stress, muscle trauma, and injury. In recent times, recovery has played a leading preventive part in the field of fitness. Passive methods of recovery may be implemented by the use of medical or physical recovery tools in the form of electric massage devices. The use of Theragun devices has brought many changes to management of the recovery phase in the fitness industry, and they are becoming increasingly widespread. Theragun, and the percussive massage therapy it employs have proven its effectiveness in improving circulation, and range of movement, breaking up internal scar tissue, and enhancing muscle tone. The leading feature of the Theragun is a head with a working amplitude of 16 mm and 2,400 percussions per minute, which, depending on the amount of pressure, provides a percussive effect that achieves the benefits mentioned above. In order to use the device correctly, an extension must be selected that is suitable in form, and degree of hardness for the area of treatment with which it comes in contact. The amount of pressure must then be defined, together with its duration. On the other hand, there are few limitations for use of the tool, apart from situations where manual massage is contraindicated, and certain parts of the body. For these reasons, despite a dearth of academic research papers citing practical experiment with the Theragun (existing articles mainly relate to percussion or vibration therapy), the device is recommended to all who exercise, to athletes and amateurs in the recovery phase, when preparing for physical activity and also for active breaks between exercise sessions when the objective is to relax activated muscles.

References

1. Behm, D. G., & Chaouachi, A. (2011). A review of the acute effects of static and dynamic stretching on performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(11), 2633-2651 2. Blanchet, A.L., Guzman, S., Cook, L., Herrera, S., McCauley, M., Pritchard, W., Mentor: dr. JO, E. (2020). Acute Skeletal Muscle Hemodynamic Response to a Single Percussive Therapy Application. Kellogg Honors College Capstone Project, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Dept. of Kinesiology & Health Promotion, Human Performance Research Lab. (https://www.cpp.edu/~hon- orscollege/documents/convocation/Convocation2020Program.pdf) 3. Guzman, S., Blanchet, A.D., Cook, L., Herrera, S., McCauley, M.,Pritchard, W., Mentor: dr. JO, E. (2020). Effects of a Single Percussive Therapy Application on Passive Lower Body Range of Motion. Kellogg Honors College Capstone Project, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Dept. of Kinesiology & Health Promotion, Human Performance Research Lab. (https://www.cpp.edu/~hon- orscollege/documents/convocation/Convocation2020Program.pdf) 4. Imtiyaz, S., Veqar, Z., & Shareef, M. Y. (2014). To compare the effect of vibration therapy and massage in prevention of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR, 8(1), 133. 5. Kellmann M, ed.Enhancing Recovery: Preventing Underperfor-mance in Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2002. 6. Kellmann M, and Beckmann J, eds.Sport, Recovery and Performance:Interdisciplinary Insights. Abingdon, UK: Routledge; 2018. 7. Kellmann, M., Bertollo, M., Bosquet, L., Brink, M., Coutts, A. J., Duffield, R., ... & Kallus, K. W. (2018). Recovery and performance in sport: consensus statement. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 13(2), 240- 245. 8. Kim, K., Park, S., Goo, B. O., & Choi, S. C. (2014). Effect of Self-myofascial Release on Reduction of Physical Stress: A Pilot Study. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 26(11), 1779. 9. Koprivica, V. (2013). Teorija sportskog treninga, prvi deo. SIA, Beograd 10. Pournot, H. et all (2016). The Acute Effect of Local Vibration As a Recovery Modality from Exercise-In- duced Increased Muscle Stiffness. J Sports Sci Med. 15(1):142–147. 11. Prebeg, G., Stojiljković, S. (2011). Teretana na otvorenom kao model saradnje lokalne samouprave i Fakulteta. Zbornik sažetaka,Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja.

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12. Sands, W. A., McNeal, J. R., Stone, M. H., Russell, E. M., & Jemni, M. O. N. E. M. (2006). Flexibil- ity enhancement with vibration: Acute and long-term. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 38(4), 720. 13. Stojiljković, S. i sar. (2012). Personalni fitnes. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 14. Weerapong, P., & Kolt, G. S. (2005). The mechanisms of massage and effects on performance, muscle recovery and injury prevention. Sports Medicine, 35(3), 235-256. 15. Veqar Z, Imtiyaz S. (2014) Vibration Therapy in Management of Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS). J Clin Diagn Res. 8(6):LE01–LE4. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2014/7323.4434 16. www.theragun.com

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“THERAGUN” KAO SREDSTVO OPORAVKA U REKREATIVNOM VEŽBANJU

Marko Ćosić; Nenad Baša; Stanimir Stojiljković; Goran Prebeg Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

U poslednjih pola veka intenzivno se traga za pravim modelom bavljenja fizičkim aktivnostima koji će zadovoljiti potrebe savremenog čoveka u savremenom društvu (Prebeg, 2011). Fitnes filozofija, zdravi stilovi života i redovno vežbanje čine sastavni deo trendova i navika među populacijom, a samim tim stručno aplikativna znanja u ovim oblastima postaju sve popularnija (Stojiljković, 2012). Neizostavan deo procesa vežbanja jeste i faza oporavka, u kojoj se primenjuju različita sredstva, rekviziti i uređaji. Sve je veći broj sportskih i fitnes centara koji baveći se programiranjem adekvatnih programa fizičke aktivnosti za svoje polaznike dodaju u ponudu i sadržaje koji doprinose bržem oporavku vežbača u najširem smislu te reči. Ovakve tendencije su proizvođačima sportskih i trenažnih rekvizita zadale veće zahteve kada su rekviziti i uređaji za oporavak u pitanju. Iz godine u godinu iznalaze se nova rešenja koja donose novu dozu delotvornosti i efikasnosti u prevenciji i sanaciji povreda zadobijenih kao posledica neadekvatne fizičke aktivnosti. Veliki broj istraživanja (Behm, 2011; Kim, 2014; Veqar, 2014; Pournot, 2016) ukazuje na rezultate i efekte koje rekviziti i uređaji za oporavak donose. Za razliku od aktivnog i proaktivnog oporavka, masaža spada u pasivne metode oporavka (Kellmann, 2002). Konkretno, Theragun je elektromasažni uređaj koji se može svrstati u medicinska, odnosno fizička sredstva oporavka. Cilj ovog rada je teorijski prikaz Theragun uređaja kao efikasnog sredstva u procesu oporavka, zatim prikaz osnovnih principa i efekata primene, kao i ograničenja i neželjenih efekata prilikom korišćenja.

Pojam oporavka

Oporavak zauzima jednu od ključnih uloga u procesu fizičkog vežbanja, kako u sportu, tako i u fitnesu. U oporavku dolazi do vraćanja sposobnosti na početni radni nivo. U kontekstu ovog rada, oporavak se može posmatrati kao proces regeneracije, koja se pre svega odnosi na fiziološki aspekt oporavka i „prati“ zamor uzrokovan treningom/takmičenjem – kupke, masaže, san i sl. (Kellmann, Beckmann, 2018). Treba razlikovati dve faze oporavka. Prva faza je faza funkcionalnih promena i odnosi se na rani period oporavka u kome dolazi do relativno brzog uspostavljanja homeostaze. U drugoj fazi dolazi do značajnih funkcionalnih i strukturnih promena u organima i tkivima kao rezultat adaptacije. Spoljna manifestacija ovog prilagođavanja je povećanje fizičke radne sposobnosti, povećanju učinka i vežbačkog ili sportskog rezultata. Ove promene su trajnije, ali su reverzibilne ako se ne održavaju vežbanjem (Koprivica, 2013). Pored profesionalnog sporta u kome oporavak igra jednu od ključnih uloga u pripremi sportista, sve više se prepoznaje njegov značaj i u prostoru rekreacije. Naime, vežbači rekreativci sve češće povećavaju trenažna opterećenja, gde je ovaj trend posledica - između ostalog - i pojave takmičenja u rekreativnom sportu. U nastojanju da poboljšaju svoj nastup na takmičenju često drastično povećaju intenzitet treninga, ali pre svega njegov obim, odnosno broj sati treniranja na dnevnom, nedeljnom i mesečnom nivou što u velikom broju slučajeva dovodi do stresa i traumatizacije mišićnog tkiva, a u određenim slučajevima i do povreda. U prostoru rekreacije važno je da oporavak ima vodeću preventivnu ulogu, što fitnes industrija u novije vreme i prepoznaje. Stručnjaci uključeni u realizaciju procesa vežbanja rekreativaca i amaterskih sportista posveću- ju i dodatnu pažnju pronalaženju novih sredstava za oporavak koja će doprineti ubrzanju ovih procesa. Brzina oporavka je različita i istraživanja su pokazala da se u prvoj trećini desi oko 60%, dok u drugoj trećini 30% oporavka, što ima veliki značaj za trenažnu praksu, posebno za planiranje i programiranje elemenata koji čine mikrostrukturu sportskog treninga (Koprivica, 2013). Međutim, iako se oporavak posmatra kao višestruki (fiziološki, psihološki) proces uspostavljanja homeostaze koji je zavistan od vremena (Kell- mann et al. 2018), svakako da ga je moguće skratiti primenom specifičnih procedura. Upotreba Theragun uređaja je svakako jedna od njih.

THERAGUN

Theragun je električni ručni uređaj namenjen pre svega sportistima i rekreativcima, ali i svima onima koji upražnjavaju fizičko vežbanje ili imaju stanja slična onima koja se javljaju nakon vežbanja. Koriste ga svakako terapeuti i drugi stručnjaci u sportu, ali i treneri i sami korisnici, što ukazuje na široku primenu ovog aparata. Naime, u osnovi opisa ovog rekvizita na stranici proizvođača i stoji ,,self-massage device” što govori da se radi o rekvizitu namenjenom prvenstveno samostalnoj upotrebi, mada postoje i verzije uređaja namenjene tretmanu od strane obučenog stručnjaka. Rekvizit spada u kategoriju električnih masažera i ko-

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risti baterije koje se dopunjavaju. Prvi aparat je proizveden 2009, a dizajnirao ga je dr Jason Wersland (www. theragun.com).

Tehničke karakteristike

Osnovna karakteristika uređaja Theragun je da - za razliku od sličnih uređaja - ima amplitudu rada glave od 16mm (osim mini modela koji ima 12mm), što mu omogućava da u zavisnosti od jačine kojom se pritiska, osim vibrirajućeg ima perkusioni efekat. Postoji 4 različita modela poslednje generacije (četvrta) ovih uređaja. U tabeli 1 su prikazane njihove osnovne tehničke karakteristike.

Tabela 1. Prikaz osnovnih tehničkih informacija (www.theragun.com)

Brzina Dimenzije Težina Pozicije glave i Model Ostalo (rpm) (cm) (kg) broj nastavaka PRO 1750, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2400 25,5x18x7,6 1,3 4 sa 6 nastavaka OLED, Force Meter i Smart app Fiksna sa 5 nas- 1750, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2400 24x17x7,4 1 OLED, Force Meter i Smart app Elite tavka Fiksna sa 4 nas- 1750, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2400 22,5x16x7,3 1 Smart app Prime tavka Fiksna sa 1 nas- 1750, 2100, 2400 15,2x13,5x7,7 0,65 Mini tavkom

Legenda: rpm (revolutions per minute) – broj udara/rotacija u minuti; OLED (organic light-emitting diode) – organska svetleća dioda.

Glavni deo masažera čini kućište u kome su mikromotori i cela elektro-tehnička podrška mehaniz- ma, zatim ručka za koju korisnik hvata uređaj pri upotrebi i funkcionalni deo uređaja koji ima fiksni i mobilni deo. Što se tiče fiksnog i mobilnog dela, oni su spojeni metalnim klipom uskog profila koji prenosi pokret sa elektromotora na mobilni deo. Mobilni deo uređaja na sebi ima adapter na koji se stavljaju nastavci koji dolaze u direktan kontakt sa tretiranim tkivom. Uređaj poseduje punjivu mobilnu bateriju, a njeno trajanje zavisi od modela, ali i od nivoa pritiska rekvizitom na tkivo i načina upotrebe. Na slici 1 je PRO model poslednje generacija uređaja.

Slika 1. PRO model Theragun uređaja (www.theragun.com/eu/en-fr/pro-eu.html)

Svaka nova generacija uređaja je donosila i određene inovacije sa sobom. Broj nastavaka varira od modela do modela, tako da ih PRO model poslednje generacije ima u šest različitih oblika. To su: • supermekani - za vibrirajuću terapiji i osetljive regije tela (čak i kosti); • prigušivač - za celo telo, posebno za nežna ili područja oko kostiju; • standardna lopta - najrasprostranjenija upotreba, za male i velike mišićne grupe; • klin – za lopatice, IT trakt (band), „istiskivanje“ mlečne kiseline; • palac - za bolne tačke (trigger points, tačke okidače) i donja leđa; • kupa - za precizno i/ili dubinsko delovanje na mišiće, za šake i stopala.

Ono što je zajedničko za sve nastavke osim supermekanog, jeste da su napravljeni od neporozne pene od zatvorenih ćelija (closed-cell foam), koji se lako održavaju u smislu higijene. Oblici se biraju pre svega u zavisnosti od površine i dela tela koji se tretira, odnosno od veličine i tipa mišića, kao i od cilja tretmana. Praktično, osnovni princip podele nastavaka jeste princip veličine gde nastavak većih dimenzija ima namenu za tretiranje većih mišićnih grupa i onih koji imaju manju osetljivost ili višu toleranciju na vibraciju

226 UDK: 796.035:613 izazvanu velikim brojem udaraca mobilnog dela uređaja, dok su nastavci manjih dimenzija prvenstveno namenjeni manjim mišićnim grupama koje zahtevaju precizniji pristup. Mekoća ili tvrdoća nastavaka se direktno odražavaju na osetljivost tkiva koje tretiramo. Nastavci uskog profila površine koja dolazi u kontakt sa tretiranim tkivom su namenjeni intenzivnijem uticaju na tkivo, kao i onim delovima tela koje zahtevaju najveću preciznost.

Napredniji modeli četvrte generacije (PRO i Elite) imaju i indikator pritiska, dok je za PRO model (i poslednje, ali i prethodnih generacija G3 i G2) karakteristično pozicioniranje mobilnog dela uređaja u vidu rotacije čime je omogućeno njegovo pomeranje u četiri različite pozicije (ugla). Određene pozicije omo- gućavaju i samomasažu relativno nepristupačnih delova tela što uređaj čini veoma praktičnim. Mobilni deo uređaja uspeva da ostvari od 1750 do 2400 udara u minuti (napredniji modeli imaju mogućnost odabira bilo koje frekvencije u datom opsegu), odnosno frekvenciju od 40Hz.

Primena Theragun-a

Razlika između perkusivne i vibracione terapije je u 60% većoj dubini do koje se dolazi primenom perkusivne terapije, gde ovaj podatak predstavlja osnovu primene i efekata koje daju ovaj uređaj (www. theragun.com). Isti izvor navodi i da su benefiti perkusivne terapije između ostalog i povećanje protoka krvi, brže zagrevanje, smanjenje inflamacije i podsticanje sna. U tom kontekstu, može se pretpostaviti da se kao posledica gore navedenih benefita, stvaraju i uslovi za poboljšanje različitih sposobnosti.

Iako je uređaj veoma rasprostranjen, može se uočiti da nema puno naučnih radova u kojima je istraživanje sprovedeno direktno na njemu. Guzman i saradnici (Guzman et al., 2020) navode da primena Theragun uređaja u trajanju od 5 minuta dovodi do značajnijih promena u opsegu pokreta u zglobu kuka i kolena, u poređenju sa primenom samo pasivnog odmora. Autori promene objašnjavaju neuralnom manip- ulacijom i akutnim promenama mišićnog tonusa. Takođe, korišćenje Theragun uređaja ima akutni uticaj na cirkulaciju krvi u skeletnim mišićima (Blanchet et al., 2020). Ostala istraživanja sa sličnim načinom terapije su pokazala da ovakva vrsta oporavka (mehanička vibracija) doprinosi smanjenju bola i koncentracije laktat-de- hidrogenaze 48 sati nakon fizičke aktivnosti (Imtiyaz et al., 2014), a da se pozitivni efekti ovakve terapije ogledaju i u povećanju opsega pokreta (Sands et al., 2006). Međutim, iako je najčešća upotreba Theragun uređaja upravo nakon treninga, takođe se može primenjivati pre (povećanje opsega pokreta, protoka krvi, smanjenje tonusa), ali i tokom samog treninga (dodatna aktivacija mišića ili smanjenje tonusa). Mehanizam uz pomoć kojeg uređaj deluje na tkivo je u udaračko vibracionom sistemu koji izaziva pokretni deo uređaja. Visoka frekvencija deluje i na duboke slojeve mekih tkiva što omogućava da se mišići brzo stežu i opuštaju i tako poboljšavaju protok krvi, čime obezbeđuju višak kiseonika i hranljivih materija tkivu. Duboka masaža takođe doprinosi oporavku ciljanih abnormalnosti duboko u mišićima i fasciji (Pournot, 2016). Velika popularnost ovog aparata bazira se na jednostavnoj upotrebi u svim režimima rada. Za pravilnu upotrebu uređaja potrebno je definisati tri parametra: • pritisak - osetljivost i veličina mišićne grupe, subjektivni osećaj vežbača, • pravac - pružanja vlakana tretiranog mišića i • trajanje - manje od 10 sekundi za aktivaciju, 30 sekundi za zagrevanje i pripremu, do 2 minuta za oporavak.

Pritisak

Korisnik tretira željeno meko tkivo ili mišiće prislanjanjem odgovarajućeg nastavka na deo površine tela ispod kojeg se targetirani mišići nalaze i tako započinje tretman. Sporim i laganim kretanjem po ciljanoj zoni nakon uspostavljanja kontakta korisnik postepeno povećava pritisak na tkivo. Kada je količina upotre- bljenog pritiska u pitanju treba se voditi sa nekoliko smernica a to su osetljivost mišićne grupe koja je pod dejstvom vibracija, veličina te mišićne grupe, količina trenutne napetosti mišićne grupe, subjektivan osećaj i istorija eventualnih povreda u tom delu mekog tkiva. Ukoliko su prisutni upalni procesi u mišićima tretman je moguće obaviti nad tim mišićnim grupama ali sa gumenim nastavkom i uz znatno manji pritisak na to tkivo.

Pravac

Pokreti koji se sprovode tokom tretmana treba da se pružaju pravcem pružanja vlakana u datom mišiću i da budu raspoređeni tako da vibracije i udari ne dospevaju direktno do koštanog tkiva kao posledica neposredne blizine udaračkog sistema. Preporučljivo je kretanje u smeru kretanja krvi venskim putem, ali još uvek nije dokazano ni da je suprotan smer pokreta štetnog uticaja. Trajanje

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Vremenski okvir u sklopu kojeg se vrši tretman je definisan od strane proizvođača i navodi da je osnovni cilj upotrebe rekvizita osnova u definiciji potrebnog vremena. Uređaj se pomera polako, oko 2,5 cm u sekundi. Ako je cilj zagrejati odnosno pripremiti mišićnu grupu za predstojeći rad u sklopu treninga ili pripremne faze treninga 30 sekundi direktnog tretmana na datu mišićnu grupu je sasvim dovoljno, dok je za oporavak iste u sklopu završne faze treninga ili između delova treninga kad se prelazi na drugu celinu potrebno do 2 minuta tretmana.

Neželjeni efekti

Osim neželjenih efekata prilikom velikog pritiska u upotrebi uređaja, ne postoje druga ograničenja za upotrebu aparata osim većine onih u kojima je i ručna masaža kontraindikovana. U tom kontekstu upotrebu Theragun uređaja (i uređaja koji funkcionišu po sličnom principu) trebalo bi ograničiti/izbegavati u situacijama različitih trauma, koštanih preloma, kidanja ligamenata, većih mišićnih istegnuća, iščašenja, zatim osteoporoze, ozbiljnijih venskih proširenja, hipertenzije i sl. Konkretno, proizvođač navodi da se uređaj ne sme aplikovati na određene delove tela, konkretno jabučicu i C4 (vrat), zatim oko genitalija, kao ni na glavi, te preko otvorenih rana, preloma i svih drugih stanja kada nije prikladno koristiti ni masažu. Takođe, trudnicama se pre upotrebe savetuje konsultacija sa lekarom.

Zaključak

Povećanje intenziteta i obima treninga kod vežbača rekreativaca, može dovesti do stresa, traumatizacije mišićnog tkiva, kao i povreda. U novije vreme u prostoru rekreacije oporavak ima vodeću preventivnu ulogu. Primena pasivnih metoda oporavka se može sprovesti i upotrebom medicinskih, odnosno fizičkih sredstva oporavka u vidu elektromasažnih uređaja. Upotreba Theragun uređaja je donela mnoštvo izmena u načinu realizacije faze oporavka u fitnes industriji, a njihova upotreba je sve rasprostranjenija. Theragun i udarna (perkusivna) masažna terapija koju koristi, dokazano je veoma efikasna pre svega kod povećavanja cirkulacije, povećanje opsega pokreta, razbijanja unutrašnjeg ožiljnog tkiva, kao i promene tonusa mišića. Osnovna karakteristika uređaja Theragun jeste amplituda rada glave od 16mm i 2400 udara u minuti, što mu omogućava - da u zavisnosti od jačine kojom se pritiska - ima perkusioni efekat, kojim se navedeni benefiti i ostvaruju. Za pravilnu upotrebu uređaja potrebno je u odnosu na tretiranu regiju odabrati i odgovarajući oblik i tvrdoću nastavka kojim se ostvaruje kontakt (udari) uređaja sa telom, zatim definisati jačinu pritiska, kao i njegovo trajanje. Sa druge strane malo je konkretnih ograničenja za upotrebu aparata (osim onih u kojima je i ručna masaža kontraindikovana i određeni delovi tela). Upravo iz navedenih razloga, iako nema previše konkretnih naučnih i istraživačkih radova koji su koristili baš Theragun uređaj u eksperimentu (uglavnom se pozivaju na perkusionu ili vibracionu terapiju), uređaj se preporučuje svim vežbačima, sportistima i rekreativcima, u fazi oporavka, ali isto tako u toku pripreme za fizičku aktivnost, kao i aktivne pauze između serija vežbi sa ciljem opuštanja aktiviranog mišića.

Literatura

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8. Kim, K., Park, S., Goo, B. O., & Choi, S. C. (2014). Effect of Self-myofascial Release on Reduction of Physical Stress: A Pilot Study. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 26(11), 1779. 9. Koprivica, V. (2013). Teorija sportskog treninga, prvi deo. SIA, Beograd 10. Pournot, H. et all (2016). The Acute Effect of Local Vibration As a Recovery Modality from Exercise-In- duced Increased Muscle Stiffness. J Sports Sci Med. 15(1):142–147. 11. Prebeg, G., Stojiljković, S. (2011). Teretana na otvorenom kao model saradnje lokalne samouprave i Fakulteta. Zbornik sažetaka,Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 12. Sands, W. A., McNeal, J. R., Stone, M. H., Russell, E. M., & Jemni, M. O. N. E. M. (2006). Flexibil- ity enhancement with vibration: Acute and long-term. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 38(4), 720. 13. Stojiljković, S. i sar. (2012). Personalni fitnes. Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 14. Weerapong, P., & Kolt, G. S. (2005). The mechanisms of massage and effects on performance, muscle recovery and injury prevention. Sports Medicine, 35(3), 235-256. 15. Veqar Z, Imtiyaz S. (2014) Vibration Therapy in Management of Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS). J Clin Diagn Res. 8(6):LE01–LE4. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2014/7323.4434 16. www.theragun.com

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CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE IN LEARNING VOLLEYBALL SKILLS

Zdravko Aničić; Miloš Petrović; Olivera Knežević; Marko Erak University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Motor control is one of the fields of science that affects sport greatly. Motor learning is considered as a significant part of motor control, because it influences movement itself. Numerous researchers that delved into motor learning, have been trying to reach the core mechanisms of learning. Namely, while exercising and memorizing larger number of information, the way that exercises were done, had a direct effect on the repro- duction of learned skills during the acquisition, retention and transfer phases. Battig (1966) was the first to introduce the term “conceptualization” that referred to two ways of learning organization: randomized learning (i.e., several different techniques are learned in a random order) and block learning (i.e., one technique is learned by learning one by another element, in a preset order). The term “contextual interference” came from the theory of conceptualization and it has been used to emphasize the roles of contextual factors (i.e., internal and external). Namely, the whole context of exercising (which includes a task, order of exercises, and learning processes of the athletes) is thought to be a potential source of interference that may affect the learning process (Battig, 1979). It was observed that high contextual interference (i.e., the randomized type of learning that was firstly considered as the cause of forgetting) leads to better results during the phases of retention and transfer in comparison to low contextual interference (i.e., block learning method). Two main questions that were imposed were referring to the more adequate way of learning new motor skills. The question was is it better to learn new motor skills in variable conditions where exercises are be performed in a random order, or in the low variability conditions, where the exercises are performed in the preset order. Pioneers of contextual interference research in the area of motor learning were Shea and Morgan. In 1979, they conducted the first research that documented the existence of contextual interference during motor learning. Namely, the group that practiced new skill in low contextual interference environment was more effective during the acquisition phase, while the group that practiced new skill in high contextual interference environment was more effective during the retention and transfer phases (Shea & Moran, 1979). Since then, the studies were mainly conducted in laboratory conditions, with simple tasks, which confirmed the existence of contextual interference (Brady, 1998, 2004, 2008; Magill & Hall, 1990). Dozens of studies were conducted in the area of sports that use throws, passes, catches and hitting of the ball or some other prop, that is, activities that require a high level of eye – hand coordination.

By analyzing the conducted studies, it was found that there are numerous studies and reviews that explore contextual interference in sports that require a high level of techincal mastery while performing movements with arms and hands. Volleyball is the prime example of those sports, because it requires a high level of technique. The results of studies so far, whose goal was to study the effects of contextual interference on learning volleyball skills are diverse. Some authors have confirmed the effects of contextual interference (Pasand, et. al, 2016), while others confirmed it partially (Haudum, et. al., 2011) or negated the effects of contextual interference on learning volleyball skills (Zetou, et. al., 2007). In regards to the conducted studies, it was determined that there is not a single review that analyzed the effects of contextual interference in the field of volleyball, so the goal of this study was to analyze and sumarize the results of the studies that delved into the contextual interference during the learning of some technical elements of volleyball.

Methods

Literature search was done using “Google Scholar” and “Pub Med” search engines. Keywords that were used are: contextual interference volleyball, contextual interference volleyball skills, contextual interference volleyball technique, contextual interference volleyball serve, contextual interference volleyball set, contextual interference volleyball spike, contextual interference volleyball bump. Based on these keywords and criteria that the studies must explore the effects of contextual interference on certain technical elements, eleven studies were found and extricated.

Results

Studies that were found were systematized and chronologicaly aligned. All studies included results of certain ways of learning a chosen technical element that contributed to a higher degree of learning of the chosen element during the transfer phase, semi – learning or did not show any significant improvement at all. Groups of respondents with a certain method of learning in regards to the level of contextual interference, that were used in this study are:

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• Block – B (where the learning of a technical element was conducted until it’s learning in full, before learning another element) • Randomized – R (where the learning was conducted by learning a group of technical elements in a random order) • Progressive – P (where the technical element was gradually aggravated) • Criteria group – CR (where the level of mastery of a technical element of 80% was needed before moving onto the next level) • Control – C (group that was not given an experimental treatment) • Constant – CON (where the learning of the technical element was conducted in non – altered conditions) • Serial – S (where the learning of the technical element was conducted through a set number of repetitions) • Specific – SP (where, for the purpose of learning, a specific task / target was given)

Eleven studies are show in the table 1 that examined the learning of volleyball skills after using a certain way of contextual interference. All of the studies that have „+“ symbol next to their used methods have confirmed a positive transfer after using a certain way of contextual interference for learning. All studies that did not show any significant changes in the transfer phase, have a „-“ symbol next to their used methods of learning. Certain studies, partially confirmed the effect of contextual interference on learning a new technical element, taking into account that some elements showed an improvement in the transfer phase and some not. Those studies have the „±“ symbol next to their used methods.

Table 1. Studies that examined the effects of contextual interferrence on learning motor skills in volleyball

Study Respondents Elements Methods Results Passing B French et al., 1990 139 Setting R-B - Serve R Serve P French et al., 1991 53 CR + Setting C Spike B Setting R Bortoli et al., 1992 52 ± S Serve S Underhand serve B Meira & Tani, 2003 36 Float serve - R Asian Float serve Setting B Zetou et al., 2007 26 Passing - R Serve B R S Travlos, 2010 72 Underhand serve + CON SP C CON Haudum et al., 2011 14 Spike ± S R S Abdoli et al., 2012 80 Underhand serve + CON SP Passing B Kalkhoran & Shariati, 60 Setting R + 2012 Float serve S

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Passing B Pasand et al., 2016 45 Setting R + Servie S CON Cruz et al., 2018 20 Float serve ± R

Discussion

Eleven studies were selected that were exploring the effects of contextual interference on learning various technical elements of volleyball. The first study that delved into contextual interference in the field of volleyball was the study of French and his associates (1990). Variance analysis showed that there are significant improvements in the passing, setting and float serve in all of the groups, but that there are no differences based on the type of contextual interference (block, block – random or random) neither in the acquisition phase nor in the retention phase. Next year, French and his associates (1991), have published a study in which the difficulty of the exercises progressively increased, which impacted the learning quality of serve and setting over the head. Two experimental groups have achieved significantly better results than the control group. Bortoli and associates (1992) have also used physical education classes to confirm the effects of contextual interference on spiking, setting and serving. The differences where significant between the initial and final measurement in all of the tests. However, there were no differences between the groups themselves. The only significant difference between the four groups was shown in the long transfer for the serve.

Eleven years later, Meira and Tani (2003) wanted to determine the effects of contextual interference during the acquisition phase while learning the serve. They also wanted to see if the effects last longer when the number of attempts is increased during the transfer test. The results did not confirm the effects of contextual interference because no differences were found between the groups in any of the phases. The next study that examined the effects of contextual interference on volleyball skills learning, was the study of Zetou and associates (2007). The results of this study confirmed that the conditions of learning in both block and randomized training methods, led to significant improvements in the acquisition and transfer phases for young female volleyball players. They also suggested that the physical education teachers and coaches should include the exercises with both low and high contextual interference. Travlos (2010) has also used the physical education classes as a center of his study on contextual interference. It was confirmed by analysis, that the specific and constant group were more successful in the acquisition phase, while the specific and random group were more successful in the transfer phase.

To our knowledge, the first and the only study that examined the effects of contextual interference on elite volleyball players, was the study of Haudum and associates (2011). Variable method led to better results when the speed of the spike was measured, which was not the case with the constant way of training. When the precision of the spike was compared between two groups, no differences were shown because both training methods led to better results than the initial measurement. Abdoli and associates (2012) have tried to examine the effects of contextual interference with eight different experimental conditions. The results have shown that the visual information during the training process was the most significant parameter for the successful learning of the given skill. Also, the block group had better results in the acquisition phase while random and groups that had a specific task for the purpose of learning, had better results in the transfer phase. With those results, this study confirms and supports the theory of contextual interference and the specificity of the hypothesis of training.

Kalkhoran and Shairati (2012) have gained similar results to the study of Abdoli (2012). What is worth mentioning is that the effects of contextual interference on learning were confirmed because there were differences between the different types of training in all of the phases. The next study was conducted by Pasand and associates (2016) with the goal of examining the effects of gradual increase of contextual interference on all of the learning phases. This study has also confirmed the effects of learning through contextual interference because there were significant differences in the acquisition phase between the groups in favor of the block group, while the differences were found in the retention and transfer phases for random and specific groups. The latest and the newest study that explored the effects of contextual interference on learning volleyball skills is the study of Cruz and associates (2018). The results indicate that while learning motor skills, regardless of the method, the general motor program is improved. However, when the parameters are set for precision of the motor skill, only the random group has shown significantly better results.

The thing that can interfere while coming to conclusions is that the studies were not done on a ho- mogenized sample, where the subjects were of different sex, age and level of training. For this reason, the comparison of the results of the given studies has been aggravated.

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Conclusion

This review had the goal to search the available literature and analyze the methods that examined the effects of learning and perfecting volleyball skills by using contextual interference. While summarizing the results of the mentioned studies, multiple conclusions can be deducted. There are studies that deny the existence of the effects of contextual interference while learning certain volleyball skills because there were no differences in the posttest between the groups. The next group of studies have deducted that the contextual interference affects some of the parameters while the others it does not. Namely, in the posttest, both experimental groups showed the increase in the general motoric program, but the group with randomized training showed a significant increase in the float serve in comparison to the control group. The rest of the five studies have confirmed the effects of contextual interference. In all studies, results in the acquisition phase were better in the groups that trained implementing the constant method while the advantage of randomized learning was found the transfer phase. General conclusion can be given that the block training method is more significant in the early stages of training and that later, contextual interference should be increased by using combinations of different training methods as well as using the randomized training method only.

Even though there are indications that using the contextual interference method is better for learning transfer, different ideologies do not allow to generalize those claims. It is considered that the number of these studies should be increased, expand the number of technical elements and situations from an actual volleyball game as well, to analyze the different levels of contextual interference (low, medium and high) more thoroughly. Also, it is important to try and create an approach, method and design of the study as uniform as possible, so it could be debated about this problem with less uncertainty in the future. With that, we could have more quality insight and potentially organize and conduct the process of learning volleyball technical elements more efficiently.

References

1. Abdoli, B., Farsi, A., & Modaberi, S. (2012). Visual information and contextual interference affects the volleyball underhand serve learning: exploring specificity of practice hypothesis. European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2(5), 1625-1631. 2. Battig, W. F. (1966). Facilitation and interference. Acquisition of skill, 215-244. 3. Battig, W. F. (1979). The flexibility of human memory. Levels of processing and human memory, Law- rence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, 23-44. 4. Bortoli, L., Robazza, C., Durigon, V., & Carra, C. (1992). Effects of contextual interference on learning technical sports skills. Perceptual and motor skills, 75(2), 555-562. 5. Brady, F. (1997). Contextual interference and teaching golf skills. Perceptual and motor skills, 84(1), 347-350. 6. Brady, F. (1998). A theoretical and empirical review of the contextual interference effect and the learning of motor skills. Quest, 50(3), 266-293. 7. Brady, F. (2004). Contextual interference: A meta-analytic study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 99(1), 116-126. 8. Brady, F. (2008). The contextual interference effect and sport skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106(2), 461-472. 9. Cruz, M. P., Lage, G. M., Ribeiro-Silva, P. C., Neves, T. F., Matos, C. D. O., & Ugrinowitsch, H. (2018). Constant and random practice on learning of volleyball serve. Revista Brasileira de Cineantropome- tria & Desempenho Humano, 20(6), 598-606. 10. Dos Santos, J. J., Bastos, F. H., de Oliveira Souza, T., & Corrêa, U. C. (2014). Contextual interference effect depends on the amount of time separating acquisition and testing. Advances in Physical Education, 4(02), 102. 11. French, K. E., Rink, J. E., & Werner, P. H. (1990). Effects of contextual interference on retention of three volleyball skills. Perceptual and motor skills, 71(1), 179-186. 12. French, K. E., Rink, J. E., Rikard, L., Mays, A., Lynn, S., & Werner, P. (1991). The effects of practice progressions on learning two volleyball skills. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 10(3), 261- 274. 13. Green, D. P., Whitehead, J., & Sugden, D. A. (1995). Practice variability and transfer of a racket skill. Perceptual and motor skills, 81(3_suppl), 1275-1281. 14. Hall, K. G., Domingues, D. A., & Cavazos, R. (1994). Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players. Perceptual and motor skills, 78(3), 835-841. 15. Haudum, A., Birklbauer, J., Josef, K., & Müller, E. (2011). Motor learning of gross-motor skills under variable practice conditions. Baltic Journal of Sport and Health Sciences, 1(80), 22-28. 16. Hernández-Davo, H., Urbán, T., Sarabia, J. M., Juan-Recio, C., & Javier Moreno, F. (2014). Variable training: effects on velocity and accuracy in the tennis serve. Journal of sports sciences, 32(14), 1383-1388. 17. Kalkhoran, A. F., & Shariati, A. (2012). The effects of contextual interference on learning volleyball motor skills. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 12(4), 550. 233 UDK: 796.325.015.1

18. Magill, R.A., & Hall, K.G. (1990). A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition. Human Movement Science, 9(3-5), 241-289. 19. Meira Jr, C. M., & Tani, G. (2001). The contextual interference effect in acquisition of dart-throwing skill tested on a transfer test with extended trials. Perceptual and motor skills, 92(3), 910-918. 20. Meira, C. M., & Tani, G. (2003). Contextual interference effects assessed by extended transfer trials in the acquisition of the volleyball serve. Journal of Human movement studies, 45(5), 449-468. 21. Pasand, F., Fooladiyanzadeh, H., & Nazemzadegan, G. (2016). The effect of gradual increase in contextual interference on acquisition, retention and transfer of volleyball Skills. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 4(2), 72-77. 22. Rouhollahi, V., Rozan, M., & Mehratra, A. (2014). Effect of different practice schedules on learning and performance in handball task. American Journal of Sports Science, 2(4), 71-76. 23. Shea, J. B., & Morgan, R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of experimental psychology: Human learning and memory, 5(2), 179. 24. Stanković, T. (2017). Uticaj masovnih medija na popularnost sporta u svetu i kod nas. Završni rad, Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 25. Taheri, H., Fazeli, D., & Poureghbali, S. (2017). The effect of variability of practice at execution re- dundancy level in skilled and novice Basketball players. Perceptual and motor skills, 124(2), 491-501. 26. Travlos, A. K. (2010). Specificity and variability of practice, and contextual interference in acquisition and transfer of an underhand volleyball serve. Perceptual and motor skills, 110(1), 298-312. 27. Tsutsui, S., Satoh, M., & Yamamoto, K. (2013). Contextual interference modulated by pitcher skill level. International Journal of Sport and Health Science, 11 (0), 68 - 75. 28. Van Den Tillaar, R., & Aune, T. K. (2019). Effect of instructions emphasizing velocity or accuracy given in a random or blocked order on performance and kinematics in dart throwing. Frontiers in Psychol- ogy, 10:1359. 29. Vera, J. G., & Montilla, M. M. (2003). Practice schedule and acquisition, retention, and transfer of a throwing task in 6-yr.-old children. Perceptual and motor skills, 96(3), 1015-1024. 30. Wagner, H., & Müller, E. (2008). The effects of differential and variable training on the quality parameters of a handball throw. Sports Biomechanics, 7(1), 54-71. 31. Zetou, E., Michalopoulou, M., Giazitzi, K., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2007). Contextual interference effects in learning volleyball skills. Perceptual and motor skills, 104(3), 995-1004.

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UČENJE ODBOJKAŠKIH VEŠTINA KONTEKSTUALNIM MEŠANJEM

Zdravko Aničić; Miloš Petrović; Olivera Knežević; Marko Erak Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Motorna kontrola je jedna od oblasti koja u velikoj meri ima uticaj na sport. Smatra se da je motorno učenje izuzetno značajna oblast motorne kontrole, jer predstavlja direktan pokazatelj manifestacije pokreta i kretanja. Brojni istraživači koji su se bavili motornim učenjem pokušavali su da proniknu u mehanizme samog procesa učenja. Naime, tokom vežbanja pamćenja većeg broja informacija, način na koji se vežbanje sprovodilo imao je direktan uticaj na reprodukciju naučenog tokom faza akvizicije, retencije i transfera. Battig je prvi uveo termin konceptualizacija koji se odnosio na dva vida organizacije učenja: randomizovano vežbanje (gde se tehnički elementi uvežbavaju po principu više različitih elemenata za jedan trening nasumičnim redosledom) i blok vežbanje (gde se tehnički elementi uvežbavaju po principu jednog po jednog tehničkog elementa kroz određeni set ponavljanja) (Battig, 1966). Iz teorije konceptualizacije je kroz kasnija istraživanja proistekao termin „kontekstualno mešanje“ - Contextual interference. Ovim terminom se naglašavaju uloge kontekstualnih faktora (unutrašnjih i spoljašnjih), tj. ceo kontekst vežbanja (koji uključuje zadatak, redosled vežbanja i procesuiranje osobe koja uči) se posmatra kao potencijalni izvor mešanja koje može da poboljša ili pogorša proces učenja (Battig, 1979). Primećeno je da visoko kontekstualno mešanje, tj. randomizovano vežbanje, koje se ranije smatralo uzrokom zaboravljanja, dovodi do boljih rezultata tokom retencije i transfera u odnosu na nisko kontestualno mešanje, tj. blok vežbanje (Battig, 1979). Dva glavna pitanja koja su se nametnula odnosila su se na to da li je za učenje novih motornih veština adekvatnije vežbanje u varijabilnijim uslovima u kojima bi se vežbe davale randomizovano, ili je pak adekvatnije sprovoditi trening u uslovima niske varijabilnosti, tj. organizovati vežbe sa većim brojem ponavljanja. Pioniri istraživanja kontekstualnog mešanja u oblasti motornog učenja bili su Shea i Morgan. Oni su 1979. godine sproveli prvo istraživanje koje je dokumentovalo postojanje kontekstualnog mešanja tokom motornog učenja. Naime, tokom faze akvizicije, grupa niskog kontekstualnog mešanja prikazala se uspešnijom u fazi akvizicije, dok je grupa visokog kontekstualnog mešanja bila značajno uspešnija u fazama retencije i transfera (Shea & Morgan, 1979). Od tada su se istraživanja uglavnom izvodila u laboratorijskim uslovima, obično pri jednostavnijim motornim zadacima i u njima se potvrdilo i dokazalo prisustvo kontekstualnog mešanja (Brady, 1998, 2004, 2008; Magill& Hall, 1990). Međutim, sprovedeno je i više desetina istraživanja u sportovima, naročito onima u kojima se koriste bacanja, dodavanja i udaranja lopte ili nekog drugog rekvizita, odnosno u aktivnostima koja iziskuju visok stepen koordinacije oko-ruka.

Pregledom dosadašnje literature ustanovljeno je da postoje mnogobrojna istraživanja i pregledni radovi koji su se bavili kontekstualnim mešanjem u sportovima u kojima se zahteva velika umešnost pri izvođenju tehničkih elemenata rukom. Odbojka je jedan od klasičnih primera te umešnosti, jer od sportista zahteva visok stepen razvijenosti tehnike pri izvođenju njenih elemenata. Rezultati dosadašnjih studija čiji je predmet bio izučavanje uticaja kontekstualnog mešanja na obuku tehničkih elemenmata u odbojci su raznoliki. Neki autori su potvrdili uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja (Pasand, et. al., 2016), dok su drugi autori delim- ično potvrdili (Haudum, et. al., 2011) ili negirali uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje motoričkih veština u odbojci (Zetou, et. al., 2007). Pored velikog broja studija, ustanovljeno je da ne postoji pregledni rad koji je analizirao uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja u oblasti odbojke, tako da je cilj ovog rada bio da obuhvati i sumira rezultate dosadašnjih istraživanja koja su se bavila kontekstualnim mešanjem u uvežbavanju određenih tehničkih elemenata odbojkaške igre.

Metode

Pretraga literature vršena je uz pomoć „Google scholar“ i „Pub Med“ pretraživača. Ključne reči koje su upotrebljene su: contextual interference volleyball, contextual interference volleyball skills, contextual interference volleyball technique, contextual interference volleyball serve, contextual interference volleyball set, contextual interference volleyball spike, contextual interference volleyball bump. Na osnovu ključnih reči i kriterijuma da se u radu ispituje uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja na određene tehničke elemente pronađeno je i izdvojeno 11 radova.

Rezultati

Pronađeni radovi bili su sistematizovani i hronološki poređani. Svi izdvojeni radovi sadrže rezultate određenog načina učenja izabranog tehničkog elementa koji su doprineli većem stepenu usvojenosti datog elementa u fazi transfera, delimičnom usvajanju ili nisu pokazali značajnije poboljšanje. Grupe ispitanika

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sa određenom metodom učenja shodno nivou kontekstualnog mešanja, koje su bile korišćenje u ovim is- traživanjima su: • Blok – B (gde se učenje jednog tehničkog elementa odvijalo do njegovog usvajanja pre prelaska na drugi tehnički element) • Randomizovana – R (gde se učenje sprovodilo uvežbavanjem skupa tehničkih elemenata nasum- ičnim redosledom) • Progresivna – P (gde se element tehinčki unapređivao / otežavao postepeno) • Kriterijumska – KR (gde je zahtevan stepen uspešnosti učenja određenog tehničkog elementa od 80% pre prelaska na sledeći, složeniji nivo) • Kontrolna – K (grupa koja nije podvrgnuta eksperimentalnom tretmanu) • Konstantna – KON (gde se učenje određenog tehničkog elementa odvijalo u nepromenjenim uslovima) • Serijska – S (gde se učenje tehničkog elementa vršilo kroz određeni broj ponavljanja jednog elementa, odnosno pokreta) • Specifična – SP (gde je u svrhu učenja dodeljen specifičan zadatak / meta)

U tabeli 1, prikazano je jedanaest radova koji su se bavili ispitivanjem učenja odbojkaških veština nakon korišćenja određenih vidova kontekstualnog mešanja. Svi radovi koji pored korišćenih metoda imaju simbol „+“, došlo je do pozitivnog transfera učenja nakon primene određenog metoda učenja sa uticajem kontesktualnog mešanja. Svi radovi koji pored korišćenih metoda imaju simbol „-“, nije došlo do značajnijih promena u fazi transfera nakon uticaja kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje motoričke veštine.

U određenim istraživanjima, došlo je do delimičnog pozitivnog efekta kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje tehničkih elemenata s obzirom da je kod nekih elemenata pokazano poboljšanje u fazi transfera, dok kod drugih elemenata nije. Shodno tome, pored korišćenih metoda stoji simbol „±“.

Tabela 1. Studije koje su se bavile uticajem kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje motoričkih veština u odbojci

Istraživanje Ispitanici Elementi Metode Rezultati Dodavanje čekićem B French et al., 1990 139 Dizanje R-B - Servis R Servis P French et al., 1991 53 CR + Dizanje

Smeč B Dizanje R Bortoli et al., 1992 52 ± S Servis

Donji servis B Meira & Tani, 2003 36 Gornji servis - R Azijski Float servis Dizanje B Zetou et al., 2007 26 Dodavanje - R Servis B R S Travlos, 2010 72 Donji Servis + CON SP C CON Haudum et al., 2011 14 Napad (smeč) ±

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R S Abdoli et al., 2012 80 Donji Servis + CON SP Dodavanje čekićem B Kalkhoran & Shariati, 60 Dizanje R + 2012 Gornji servis S Dodavanje čekićem B Pasand et al., 2016 45 Dizanje R + Servis S CON Cruz et al., 2018 20 Gornji Servis ±

Diskusija

Izučavajući efekte kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje različitih elemenata odbojkaške igre izdvojilo se, kao što je rečeno, jedanaest radova. Prva studija koja se bavila efektima kontekstualnog mešanja iz oblasti odbojke bila je studija French-a i saradnika (1990). Analiza varijanse ukazala je da postoje značajna poboljšanja u elementima dodavanje čekićem, dizanja i klasičnog servisa kod svih grupa, ali da ne postoje razlike u odnosu na vrstu kontekstualnog mešanja (blok, blok-random ili random) ni u fazi akvizicije, ni u fazi retencije. Sledeće godine French i saradnici (1991) su objavili studiju u kojoj su progresivno otežavali vežbe kojima su uticali na kvalitet učenja servisa i dizanja preko glave. Dve eksperimentalne grupe ostvarile su značajno bolje rezultate od kontrolne grupe. Bortoli i saradnici (1992) su takođe koristili nastavu fizičkog vaspitanja kako bi utvrdili uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja na elemente smeča, dizanja i servisa. Istraživanjem su otkrivene razlike između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja u svim testovima, međutim nije bilo razlika između grupa. Jedina značajna razlika između četiri grupe se prikazala u situaciji dugog transfera za servis.

Desetak godina kasnije Meira i Tani (2003) su pored želje da ispitaju efekte kontekstualnog mešan- ja pri uvežbavanju servisa u fazi akvizicije imali za cilj da utvrde i da li ti efekti, ukoliko su pronađeni, mogu da budu dugotrajniji ako se broj pokušaja u transfer testu poveća. Rezultati nisu potvrdili efekte kontekstualnog mešanja, pošto nisu pronađene razlike između grupa ni u jednoj fazi. Sledeće istraživanje koje je ispi- tivalo uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje odbojkaških veština dizanja lope, servisa i dodavanja lopte čekićem, bila je studija Zetou-a i saradnika (2007). Rezultati ove studije su otkrili da oba uslova vežbanja dovode do značajnih poboljšanja u akviziciji i transferu kod mladih odbojkašica, predlažući nastavnicima fizičkog vaspitanja ili trenerima da primenjuju vežbe i sa niskim i sa visokim kontekstualnim mešanjem. Travlos (2010) je takođe koristio nastavu fizičkog vaspitanja kao centar izučavanja efekata kontekstualnog mešanja. Analizom je utvrđeno da su u fazi akvizicije bile uspešnije specifična i konstantna grupa, a da su u fazi transfera to bile specifična i random grupa.

Prvi i jedini rad koji je ispitivao uticaj kontekstualnog mešanja na uvežbavanje tehnike elitnih odbo- jkaša bio je rad Haudum-a i saradnika (2011). Vežbanje varijabilnim načinom doveo je do boljih rezultata kada se posmatrala jačina napada (brzina lopte), dok to nije bio slučaj sa konstantnim načinom vežbanja. Kada se posmatrala preciznost napada, nisu primećene razlike u odnosu na način vežbanja, jer su oba nači- na dovela do boljih rezultata u odnosu na inicijalno merenje. Abdoli i saradnici (2012) su pokušali da ispitaju efekte kontekstualnog mešanja u 8 eksperimentalnih uslova. Rezultati su otkrili veći značaj vizuelne informacije pri vežbanju. Takođe u fazi akvizicije dobijeni su bolji rezultati blok grupe, a u fazi transfera random i specifične. Time ova studija potvrđuje i podržava teoriju kontekstualnog mešanja i specifičnost hipoteze vežbanja.

Kalkhoran i Shariati (2012) su dobili slične rezultate prethodnoj studiji . Ono što je važno napomenuti, to je da su potvrđeni efekti kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje, jer su uočene razlike između vidova vežbanja i u fazi akvizicije i u fazama retencije i transfera. Sa ciljem ispitivanja efekata postepenog povećanja kontekstualnog mešanja tokom vežbanja na fazu akvizicije, retencije i transfera kod odbojkaških veština, sledeće istraživanje sproveli su Pasand i saradnici (2016). Ovo istraživanje je takođe potvrdilo efekte učenja kontekstualnim mešanjem, jer se u akvizicionoj fazi pojavila značajna razlika između grupa u korist blok grupe, dok se u fazama retencije i transfera pojavila značajna razlika između random i serijske grupe u odnosu na blok grupu kod sve tri ispitivane veštine. Poslednja i najnovija studija koja se bavila proučavanjem efekata kontekstualnog mešanja na učenje odbojkaških veština istraživanje je Cruz-a i saradnika (2018). Dobijeni nalazi ukazuju na to da se uvežbavanjem motorne veštine, bilo konstantnim, bilo randomizovanim načinom poboljšava učenje generalnog motornog programa. Međutim kada je reč u poboljšavanju parametara motorne veštine, odnosno preciznosti, jedino je randomizovana grupa ostvarila značajno bolji rezultat.

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Ono što može predstavljati problem prilikom donošenja određenih zaključaka i postavljanja tvrdnji, jeste to što su se sprovedena istraživanja vršila na nehomogenom uzorku, gde su u studiju bili uključeni ispitanici različitog pola, uzrasta i utreniranosti. Iz ovog razloga, komparacija rezultata navedenih studija je otežana.

Zaključak

Ovaj pregledni rad imao je za cilj da pretraži dostupnu literaturu, detaljno istraži i analizira problematiku koja se bavila proučavanjem učenja i usavršavanja odbojkaških veština koristeći kontekstualno mešanje. Sumirajući rezultate posmatranih jedanaest istraživanja, mogu se izvesti određeni zaključci koji su i u ovom slučaju, kao i kod većine naučnih istraživanja, trojaki. Postoje istraživanja koja demantuju postojanje efekata kontekstualnog mešanja pri učenju određenih odbojkaških veština, jer u posttestu nisu utvrđene razlike između grupa. Sledeća grupa istraživanja otkrila je da na određene parametre kontekstualno mešanje ne utiče, a na određene utiče. Naime, u posttestu su obe eksperimentalne grupe doprinele poboljšanju general- izovanog motornog programa, ali je grupa ranomizovanog učenja značajno poboljšala rezultate parametara motorne veštine gornjeg servisa, tj. preciznosi u odnosu na konstantnu grupu. Ostalih pet studija je potvrdilo efekte kontekstualnog mešanja. U svim pomenitum studijama rezultati u fazi akvizicije bili su bolji kod grupa koje su vežbale na konstantan način, dok je prednost randomizovanog učenja uočena u fazi transfera. Generalno posmatrajući ove studije, može se zaključiti da je blok vežbanje značajno u prvim fazama učenja, a da je kasnije, kako bi učenje bilo što efikasnije i dugotrajnije, neophodno postepeno povećavati mešanje koristeći različite kombinacije učenja, kao i samo korišćenje randomizovanog uvežbavanja.

Iako postoje indicije da je vežbanje korišćenjem kontekstualnog mešanja bolje za transfer učenja, različite metodologije ne daju nam za pravo da genaralizujemo te tvrdnje. Smatra se da bi trebalo povećati broj istraživanja, proširiti broj posmatranih tehničkih elemenata i situacija iz same igre, kao i detaljnije analizirati različite nivoe kontekstualnog mešanja (nisko, umereno i visoko). Takođe, vrlo je važno pokušati kreirati što je moguće sličniji metodološki pristup i dizajn studije, kako bismo ipak u budućnosti bili u stanju da sa manje rezerve govorimo o ovoj problematici. Time bismo mogli imati kvalitetniji uvid i potencijalno mogli što efikasnije organizovati i sprovesti trening učenja i usavršavanja tehničkih elemenata odbojke.

Literatura

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15. Haudum, A., Birklbauer, J., Josef, K., & Müller, E. (2011). Motor learning of gross-motor skills under variable practice conditions. Baltic Journal of Sport and Health Sciences, 1(80), 22-28. 16. Hernández-Davo, H., Urbán, T., Sarabia, J. M., Juan-Recio, C., & Javier Moreno, F. (2014). Variable training: effects on velocity and accuracy in the tennis serve. Journal of sports sciences, 32(14), 1383-1388. 17. Kalkhoran, A. F., & Shariati, A. (2012). The effects of contextual interference on learning volleyball motor skills. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 12(4), 550. 18. Magill, R.A., & Hall, K.G. (1990). A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition. Human Movement Science, 9(3-5), 241-289. 19. Meira Jr, C. M., & Tani, G. (2001). The contextual interference effect in acquisition of dart-throwing skill tested on a transfer test with extended trials. Perceptual and motor skills, 92(3), 910-918. 20. Meira, C. M., & Tani, G. (2003). Contextual interference effects assessed by extended transfer trials in the acquisition of the volleyball serve. Journal of Human movement studies, 45(5), 449-468. 21. Pasand, F., Fooladiyanzadeh, H., & Nazemzadegan, G. (2016). The effect of gradual increase in contextual interference on acquisition, retention and transfer of volleyball Skills. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 4(2), 72-77. 22. Rouhollahi, V., Rozan, M., & Mehratra, A. (2014). Effect of different practice schedules on learning and performance in handball task. American Journal of Sports Science, 2(4), 71-76. 23. Shea, J. B., & Morgan, R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of experimental psychology: Human learning and memory, 5(2), 179. 24. Stanković, T. (2017). Uticaj masovnih medija na popularnost sporta u svetu i kod nas. Završni rad, Beograd: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 25. Taheri, H., Fazeli, D., & Poureghbali, S. (2017). The effect of variability of practice at execution re- dundancy level in skilled and novice Basketball players. Perceptual and motor skills, 124(2), 491-501. 26. Travlos, A. K. (2010). Specificity and variability of practice, and contextual interference in acquisition and transfer of an underhand volleyball serve. Perceptual and motor skills, 110(1), 298-312. 27. Tsutsui, S., Satoh, M., & Yamamoto, K. (2013). Contextual interference modulated by pitcher skill level. International Journal of Sport and Health Science, 11 (0), 68 - 75. 28. Van Den Tillaar, R., & Aune, T. K. (2019). Effect of instructions emphasizing velocity or accuracy given in a random or blocked order on performance and kinematics in dart throwing. Frontiers in Psychol- ogy, 10:1359. 29. Vera, J. G., & Montilla, M. M. (2003). Practice schedule and acquisition, retention, and transfer of a throwing task in 6-yr.-old children. Perceptual and motor skills, 96(3), 1015-1024. 30. Wagner, H., & Müller, E. (2008). The effects of differential and variable training on the quality parameters of a handball throw. Sports Biomechanics, 7(1), 54-71. 31. Zetou, E., Michalopoulou, M., Giazitzi, K., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2007). Contextual interference effects in learning volleyball skills. Perceptual and motor skills, 104(3), 995-1004.

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THE INCIDENCE OF INJURY AMONG CONTEMPORARY DANCERS

Marta Ćirković1; Sanja Mandarić2; Branka Marković2 1 University Sports Association of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia 2 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Contemporary dance came at a time when most ballet dancers and choreographers viewed classical ballet in a negative light because of rules and strict limitations. Contemporary dance is a combination of several dance genres, which aims to connect the mind and body through easily-made dance movements. The essence of the dance is reflected in the freedom of movement and individual interpretation of the dancer. Apart from the above, one of the characteristics of contemporary dance is accentuated emotions and various movements.The movements are characterized by frequent changes of the center of gravity of the body, then bending at the knee joint, inclinations, the beginning of movement in space by one part of the body, various jumps with unusual landings as well as movements in both sitting and lying position using the Earth’s gravity. Contemporary dance is often performed barefoot and when it comes to music, it can be performed in different styles of music.

Regardless of their style of dancing, dancers are engaged in long-term daily training sessions, followed by rehearsals during which they are exposed to great physical exertion. Contemporary dance requires planning and preparation in the form of choreography, lots of practice, performance on stage, as well as preparation for various competitions. All these activities together increase the physical effort of the players and thus require good physical condition. Accordingly, the specificity of the dance technique, inadequate dance space, as well as the physical exertions that the dancers are exposed to result in the occurrence of injuries (Janev Holcer et al., 2012; Russel, 2013). Sports injuries are the most common medical problem for all types of dancers, which is why it is very important to work on their rehabilitation and preparation of dancers.

Sports injuries in the broad sense means those injuries that occur during any sport activity, and in the narrow sense, those that are typical of a particular sport branch (Peterson, Renström, & Grana, 1986). The most common causes of injury are: carelessness, fatigue, overtraining, use of inadequate equipment, poor terrain, bad dance technique and predisposition factor. Sports injuries can be classified according to the type of injury and the localization of the injury. According to the type of injury they are classified as follows: muscle straining, tearing of muscle fibers, straining or tearing of ligaments, straining or tearing of muscle tendons, dislocation of joints and bone fractures. Injuries according to localization are divided according to which part of the body is injured (Banović, 2006). According to the research so far and the nature of injuries suffered by dancers, leg pain, specifically hips, knees, lower legs, ankles and feet, are the most common problems and most common injuries among dancers (Malkogeorgos, Zaggelidis, Mavrovouniotis, & Ciucurel, 2011). When it comes to contemporary dance, the most common injuries are injuries of: feet, ankles, knees, groin, back, neck and shoulders.

That`s how it works in research in which the data is collected throught questioners, a sample of 81 contemporary dance dancers found that, in addition to lower extremity and back injuries, neck, shoulder, and elbow injuries were present (Lampe et al., 2019).

In a study where the aim of the study was to correlate fitness with injury severity in contemporary dance dancers, the subjects underwent fitness assessment tests (anthropometry, flexibility, muscular strength and endurance, aerobic capacity) and an injury questionnaire in the last 12 months. Research has shown that poor levels of fitness are generally associated with the onset of injuries. Insufficient aerobic capacity is associated with fatigue, which in turn can lead to damage to musculoskeletal tissue. Decreased levels of muscular strength, movement and flexibility are associated with a high degree of injury. Research has also shown that most injuries occur in the final stages of rehearsals or appearances, when dancers are physically tired and fatigue usually causes a break in movement mechanics, which puts the dancer closer to a potential injury (Angioi, Metsios, Koutedakis, & Twitchelt, 2009).

The subject of this paper is injuries and prevention of injuries to dancers of contemporary dance. The aim of this paper is to determine the frequency and manner of getting injured of the dancers of contemporary dance.

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Methods

An empirical method was applied in the study, using a survey called: Injuries in Contemporary Dance. The survey was taken from other sports (Augustsson, Augustsson, Thomee, & Svantesson, 2006), but adapted to the sample of this research.

Survey consisted of two parts. The first part included questions regarding the age and gender, as well as anthropometric data: height (cm) and weight (kg). The second part included 17 questions regarding dancing, other physical activities, weekly number of classes, as well as information about dancers’ injuries – moment of occurrence, type of injury, localization, as well as period of absence after injury.

The research sample consisted of contemporary female dancers from dance schools “Dance Fac- tory” and “Dance Station” (n = 38), with an average age of ± 22.5 years. All respondents were in the training process minimum two years. The weekly training volume was at least two training sessions of 1.5 hours per week. The survey was conducted with the respondents who gave their voluntary consent to the realization of the test. In the case of minor children, parental consent was required.

All data collected by the survey were processed in the program ‘Excel’ by method of descriptive statistics, and all obtained results were statistically processed and given in percentage.

Results

Survey results from the area of socio-demographic characteristics and anthropometric status indicate that the average age of dancers is 22.5 ± 7.5 years. The height of the dancers is 167 ± 11 cm and the weight is 59.5 ± 13.5 kg.

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics and anthropometric status

Respondents min. max. average Years 15 30 22,5 Height (cm) 156 178 167 Weight (kg) 46 73 59,5

Only those female respondents who were injured during their dancing career were included in the analysis of the response results. Out of the 38 respondents, 32 (80%) had at least one injury.

To the first question in the survey “How long have you been doing contemporary dance?” the female dancers answered 9.5+ 8.5 years on average. 25 (78%) dancers gave a positive answer to the second question “Have you done any other dance before”? To the third question ‘’ How long have you been dancing? Dancers responded on average 12 + 8 years. To the fourth question.

‘’How many training sessions per week do you have? On average 4 + 2 sessions per week was the answer. To the fifth question ‘’ How much time do you spend in the gym during training? The answer is 3.25 + 1.57 hours. To the sixth question “Do you do any other activities besides dancing?” 17 of them (53%) answered yes.

To the eighth question ‘’ Have you felt symptoms-pain before you were injured? ‘’ 11 dancers (34%) answered yes.

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Table 2. Average survey response values

Num Question Answer How long have you been doing contem- 1 porary dance? 9,5±8,5 years Yes No 2 Have you done any other dance before? 78% 22% Answer 3 How long have you been dancing? 12±8 years

How many training sessions per week Answer 4 do you have? 4±2 training

How much time do you spend in the Answer 5 gym during training? 3,25±1,57 hours

Do you do any other activities besides Yes No 6 dancing? 53% 47% Beginning Middle End Never 7 When did you get hurt? 18% 53% 28% 1%

Have you felt symptoms-pain before Yes No 8 you were injured? 34% 66% Shoes for char- Soles for dance Soft trainers Other 9 In which situation did you get injured? acter dance and gymnastics 19% 0% 44% 38% Fall Support Streching On the floor Slipping 10 How did the injury come? 38% 0% 13% 25% 13%

Were you in contact with other dancers Yes No 11 when the injury occurred? 16% 84%

Neck Shoulder Arm Back Hip Groin Knee Ankle Foot Toes 12 Which part of the body was injured? 20,4% 16% 6% 0% 9% 6% 22% 22% 9% 9%

Contu- Inflam- Strain Fracture sion mation Other 13 Type of injury? 63% 9% 16% 0% 16% Left side Right side 14 Localisation of injury? 44% 56% Yes No 15 Were you able to finish the traning? 50% 50% More than 4 From 2 to 4 Less than 2 Less tnan 1 No time off How much were you absent from injury weeks weeks weeks week 16 due the injury? 19% 22% 19% 0% 44%

Do you still have trouble dancing be- Yes No 17 cause of injury? 50% 50%

Figure 1 shows the percentage of student injury time. The obtained results show that the smallest number of injuries occurred at the beginning of exercise or performance on stage.

Figure 1. The time when injury occurred

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Figure 2 shows data on the occurrence of injuries depending on the footwear. The results show that the greatest number of injuries occurred in the answers “other”, which include dancing bare feet and in socks. Also, many responses were “soles for dance and gymnastics” which confirmed the research to date.

Figure 2. Percentage of injury relative to the type of footwear the dancers wore

The classification of the activities that resulted in the injury is as follows and is shown in Figure 3. The most injuries occurred during landings after jumping and performing movements on the floor, which is logical because of the characteristic jumps and movements on the floor in contemporary dance.

Figure 3. Display of the type of activity that preceded the injury

To the 11th question ‘’ Were you in contact with other dancers when the injury occurred? ‘’ 5 dancers (16%) gave positive answers, which shows that most injuries occur when dancers make movements alone.

The classification of injuries according to location is shown in Figure 4. From the results presented it can be seen that the locations of the injured parts of the body coincide with the locations from the previous researches.

Figure 4. Location of injuries

When it comes to the type of injury, most dancers have had a problem with strained muscles. Figure 5 shows the type of injury to the dancers.

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Figure 5. Type of injury

To the fourteenth question “Location of the injury” in terms of whether it was left or right side, 18 (56%) answered that it was right side and 14 (43%) left side. After the injuries, half of the dancers were able to continue and complete the training session, the performance on stage, while the other half were unable to do so. Figure 6 shows how long the dancers have been absent from training sessions. When it comes to the last question “Do you still have difficulty playing because of your injury?” Half said yes and half did not.

Figure 6. Time off after injury

Discussion

The results of the research showed that 80% of the female respondents from the ‘’Dance Factory’’ and ‘’Dance Station’’ schools had at least one injury, which shows that the risk of their occurrence is considerable in the modern world. The analysis of the obtained data confirmed that the highest number of injuries (53%) occurs in the middle of the class - performance. When it comes to training, most dancers get injured while dancing in socks, bare feet, and shoes for dancing and gymnastics. Dancing in said training and bare feet is dangerous because it does not give any support to the ankle and therefore injuries are more possible. According to the results obtained, the highest number of injuries occurs during landing after the jump (38%) and when performing movements on the floor (25%), which is not unusual because contemporary dance has characteristic jumps and movements on the floor. According to the research done so far and the nature of the injuries suffered by the dancers, the pain of the legs, specifically the hips, knees, lower legs pain, ankles and feet are the most common problem and the most common injuries among the dancers, which is confirmed by the results of this research. More than half of the injuries were caused by straining the muscles. Half of the dancers due to injury were unable to exercise for at least two weeks, and some injuries required a much longer recovery, which is in line with the results of previous researches (Bowling, 1989).

Conclusion

The data obtained indicate that injuries in contemporary dance are common and that dancers become susceptible to injury very early. The data show that contemporary dance is a demanding physical ac-

244 UDK: 793.3:616-001 tivity that causes a large number of injuries and it is necessary to pay attention to their preventive measure. One of the measures relates to the analysis of the training process, in order to see at what stages of the micro cycle the injuries occur. In addition, it is necessary to adequately train dance trainers on injury prevention, where particular attention should be paid to the introductory-preparatory phase of training, intensity and volume of training (to avoid excessive fatigue), stretching exercises, technically correct movement, proper preparation of performance of floor exercises as well as jumping.

References

1. Angioi, M., Metsios, G.S., Koutedakis, Y., & Twitchelt, E. (2009). Physical Fitness and Severity of Injuries in Contemporary Dance. Medical problems of performing artists, 24(1), 26-29. 2. Augustsson, S., Augustsson, J., Thomeé, R., & Svantesson, U. (2006). Injuries and preventive actions in elite Swedish volleyball. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 16(6), 433-440. 3. Бановић, Д. (2006). Повреде у спорту. Београд: Драслар партнер. 4. Bowling, A. (1989). Injuries to dancers: prevalence, treatment, and perceptions of causes. BMJ: Brit- ish Medical Journal, 298(6675), 731. 5. Janev Holcer, N., Pucarin Cvetković, J., Mustajbegović, J., i Žuškin, E. (2012). Ples kao činbenik rizika za ozlijede i razvoj profesionalnih bolesti. Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju, 63(2), 239-245. 6. Lampe, J., Groneberg, D.A., Borgetto, B., Ohlendorf, D., & Wanke, E.M. (2019). Assessment of musculoskeletal pain in dance focusing on dance – style related differences. The Physician and Sports medicine, Published online: 17 May 2019, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00913847.2019.1613120 7. Malkogeorgos A., Zaggelidis G., Mavrovouniotis F., & Ciucurel C. (2011). Journal of Physical Educa- tion and Sport. Common dance related musculoskeletal injuries, 11(3), 259. 8. Peterson, L., Renström, P., & Grana, W. A. (1986). Sports injuries: their prevention and treatment: Year Book Medical Publishers. 9. Russell, J. (2013). Preventing dance injuries: current perspectives. Opet Access Journal od Sports Medicine, 4(default), 199-210. https://doi.org/ 10.2147/OAJSM.S36529

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INCIDENCA POVREĐIVANJA PLESAČA SAVREMENOG PLESA

Marta Ćirković1; Sanja Mandarić2; Branka Marković2 1 Univerzitetski sportski savez Beograda, Beograd, Srbija 2 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Savremeni ples nastao je u trenutku kada većina koreografa i plesača s početka 20. veka klasičan balet posmatra u negativnom svetlu zbog njegovih pravila i strogih ograničenja. Savremeni ples predstavlja spoj više plesnih trendova plesanja, koji za cilj ima povezivanje uma i tela kroz slivene plesne pokrete. Suština plesa ogleda se u slobodi izvođenja pokreta i individualne interpretacije plesača. Pored navedenog, jedna od karakteristika savremenog plesa su naglašene emocije i raznovrsni pokreti. Pokrete odlikuje česta promena težišta tela, zatim savijanja u zglobu kolena, pretkloni, započinjanje kretanja u prostoru jednim delom tela, raznoliki skokovi sa neobičnim doskocima, kao i pokreti u sedećem i ležećem položaju koristeći Zemljinu težu. Savremeni ples se često izvodi bosim nogama, a kada je muzika u pitanju, može se izvoditi na različite muzičke stilove.

Bez obzira na stil plesanja, plesači se bave dugotrajnim svakodnevnim treninzima, praćenim probama tokom kojih su izloženi velikim fizičkim naporima. Savremeni ples zahteva planiranje i pripremanje u vidu koreografija, njihovog uvežbavanja, izvođenja na sceni, kao i pripremu za različita takmičenja. Sve ove aktivnosti zajedno povećavaju fizičko opterećenje igrača pa samim tim zahtevaju dobru fizičku pripremljenost. Shodno tome, specifičnost plesne tehnike, neadekvatan plesni prostor, kao i fizički napori kojima su izloženi plesači utiče na pojavu povreda (Janev Holcer, Pucarin Cvetković, Mustajbegović, i Žuškin, 2012; Russell, 2013). Sportske povrede su najčešći medicinski problem kod svih vrsta plesača i zbog toga je jako važno raditi na njihovom saniranju kao i na pripremi plesača.

Sportske povrede, u širem smislu, predstavljaju one povrede koje su se dogodile prilikom bilo kakve sportske aktivnosti, a u užem smislu su one koje su tipične za pojedinu sportsku granu (Peterson, Renström, & Grana, 1986). Najčešći uzroci nastanka povreda su: nepažnja, umor, pretreniranost, korišćenje neadekvatne opreme, loši terenski uslovi, loša tehnika izvođenja i faktor predispozicije. Sportske povrede se mogu podeliti prema vrsti povrede i lokalizaciji povrede. Prema vrsti povrede dele se na: istezanje, kidanje mišićnih vlakana, istezanje ili kidanje ligamenata, istezanje ili kidanje tetiva mišića, iščašenje zglobova i prelome kostiju. Povrede prema lokalizaciji se dele u zavisnosti koji deo tela je povređen (Banović, 2006). Prema dosadašnjim istraživanjima i prirodi povreda koje zadobijaju plesači, bol nogu, konkretno kukovi, kolena, podkolenice, skočni zglobovi i stopala su najčešći problem i najčešće povrede meђu plesačima (Malkogeor- gos, Zaggelidis, Mavrovouniotis, & Ciucurel, 2011). Kada je u pitanju savremeni ples najčešće povrede su povrede stopala, članaka, kolena, prepona, leđa, vrata i ramena. Tako je u istraživanju, u kojem su rezultati prikupljeni pomoću upitnika, na uzorku od 81 plesača savremenog plesa ustanovljeno da su pored povreda donjih ekstremiteta i leđa, prisutne povrede vrata, ramena i laktova (Lampe et al., 2019).

U studiji u kojoj je cilj istraživanja bio povezanost fizičke spreme sa težinom povreda kod plesača savremenog plesa, ispitanici su prošli testove procene fitnesa (antropometrije, fleksibilnosti, mišićne snage i izdržljivosti, aerobni kapacitet) i upitnik o povredama u poslednjih 12 meseci. Istraživanje je pokazalo da su loši nivoi fizičke spreme uglavnom povezani sa nastankom povreda. Nedovoljan aerobni kapacitet je povezan sa umorom, koji zauzvrat može dovesti do oštećenja mišićno-koštanog tkiva. Smanjen nivo mišićne snage, kretanja i fleksibilnosti su povezani sa visokim stepenom povreda. Istraživanje je takođe pokazalo da se većina povreda desila u završnim fazama proba ili nastupa, kada su plesači fizički umorni, a umor obično uzrokuje prekid mehanike pokreta, što plesača postavlja bliže potencijalnoj povredi (Angioi, Metsios, Koute- dakis, & Twitchelt, 2009).

Predmet rada su povrede i prevencija povreda plesača savremenog plesa. Cilj rada je utvrditi učestalost i način povređivanja plesača savremenog plesa.

Metode

U istraživanju je primenjen empirijski metod, u kojem je korišćena anketa pod nazivom: „Povrede u savremenom plesu“. Anketa je preuzeta iz drugih sportova (Augustsson, Augustsson, Thomee, & Svantes- son, 2006), ali je prilagođena za uzorak ovog istraživanja.

Anketa se sastojala iz dva dela. Prvi deo odnosio se na podatke kao što su uzrast i pol, i osnovne

246 UDK: 793.3:616-001 antropometrijske podatke: visina (cm) i težina (kg). Drugi deo sadržao je 17 pitanja koja su se odnosila na bavljenje plesom, bavljenjem drugim fizičkim aktivnostima, nedeljni fond časova kao i povrede plesača - tre- nutak nastanka povrede, njihovu vrstu, lokalizaciju, kao i period odsustva sa treninga.

Uzorak ispitanika činile su plesačice savremenog plesa iz plesnih škola „Dance factory“ i „Dance station“ (n=38) prosečne starosti ± 22,5 godina. Sve ispitanice su bile u trenažnom procesu najmanje dve godine. Nedeljni obim treninga iznosio je najmanje dva treninga u trajanju od 1,5 časa nedeljno. Istraživanje je realizovano sa ispitanicima koji su dali svo dobrovoljni pristanak na realizaciju testiranja. Kod maloletne dece pristanak roditelja je bio obavezan.

Svi podaci prikupljeni istraživanjem obrađeni su u programu „Exel“ metodom deskriptivne statistike, a svi dobijeni rezultati statistički su obrađeni i procentualno opisani.

Rezultati

Rezultati istraživanja iz prostora socio-demografskih karakteristika i antropometrijskog statusa ukazuju da je prosečna starost plesačica 22,5 ± 7,5 godina. Visina plesačica iznosi 167 ± 11 cm, a težina 59,5 ± 13,5 kg.

Tabela 1. Socio-demografske karakteristike i antropometrijski status

Ispitanice min. max. prosek Godine 15 30 22,5 Visina (cm) 156 178 167 Težina (kg) 46 73 59,5

U analizu rezultata odgovora ušle su samo one ispitanice koje su tokom svoje plesačke karijere bile povređene. Od ukupno 38 ispitanica njih 32 (80%) je imalo bar jednu povredu.

Na prvo pitanje iz ankete „Koliko se dugo bavite savremenim plesom?“, plesačice su u proseku odgovorile 9,5±8,5 godina. Na drugo pitanje „Da li ste se ranije bavili nekim drugim plesom“ potvrdan odgov- or je dalo 25 (78%) plesačica. Na treće pitanje

„Koliko se dugo bavite plesom (igranjem)?“ plesačice su u proseku odgovorile 12±8 godina. Na čet- vrto pitanje „Koliko treninga nedeljno imate?“ u proseku iznosi 4±2 treninga nedeljno. Na peto pitanje „Koliko vremenski provodite u sali tokom treninga?“ iznosi 3,25±1,57 časova. Na šesto pitanje „Da li se bavite još nekom aktivnošću pored plesa?“ njih 17 (53%) je dalo potvrdan odgovor.

Na osmo pitanje „Da li ste i ranije pre povređivanja osećali neke simptome-bol?“ potvrdno je odgovorilo 11 (34%) plesača.

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Tabela 2. Prosečne vrednosti odgovora iz ankete

BR Pitanje Odgovor Koliko se dugo bavite savremenim ple- 1 som? 9,5±8,5 godina

Da li ste se ranije bavili nekim drugim Da Ne 2 plesom? 78% 22%

Koliko se dugo bavite plesom (igran- Odgovor 3 jem)? 12±8 godina Odgovor 4 Koliko treninga nedeljno imate? 4±2 treninga nedeljno

Koliko vremenski provodite u sali tokom Odgovor 5 treninga? 3,25±1,57 časova

Da li se bavite još nekom aktivnošću Da Ne 6 pored plesa? 53% 47% Na početku Na sredini Kraju Nikad 7 Kada ste se povredili? 18% 53% 28% 1%

Da li ste i ranije pre povređivanja osećali Da Ne 8 neke simptome-bol? 34% 66% U mekanim Cipelama za Nazuvicama Drugo 9 U kojoj situaciji ste se povredili? patikama karakterni ples 19% 0% 44% 38% Padom Podrške Rastezanje Na podu Iskliznuće 10 Kako je došlo do povrede? 0% 0% 13% 25% 13%

Da li ste bili u kontaktu sa drugim igrači- Da Ne 11 ma kada je došlo do povrede? 38% 84%

Vrat Rame Ruka Leđa Kuk Prep Kol Član Stop Prst 12 Koji deo tela je bio povređen? 20,4% 16% 6% 0% 9% 6% 22% 22% 9% 9% Isteg. Nagnj. Upala Prelom Drugo 13 Vrsta povrede? 63% 9% 16% 0% 16% Leva strana Desna strana 14 Lokacija povrede? 44% 56%

Da li ste mogli da završite nastup-tren- Da Ne 15 ing? 50% 50% Duže od 4 Od 2 do 4 Manje od 2 Manje od 1 Bez odsustva Koliko ste zbog povrede odsustvovali sa nedelje nedelje nedelje nedelje 16 treninga? 19% 22% 19% 0% 44%

Da li zbog povrede i dalje imate po- Da Ne 17 teškoća prilikom igranja? 50% 50%

Na grafikonu 1 prikazani su podaci vremena povreda plesačica prikazanih u procentima. Iz dobijenih rezultata se vidi da je najmanji broj povreda nastao na početku vežbanja odnosno nastupa.

50 na početku 40 sredini 30

20 kraju treninga-vežbanja, nastupa 10 0 procenat povreda

Grafikon 1. Vreme povrede plesačica

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Na grafikonu 2 prikazani su podaci nastanka povreda u zavisnosti od obuće. Iz dobijenih rezultata se vidi da je najveći broj odgovora „drugo“ koji podrazumeva nastanak povreda zbog plesa bosih nogu i u čarapama. Takođe veliki broj odgovora su bile „nazuvice za ples i gimnastiku“, što je potvrdilo dosadašnja istraživanja.

50 meke patike 40 cipele za karakterne igre 30 nazuvice za ples i 20 gimnastiku drugo 10

0 procenat povreda

Grafikon 2. Procenat povreda u odnosu na vrstu obuće koju su plesačice nosile

Raspodela aktivnosti prilikom koje je došlo do povrede je prikazana na grafikonu 3. Najviše povreda se dogodilo prilikom doskoka i izvođenja pokreta na podu što je i logično zbog karakterističnih skokova i pokreta na podu u savremenom plesu.

40 padom-prilikom doskoka 35 prilikom podrški 30 25 tokom rastezanja 20 15 na podu tokom 10 izvođenja pokreta 5 iskliznućem 0 drugo procenat povreda

Grafikon 3. Prikaz vrste aktivnosti koja je prethodila povredi

Na jedanaesto pitanje „Da li ste bili u kontaktu sa drugim igračima kada je došlo do povrede?“ potvrdno je odgovorilo 5 (16%) plesačica, što pokazuje da se većina povreda dešava kada igrači izvode kretnju sami. Raspodela povreda prema lokaciji prikazana je na grafikonu 4. Najčešće su povređivani koleno, članak kao i vrat što je karakteristično za plesače savremenog plesa.

25 vrat rame 20 ruka 15 leđa kuk 10 prepona

5 koleno članak 0 stopalo procenat povreda prsti

Grafikon 4. Lokalizacija povrede

Kada je u pitanju vrsta povrede najveći broj plesačica je imala problem sa istegnućem. Na grafikonu 5 je prikazana vrsta povrede plesačica.

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70 60 50 istegnuće nagnječenje 40 upala 30 prelom 20 drugo 10 0 procenat povrede

Grafikon 5. Vrsta povrede

Na četrnaesto pitanje „Lokacija povrede?“ u smislu da li je bila leva ili desna strana, njih 18 (56%) je odgovorilo da je desna strana bila povređena, a 14 (43%) leva strana. Nakon povreda polovina plesačica je mogla da nastavi i završi trening, nastup, dok druga polovina nije bila u stanju. Na grafikonu 6 je prikazano koliko dugo su plesačice odsustvovale sa treninga-vežbi. Kada je u pitanju poslednje pitanje „Da li zbog povrede i dalje imate poteškoća prilikom igranja?“ polovina je odgovorila da ima, a polovina plesačica da nema.

50 45 odsustvo duže od 4 nedelje 40 odsustvo 2-4 35 nedelje 30 odsustvo manje od 25 2 nedelje 20 odsustvo manje od 15 1 nedelje 10 bez odsustva 5 0 procenat povrede

Grafikon 6. Dužina odsustvo plesačica nakon povreda

Diskusija

Rezultati istraživanja su pokazala da je 80% ispitanica iz plesnih škola „Dance factory“ i „Dance station“ imalo bar jednu povredu što pokazuje da je rizik od nastanka istih u savremenom plesu izražen. Analizom dobijenih podataka utvrđeno je da se najveći broj povreda (53%) javlja na sredini časa – nastupa, što se razlikuje od rezultata koji su dobili Angioi i saradnici (2009). Kada je reč o obući najviše se plesači povređuje tokom igre u čarapama, bosih nogu i nazuvicama za ples i gimnastiku. Igranje u navedenoj obući i bosim nogama je opasna jer ne daje nikakvu potporu zglobu pa je samim tim povreda više moguća. Prema dobijenim rezultatima najveći broj povreda se javlja prilikom doskoka (38%) i prilikom izvođenja pokreta na podu (25%), što nije neobično jer savremeni ples sadrži karakteristične skokove i pokrete na podu. Prema dosadašnjim istraživanjima i prirodi povreda koje zadobijaju plesači, bol nogu, konkretno kukovi, kolena, podkolenice, skočni zglobovi i stopala su najčešći problem i najčešće povrede među plesačima (Malkogeorgos, Zaggelidis, Mavrovouniotis, & Ciucurel, 2011), što upravo i rezultati ovog istraživanja potvrđuju. Više od polovina povreda nastalo je istegnućem. Kod polovine plesača zbog povrede uzrokovalo je nemogućnost vežbanja najmanje dve nedelje, a neke povrede su zahtevale dosta duži oporavak što je u skladu sa rezultatima prethodnih istraživanja (Bowling, 1989).

Zaključak

Dobijeni podaci nam ukazuju da su povrede u savremenom plesu učestale i da su plesači podložni povredama. Podaci pokazuju da je savremeni ples zahtevna fizička aktivnost koja prouzokuje veliki broj povreda i da je neophodno obratiti pažnju na mere prevencije. Jedna od mera odnosi se na analizu trenažnog procesa, kako bi se uvidelo u kojim fazama mikro ciklusa su povrede nastale. Pored navedenog, potrebno je na adekvatan način osposobiti trenere kada je u pitanju prevencija povreda, gde posebno treba

250 UDK: 793.3:616-001 obratiti pažnju na uvodno-pripremnu fazu treninga, intenzitet i obim treninga (kako ne bi došlo do prevelikog zamora), vežbe rastezanja, tehničko pravilno izvođenje pokreta, adekvatnu pripremu uzvođenja vežbi na tlu kao i na izvođenje skokova.

Literatura

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ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE IN ORDER TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF TEACHING IN THE ARTHISTIC GYMNASTICS CLASSES

Milinko Dabović1; Marko Erak1; Ivana Čerkez Zovko2; Aleksandra Lakić1; Aleksandar Stefanović1 1 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia 2 University of Mostar; Faculty of science and education, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Introduction

Compulsory routines on the apparatus, make the outline of the practical part of the subject Theory and methodology of Artistic gymnastics (Radojević et all, 2011). At the same time, they are one of the most difficult segments of the exam. Execution of the compulsory routines on a gymnastic competition, proved to be a great mean of encouragement for the students (Dabovic, 2014). Beside that, judge’s scores serve as a valuable method of assesing the quallity of classes on the subject, and give valuable guidelines regarding the improvement of the named quality. One characteristic of how the gymnastic routine is scored, is that it is scored with two values. The first is „D“ score, and it represents the score for the difficulty of the gymnastic routine. It represents the added scores of difficulty for each of the gymnastic elements in it singularly (Butch- er et all, 2017). The second is „E“ score and it represents the score for the execution of the elements that compose the gymnastic routine. It shows how much the gymnast deviated from the perfect technique of the executed elements in the gymnastic routine. Practical classes on the subject of Theory and methodolgy of Artistic gymnastic, face many problems (Grbovic et all, 2008). Disbalance in the time needed to learn, and master the contents of the subject, come as a consequence of the mentioned problems. Differences between the scores for the routine difficulty, and execution as well as differences between the scores on different apparatuses, show the hardships that students face while mastering the contents from the subject’s program. One of the main goals of practical classes is the balance of it’s quality. That means, that there are no significant differences in the time needed to master the contents on the individual apparatus as well as between apparatuses. In that regard, the goal of this study was to determine what diferrence is there between „D“, and „E“ scores on the gymnastic competition, and is their total difference, and difference between apparatuses, significant. In accordance with the results of the study, it is expected that the guidelines for improving the quality of the classes on the subject Theory, and methodolgy of Artistic gymnastics, will show themselves.

Methods

The study was designed as a transversal experimental study, pragmatical by it’s philosophical des- ignation, meant for gathering of the relevant data that will objectively show the successfulness of students in the most demanding aspect of one of the most complex subjects on the Faculty of sports, and physical education on the Universtity of Belgrade. Because of the goal’s specificity, the study was conducted on the stratified sample that included all of the male students (N=66), that participated in the student’s competition in Artistic gymnastics in the year 2018/2019. From 92 students that attended the subject Theory and methodology of Artistic gymnastics, 72% of them were taken as a sample, or a little over two thirds of the total number. The rest of the 26 students could not be taken as a sample because they did not participate in the competition. In that regard, another characteristic that can be of significance when considering the generalization of the results, and their uses, can be given to the taken sample. The most successful students were taken as a sample so the results of the study can only correlate to that specific population of students, that are strictly male, on other conjugate faculties that have the similar program to the one on the subject of The- ory and methodology of Artistic gymnastics on the Faculty of sports and physical education on the University of Belgrade.

Twelve variables in total were used to evaluate the student’s successfulnes. They represent the values for routine difficulties, and executed vaults („D“ score), and the values for their execution („E“ score) on all of the six apparatuses in man’s Artistic gymnastics. Evaluation of difficutly, and execution was conducted by a jury of twelve independant judges (two on each apparatus), that are the members of Gymnastic association of Serbia, and licensed by the FIG (Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique) standards. Scoring was done on the offical students gymnastic competition in compulsory routines that was conducted on the last day of the school year. Judge’s scores were gathered from original, certified judge lists, and processed by standard statistical procedures. The central tendency of result distribution by values, is shown as a mean of

252 UDK: 796.41:378.6 won points, that is, judge’s scores. Result dispersion is shown by a standard deviation, and by the coefficient of variability. Statistical significance of differences between „D“ and „E“ scores for each apparatus individualy as well as between the apparatuses, was checked by a dependatnt t – test. The “SPSS Statistics 20” software package was used for statistical data processing. Results

The results of the descriptive analysis of the collected data, are shown in Table 1, and the results of the t-test of the significance of the differences between the statistical series, in Table 2. On all of the apparatuses, the respondents had the higher sum of scores for difficulty (FXD, PHD, RGD, VAD, PBD i HBD), than for their execution (FXE, PHE, RGE, VAE, PBE i HBE). These differences are such, that the mean of the lowest scores, obtained for the difficutly of the routine on the floor (FXD), is a whole point higher than the mean of the best scores obtained for routine execution on a pommel horse (PHE), if we exclude the scores on the high bar (PHD and PHE), which are on average three to four points lower than the scores on other apparatuses. Aside from being the lowest, scores on the high bar have the highest coefficient of variability which is three to four times higher than the coefficient of variability on the rest of the apparatuses.

Table 1. Descriptive analysis of competition results

N Min Max Mean Std. Error S D C V FXD 66 2.5 10.0 9.14 0.19 1.51 16.56 FXE 66 4.7 9.6 7.34 0.13 1.02 13.86 PHD 66 0.0 10.0 9.85 0.15 1.23 12.50 PHE 66 0.0 9.0 8.11 0.13 1.09 13.38 RGD 66 0.0 10.0 9.36 0.23 1.88 20.06 RGE 66 0.0 9.7 7.90 0.16 1.27 16.02 VAD 66 0.0 10.0 9.17 0.25 2.03 22.10 VAE 66 0.0 9.5 7.98 0.23 1.86 23.30 PBD 66 0.0 10.0 9.45 0.26 2.13 22.52 PBE 66 0.0 9.6 7.52 0.23 1.91 25.34 HBD 66 0.0 10.0 6.52 0.53 4.30 66.07 HBE 66 0.0 9.3 5.27 0.41 3.33 63.17

Differences between scores for the routine difficulty, and scores for their execution are statistically significant for each of the apparatuses.

Table 2. Results of the dependent t-test of the significance of differences in scores for the routine difficulty and scores for their execution

Paired Differences 95% Confidence Inter- Sig. Std. Std. Error t df Mean val of the Difference (2-tailed) Deviation Mean Lower Upper FXD - FXE 1.80 1.32 0.16 1.47 2.12 11.09 65 .000 PHD - PHE 1.74 0.44 0.05 1.63 1.85 31.77 65 .000 RGD - RGE 1.46 1.48 0.18 1.09 1.82 8.01 65 .000 VAD - VAE 1.20 0.58 0.07 1.05 1.34 16.85 65 .000 PBD - PBE 1.92 0.99 0.12 1.68 2.17 15.73 65 .000 HBD - HBE 1.24 1.60 0.20 0.85 1.64 6.33 65 .000

When comparing the mean values of scores obtained for the difficulty of the routines between apparatuses (Table 1), it is noticed that the best mastered routine was on pommel horse (PHD), that the routine on parallel bars (PBD), and circles (RGD) are somewhat less mastered. Even lower are the scores for vaults (VAD), and routines on the floor (FXD), and the already mentioned routine on the high bar (HBD) stands out the most, as the least mastered.

The sum of the obtained scores for the routine difficulty on the pommel horse is significantly higher

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than the sum of the obtained scores for the difficulty on all apparatuses except on the parallel bars (table 3). On the other hand, the sum of the obtained scores for routine difficulty on the high bar, is significantly lower than the sum of the obtained scores for routine difficulty on all apparatuses. Other apparatuses did not show a significant difference between the the sums of the obtained scores for routine difficulty.

Table 3. Results of an independent t-test of the significance of differences for the routine difficulty

Paired Differences 95% Confidence Inter- Sig. Std. Std. Error t df Mean val of the Difference (2-tailed) Deviation Mean Lower Upper FXD - PHD -.71 1.33 .16 -1.04 -.39 -4.36 65 .000 FXD - RGD -.22 1.90 .23 -.69 .25 -.94 65 .350 FXD - VAD -.04 1.93 .24 -.51 .44 -.16 65 .874 FXD - PBD -.31 2.67 .33 -.97 .35 -.94 65 .348 FXD - HBD 2.62 4.11 .51 1.61 3.63 5.18 65 .000 PHD - RGD .49 1.47 .18 .13 .85 2.72 65 .008 PHD - VAD .67 1.67 .21 .26 1.09 3.27 65 .002 PHD - PBD .40 2.49 .31 -.21 1.01 1.31 65 .195 PHD - HBD 3.33 4.54 .56 2.22 4.45 5.96 65 .000 RGD - VAD .18 2.31 .28 -.39 .75 .64 65 .524 RGD - PBD -.09 2.83 .35 -.79 .60 -.26 65 .795 RGD - HBD 2.84 4.74 .58 1.67 4.01 4.87 65 .000 VAD - PBD -.27 3.03 .37 -1.02 .47 -.73 65 .467 VAD - HBD 2.66 4.88 .60 1.46 3.86 4.43 65 .000 PBD - HBD 2.93 4.32 .53 1.87 3.99 5.51 65 .000

Comparing the means of the obtained scores for routine executions (table 1), it is noticed that the routine on the pommel horse is the best executed routine (PHE), little lower are values for the execution of the vaults (VAE), and routines on the still rings (RGE), even lower are the values for routine executions on the paralles bars (PBE), and on the floor (FXE), and the lowest by far are the values for routine execution on the high bar (HBE).

The sum of the obtained scores for the routine execution on the pommel horse is significantly higher when compared to the sum of the obtained scores for the routine execution on all apparatuses except for the scores for the vaults (table 4). Just like the analysis of the difficulties of the routines, it is noticed that the sum of the obtained scores for the routine execution on the high bar is significantly lower than the sum of the obtained scores for the routine execution on all other apparatuses. However, the sum of the obtained scores for the routine execution on the floor, is significantly lower than the sum of the obtained scores for the routine execution on all other apparatuses, except on the parallel bars, as well. Thus, the floor routine stands out as the second weakest routine executed at the competition.

Table 4. Results of an independent t-test of the significance of differences in scores for the routine execution

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PHE - PBE .59 2.00 .25 .10 1.08 2.39 65 .020 PHE - HBE 2.84 3.43 .42 2.00 3.68 6.73 65 .000 RGE - VAE -.08 1.86 .23 -.53 .38 -0.34 65 .731 RGE - PBE .38 1.99 .25 -.11 .87 1.54 65 .129 RGE - HBE 2.63 3.21 .40 1.84 3.42 6.65 65 .000 VAE - PBE .46 2.63 .32 -.19 1.10 1.41 65 .164 VAE - HBE 2.71 3.80 .47 1.77 3.64 5.79 65 .000 PBE - HBE 2.25 3.12 .38 1.48 3.02 5.86 65 .000

Insight into the curriculum of practical classes on the subject Theory and methodology of Artistic gymnastics, it is noticed that the program for the floor exercises was present on all 75 practical classes. The second most represented apparatus that was present in 45 practical classes is the high bar. Third are the parallel bars with 38 classes, while vault was present on 30 classes. The least represented apparatuses on the practical classes were still rings, and the pommel horse.

Graphic 1. Distribution of the number of classes for each apparuts individually

Discussion

The results of the study clearly show that there is a significant disproportion in academic efficiency of students when it comes to the curriculum of practical classes on the subject. Significantly better scores for the routine difficutly compared to the scores for their execution on all apparatuses, unequivocally show that the students are more focused on mastering the basics of the practical classes, that is, they want to be able to do the majority of the routines in the first place regardless of the quality of their execution. What causes this kind of resolution towards on of the most significant parts of practical classes is yet to be determined. It was determined with earlier studies (Dabovic, 2014), that participating in the gymnastic competition raises the students motivation, and encourages them to be more successful in this segment of the classes on the subject. Assuming that the motivation of respondents in this study was on a satisfactory level, it should be examined whether a larger number of classes or some other model of increasing the volume of practice of the program of practical classes would lead to an increase in academic efficiency in the segment of practical teaching in the subject, in one of the following studies.

The next problem indicated by the results of this research are significant differences between apparatuses, both in terms of the mastery of exercises, and routines, and in terms of their quality, that is the quality of the preformed technique. The biggest problem is represented by the elements on the high bar. Results indicate that the students have mastered the elements on this apparatus the weakset by far. Not only that the number of mastered elements is the lowest but the quality of their execution is on a low level as well. One of the reasons for such poor results on the high bar, could be the number of classes in which the exercise program on this apparatus is represented. After floor exercises, excercise program on the high bar is represented on the majority of the classes which testifies to the fact that the teachers on the subject are aware of the fact that the high bar exercise program is demanding. However, it is likely that an even greater number of classes in which the high bar exercise program would be represented, could lead to an increase in performance on this apparatus. The results of the floor exercises also point towards this way of thinking. Even though the scores for the floor exercises are the second weekest in this study, those scores are significantly higher than the scores for routine difficutly and their execution on the high bar. One of the reasons could be

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a significantly higher number of classes, in which the program of exercises on the floor was represented. The results achieved on the pommel horse, point towards a whole different way of thinking. The scores for routine difficulty, and their execution were the best in this study, but the excercise program was represented on the least number of classes. The cause of such results could be the excercise program on the pommel horse. Exercise program on this apparatus, especially the competition routine, consists of probably the least demanding elements from the program of practical classes on the subject. On the other hand, the difficutly of the competition routine on the high bar is increased due to the hight of the apparatus which causes an increase in the student’s anxiety while executing the routine. In that regard, the contents of practical classes on some of the apparatuses should be reassessed, and consider the possibillity of balancing them.

Considering that the program of practical classes on the subject Theory and methodology of Artistic gymnastics, consists of exercises that are an integral part of the physical education program for primary, and secondary schools, the results of this research suggest thinking in that direction as well. Namely, the sample of respondents in this research consists of physical education students who have passed at least two rounds of selection. In the first round of selection, which is the entrance exam for enrollment on the faculty, one of the tasks was the gymnastics range. Participation in the competition in compulsory routines can be considered the second round of selection. If performing the exercises on the high bar and on the floor is a problem for such a sample, then elementary, and high school students will find it even harder to master these exercises. If numerous problems that accompany the teaching of physical education (Radojević, 1996) are added to that, all the difficulties in the realization of the content from Artistic gymnastics within the teaching of physical education classes become more understandable.

Conclusion

The program of practical classes on the subject Theory and metodology of Artistic gymnastics, is not equally demanding on all of the apparatuses. Even with the increased number of classes determined for mastering the elements on the high bar, they are the least mastered segment of practical classes. On the other hand, contents on the pommel horse are the best mastered even though the least number of classes were determined for them. It is necessary to reassess the contents of the practical classes on certain apparatuses, and consider the possibillities of balancing them or procuring a larger number of classes so the efficiency of mastering the contents on the high bar increases.

Rererences

1. Butcher, S., Liping, H., Tomita, H., Soo Han, Y., Marcos-Felipe, J., Albrecht, H., Mickevics, A., Tanskanen, J. (2017): Code of Points: Mens Artistic Gymnastics Federation Internationale de Gymnastique. 2. Dabović, M. (2014): Uticaj podsticanja na efikasnost nastave Teorije i metodike sportske gimnastike. Doktorska disertacija. Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd. 3. Grbović, M., Dabović, M., Vukašinović, V., Radojević, J. (2008): Osposobljenost iz vežbi na spravama i problemi realizovanja nastave na Fakultetu sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Teorijski, metodološki i metodički aspekti fizičkog vaspitanja“. Zbornik apstrakata, str. 50. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. Beograd, 11-12. decembar 2008. 4. Radojevič, J. (1996): Vežbe na spravama i sportska gimnastika u programima za osnovne i srednje škole. Fizička kultura, 50(4), str 287 - 298 5. Radojević, J., Vukašinović, V., Grbović, M., Dabović, M. (2011): Teorija i metodika sportske gimnastike – drugi deo: praktična nastava i priprema za rad u školi. Univerzitet u Beogradu. Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd 6. Vukašinović, V., Grbović, M., Dabović, M., Radojević, J. (2009): Problemi u realizovanju programa vežbi na spravama i tlu u osnovnim i srednjim školama u Smederevu. Međunarodna naučna konferencija „Teorijski, metodološki i metodički aspekti fizičkog vaspitanja“. Zbornik radova, str. 295- 300. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. Beograd, 11-12. decembar 2008.

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ANALIZA TAKMIČARSKE USPEŠNOSTI STUDENATA U CILJU PODIZANJA KVALITETA NASTAVE NA PREDMETU SPORTSKA GIMNASTIKA

Milinko Dabović1; Marko Erak1; Ivana Čerkez Zovko2; Aleksandra Lakić1; Aleksandar Stefanović1 1 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija 2 Sveučilište u Mostaru, Fakultet prirodoslovno-matematičkih i odgojnih znanosti, Mostar, Bosna i Hercegovina

Uvod

Obavezni sastavi na spravama, čine okosnicu programa praktične nastave na predmetu Teorija i metodika sportske gimnastike (Radojević i saradnici, 2011). Istovremeno, to je i jedan od najzahtevnijih segmenata ispita na ovom predmetu. Izvođenje obaveznih sastava na takmičenju, pokazalo se kao značajno sredstvo podsticanja studenata (Dabović, 2014). Pored toga, sudijske ocene kao validna i pouzdana metoda spoljašnje procene kvaliteta praktične nastave, daju nastavnicima dragocene smernice u cilju povećanja njenog kvaliteta. Jedna od karakteristika ocenjivanja gimnastičkih sastava jeste, da se svaki sastav ocenjuje sa dve ocene. Prva, odnosno „D“ ocena, jeste ocena za težinu sastava, odnosno ukupan zbir vrednosti po- jedinačnih vežbi (Butcher et all, 2017) koje taj sastav čine. Druga, odnosno „E“ ocena, predstavlja ocenu za samo izvođenje vežbe. Ona se odnosi na to kako je vežbač izveo vežbe i sastav u celini, odnosno koliko je bilo odstupanje od idealne tehnike izvođenja sastava. Praktična nastava iz sportske gimnastike na studijama fizičkog vaspitanja povezana je sa brojnim problemima (Grbović i saradnici, 2008). Kao posledica, javlja se neuravnoteženost u savladavanju sadržaja iz programa praktične nastave. Razlike između ocena za težinu sastava i za njegovo izvođenje, kao i razlike u ocenama po spravama, ukazuju na poteškoće sa kojima se studenti sreću prilikom savladavanja programa praktične nastave. Jedan od glavnih ciljeva praktične nastave je uravnoteženost njenog kvaliteta. Pod tim se podrazumeva da nema značajnih razlika u savladavanju programa, kako unutar sprava, tako i po spravama. Shodno tome, cilj ove studije bio je da se utvrdi kolika je razlika između „D“ i „E“ ocena na takmičenju i koliko je njihova razlika značajna ukupno i po spravama. U skladu sa rezultatima istraživanja, očekivano je da će se ukazati smernice za poboljšanje kvaliteta nastave na predmetu Teorija i metodika sportske gimnastike.

Metode

Istraživanje je dizajnirano kao transverzalna eksperimentalna studija, pragmatična po filozofskom odredjenju, namenjena prikupljanju relevantnih podataka, koji bi objektivno pokazali kakva je uspešnost studenata u jednom od najzahtevnijih aspekata jednog od najkompleksnijih nastavnih predmeta na Fakultetu sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu. Zbog specifičnosti cilja, istraživanje je sprovedeno na stratifikovanom uzorku u koji su ušli svi studenti muškog pola (N=66), učesnici studentskog prvenstva u sportskoj gimnastici, u školskoj 2018/19 godini. Od ukupno 92 studenta muškog pola koji su u školskoj 2018/19 godini prvi put slušali Teoriju i metodiku sportske gimnastike, u uzorak je ušlo približno 72 % ili nešto više od dve trećine. Preostalih 26 studenata nisu mogli ući u uzorak, jer nisu ni učestvovali u takmičenju. Samim tim, uzorku se može pripisati još jedna osobina značajna za mogućnost uopštavanja rezultata is- traživanja i njihovu primenjivost. Naime, u uzorak su ušli uspešniji studenti, pa se rezultati istraživanja mogu odnositi samo na takvu populaciju studenata, isključivo muškog pola, na srodnim fakultetima, čiji se program praktične nastave sportske gimnastike ne razlikuje značajno od programa Teorije i metodike sportske gimnastike na Fakultetu sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu.

Ukupno 12 varijabli korišćeno je za procenu uspešnosti studenata. One predstavljaju ocene za težinu sastava, odnosno težinu izvedenog preskoka („D“ ocena) i ocene za njihovo izvođenja („E“ ocena) na svakoj od šest sprava muškog gimnastičkog višeboja. Procenu težine sastava i njihovog izvođenja izvršio je nezavisni sudijski žiri od 12 članova (po dvojica na svakoj spravi) koji su činile sudije Gimnastičkog saveza Srbije, licencirane po propozicijama FIG – e (Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique). Ocenjivanje je obavljeno u okviru zvaničnog Prvenstva studenata u obaveznim sastavima, održanog poslednjeg nastavnog dana u školskoj godini. Sudijske ocene su prikupljene iz originalnih, overenih sudijskih listi i obrađene stan- dardnim statističkim procedurama. Centralna tendencija raspodele rezultata po varijablama, prikazana je srednjom vrednošću osvojenih bodova, odnosno sudijskih ocena. Disperzija rezultata prikazana je standardnom devijacijom i koeficijentom varijabilnosti. Statistička značajnost razlika između „D“ i „E“ ocena za svaku disciplinu (spravu) ponaosob, kao i između disciplina, proverena je zavisnim t-testom. Za statističku obradu podataka korišćen je „SPSS Statistics 20“ softverski paket.

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Rezultati

Rezultati deskriptivne analize prikupljenih podataka prikazani su u tabeli 1, a rezultati t-testa znača- jnosti razlika između statističkih serija u tabeli 2. Ispitanici su na svim spravama imali veći zbir osvojenih bodova za težinu sastava (varijable FXD, PHD, RGD, VAD, PBD i HBD), nego za njegovo izvođenje (varijable FXE, PHE, RGE, VAE, PBE i HBE). Te razlike su tolike da je srednja vrednost najslabijih ocena, dobijenih za težinu sastava na tlu (FXD), veća za čitav bod od srednje vrednosti najboljih ocena dobijenih za izvođenje sastava na konju sa hvataljkama (PHE), ako izuzmemo ocene na vratilu (PHD i PHE), koje su u proseku za tri do četiri boda niže od ocena na ostalim spravama. Osim što su daleko najniže, ocene na vratilu imaju i najveći koeficijent varijabilnosti, koji je tri do četiri puta veći od koeficijenta varijabilnosti ocena na ostalim spravama.

Tabela 1. Deskriptivna analiza rezultata takmičenja

Razlike između ocena za težinu sastava i ocena za njihovo izvođenje su statistički značajne za svaku od disciplina, odnosno na svakoj od sprava (tabela 2).

Tabela 2. Rezultati zavisnog t-testa značajnosti razlika u ocenama za težinu sastava I njihovo izvođenje

Kada se uporede srednje vrednosti bodova osvojenih za težine sastava po spravama (tabela 1), zapaža se da je najbolje savladan sastav na konju sa hvataljkama (PHD), da su nešto slabije savladani sastavi na paralelnom razboju (PBD) i krugovima (RGD), još slabije preskoci (VAD) i sastav na tlu (FXD), a da se već pomenuti sastav na vratilu (HBD) najviše izdvaja i to kao najslabije savladan.

Zbir bodova osvojenih za težinu sastava na konju sa hvataljkama, značajno je veći od zbira bodova za težinu na svim spravama izuzev na paralelnom razboju (tabela 3). S druge strane, zbir bodova osvojenih za težinu sastava na vratilu, značajno je manji od zbira bodova osvojenih za težinu na svim spravama. Ostale discipline, odnosno sprave, međusobno se ne razlikuju značajno po zbiru bodova osvojenih za težinu.

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Tabela 3. Rezultati nezavisnog t-testa značajnosti razlika u ocenama za težinu sastava

Upoređivanjem srednjih vrednosti bodova osvojenih za izvođenje sastava (tabela 1), zapaža se da je sastav na konju sa hvataljkama i najbolje izvođen sastav (PHE), da su nešto slabije izvedeni preskoci (VAE) i sastav na krugovima (RGE), još slabije sastavi na paralelnom razboju (PBE) i tlu (FXE), a ponovo daleko najslabije je izvođen sastav na vratilu (HBE). Zbir bodova osvojenih za izvođenje sastava na konju sa hvataljkama, značajno je veći u odnosu na zbir bodova za izvođenje na svim spravama osim na preskocima (tabela 4). Kao i u analizi težine sastava, zapaža se da je zbir bodova osvojenih za izvođenje sastava na vratilu značajno manji od zbira bodova za izvođenje sastava na svim ostalim spravama. Međutim, zbir bodova za izvođenje sastava na tlu, takođe je značajno manji od zbira bodova osvojenih za izvođenje svih ostalih sprava, izuzev paralelnog razboja. Time se sastav na tlu izdvaja kao drugi najslabije izveden sastav na takmičenju.

Tabela 4. Rezultati nezavisnog t-testa značajnosti razlika u ocenama za izvođenje sastava

Paired Differences 95% Confidence Inter- Sig. Std. Std. Error t df Mean val of the Difference (2-tailed) Deviation Mean Lower Upper FXE - PHE -.77 1.39 .17 -1.12 -.43 -4.53 65 .000 FXE - RGE -.56 1.36 .17 -.90 -.23 -3.35 65 .001 FXE - VAE -.64 1.94 .24 -1.12 -.16 -2.68 65 .009 FXE - PBE -.18 1.76 .22 -.62 .25 -0.86 65 .396 FXE - HBE 2.07 3.24 .40 1.27 2.86 5.18 65 .000 PHE - RGE .21 .81 .10 .01 .41 2.13 65 .037 PHE - VAE .13 1.61 .20 -.26 .53 0.67 65 .502 PHE - PBE .59 2.00 .25 .10 1.08 2.39 65 .020 PHE - HBE 2.84 3.43 .42 2.00 3.68 6.73 65 .000 RGE - VAE -.08 1.86 .23 -.53 .38 -0.34 65 .731 RGE - PBE .38 1.99 .25 -.11 .87 1.54 65 .129 RGE - HBE 2.63 3.21 .40 1.84 3.42 6.65 65 .000 VAE - PBE .46 2.63 .32 -.19 1.10 1.41 65 .164 VAE - HBE 2.71 3.80 .47 1.77 3.64 5.79 65 .000 PBE - HBE 2.25 3.12 .38 1.48 3.02 5.86 65 .000

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Uvidom u plan i program praktične nastave na predmetu Teorija i metodika sportske gimnastike, zapaža se da je program vežbi na tlu bio zastupljen na svih 75 časova praktične nastave. Sledeća disciplina, odnosno sprava koja je bila zastupljena u drugom po obimu, paketu od 45 časova, jeste vratilo. Treći po obimu časova je paralelni razboj, sa 38 časova, dok su preskoci bili zastupljeni na 38 časova. Najmanji obim praktične nastave, po 28 časova izdvojen je za krugove i konja sa hvataljkama.

Grafikon 1. Raspodela broja časova za svaku spravu pojedinačno

Diskusija

Rezultati istraživanja jasno pokazuju da postoji značajna nesrazmera u akademskoj uspešnosti studenata kada je u pitanju program praktične nastave na predmetu. Značajno bolje ocene za težinu sastava u odnosu na ocene za njihovo izvođenje na svim spravama, nedvosmisleno pokazuju da studenti poklanjaju značajno veću pažnju osnovnom savladavanju programa praktične nastave, odnosno da im je prvenstveno bitno da ovladaju izvođenjem što više vežbi, bez obzira na kvalitet, odnosno tehniku izvođenja. Šta je uzrok takvog njihovog ophođenja prema jednom od najznačajnijih aspekata nastave na predmetu, tek treba utvrditi. Ranijim istraživanjima (Dabović, 2014), utvrđeno je da učešće na takmičenju povećava motivisanost studenata i podstiče ih na veću uspešnost u ovom segmentu nastave. Polazeći od pretpostavke da je mo- tivacija ispitanika i u ovom istraživanju bila na zadovoljavajućem nivou, u nekom sledećem istraživanju bi trebalo ispitati da li bi veći broj časova ili neki drugi model povećanja obima uvežbavanja programa praktične nastave, doveo do povećanja akademske uspešnosti u segmentu praktične nastave na predmetu.

Sledeći problem na koji ukazuju rezultati ovog istraživanja jesu značajne razlike po disciplinama, odnosno spravama, kako u pogledu usvojenosti vežbi i sastava, tako i u pogledu kvaliteta, odnosno tehnike njihovog izvođenja. Najveći problem predstavlja program vežbi na vratilu. Rezultati pokazuju da su studenti daleko najslabije savladali program vežbi na ovoj spravi. Ne samo da je savladan najmanji broj vežbi, već je i kvalitet njihovog izvođenja na veoma niskom nivou. Jedan od uzroka ovako slabih rezultata na vratilu bi mogao biti broj časova na kojima je zastupljen program vežbi na ovoj spravi. Posle vežbi na tlu, vežbe na vratilu su zastupljene na najvećem broju časova, što svedoči o tome da su nastavnici na predmetu svesni činjenice da je program vežbi na vratilu zahtevan. Međutim, postoji verovatnoća da bi još veći broj časova na kojima bi program vežbi na vratilu bio zastupljen, mogao dovesti do povećanja uspešnosti. Na razmišljanja u ovom pravcu upućuju i rezultati ostvareni u izvođenju sastava na tlu. Iako je sastav na tlu drugi najslabije ocenjen u ovom istraživanju, te su ocene značajno bolje od ocena za težinu i izvođenje sastava na vratilu. Jedan od razloga bi mogao biti i značajno veći broj časova, na kojima je program vežbi na tlu bio zastupljen. Rezultati ostvareni u disciplini konj sa hvataljkama upućuju na razmišljanja u sasvim drugačijem pravcu. Ocene na ovoj spravi su bile najbolje, kako za težinu sastava, tako i za njihovo izvođenje, a program vežbi na ovoj spravi je bio zastupljen sa najmanjim fondom časova. Uzrok ovakvih rezultata bi mogao biti sam program vežbi na konju sa hvataljkama. Program vežbi na ovoj spravi, pogotovo takmičarski sastav, čine verovatno najmanje zahtevne vežbe iz programa praktične nastave na predmetu. S druge strane, na zahtevnost vežbi koje čine takmičarski sastav na vratilu, utiče i visina sprave, tako što uzrokuje povećanu anksioznost kod studenata u toku njihovog izvođenja. U tom smislu, trebalo bi preispitati sadržaje praktične nastave na pojedinim spravama i razmotriti mogućnosti njihovog uravnoteženja. Obzirom da program praktične nastave na predmetu Teorija i metodika sportske gimnastike čine vežbe koje su i sastavni deo programa fizičkog vaspitanja za osnovnu i srednje škole, rezultati ovog is- traživanja upućuju na razmišljanja i u tom pravcu. Naime, uzorak ispitanika u ovom istraživanju čine studenti fizičkog vaspitanja koji su prošli najmanje dva kruga selekcije. U prvom krugu selekcije, koji predstavlja prijemni ispit za upis na studije, jedan od zadataka je bio i gimnastički poligon. Drugim krugom selekcije se može smatrati učešće na takmičenju u obaveznim sastavima. Ako izvođenje vežbi na vratilu i tlu, predstavlja

260 UDK: 796.41:378.6 problem ovakvom jednom uzorku, onda će učenicima osnovne i srednjih škola biti još teže da ove vežbe savladaju. Ako se tome dodaju i brojni problemi, koji prate nastavu fizičkog vaspitanja (Radojević, 1996), sve poteškoće u realizaciji sadržaja iz sportske gimnastike u okviru nastave fizičkog vaspitanja, postaju razuml- jivije.

Zaključak

Program praktične nastave na predmetu Teorija i metodika sportske gimnastike nije jednako zahtevan na svim spravama. I pored povećanog fonda časova za uvežbavanje sadržaja na vratilu, oni su najslabije savladani segment programa praktične nastave. S druge strane, sadržaji na konju sa hvataljkama su najbolje savladani, iako je za njihovo savladavanje izdvojen najmanji fond čsova. Potrebno je preispitati sadržaje praktične nastave na pojedinim spravama i razmotriti mogućnosti njihovog uravnotežavanja ili mogućnosti obezbeđivanja većeg fonda časova, kako bi se uspešnost u savladavanju sadržaja na vratilu povećala.

Literatura

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GLOBAL SCHEME FOR LEARNING SPORTS OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES

Vladimir Miletić1; Boban Milojković2; Milorad Marković3; Željko Rajković1 1 University of Belgrade - Faculty of sport and physical education, Belgrade, Serbia 2 University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies, Belgrade, Serbia 3 Gendarmery, Republic of Serbia Ministry of Interior, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

Observing at both training and adoption, as well as the application of sports Outdoor activities, one can emphasize the clear view that this is a complex and unique area of physical culture, and this complexity is given to it by the following reasons: • The first reason is because it encompasses a large number of sports-programming content, movement activities and skills necessary to master the challenging terrain and special geospatial elements of reliefs and waters; • the second reason is because of the variety of these contents and the specificity observed according to a number of different criteria (ambient conditions, modes of movement, use of technical equipment, etc.); • the third reason would be because of the very “nature” of Nature in which these activities are performed. That is, the need to understand its laws and the general (settled) phenomena that govern it, and most often directly affect the outcome of performing all these activities.

To put it simply, when considering the topic of Outdoor activities, it is first of all necessary to place Nature as the basic category (from which) everything starts and (in which) everything takes place. This breadth, complexity and added complexity comes from the simple knowledge that Nature encompasses everything that exists on our planet except for what man has done with his own hands (Petrovic, 1982).

At the outset, it should be pointed out that the topic of Nature Activities covers two general categories: 1. program contents (MOVEMENT ACTIVITIES) and 2. unavoidable structure of organizational procedures and skills (ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVI- TIES).

Organizational procedures and activities are understood as “space” of spatial preparation and organization necessary for visiting and staying in field conditions, while neglecting its specific cause. As the topic of the paper is not narrowly focused on the consideration of complex organization (Miletic, Miletic, Rajkovic, 2016), further in the text will not delve deeper into this segment of Outdoor Activities, but it should certainly be mentioned because of its representation in this complex system. Fieldwork can be seen as a separate entity (entity), otherwise it involves a series of pre-determined steps, established according to the principles of the functioning of the military system (Tсу, 2004). Depar- tures to planned destinations with the necessity to move the basic elements of logistics: technical equipment, accommodation, water, food, etc. (Милетич, Райкович, Йотов, 2019), are often unimaginable without the use of various means of transportation necessary for the realization of the journey (Гордић, 2019). This is just another attachment, the mention of which influences the further steps of complicating this already largely complex category, which has been explained earlier with the presentation of content so far. The field of Outdoor activities, as can be inferred, consists of a series of educational procedures, and many of these activities are integrated into specific social structures, depending on their specific needs, geared towards the efficient performance of dedicated tasks (armed forces, security structures, special and rescue forces services, etc.). Being the subject of nature activities, they have a specific methodology for training consisting of: learning about the natural environment (GENERAL), learning about a specific environment (SPECIFIC) and learning about moving activities. This presentation of the structure of an object broadens the picture of complexity and complexity, but the essential idea of a concrete work is to portray its simplicity on the other hand, which will make it easier to understand and organize its presentation.

Methods

The method of theoretical analysis of the content of scientific and professional literature was used, as well as a causal method with systematization of professional experiences and insights of the authors. The

262 UDK: 796.5.015.1 information was treated with a cybernetic, mathematical and innovative approach, on the basis of which the smallest common content of a complex methodology for training Outdoor activities was defined.

Results and discussion

By presenting the concepts conceived, cyber-mathematical solutions were obtained: the Pyramid Concept and the Global Scheme for Training Outdoor activities. The concept and scheme encompass all procedures, disciplines and categories through the conceptual representation and integration of all emergent elements.

The Global training scheme for sports outdoor activities has emerged as a form of “matrix” that would make it easier to organize a theoretical concept, primarily to create an idea of the complexity. Through the matrix it is possible to establish and develop plans and programs for training activities in nature, regardless of the narrow direction of this specialization. Set up as a matrix concept, it is practically created as the smallest common container for all the contents covered. Essentially, the idea of displaying a matrix is to reduce, through its existence, training methodologies to a minimalist concept, which will make training itself simpler and more efficient (Милетич, 2018), and thus easier to adopt and continue to teach. The solution offered is so conceptualized that it is current and follows a modern approach to training, which can be viewed in the form of sophisticated methodology, which is in accordance with modern trends and the time of rapid collection, analysis and acquisition of a large amount of information.

The examples from the practice so far have shown that there is no single unit that could unite all the contents in one place, and for this reason this system is taken into account, through which this problem would be practically realized and “broken down” into at least parts of it. complex jigsaw puzzles.

“The Pyramidal Concept of the Educational Process and the Application Outdoor Activities”

The general process of training moving and organizational content with performance in nature can be represented, more broadly, through a simple mathematical, and narrower, through a geometric concept - the Concept of the Pyramid (Figure 1). The pyramid as a specific geometric body, thanks to its three-dimensional shape, is designed in such a way that it most adequately depicts the hierarchical relationship of established elements.

The Pyramid concept presented in the segment at the very top, as it can be observed, places man as one of the users of Nature. The use of nature is manifested through its application of sports and organizational content Activities in Nature.

The other segment of the pyramid that man relies on is sports. The systematization of these contents and activities is inspired by the thinking of Empedocles, through the philosophical power of understanding nature (Јовановић, 2011), presented through the essential elements categorized according to the place of performance: on earth, on (in) water and in the air. The aim of the created systematization was to obtain from the “sports chaos” an “order of physical culture” which makes it easier to find the place of all sports facilities (Miletić, 2010). To this degree, sufficient knowledge is directed toward improving a person’s psycho-physical performance through adequate training, ie technical preparation for the performance of the aforementioned contents, but inevitably both the motor and functional abilities contained in them (Schurman and Schurman, 2008). Through these two segments, it is practically possible for one trained person to independently engage in certain activities within the Nature Activities for which he is specifically qualified. The next segment, covered in its entirety with the previous two, is a somewhat more complex system, namely the system of organization of departure and stay in nature, which refers to the previous two segments and which is practically “carried” above itself. This segment, thanks to the knowledge of the basic types of organization, makes it possible to complete a single whole. In this segment, the competencies of a quality organizer, a connoisseur of program content, and a person who deals with them are best noticed. In order to carry out more thorough preparations and elevate the organizational segment to another higher level, the organizer needs the elementary knowledge of the covered scientific disciplines integrated into every detail of being in nature. These scientific disciplines include: • knowledge of the laws of the functioning of the atmosphere physics, meteorology, where it is important to understand the connection between meteorological elements, weather phenomena and their causes (Simović, 1970); • then, when “using” nature after its “abandonment”, an ecologically balanced state of the environment should be left behind (Вуруна, Бакрач, Љешевић, Милановић, 2012), that is, nature should be left without permanent traces left by visitors / users (Harmon, 1997 );

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• knowledge of the biological characteristics of the sites to be visited and where the sports facilities will be performed (Weigel, 2000); and • unavoidable geographical characteristics of the terrain as one of the primary tasks of getting acquainted with the place where all planned contents will reside and be performed.

Knowledge of all these scientific disciplines greatly facilitate the analysis and operationalization required to make important decisions in both the organizational and applied systems of living in nature, relying on basic principles of command (Kreveld, 1992), that is, complex management and control of the organizational process. All the above scientific, or rather auxiliary, disciplines are firmly grounded in the most important last degree, which is at the same time the base placed at the very bottom of the pyramid, which is Nature with all its laws. Between nature, as the most important element and man, as its user, hierarchically located at the very top, there is everything that is necessary for the unhindered pursuit of human activities in nature according to all safety, environmental and organizational principles. Looking at the segmental pyramidal set-up, it might be most logical and natural to consider an inverse, inverted pyramid in which man would be at the bottom and nature at the top, because only such a hierarchy would be both chronologically and ethically correct.

Figure 1. Pyramid Setting of the Educational Process Outdoor Activities

Setting up the concept of “Global Training Schemes for Outdoor Activities”

In addition to the Pyramid Concept, the system for training sports activities in nature will be presented through the Global Scheme for Training Outdoor Activities (Figure 2), which visually covers its entire content. This scheme also consists of the factors already mentioned - categories, analyzed in the Pyramid Concept, and for this reason it will not be re-discussed in detail.

In this presentation, familiarity with nature and all its laws, as a general category, will be presented through the largest comprehensive square set as the base (1) in Figure 2. In this case, the base is taken identically as in the Pyramid Concept, where Nature is the basic category to which all other factors analyzed were relied upon. This is the most logical setting for a simple reason, because it is a problem oriented towards activities realized in nature.

Within this base, all other elements of the “organizational puzzle” are pervading, among which is included a specific category, namely the ambience and terrain (polygon) (2), within which activities in nature are applied.

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The ambient environment is viewed in such a way that within it the appreciable deviations in the vertical and horizontal directions are shown through directional arrows. • According to this idea, vertical deviations according to the logic of things are observed through all those changes made in specific conditions of the natural environment, which rule for example at high altitudes, in hypoxic conditions, taking into account the appearance of temperature and pressure gradients (Милетич, 2018), while in an identical way, it encounters completely different extremes expressed in high values of hydrostatic pressure at greater depths and all other conditions characteristic of the aquatic environment.

• For horizontal deviations, latitudes and longitudes are represented, where changes are viewed through geographical and climatic aspects. These aspects imply conditions in the arid regions on the one hand, and the other side may be extremes with high rainfall, low temperatures, etc. In this segment, the importance of studying specific geosystems such as taiga, tundra, steppe steppes, po- lar regions, etc. is given importance. (Cristopherson, 2012). This segment covers general analysis through all the above aspects and as such cannot be viewed in isolation.

It is interesting to note that the aforementioned features of the terrain and the environment should be respected, because of the unavoidable element directed towards the process of adaptation and survival of man. Survival should certainly be a mandatory part of the training of all nature visitors and is considered as a (non) planned organizational structural element of nature stay (Miletić, 2011). The aforementioned extreme terrain-ambient conditions are such that nature makes selection, apparently “not wanting” for an unadapted person to survive and master it (Ančić, Popović, 1973).

Moving activities or sports content (3) have their own laws, which imply a specific training methodology, which depends most on all the factors listed above. All the mentioned elements directly affect the movement, equipment, use of additional technical equipment, use of auxiliary equipment and everything else.

The intersection of the categories described above will be done through the organization required for departure and stay in nature, and is meant by each type, more precisely the type of stay, viewed from a time point of view (Miletic, 2011), which most often includes logistics (B). The logistics element is presented in the form of an arrow (vector), which logically depicts movement, that is, travel as an essential element that enables a further step of the content application. Without travel to remote areas, it would not be possible to realize a plan characteristic of Nature Activities. This claim points to the high values of the importance of movement with complete logistics in the global planning system.

When staying in the field, the organizer should have a number of additional scientific disciplines in addition to the home region. The more disciplines involved in the organizational aspect, the higher the efficiency and effectiveness of work and stay in the field where there is no room for error in the event that significant decisions need to be made. This is a well-established principle recognized in the warfare strategy, the principle of the importance of knowing the terrain and the conditions that govern it, described through the ancient art of waging war (Тсу, 2004). These scientific disciplines include and are a factor of safe and efficient movement and stay in the field - orientation movement, as one of the basic components of exploring geospatial (Милојковић, 2009); ecological principles, demographic and cultural characteristics, knowledge of basic techniques of field medicine (Auerbach, 2011) and all other components crucial for the planning process.

The aforementioned ancillary scientific disciplines and general knowledge are presented with “connection elements”, which interconnect all three established categories in the Scheme. These elements are shown as shaded (gray) parts of Scheme (A), linking categories vertically, which would be virtually without them separate entities levitating over one another without a tight connection, which in this case should by no means represent option. The reason for this is the long-standing practice in the field of sports and technical education linked by multidisciplinarity, which is reinforced by integrated elements without which it would not have adequate strength in further application. Essentially, all activities carried out in nature are desirable to be enhanced by a system of ancillary sciences.

This also places the field of physical culture in such a position that no other scientific and professional disciplines could be imagined without its presence (synergistic effect), as confirmed by training and applications: research, armed forces, ecology, forestry, biology, geology as well as many other applied field activities.

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Figure. 2. Global scheme for training sports outdoor activities.

The Global scheme, when viewed through an orthogonal aspect with a top view, is identical to the pyramidal shape with fewer segments (category). In this concept, man is not taken into account as a category, but is subordinated to the whole presented system, because it manages it, and gives him full right to use all available resources, thanks to his knowledge and skills used for the positive uses of nature. The factors contained within the system of the Global Sports Outdoor Activities Training Scheme in Figure 2, in addition to the text description above, will be further shown below (Table 1), which practically represents its annex. The table summarizes all the factors covered, necessary to make it easier to understand the Scheme’s existence. The conceptual design of the Scheme is designed and created according to a simple minimalist concept integrated into the field of physical education (Милетич, 2018).

Table 1. Table view of all the elements contained in the Global Scheme for Training Sports Outdoor Activities shown in Figure 2

Conceptual representation Integrated element

• General hazards, Nature • geographical characteristics, 1 as a general category • bilogical characteristics, • meteorological characteristics,

• Specific hazards, Ambient • ambient conditions that are inherently variable and depend on a 2 Kategory as a specific category number of factors (latitude and longitude, altitude, depth, temperature, geomorphological details...),

• Specific movement technique, Activities 3 • dedicated equipment,

• Navigation, • ecological activities, Conecion elements A • demographic - cultural characteristics,

Discipline • knowledge of basic field medicine techniques,

• Organisation, B Traveling • logistic, • transport. Process

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Conclusion

The presented concepts for training sports outdoor activities were created primarily to help and facilitate all the organizers of the teaching process in understanding their complexity and thus try to reduce this complexity to a minimum sufficient to create a clear idea about them at the outset. It should be emphasized that concepts are presented, a common setting for all content and activities in nature and that they can provide all the necessary information for the process of creating curricula. Minimal deviations from the presented matrices have been taken into account when thinking about this problem and as such may be an option and concern specific specialties, which require a special approach to training. Globally, these discrepancies drastically affect changes in physiological functions in participants in activities, and the activity itself has an impact on the same, but also the conditions, which rule within the natural environment (Draper, Hodgson, 2008; Радаковић, 2015). However, this idea was created with the aim of solving the problem of work organized within the “largest classroom” for the training area (Miletić, 2011) or the “specific polygon” for the application area (Милетић, Тривун, 2014), which are located in the composition of the educational (training) process of physical culture, our environment, Nature! The importance of establishing the presented Global Training Scheme, and identifying all the factors contained therein, influences the quality of knowledge of educators and, consequently, the quality of the trained categories. At the very end, as the name implies, the Global Scheme was designed to go beyond the framework of the local environment and encompass the entire explored natural system of the planet Earth, which today, thanks to its extensive transport network and its means, has become much more accessible to everyone regardless to the distance of the target destinations.

References

1. Auerbach, S.P. (2011): Wilderness Medicine - 6. edition. Elsevier, Mosby. 2. Cristopherson, R. W. (2012): Geosystems - an introduction to physical geography - 8. edition. Pear- son, Glenview. 3. Draper, N., Hodgson, C. (2008): Adventure Sport Physiology. Wiley-Blackwell, New Jersey. 4. Harmon, W. (1997): Leave No Trace - Minimum Impact Outdoor Recreation. Helena Montana, Can- ada. 5. Kreveld, M.V. (1992). Komandovanje u ratu. Vojnoizdavački i novinski centar, Beograd. 6. Miletić, V. (2010). Sistematizacija i tehnologija pripreme sportskih aktivnosti u prirodi - master rad. Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd. 7. Miletić, V. (2011). IZLAZ, Iza otvorenih vrata. SIA, Beograd. 8. Miletić, V., Miletić, K., Rajković, Ž. (2016): Postupci organizacije edukativnog kampa. XII Međun- arodna konferencija: Obrazovanje u sportu. Fakultet za menadžment u sportu - “Alfa” BK Univerzitet. Zbornik radova. str. 29-38. 9. Petrović, G. (1982). Priroda. Ilustrovana enciklopedija. “Vuk Karadžić”, Beograd. 10. Schurman, C., Schurman, D. (2008). The Outdoor Athlete. Human Kinetics, UK. 11. Simović, A. (1970). Meteorologija. Udžbenik za pomorske škole i priručnik za pomorce. Školska knjiga, Zagreb. 12. Weigel, M. (2000). Encyclopedia of Biomes. UXL, Detroit. 13. Анчић, В., Поповић, М. (1973): Историја открића и истраживања - Последње границе Земље. ИРО ”Вук Караџић”, Београд. 14. Вуруна, М., Бакрач, С., Љешевић, С., Милановић, М. (2012): Заштита животне средине. Медија центар ”Одбрана”, Београд. 15. Гордић, М. (2019). Планирање, организација и реализација експедиција - На примеру експедиције ”У седлу до Монголије 2019”. Мастер рад. Факултет спорта и физичког васпитања Универзитета у Београду, Београд. 16. Јовановић, Ј. (2011). Сова, Велики породични лексикон. Младинска Књига, Београд. 17. Милетић, В., Тривун, М. (2014): Активности у природи у функцији развоја прекограничне сарадње - пример међународне школе алпинизма. Спорт и здравље IX, 2 (69-74). 18. Милетич, В. (2018). Методика на обучение по алпинизъм. Дисертация. Национална спортна академия ”Васил Левски”, София. 19. Милетич, В., Райкович, Ж., Йотов, Н. (2019): Престой и оцеляв природата разглеждан чрез формула на енергийна ефективност. Сборник с доклади от научна конференция ”Туризъм и спорт”. Катедра ”Туризъм, алпинизъм и ориентиране”, НСА ”Васил Левски”, София (стр. 99-107). 20. Милојковић, Б. (2009): Полицијска топографија. Криминалистичко-полицијска академија, Београд. 21. Радаковић, С.С. (2015). Адаптација на екстремне услове. Медија цетар ”Одбрана”, Београд. 22. Тсу, С. (2004): Умеће ратовања. Будућност, Нови Сад.

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GLOBALNA ŠEMA OBUČAVANJA SPORTSKIH AKTIVNOSTI U PRIRODI

Vladimir Miletić1; Boban Milojković2; Milorad Marković3; Željko Rajković1 1 Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija 2 Kriminalističko Policijski Univerzitet, Beograd, Srbija 3 Žandarmerija, Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Posmatranjem kako obučavanja i usvajanja, tako i aplikacije sportskih aktivnosti u prirodi, može se naglasiti jasno mišljenje da je to jedna kompleksna i jedinstvena oblast fizičke kulture, a tu kompleksnost joj daju sledeći razlozi: • Prvi razlog je zbog toga što obuhvata veliki broj sportskih-programskih sadržaja, kretnih aktivnosti i veština potrebnih za savladavanje zahtevnih terena i posebnih geoprostornih elemenata reljefa i akvatorija; • drugi razlog je zbog raznovrsnosti tih sadržaja i specifičnosti posmatrane prema nizu različitih kriterijuma (ambijentalnim uslovima, načinima kretanja, upotrebi tehničke opreme i dr.); • treći razlog bio bi zbog same ”prirode” Prirode u kojoj se izvode ove aktivnosti. Odnosno potrebe za shvatanjem njenih zakonitosti i opštih (ustaljenih) pojava koje u njoj vladaju, a najčešće i direktno utiču na ishod izvođenja svih ovih aktivnosti.

Najjednostavnije rečeno, kada se razmatra tematika Aktivnosti u prirodi, ispred svega potrebno je postaviti Prirodu kao bazičnu kategoriju (od koje) sve polazi i (u kojoj) se sve odvija. Ova širina, kompleksnost i dоdatno usložnjavanje proističe iz jednostavnog saznanja da Priroda obuhvata sve što postoji na našoj planeti izuzimajući ono što je sam čovek svojim rukama načinio (Petrović, 1982).

Na samom početku trebalo bi ukazati na činjenicu da tematika Aktivnosti u prirodi, obuhvata dve opšte kategorije: 1. programske sadržaje (KRETNE AKTIVNOSTI) i 2. nezaobilaznu strukturu organizacionih postupaka i veština (ORGANIZACIONE AKTIVNOSTI).

Pod organizacionim postupcima i aktivnostima podrazumeva se ”prostor” prostorne pripreme i organizacije potrebne za posetu i boravak u terenskim uslovima, pri tome zanemarujući njen konkretan uzrok. Kako tema rada nije usko usmerena na razmatranje kompleksne organizacije (Miletić, Miletić, Rajković, 2016), dalje u tekstu se neće zalaziti dublje u ovaj segment Aktivnosti u prirodi, ali je svakako neizostavno treba pomenuti zbog zastupljenosti u ovom složenom sistemu. Terenski rad moguće je posmatrati kao zasebnu celinu (entitet), a inače podrazumeva niz unapred određenih koraka, ustanovljenih prema prinicipima funkcionisanja vojnog sistema (Tсу, 2004). Odlasci do planiranih destinacija pri čemu se neizostavno javlja potreba za izmeštanjem osnovnih elemenata logistike: tehničke opreme, smeštaja, vode, hrane i dr. (Милетич, Райкович, Йотов, 2019), često su nezamislivi bez upotrebe različitih transportnih sredstava, neophodnih za realizaciju putovanja (Гордић, 2019). Ovo je samo još jedan prilog, čije pominjanje utiče na dalje korake usložnjavanja ove već uveliko kompleksne kategorije, koja je već ranije objašnjena sa dosadašnjim prikazom sadržaja.

Oblast Aktivnosti u prirodi, kako se može zaključiti sastoji se iz niza edukativnih postupaka, a dobar deo tih postupaka integrisan je u određene društvene strukture u zavisnosti od njihovih konketnih potreba, usmerenim prema efikasnom izvođenju namenskih zadataka (oružane snage, bezbednosne strukture, specijalne i spasilačke službe i dr.). Kako su predmet izučavanja aktivnosti u prirodi, iste imaju određenu metodologiju za obučavanje sastavljenu od: upoznavanja sa prirodnim okruženjem (OPŠTE), upoznavanja sa specifičnim ambijentom (SPECIFIČNO) i učenja o kretnim aktivnostima. Ovo predstavljanje strukture predmeta širi sliku kompleksnosti i složenosti, ali suštinska ideja konk- retnog rada je da sa druge strane prikaže njenu jednostavnost, zahvaljujući kojoj će se lakše shvatati i organizovati njegovo prezentovanje. Metod

U radu je korišćena metoda teorijske analize sadržaja naučne i stručne literature, kao i kauzalna metoda sa sistematizacijom profesionalnih iskustava i uvida autora. Informacije su tretirane kibernetičkim, matematičkim i inovacionim pristupom, na osnovu kojih je definisan najmanji zajednički sadržalac kompleksne metodologije obučavanja aktivnosti u prirodi.

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Rezultati sa diskusijom

Prikazom osmišljenih koncepata došlo se do kibernetičko-matematičkih rešenja: Piramidalnog koncepta i Globalne šeme obučavanja Aktivnosti u prirodi. Navedena rešenja obuhvataju postupke, discipline i kategorije kroz konceptualni prikazi i integraciju svih pojavnih elemenata.

Globalna šema obuke sportskih aktivnosti u prirodi nastala je kao vid ”matrice” po kojoj bi bilo lakše organizovati teorijski koncept, prvenstveno zbog stvaranja predstave o pomenutoj složenosti. Kroz matricu je moguće postaviti i izraditi planove i programe obučavanja aktivnosti u prirodi bez obzira prema kom se uskom pravcu kretala ta specijalizacija. Postavljena kao koncept matrice, praktično je kreirana u svojstvu na- jmanjeg zajedničkog sadržaoca za sve obuhvaćene sadržaje. Suštinski, ideja prikaza matrice je da se kroz njeno postojanje metodika obučavanja svede na minimalistički koncept, čime će sama obuka biti jednos- tavnija i efikasnija (Милетич, 2018), a samim tim lakša za usvajanje i dalje predavanje. Ponuđeno rešenje je tako koncipitrano da je aktuelno i da prati moderni pristup obučavanja, čime se može posmatrati u vidu usavršene metodike, koja je u skladu sa modernim trendovima i vremenu rapidnog prikupljanja, analiziranja i usvajanja velike količine informacija. Primeri iz dosadašnje prakse su pokazali da ne postoji ni jedna jedinstvena celina, koja bi mogla objediniti sve sadržaje na jednom mestu, te se iz tog razloga uzima u obzir ovaj sistem kroz koji bi se taj problem praktično realizovalo i ”razbio” na najmanje delove njegove kompleksne slagalice.

“Piramidalni koncept obrazovnog procesa i aplikacije Aktivnosti u prirodi”

Opšti proces obučavanja kretnih i organizacionih sadržaja sa izvođenjem u prirodi moguće je pri- kazati, šire, kroz jednostavni matematički, a uže, kroz geometrijski koncept - Koncept Piramide (slika 1). Piramida kao specifično geometrijsko telo zahvaljujući svom trodimenzionalnom obliku, koncipirana je na takav način da najadekvatnije prikazuje hijerarhijski odnos ustanovljenih elemenata.

Predočeni Piramidalni koncept u segmentu postavljenom na samom vrhu, kako se može uočiti postavlja čoveka kao jednog od korisnika Prirode. Upotreba prirode manifestuje se kroz njegovu aplikaciju sportsko-organizacionih sadržaja Aktivnosti u prirodi.

Drugi segment piramide na koji se oslanja čovek jesu sportski sadržaji. Sistematizacija ovih sadrža- ja i aktivnosti inspirisana je razmišljanjem Empedokla, kroz filozofsku moć poimanja prirode (Јовановић, 2011), prikazanom kroz esencijalne elemente kategorisane prema mestu izvođenja: na zemlji, na(u) vodi i u vazduhu. Cilj kreirane sistematizacije je bio da se iz jednog ”sportskog haosa” dobije ”red fizičke kulture” čime se jednostavnije pronalazi mesto svih sportskih sadržaja (Miletić, 2010). Do ovog stepena, sasvim je dovoljno znanje usmereno ka poboljšanju čovekovih psiho-fizičkih per- formansi putem adekvatne obuke, odnosno tehničke pripreme za izvođenje pomenutih sadržaja, ali neizostavno i motoričkih i funkcionalnih sposobnosti u njima sadržanih (Schurman, Schurman, 2008). Kroz ova dva navedena segmenta, praktično je omogućeno da se jedan obučen čovek samostalno bavi određenim aktivnostima iz sastava Aktivnosti u prirodi za koje je konkretno osposobljen.

Sledeći segment obuhvaćen u celini sa prethodna dva, predstavlja nešto složeniji sistem, tačnije sistem organizacije odlaska i boravka u prirodi, koji se odnosi na prethodna dva segmenta i koje praktično ”nosi” iznad sebe. Ovaj segment zahvaljujući poznavanju osnovnih tipova organizacije, omogućava komle- tiranje jedinstvene celine. U ovom se segmentu najbolje primećuju kompetencije kvalitetnog organizatora, poznavaoca programskih sadržaja, ujedno i čoveka koji se njima bavi. Da bi se mogle izvrišiti temeljnije pripreme, a organizacioni segment uzdignuti na još jedan viši nivo, organizatoru su neophodna elementarna znanja obuhvaćenih naučnih disciplina integrisanih u svaki detalj boravka u prirodi. Ove naučne discipline podrazumevaju: • poznavanje zakonitosti funkcionisanja fizike atmosfere, meteorologiju, pri čemu je važno dase shvati povezanost meteoroloških elemenata, vremenskih pojava i njihovih uzroka (Simović, 1970); • zatim da se pri ”upotrebi” prirode nakon njenog ”napuštanja”, treba ostaviti ekološki uravnoteženo stanje prirodne sredine (Вуруна, Бакрач, Љешевић, Милановић, 2012), odnosno da se priroda napusti bez trajnih tragova ostavljenih od posetilaca / korisnika (Harmon, 1997); • poznavanje bioloških karakteristika lokaliteta koji će se posetiti i na kojima će se izvoditi sportski sadržaji (Weigel, 2000) i • nezaobilazne geografske karakteristike terena kao jedan od primarnih zadataka upoznavanja sa mestom na kome će se boraviti i izvoditi svi planirani sadržaji.

Poznavanje svih navedenih naučnih disciplina dosta olakšavaju analizu i operacionalizaciju, potrebnu za donošenje bitnih odluka kako u organizacionom, tako i u primenjenom sistemu boravka u prirodi oslanjajući se na bazične principe komandovanja (Kreveld, 1992), odnosno složenog upravljanja i kon- trolisanja organizacionog procesa.

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Sve navedene naučne, tačnije pomoćne discipline, čvrsto su utemeljene na najvažnijem poslednjem stepenu, koji je ujedno i baza postavljena na samo dno piramide, a to je Priroda sa svim njenim zakonitostima. Između prirode, kao najvažnijeg elementa i čoveka, kao njenog korisnika, hijerarhijski smeštenog na samom vrhu, nalazi se sve što je neophodno za nesmetano bavljenje Aktivnostima čoveka u prirodi prema svim bezbednosnim, ekološkim i organizacionim principima. Posmatranjem segmentarne piramidalne postavke, možda bi najlogičnije i najprirodnije bilo razmatrati inverznu, obrnuto postavljenu piramidu u kojoj bi se čovek našao na dnu, a priroda na vrhu, jer samo takva hijerarhija bila bi i hronološki i etički najispravnija.

Slika 1. Piramidalna Postavka obrazovnog procesa Aktivnosti u prirodi

Postavka koncepta ”Globalne šeme obučavanja Aktivnosti u prirodi”

Sistem obučavanja sportskih aktivnosti u prirodi pored Piramidalnog koncepta biće predstavljen i kroz Globalnu šemu obučavanja Aktivnosti u prirodi (slika 2), na kojoj je vizuelno obuhvaćen njegov celokupni sadržaj. Ova šema se takođe sastoji iz već pomenutih faktora - kategorija, analiziranih u Piramidalnom konceptu pa se iz tog razloga neće ponovo detaljno razmatrati.

U ovom prikazu, upoznavanje sa prirodom i svim njenim zakonitostima, kao opštom kategorijom biće prezentovano kroz najveći sveobuhvatni kvadrat postavljen kao baza (1) na slici 2. U ovom slučaju je identično preuzeta baza kao u Piramidalnom konceptu, gde je Priroda osnovna kategorija na koju su oslon- jeni svi ostali analizirani faktori. Ovo je najlogičnija postavka iz jednostavnog razloga, zbog toga što se radi o problematici usmerenoj prema aktivnostima realizovanim u prirodi.

U okviru navedene baze prožimaju se svi ostali elementi ”organizacione slagalice”, među kojima je obuhvaćena specifična kategorija, tačnije ambijent i teren (poligon) (2), u okviru kog se primenjuju aktivnosti u prirodi. Ambijentalno okruženje posmatra se na taj način da su unutar njega uvažena odstupanja po verti- kalnom i horizontalnom pravcu prikazana kroz usmerene strelice. • Po ovoj ideji, vertikalna odstupanja po logici stvari, posmatraju se kroz sve one promene nastale u specifičnim uslovima prirodnog okruženja, koje vladaju na primer na velikim visinama, u hipoksičnim uslovima uz uvažavanje pojave temperaturnog gradijenta i gradijenta pritiska (Милетич, 2018), dok se na identičan način doživljava susretanje sa potpuno drugim krajnostima izraženim u visokim vrednostima hidrostatskog pritiska na većim dubinama i svim ostalim uslovima karakterističnim za vodeno okruženje.

• Kod horizontalnih odstupanja predstavljena su odstupanja u geografskim širinama i dužinama, gde

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su prikazane promene sagledane kroz geografske i klimatske aspekte. Pod ovim aspektima se podrazumevaju uslovi u aridnim oblastima sa jedne strane, a druga strana mogu biti krajnosti sa visokim vrednostima padavina, niskim temperaturama i dr. U ovom segmentu se daje na značaju izučavanju problematike specifičnih geosistema poput tajgi, tundri, nepreglednih stepa, polarnih oblasti i sl. (Cristopherson, 2012). Ovaj segment obuhvata opštu analizu kroz sve nabrojane aspekte i kao takvi ne mogu se posmatrati izolovano.

Interesantno je napomenuti da se navedene osobine terena i ambijenta trebaju uvažiti, zbog nezao- bilaznog elementa usmerenog ka procesu adaptacije i opstanka čoveka. Preživljavanje bi svakako trebalo biti obavezni deo obuke svih posetilaca prirode i smatra se (ne)planiranim organizacionim strukturnim elementom boravka u prirodi (Miletić, 2011). Navedeni ekstremni terensko-ambijentalni uslovi su takvi iz razloga što priroda pravi selekciju, očigledno ”ne želeći” da neadaptirani čovek u njima opstane i njome ovlada (Ančić, Popović, 1973).

Kretne aktivnosti ili sportski sadržaj (3) imaju svoje zakonitosti, koje podrazumevaju specifičnu metodiku obučavanja, koja najviše zavisi od svih prethodno nabrojanih faktora. Svi pomenuti elementi direktno utiču na kretanje, opremanje, upotrebu dodatne tehničke opreme, upotrebu pomoćnih rekvizita i sve drugo.

Presecanje gore opisanih kategorija izvršiće se kroz organizaciju potrebnu za odlazak i boravak u prirodi, a podrazumeva ga svaka vrsta, tačnije tip boravka, sagledan sa vremenskog aspekta (Miletić, 2011), koji najčešće uključuje i logistiku (B). Element logistike prikazan je u vidu strelice (vektora), koja logično pri- kazije kretanje, odnosno putovanje kao esencijalni element kojim je omogućen dalji korak aplikacije sadrža- ja. Bez putovanja u udaljene krajeve ne bi bilo moguće realizovati plan karakterističan za Aktivnosti u prirodi. Ova tvrdnja ukazuje na visoke vrednosti značaja kretanja sa kompletnom logistikom u sistemu globalnog planiranja.

Kod boravka na terenu organizator pored matične oblasti treba da poznaje više pomoćnih naučnih disciplina. Što je više disciplina uključeno u organizacioni aspekt, time je povećana uspešnost i efikasnost rada i boravka na terenu gde se ne ostavlja mesto za greške u slučaju da je potrebno doneti značajne odluke. Ovo je ustaljeni princip prepoznat još u strategiji ratovanja, princip važnosti poznavanja terena i uslova koji na njemu vladaju, opisan kroz drevno umeće vođenja rata (Тсу, 2004). Pod ovim naučnim disciplinama se podrazumeva i faktor je bezbednog i efikasnog kretanja i boravka na terenu - orijentaciono kretanje, kao jedna od osnovnih komponenti upoznavanja geoprostora (Милојковић, 2009); ekološki principi, demografsko - kulturološke karakteristike, poznavanje bazičnih tehnika terenske medicine (Auerbach, 2011) i sve druge komponente od krucijalnog značaja za proces planiranja.

Već ranije pomenute pomoćne naučne discipline i opšta znanja, prikazani su ”konekcionim elementima”, koji međusobno povezuju sve tri uspostavljene kategorije na Šemi. Ovi elementi su prikazani kao zasenčeni (sivi) delovi šeme (A), a povezuju kategorije po vertikali, a koje bi praktično bez njih, bile zasebni entiteti, koji levitiraju jedan iznad drugog bez čvrste povezanosti, što u ovom slučaju nikako ne bi trebalo predstavljati opciju. Razlog za ovo je dugogodišnja praksa iz oblasti sportsko-tehničke edukacije povezana multidisciplinarnošću, čime je pojačana integrisanim elementima bez kojih ne bi imala odgovarajuću snagu u daljoj aplikaciji. Suštinski, sve aktivnosti koje se sprovode u prirodi poželjno je da budu pojačane sistemom pomoćnih nauka.

Ovim se takođe oblast fizičke kulture stavlja u takav položaj, da ni druge naučne i stručne discipline ne bi mogle da se zamisle bez njenog prisustva (sinergički efekat), što potvrđuju obuke i aplikacije: istraživačke delatnosti, oružanih snaga, ekologije, šumarstva, biologije, geologije kao i mnoge druge primenjene terenske aktivnosti.

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Slika. 2. Globalna šema obučavanja sportskih Aktivnosti u prirodi

Globalna šema, kada se posmatra kroz ortogonalni aspekt sa pogledom odozgo, identično podseća na formu piramidalnog oblika sa manje segmenata (kategorija). U ovom konceptu, čovek kao kategorija nije uzet u obzir, već mu je podređen ceo predočeni sistem, jer njime upravlja, a daje mu puno pravo na korišćenje svih raspoloživih resursa, zahvaljujući njegovim znanjima i veštinama upotrebljenih u pozitivne svrhe korišćenja prirode.

Faktori sadržani unutar sistema Globalne šeme obučavanja sportskih Aktivnosti u prirodi sa slike 2, pored tekstualnog opisa iznad, dodatno će biti prikazani dalje u tekstu (tabela 1), koja praktično predstavlja njen aneks. U tabeli su sistematizovani svi obuhvaćeni faktori, neophodni za lakše shvatanje postojanja Šeme. Idejno rešenje Šeme, je osmišljeno i kreirano prema jednostavnom minimalističkom konceptu integri- sanom u oblast fizičkog vaspitanja (Милетич, 2018).

Tabela 1. Tabelarni prikaz svih sadržanih elemenata Globalne šeme obučavanja sportskih Aktivnosti u prirodi prikazanih na slici 2.

Konceptualni prikaz Integrisani element

• Opšte opasnosti, Priroda • geografske karakteristike, 1 kao opšta kategorija • biološke karakteristike, • meteorološke karakteristike,

• Specifične opasnosti, Ambijent • ambijentalni uslovi koji su sami po sebi promenljivi i zavise od niza fak- 2 kao specifična kategorija tora (geografske širine i dužine, nadmorske visine, dubine, temperature, Категорије geomorfoloških detalja...),

• Specifična tehnika kretanja, Aktivnosti 3 • namenska oprema,

• Orijentaciono kretanje, • ekološki principi, Konekcioni elementi A • demografsko - kulturološke karakteristike,

Discipline • poznavanje osnovnih tehnika terenske medicine,

• Organizacija, B Putovanje • logistika, • transport. Process

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Zaključak

Predočeni koncepti obučavanja sportskih aktivnosti u prirodi kreirani su prvenstveno da bi pomogli i olakšali svim organizatorima nastavnog procesa, oko shvatanja njihove kompleksnost i da time pokušaju svesti tu kompleksnost na minimum koji je dovoljan da se na samom početku o njima stvori jasna predstava. Treba naglasiti da su predstavljeni koncepti, zajednička postavka za sve sadržaje i aktivnosti u prirodi i da se na osnovu njih mogu dobiti sve neophodne informacije za proces kreiranja nastavnih planova i programa. Minimalna odstupanja od predočenih matrica uzeta su u obzir prilikom razmišljanja o navedenom problemu i kao takva mogu biti opcija i tiču se određenih specijalnosti, koje zahtevaju poseban pristup obuci. Globalno posmatrano, navedena odstupanja drastično utiču na izmene fizioloških funkcija kod učesnika u aktivnostima pri čemu i sama aktivnosti ima uticaj na iste, ali i sami uslovi, koji vladaju unutar prirodnog ambijenta (Draper, Hodgson, 2008; Радаковић, 2015). Kako god posmatrano, ova ideja je nastala sa ciljem da se razreši problem rada organizovan u okviru ”najveće učionice” za oblast obučavanja (Miletić, 2011) ili ”specifičnog poligona” za oblast aplikacije (Милетић, Тривун, 2014), koji se nalaze u sastavu obrazovnog (obučnog) procesa oblasti fizičke kulture, našeg okruženja, Prirode! Važnost uspostavljanja prikazane Globalne šeme obučavanja, i ustanovljavanje svih u njoj sadržanih faktora, utiče na kvalitet znanja edukatora, a konsekventno tome i na kvalitet obuča- vanih kategorija. Na samom kraju kako to i sam naziv ukazuje, Globalna šema, osmišljena je pored opisanog da prevaziđe okvire lokalnog okruženja i obuhvati celokupni istraženi prirodni sistem planete Zemlje, koji nam je danas, zahvaljujući razgranatoj transportnoj mreži i njenim sredstvima, postao svima mnogo dostupniji bez obzira na udaljenost ciljnih destinacija.

Literatura

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EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF PILATES HEALTH-PREVENTION PROGRAMMES ON THE MORPHOLOGICAL STATUS OF PHYSICALLY INACTIVE WOMEN

Nikolay Panayotov1; Nebojša Jotov2 1 National sports academy „Vasil Levski“, Sofia, Bulgaria 2 High school „Kirilo and Metodije“, Dimitrovgrad, Serbia

Introduction

The process of the development, maturation and aging of the female body takes place unevenly and at a different pace. Numerous morphological and functional changes take place in women aged 40-50. These are, above all, neuroendocrine transformational changes, changes in morphological space as well as other involutional changes of various systems and organs. Due to the reduction of metabolic functions, the functions of certain organs or systems of the organism weaken. Among other things, the reduction of metabolic functions affects the transformation of morphological characteristics of women in whom, above all, there is a deposition of fat deposits and changes in the bone and joint system. The morphological characteristics of the female organism differ significantly from the morphological status of men. An adult woman is generally shorter and weighs less than a man, has a relatively longer torso and shorter legs, absolutely and relatively narrower shoulders as well as relatively greater bicrystal and biacromial width compared to a man. A woman has almost all circumferences smaller, except the circumference of the thigh. A woman’s skeleton consists of bones that are somewhat shorter, thinner, more porous, and brittle (Juhas, 2011).

In order to achieve morphological changes, the management of transformation processes, above all, is aimed at reducing adipose tissue. The best way to modify body structure is to apply appropriate physical activity programs and manage them effectively. Changes in the morphological status of women, as a result of the application of different models of physical activity programs, are problems of numerous researchers. Ideas about conducting such experimental treatments may be related to the influence of morphological status on the health status of women (Jotov, 2018). Models of health-preventive programs aimed at optimizing the morphological status of women are intended to prevent obesity, intensify fat metabolism, reduce body fat and improve the psychosomatic state of women. One of the health-preventive recreational programs whose effectiveness has been repeatedly confirmed is the model of exercise program created by the German doctor, coach and athlete Josef H. Pilates (Craig, 2005). At the end of the last century, the Pilates method was perfected and widely applied. Namely, in the initial phase of the application of the program model, 34 exercises were applied, and nowadays about 500 exercises are being applied. The main impact of Pilates exercises is designed to develop physical abilities, flexibility, strength, balance, contribute to posture correction and improve the psycho-emotional state of program users (Selby & Herdman, 2000). Pilates exercises strengthen muscles, develop the respiratory system, balance function and correct morphological status. The exercises are aimed at the development of muscle strength, and above all at improving the condition of the abdominal and back muscles, developing joint mobility and improving elasticity. Pilates largely avoids high impact, high power output, and heavy muscular and skeletal loading.

The model of the health-preventive program of Pilates has been significantly improved lately, but the basic principles have remained relevant to this day. Bučkova and Lisickaja, (2005) in their work “Pilates - high class fitness” elaborate the basic principles of Pilates exercises: concentration and integration; central- ization with the help of re-examination of body control, visualization, coordination of good movement without pauses and stops, fluidity, proper breathing, regular training. According to Brooke, (2005) the Pilates method of exercise has several basic principles: concentration, control, center or core, consistency, breathing, imag- ination or visualization, intuition and naturalness, integration. The reasons that led us to deal with the problems of this study is the effect of transformation processes on the morphological status of sedentary women, as well as the possibility of comparing the results of morphological status of the respondents with other studies that treat this problem. The subject of the research are morphological characteristics (changes in measures of morphological status) of sedentary women, aged 40-50, under the influence of the health-preventive Pilates program. The research problem is the effect of the health-preventive Pilates program on the transformation of the morphological-physical structure of sedentary women. The aim of the research is to evaluate the effect of the health-preventive model of the Pilates program on the morphological-physical status of sedentary women.

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In order to achieve the set goal, it is necessary to realize the following research tasks:

T1: To determine the mean level and variability of morphological characteristics of women in the model of the health-preventive program of Pilates on the initial and final measurement; T2: To determine the degree of homogeneity of the experimental group; T3: To determine the degree of transformation of morphological characteristics of sedentary women on initial and final testing using the t-test;

The general hypothesis is defined as follows:

The application of the health-preventive Pilates program will lead to positive transformational changes in the morphological-physical status of sedentary women.

H1: The mean level and variability of the morphological status of women in the experimental treatment of Pilates at the initial and final measurement are approximately at the same level; H2: The tested Pilates experimental group represents a homogeneous set at both the initial and final measurements; H3: The application of the Pilates program will lead to a statistically significant difference in the morphological characteristics of the examinees at the initial and final testing.

Methods

The sample of our research consisted of 24 women, 40 to 50 years old. The average age of the respondents was 44.7. The respondents had to meet the following conditions: to lead a sedentary lifestyle, have no health problems, regularly participate in the Pilates program and to have voluntarily accepted to participate in the program. The experimental treatment was realized within one experimental group. The content of the experimental treatment is aimed at prevention, reduction of chronic fatigue and optimization of the morphological status of the examinees in order to improve the psychosomatic condition of sedentary women. The experimental model of the Pilates program consisted of selected exercises in accordance with the basic principles of the Pilates exercise method. The duration of the health-preventive Pilates program was 12 weeks, 3 times a week for 45 minutes. Measurement conditions - Testing and measurement of the morphological status and body composition of the respondents were performed in the morning in the office for sports recreation, which had appropriate microclimatic conditions. Instruments before testing the subjects were calibrated and are of standard construction.

Measurement organization - All tests of morphological and physical status were performed according to the principle of cells (4 subjects at each station). Each morphological characteristic was measured by one and the same person. The team that tested the morphological status of the respondents was composed of experienced weighers who have been doing morphological diagnostics for years. Measurement of morphological and body composition was performed before the start of treatment (initial measurement) and after the end of the program (final measurement). The sample of variables for the assessment of morphological status and body composition of sedentary women included 6 variables from the realm of morphological status and two variables from the area of body composition. The measurement of morphological characteristics of the subjects was performed using morphological anthropometry and we adhered to the recommendations of the International Biological Program (IBP). Measurement of body composition was performed by a standard procedure - using bioelectrical impedance (Body composition analyzer BC-418MA). Diagnosis of morphological status was performed using batteries of measuring instruments for diagnostics of morphological characteristics and body composition, and consisted of the following variables for evaluation of individual segments of morphological-body status of respondents: body height - AVIS; body weight - TM; Kettle Index - IC; waist circumference - SHARP; thigh circumference - ONDKL; chest mobility - PGK; body fat percentage - FAT%; percentage of muscle mass in the body - MMAS.

Based on the goal and subject of the research, we applied the following methods:

• content analysis method related to research of literature on the subject of research; • experimental method with one experimental group (Pilates group) in order to check the effect of the experimental factor. The experimental factor was realized within a three-month program (3 times a week x 45 min); • method of morphological diagnostics in order to determine and assess body dimensions; • statistical methods (a method of descriptive statistics that deals with describing and collecting data during research, t-test for dependent samples used to test the differences in the results from the initial and final measurement).

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Results

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistical indicators for all variables, as well as the results of the t - test.

Table 1. Basic central and dispersion indicators and differences on initial and final testing of morphological variables in the examined indicators

N Mean Min Max R SD S2 CV% t df p

I 24 165.12 158.20 169.40 11.20 2.96 8.76 1.79 AVIS / / F 24 165.12 158.20 169.40 11.20 2.96 8.76 1.79 I 24 72.50 55.76 84.32 28.56 6.51 42.38 8.98 TM -22.436 23 0.000 F 24 69.24 53.33 80.96 27.63 4.91 24.10 7.09 I 24 416.68 395.28 419.20 23.92 6.41 41.08 1.53 IK -11.994 23 0.000 F 24 411.27 390.10 415.20 25.10 5.91 34.92 1.43 I 24 80.77 74.70 92.71 18.01 8.34 69.55 10.32 OSTR -28.270 23 0.000 F 24 77.54 72.10 89.91 17.81 7.64 58.37 9.85 I 24 57.60 46.10 67.20 21.10 4.61 21.25 8.00 ONDKL -20.654 23 0.000 F 24 53.90 44.20 63.40 19.20 4.06 6.48 7.53 I 24 3.26 2.22 5.42 3.20 0.58 0.34 17.79 PGK 19.792 23 0.000 F 24 5.44 2.96 5.98 3.02 0.69 0.48 12.68 I 24 28.63 18.28 36.10 17.82 5.46 29.81 19.07 FAT% -20.333 23 0.000 F 24 26.69 18.10 33.50 15.40 5.49 30.14 20.56 I 24 29.36 27.60 32.84 5.24 3.46 11.97 11.78 MMAS 8.405 23 0.000 F 24 30.82 27.90 33.02 5.12 3.48 12.11 10.98

Legend: body height - AVIS (cm); body weight - TM (kg); Kettle Index - IR (g / cm); waist circumference - SHARP (cm); thigh circumference - ONDKL (cm); chest mobility - PGK (cm); body fat percentage - FAT%; percentage of muscle mass in the body - MMAS%; CV% -coefficient of variation; t-test; df-degree of freedom; p-degree of significance.

The dynamics of the results of the mean values for the variables body weight, Kettle index, waist circumference, thigh circumference and the percentage of fat in the body of the subjects show reduced values on the final test compared to the initial one. Descriptive indicators of mean values in the test of chest mobility and muscle mass content in the body of the subjects indicate increased values in the final test compared to the initial one. The values of the coefficient of variation on the initial and final measurement for all tested variables describe the group as homogeneous. Testing the differences between the initial and final treatment of the effects of the applied program (Pilates) of the examined variable shows a statistically significant difference and a level of significance of p <0.05 for all variables with the exception of body height. The dynamics of the results of the morphological-physical status of the respondents shows the optimization of the morphological dimensions of the respondents.

Discussion

Changes in morphological and physical characteristics after the application of the experimental program are evident in all variables with the exception of the variable body height (AVIS). Having in mind that the growth of the examinees was completed, there were no changes in this variable, after the treatment. The development of longitudinal dimensionality in the respondents was completed keeping in mind the age, and as longitudinal dimensionality is under extremely great genetic influence, it is difficult to expect that a certain sports-recreational activity can change anything in that respect. The obtained results of body height are in accordance with the research of Fedorova, who investigated the transformation processes of morphological characteristics of women aged 30-50 in two different programs of aqua aerobics and Pilates (Fedorova, 2012).

The obtained results of measuring this longitudinal dimensionality - height in the examined sample are in accordance with the results of the research by Mikalački (Mihalački, 2010).

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When it comes to the variable body weight in the applied Pilates model in this study, looking at the t-test, we notice a significant statistical difference (improvement - weight loss of 3.26 kg; t = 22.436; p = 0.000). The obtained results are close to the results obtained by Zrnić (Zrnić, 2012). Fedorova obtained similar results in her research (Fedorova, 2012). When it comes to the results of the Kettle index (KI), we notice a statistically significant difference between the results of the initial and final measurement of (t = 11.994; p = 0.000). The obtained results are close to the results obtained by Fedorova (Fedorova, 2012).

The analyzed results of the dimensionality of the waist circumference between the initial and final measurements in the applied exercise program show a significant decrease in the waist circumference of the respondents (-3.23; t = 28.270; p = 0.000). Insight into the results of the t-test of the thigh circumference shows a significant statistical difference (t = 20.654; p = 0.000). If we analyze the mean values of the volume, we conclude that there was a decrease in volume of 3.7 cm. The obtained results of the average value of the thigh circumference are in accordance with the Beissmann study (Beissmann, 2010). Inspecting the results of the t-test for the variable chest mobility on the final test, we notice a significant statistical difference (improvement of 2.18 cm; t = 19.792; p = 0.000). The obtained results for chest mobility (PGK) of the respondents are in accordance with the research of Fedorova (Fedorova, 2012). The dynamics of the percentage of fat content in the body (FAT%) show reduced values on the final test, and the results of the t-test show that after the experimental treatment there were statistically significant changes (decrease of 2.34%, t = 20.333; p = 0.000) . the obtained results of our research are close to the obtained results of Fedorova and Zrnić (Fedorova, 2012; Zrnić, 2011).

The tested differences in the results between the initial and final measurement in the variable body composition - percentage of muscle mass (MMAS%) show a statistically significant difference between the initial and final testing (t = 8.405; p = 0.000). The inspection of arithmetic means also indicates that the respondents had better results on the final measurement (improvement of 1.26%). The results of our research, when it comes to MMAS%, are close to the results of Fedorova’s research (Fedorova, 2012). The increase in muscle mass volume was achieved by applying the appropriate training treatment.

The obtained results of our research of morphological characteristics of the examinees are the result of a programmed training process, as a result of which there were positive transformations of the morphological status of sedentary women. The disadvantage of this study is the fact that the research was conducted on one experimental group, but we believe that the results obtained regarding the effect of experimental treatment of Pilates can be compared with the results of the same or similar programs conducted on a similar sample. Conclusion

Based on the analyzed results of the research of morphological characteristics of the respondents as presented so far, we can report the following conclusions:

• the applied health-preventive program Pilates is a good tool for optimizing the morphological status of women who lead a sedentary lifestyle; • the results of quantitative changes between the initial and final testing of morphological space variables show a significant statistical difference to the level of significance p <0.05 in all tested variables, except for the variable body height; • The obtained results of our research were compared with the obtained results of quantitative changes in the morphological status of respondents of the same age (40-50) with similar researches of other authors.

References

1. Beissmann, Ž., Škrinjarić Z., Psihistal,Z (2010). Utjeca jrekreativnog vježbanja na postotak masnog tkiva I mišićne mase u ciljanim sukupinama odraslih muškaraca i žena, Zbornik radova 19, ljetne škole kineziologije, Poreč 2010, Hrvatski kineziološk isavez, Zagreb, 408-412. 2. Bruk, S. (2005). Pilates telo: vodič kroz vežbe za jačanje, izduživanje i oblikovanje tela kod kuće bez sprava, Esotheria, Beograd. 3. Burkova, O.V. (2005). Pilates – fitnes vysshego klasa. 4. Fedorova,O.(2012).Kompleksnoye primeneniye sredstv pilates i akvaaerobiki na zanyatiyakh s zhen- shchinamiv orogo perioda zrelogo vozrasta, Moskva. 5. Jotov, N. (2018). Metodologija na sportno-rekreacionite i animacionni dejnosti pri 30-40 godišni ženi,NSA, Sofija. 6. Juhas, I. (2011). Specifičnosti sportskog treninga žena, Fizička kultura 65, 42-51.

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7. Krejg, K. (2005). Pilates na lopti, Babun, Beograd. 8. Mikalački, M., Korovljev, D., Čokorilo, N. (2010). Antropometrijske karakteristike žena različite starosne dobi, Zbornik radova Sport i zdravlje, Tuzla. 9. Ostin, D. (2006). Pilates dlya vas, OOO Popuri, Minsk. 10. Selby, A., Herdman, A. (2000). Pilates’ body conditioning, a program based on the techniques of Jo- seph Pilates [Text], Hauppauge, Baron’s Educational, NY. 11. Zrnić, R., Dragosavljević, P., Mitić, D., Mikalački, M. (2012). Nivoi transformacionih promena mor- foloških karakteristikažena pod uticajem različitih modela sportsko-rekreativnih aktivnosti, Međun- arodnanaučna konferencija “Efekti primene fizičke aktivnostina antropološki status dece, omladineio- draslih, FSFV, Beograd, 101-112.

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EVALUACIJA EFEKATA ZDRAVSTVENO-PREVENTIVNIH PROGRAMA PILATESA NA MORFOLOŠKI STATUS FIZIČKI NEAKTIVNIH ŽENA

Nikolay Panayotov1; Nebojša Jotov2 1 Nationalna sportska akademija „Vasil Levski“, Sofija, Bugarska 2 Gimnazija „Kirilo and Metodije“, Dimitrovgrad, Srbija

Uvod

Proces razvoja, sazrevanja i starenja ženskog organizma odvija se neravnomerno i neistovreme- no. Kod žena starosti od 40-50 godina odvijaju se brojne morfološke i funkcionalne promene. To su, pre svega, neuroendokrine transformacione promene, promene u morfološkom prostoru kao i druge involutivne promene raznih sistema i organa. Usled smanjenja metabolitičkih funkcija dolazi do slabljenja funkcija pojedinih organa ili sistema organizma. Između ostalog,smanjenje metabolitičkih funkcija utiče na transformaciju morfoloških karakteristika žena kod kojih, pre svega dolazi do taloženja masnih naslaga i promena na košta- no-zglobnom sistemu.

Morfološke karakteristike ženskog organizma se u značajnoj meri razlikuju od morfološkog statusa muškaraca. Odrasla žena je generalno manje telesne mase i visine od muškarca, relativno veće dužine trupa, a manje dužine nogu, apsolutno i relativno užih ramena, relativno veće bikristalne i bitrokantne širine. Žena ima gotovo sve obime manje, osim obima natkolenice. Skelet žene se sastoji od kostiju koje su nešto kraće, tanje, poroznije i krtije (Juhas, 2011).

Upravljanje transformacionih procesa u cilju dostizanja morfoloških promena, pre svega, je usmereno na redukciju masnog tkiva. Najbolji način u cilju modifikovanja telesne strukture predstavlja primena odgo- varajućih programa fizičkih aktivnosti i njihovo efikasno upravljanje. Promene morfološkog statusa žena, kao rezultat primene različitih modela programa fizičkih aktivnosti su problemi mnogih istraživanja. Ideje o sprovođenju ovakvih eksperimentalnih tretmana mogu da budu povezane sa uticajem morfološkog statusa na zdravstveno stanje žena (Jotov, 2018).

Modeli zdravstveno-preventivnih programa u cilju optimizacije morfološkog statusa žena su namenjeni prevenciji gojaznosti, intenziviranju metabolizma masti, redukciji telesne masti i unapređenju psihosomatskog stanja žena. Jedan od zdravstveno-preventivnih programa rekreativne usmerenosti čija je efikasnost višestruko potvrđena jeste model programa vežbi čiji je tvorac nemački doktor, trener i sportista Jozef H. Pilates (Krejg, 2005).Krajem prošlog veka metod pilatesa je bio usavršen i široko primenjivan. Naime, u početnoj fazi primene modela programa primenjivano je 34 vežbi, da bi se u današnje doba primenjivalo oko 500 vežbi. Osnovni uticaj pilates vežbi je koncipiran u cilju razvoja fizičkih sposobnosti, gipkosti, sile, razvoju ravnoteže, korekciji stava kao i poboljšanju psiho-emocionalnog stanja korisnika programa (Selby&Herd- man, 2000).Vežbe pilatesa učvršćuju mišiće, razvijaju respiratorni sistem, funkciju ravnoteže, korekciju mor- fološkog statusa. Vežbe su usmerene na razvoj mišićne sile, a pre svega na poboljšanje stanja trbušnih i leđnih mišića, razvoju pokretljivosti zglobova i poboljšanju elastičnosti. Pilates pomaže razvoju pozitivnog mišljenja i prevazilaženju stresnih situacija, razvija samokontrolu, lakoću i gracioznost pokreta (Ostin, 2006). Model zdravstveno-preventivnog programa pilatesa u zadnje vreme se znatno usavršava, ali osnovni principi ostali su aktuelni i do dan danas. Bučkova i Lisickaja, (2005) u svom radu „Pilates – fitnes visoke klase“ razrađuju osnovne principe vežbi pilatesa: koncentracija pažnje i integracija; centralizacija uz pomoć preispitivanja kontrole tela, vizuelizacija, koordinacijski dobro provođenje pokreta, bez pauza i zaustavljanja, tečnost, pravilno disanje, redovno treniranje. Prema navodima Bruk, (2005) pilates metod vežbanja ima nekoliko osnovnih načela: koncentracija, kontrola, središte ili centar, doslednost, disanje, mašta ili vizuelizacija, intuicija i prirodnost, integracija.

Razlozi koji su naveli da se bavimo problematikom ove studije je efekt transformacionih procesa na morfološki status sedentarnih žena, kao i mogućnost komparacije rezultata morfološkog statusa ispitanica ove studije sa drugim studijama koje tretiraju ovu problematiku. Predmet istraživanja su morfološke karakteristike (promene u merama morfološkog statusa) sedentarnih žena, starosti od 40-50 godina pod uticajem zdravstveno-preventivnog programa pilates. Problem istraživanja je efekt zdravstveno-preventivnog programa pilatesa na transformaciju mor- fološko-telesne građe sedentarnih žena. Cilj istraživanja je proceniti efekt zdravstveno-preventivnog modela programa pilatesa na mor- fološko-telesni status sedentarnih žena.

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Za ostvarivanje postavljenog cilja neophodno je realizovati sledeće istraživačke zadatke:

Z1: Utvrditi srednji nivo i varibijalitet morfoloških karakteristika žena kod modela zdravstveno-preventivnog programa pilatesa na inicijalnom i završnom merenju; Z2: Utvrditi stepen homogenosti eksperimentalne grupe; Z3: Utvrditi stepen transformacije morfoloških karakteristika sedentarnih žena na inicijalnom i završnom testiranju primenom t-testa;

Opšta hipoteza je definisana na sledeći način:

Primena zdravstveno-preventivnog programa pilatesa dovešće do pozitivnih transformacionih promena morfološko-telesnog statusa sedentarnih žena.

H1: Srednji nivo i varijabilitet morfološkog statusa žena kod eksperimentalnog tretmana pilates na inicijalnom i finalnom merenju su približno na istom nivou; H2: Testirana eksperimentalna grupa pilates predstavlja homogen skup i na inicijalnom i na završnom merenju; H3: Primena programa pilatesa dovešće do statistički značajne razlike morfoloških karakteristika ispitanica na inicijalnom i završnom testiranju.

Metode

Uzorak našeg istraživanja činile su 24 žene, između 40 i 50 godina. Prosečna starost ispitanica je bila 44,7 godina. Ispitanice su trebale da zadovolje sledeće uslove: da su vodile sedentarni način života, da nemaju zdravstvenih tegoba, da redovno učestvuju u programu pilates da su dobrovoljno prihvatile učešće u programu. Eksperimentalni tretman se realizovao u okviru jedne eksperimentalne grupe. Sadržaj eksperimentalnog tretmana je usmeren na prevenciju, redukciju hroničnog umora i optimizaciju morfološkog statusa ispitanica u cilju poboljšanja psihosomatskog stanja sedentarnih žena. Eksperimentalni model programa pilates se sastojao od odabranih vežbi u skladu sa osnovnim načelima metode vežbanja pilates. Vreme trajanja zdravstveno-preventivnog programa pilates je trajao 12 nedelja, i to 3 puta sedmično po 45 minuta. Uslovi merenja – Testiranje i merenje morfološkog statusa i telesne kompozicije ispitanica obavljeno je u prepodnevnim časovima u kabinetu za sportsku rekreaciju koji je imao odgovarajuće mikroklimatske uslove. Instrumenti pre testiranja ispitanica su bili baždareni i standardne su izrade.

Organizacija merenja – Sva testiranja morfološkog i telesnog statusa obavljeno je po principu stanica (na svakoj stanici po 4 ispitanica). Svaku morfološku karakteristiku merilo je jedno te isto lice. Ekipa koja je testirala morfološki status ispitanica sastavljena je od iskusnih merilaca koji godinama rade morfološku dijagnostiku.

Merenje morfološke i telesne kompozicije obavljeno je pre početka tretmana (inicijalno merenje) i nakon završetka programa (finalno merenje). Uzorak varijabli za procenu morfološkog statusa i telesne kompozicije sedentarnih žena obuhvatilo je 6 varijabli iz prostora morfološkog statusa i dve varijeble iz prostora telesne kompozicije. Merenje morfoloških karakteristika ispitanica izvršeno je primenom morfološke antropometrije, a pri tome pridržavali smo se preporuka Internacionalnog biološkog programa (IBP). Merenje telesne kompozicije izvršeno je standardnom procedurom – primenom bioelektrične impedance (Body composition analyzer BC-418MA). Dijagnostika morfološkog statusa je sprovedena primenom baterija mernih instrumenata za dijagnostiku morfoloških karakteristika i telesne kompozicije,a sastojala se od sledećih varijabli za evaluaciju pojedinih segmenata morfološko-telesnog statusa ispitanica: telesna visina – AVIS; telesna masa – TM; Indeks Ketle – IK; obim struka – OSTR; obim natkolenice – ONDKL; pokretljivost grudnog koša – PGK; procenat masti u telu – FAT%; procenat mišićne mase u telu – MMAS.

Na osnovu cilja i predmeta istraživanja primenili smo sledeće metode:

• metod analize sasdržaja koji se odnosi na istraživanje literature o predmetu istraživanja; • eksperimentalni metod sa jednom eksperimentalnom grupom (grupa pilates) u cilju provere delovanja eksperimentalnog faktora. Eksperimentalni faktor realizovan je u okviru tromesečnog programa (3 puta sedmično x 45 min); • metoda morfološke dijagnostike u cilju utvrđivanja i procene telesnih dimenzija; • statističke metode (metod deskriptivne statistike koji se bavi opisivanjem i prikupljanjem podataka prilikom istraživanja, t-test za zavisne uzorke korišćen za testiranje razlika u rezultatima sa inicijalnog i finalnog merenja).

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Rezultati

U tabeli 1 prikazani su deskriptivni statistički pokazatelji za sve varijable, kao i rezultati t – testa.

Tabela 1. Osnovni centralni i disperzioni pokazatelji i razlika na inicijalnom i finalnom testiranju morfoloških varijabli kod ispitanih pokazatelja

N Mean Min Max R SD S2 CV% t df p

Legenda: telesna visina – AVIS(cm); telesna masa – TM(kg); Indeks Ketle – IK(g/cm); obim struka – OS- TR(cm); obim nadkoleniice – ONDKL(cm); pokretljivost grudnog koša – PGK(cm); procenat masti u telu – FAT%; procenat mišićne mase u telu – MMAS%; Mean-aritmetička sredina; SD-standardna devijacija; Min-minimum; Max-maksimum; R-raspon; S2-varijansa; CV%-koeficijent varijacije; t-test; df-stepen slobode; p-stepen značajnosti.

Dinamika rezultata srednjih vrednosti kod varijabli telesna masa, indeks Ketle,obim struka,obim natkolenice i procentualni sadržaj masti u organizmu ispitanica pokazuju smanjene vrednosti na finalnom testiranju u odnosu na inicijalno. Deskriptivni pokazatelji srednjih vrednosti kod testa pokretljivost grudnog koša i sadržaj mišićne mase u organizmu ispitanica ukazuju na povećane vrednosti na finalnom testiranju u odnosu na inicijalno. Vrednosti koeficijenta varijacije na inicijalnom i finalnom merenju kod svih testiranih varijabli grupu opisuje kao homogenu. Testiranje razlika inicijalnog i finalnog tretmana efekata primenjenog programa (pilates) ispitivane varijable pokazuju statistički značajnu razliku i nivo značajnosti od p<0,05 kod svih varijabli sa izuzetkom telesne visine. Dinamika rezultata morfološko-telesnog statusa ispitanica pokazuje optimizaciju morfoloških dimenzija ispitanica.

Diskusija

Promene morfološko-telesnih osobina nakon primene eksperimentalnog programa su evidentne kod svih varijabli sa izuzetkom varijable telesna visina (AVIS). Imajući u vidu da je kod ispitanica završen rast, te nije bilo nikakvih promena kod ove varijable, nakon tretmana. Razvoj longitudinalne dimenzionalnosti kod ispitanica je završen imajući u vidu godine starosti, a longitudinalna dimenzionalnost je pod izuzetno velikim genetskim uticajem, te je teško očekivati da određena sportsko-rekreativna aktivnost može bilo šta promeniti. Dobijeni rezultati telesne visine su u saglasnosti sa istraživanjima Fedorove, koja je istraživala transformacione procese morfoloških karakteristika žena starosti od 30-50 godina, dva različita programa akvaaerobik i pilates (Fedorova,2012).

Dobijeni rezultati merenja ove longitudinalne dimenzionalnosti - visine kod ispitivanog uzorka su u saglasnostii sa rezultatima istraživanja Mikalački (Mihalački, 2010).

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Kod primenjenog modela pilates u ovom istraživanju, kada je u pitanju varijabla telesna težina, uvidom u t-test primećujemo značajnu statističku razliku (poboljšanje – smanjenje telesne mase od 3,26kg; t=22,436; p=0,000). Dobijeni rezultati su približni rezultatima koje je dobio Zrnić, (Zrnić, 2012). Slične rezultate u svom istraživanju dobila je i Fedorova (Fedorova, 2012). Kada su u pitanju rezultati testa indeks Ketle (IK) primećujemo statistički značajnu razliku između rezultata inicijalnog i završnog merenja od (t=11,994; p=0,000). Dobijeni rezultati su približni rezultatima koje je dobila Fedorova (Fedorova, 2012).

Analizirani rezultati dimenzionalnosti obima struka između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja kod primenjenog programa vežbanja pokazuju značajno smanjenje obima struka ispitanica (-3,23; t=28,270; p=0,000). Uvidom u rezultate t-testa obima natkolenice primećujemo značajnu statističku razliku (t=20,654; p=0,000). Ako analiziramo srednje vrednosti obima, zaključujemo da je došlo do smanjenja obima od 3,7cm. Dobijeni rezultati prosečne vrednosti obima nadkolenice su u saglasnosti sa studijom Beismana. (Beissmann, 2010). Uvidom u rezultate t-testa kod varijable pokretljivost grudnog koša na finalnom testiranju primećujemo znača- jnu statističku razliku (poboljšanje od 2,18cm; t=19,792; p=0,000). Dobijeni rezultati za pokretljivost grudnog koša (PGK) ispitanica su u saglasnosti sa istraživanjima Fedorove (Fedorova, 2012).

Dinamika pokazatelja procentualnog sadržaja masti u organizmu (FAT%) pokazuju umanjene vrednosti na finalnom testiranju, a rezultati t-testa pokazuju da je nakon eksperimentalnog tretmana došlo do statistički značajnih promena (smanjenje od 2,34%, t=20,333; p=0,000). dobijeni rezultati našeg istraživanja su približni dobijenim rezultatima Fedorove i Zrnića (Fedorova,2012; Zrnić, 2011).

Testirane razlike u rezultatima između inicijalnog i finalnog merenja kod varijable telesne kompozicije – procentualni sadržaj mišićne mase (MMAS%) pokazuje statističku značajnu razliku između inicijalnog i finalnog testiranja (t=8,405; p=0,000). Inspekcija aritmetičkih sredina, isto tako, ukazuje da su na finalnom merenju ispitanice imale bolje rezultate (poboljšanje od 1,26%). Rezultati našeg istraživanja, kada je u pitanju MMAS% bliski su rezultatima istraživanja Fedorove (Fedorova, 2012). Porast voluminoznosti mišićne mase ostvaren je primenom odgovarajućeg trenažnog tretmana. Dobijeni rezultati našeg istraživanja morfoloških osobina ispitanica su rezultat programiranog trenažnog procesa , usled čega je došlo do pozitivnih transformacija morfološkog statusa sedentarnih žena. Nedostatak ove studije je činjenica da je istraživanje vršeno na jednoj eksperimentalnoj grupi, ali smatramo da dobijeni rezultati u vezi efekta eksperimentalnog tretmana pilatesa mogu se komparirati sa rezultatima istih ili sličnih programa koji se sprovode na sličnom uzorku ispitanika.

Zaključak

Na osnovu analiziranih rezultata istraživanja morfoloških osobina ispitanica kao i do sada izlo- ženog, možemo izvesti sledeće zaključke:

• primenjeni zdravstveno-preventivni program pilates predstavlja dobro sredstvo za optimizaciju mor- fološkog statusa žena koje vode sedentarni način života; • rezultati kvantitativnih promena između inicijalnog i završnog testiranja varijabli morfološkog prostora pokazuju značajnu statističku razliku na nivo značajnosti p<0,05 kod svih testiranih varijabli, izuzev varijable telesna visina; • dobijeni rezultati našeg istraživanja upoređeni su sa dobijenim rezultatima kvantitativnih promena morfološkog statusa ispitanica iste starosti (40-50 godina) sa sličnim istraživanjima drugih autora.

Literatura

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9. Ostin, D. (2006). Pilates dlya vas, OOO Popuri, Minsk. 10. Selby, A., Herdman, A. (2000). Pilates’ body conditioning, a program based on the techniques of Jo- seph Pilates [Text], Hauppauge, Baron’s Educational, NY. 11. Zrnić, R., Dragosavljević, P., Mitić, D., Mikalački, M. (2012). Nivoi transformacionih promena mor- foloških karakteristikažena pod uticajem različitih modela sportsko-rekreativnih aktivnosti, Međun- arodnanaučna konferencija “Efekti primene fizičke aktivnostina antropološki status dece, omladineio- draslih, FSFV, Beograd, 101-112.

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DIFFERENCES IN POSTURAL STATUS OF THE SPINAL COLUMN IN FEMALE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS OF DIFFERENT AGE CATEGORIES

Katarina Nejić; Stefan Đorđević; Mima Stanković; Kristina Marković; Saša Bubanj University of Niš, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Niš, Serbia

Introduction

The postural status, i.e., proper posture of the body, represents the precise positioning of the body segments in the normal standing position. Normal standing position represents the unstable position, with a small support surface, with relatively high position of the center of gravity in the projection of the sacral promontorium, and with the lowest level of energy consumption (Milenković, 2007). Body posture or postural status is largely determined by genetic in heritance, but can also be influenced by a number of external factors such as disease, growth, age, physical activity and sport, living conditions, diet and others. The principal characteristic of poor posture is the weakness of the whole organism, especially the musculoskeletal - joint apparatus. The weakness and the imbalance of muscle strength is most pronounced as the functional weakness of the spinal column (Živković, 2009). Hence, the most common deviation from proper posture can be registered at the spinal column, and somewhat less often at the chest region or at lower extremities (Milenković, 2007). The most common deformities that can be diagnosed at the spinal columnar e kyphosis, which represents the deviation of the spinal column at the thoracic section in the sagittal plane (Živković, 2009), lordosis, which is a dis order manifested by an increase in the physiological curvature of the spinal column with the forward convexity at the cervical and lumbar section in the sagittal plane (Bubanj et al., 2012), and scoliosis, the three-dimensional deformity (Milenković et al., 2011). Depending on its position of the site of deviation or convexity, scoliosis can be determine that the thoracic or lumbar part, aswell as scoliosis that only occur on one side of the spinal column and affect the entire spine. Finally, there is duplex scoliosis, that takes form of the Latin letter “S” viewed in the frontal plane, with one primary, and second compensatory deviation (compensatory deviation is above or below and to the opposite side to the primary deviation).

Postural status in athletes is of interest for a number of researchers, many of whom have found that training in fluencies body posture. However, there is no unanimity on the direction and level of this effect, due to the in homogenity of sample of respondents in relation to their age, gender, sportsthey practice, etc. The development of postural status, whether correct or not, depends on the sporting discipline practiced by the individual. Asymmetric sports can contribute to the development of an asymmetrical posture or the appearance of functional degrees of deformity at the spinal column due to high-load training and repeated one-sid- ed exercises (Hawrylak, Skolimowski, Barczyk, Bieć, 2001). Sports requiring specific body positions, such as kayaking, rowing, weightlifting, gymnastics, skating, volleyball, basketball, orhandball, cause significant overload of the spinal column, which affects the shape of the vertebrals, increases the risk of musculoskeletal disorders and impaired development (Đurić, Janićijević, Majstorović, Ilić, 2015; Baranto, Hellström, Ceder- lund, Nyman, Swärd, 2009). Volleyball training, among other, is aimed at improving the technical elements such as returning the ball, service, attack and block. Service and attack include a number of asymmetric techniques that can adversely affect postural status. Asymmetric movements and tilts in the shoulder girdle cause imbalance betweenmuscle tone of the dominant and non-dominant arm, which can lead to disc degeneration andspon- dylolysis in lumbar section of the spinal column (Külling et al., 2014), functional poor scoliotic posture and in some later stages even pelvic asymmetry (Wang & Cochrane, 2001). In accordance with the foregoing, the aim of this research is to determine the differences in the postural status of the spinal column in female volleyball players of different age categories.

Methods

Respondents

The sample of respondents consisted of 30 Serbian Volleyball League One female players. Of the total sample, 15 volleyball players are juniors (aged 15.73±.59 years, body height 1.69±.08m, body mass 63.73±8.27kg, body mass index-BMI 22.19±2.49, Mean±SD) and the other 15 are seniors (aged19.8±4.02 years, body height 1.72±.06m, body mass 68.86±9.73kg, BMI 23.24±2.98, Mean±SD). The respondents are members of the Volleyball club Student from Niš, Serbia.

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Procedures

In order to determine the postural status of the spinal column the Spinal Mouse measuring instrument (Idiag, Fehraltdorf, Switzerland, www.idiag.ch), that utilizes non-invasive measuring methodology, was used. The validity and reliability of the Spinal Mouse instrument has been confirmed in studies of Mannion, Knecht, Balaban, Dvorak, Grob (2004), and Post & Leferink (2004). Based on the data obtained the following variables were distinguished: KYPH I – kyphotic poor posture of the functional first degree; KYPH II – kyphotic poorposture of the functional second degree; LOR I – lordotic poor posture of the functional first degree; LOR II – lordotic poor posture of the functional second degree; FBS – flat back syndrome; NTC – normal thoracal curvature viewed from the sagittal plane; NLC – normal lumbar curvature viewed from the sagittal plane; SCO_LT – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left thoracic portion of the spinal column; SCO_RT – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right thoracic portion of the spinal column; SCO_LL – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left lumbar portion the spinal column; SCO_RL – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right lumbar portion of the spinal column; TSCO_L – Total left scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left thoracic and lumbar portion of the spinal column; TSCO_R – Total right scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right thoracic and lumbar portion of the spinal column; DSCO_LTRL – Duplex scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left thoracic part of the spinal column and convexity in the right lumbar part of the spinal column; DSCO_RTLL – Duplex scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right thoracic part of the spinal column and convexity in the left lumbar part of the spinal column; NF – normal posture of the body viewed from the frontal plane.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS (v11.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Data obtaine- dare mistreated and presented descriptively as frequencies and percentages. Mann Whitney test instead of Hi Square Test as used to determine differences in the postural status of the spinal column between groups of players.

Results and discussion

Table 1. Postural status of volleyball playersat the thoracic section of the spinal column viewed in the sagittal plane

Total KYPH I KYPH II NTC (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) Juniors 8/53.3 1/6.7 6/40 15/100% Seniors 3/20 4/26.7 8/53.3 15/100% Total 11/36.6 5/16.7 14/46.7 30/100%

Legend: KYPH I – kyphotic poor posture of the functional first degree; KYPH II – kyphotic poor posture of the functional second degree; NTC – normal thoracal curvature viewed from the sagittal plane.

The results (Table 1) indicate the presence of kyphotic poor posture in respondents of both age categories, with an incidence 60% among junior and 46.7% among senior players.

Table 2. Postural status of volleyball players at the lumbar section of the spinal column viewed in the sagittal plane

Total LOR I LOR II FBS NLC (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) Juniors 7/46.7 3/20 1/6.7 4/26.7 15/100% Seniors 10/66.7 0 2/13.3 3/20 15/100% Total 17/56.1 3/10 3/10 7/23.9 30/100%

Legend: LOR I – lordotic poor posture of the functional first degree; LOR II – lordotic poor posture of the functional second degree; FBS – flat back syndrome; NLC – normal lumbar curvature viewed from the sagittal plane.

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The results (Table 2) indicate the presence of lordotic poor posture in respondents of both age categories, with an incidence 73.4% among junior and 80% among senior players.

Table 3. Postural status of volleyball players at the thoracic and lumbar section of spinal column viewed in frontal plane

Total

DSCO_ SCO_LT SCO_RT SCO_LL SCO_RL DSCO_LTRL TSCO_L TSCO_R NFS RTLL (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) (freq./%) Juniors 1/6.7 4/26.7 1/6.7 1/6.7 1/6.7 0 0 7/46.7 0 15/100% Seniors 0 0 5/33.3 0 1/6.7 0 0 5/33.3 4/26.7 15/100% Total 1/3.3 4/13.3 6/20.6 1/3.3 2/6.7 0 0 12/39.5 4/13.3 30/100%

Legend: SCO_LT – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left thoracic portion of the spinal column; SCO_RT – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right thoracic portion of the spinal column; SCO_LL – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left lumbar portion of the spinal column; SCO_RL – Scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right lumbar portion of the spinal column; DSCO_LTRL – Duplex scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left thoracic part of the spinal column and convexity in the right lumbar part of the spinal column; TSCO_L – Total left scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the left thoracic and lumbar portion of the spinal column; TSCO_R – Total right scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right thoracic and lumbar portion of the spinal column; DSCO_RTLL – Duplex scoliotic poor posture with convexity in the right thoracic part of the spinal column and convexity in the left lumbar part of the spinal column; NFS- normal posture of the body viewed from the frontal plane.

The results (Table 3) indicate the presence of scoliotic poor posture in respondents of both age categories, with an incidence 100% among junior and 73.3% among senior players.

Table 4. Difference in the incidence of the spinal column body deformities in volleyball players of different age categories

Test Statisticsa KYPH LOR SCO Mann-Whitney U 97.500 105.000 82.500 Wilcoxon W 217.500 225.000 202.500 Z -.720 -.424 -2.112 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .472 .671 .035 Exact Sig. .539b .775 .217 [2*(1-tailed Sig.)] a. Grouping Variable: Groups b. Not corrected for ties.

Legend: KYPH – kyphotic posture; LOR–lordotic posture; SCO – Scoliotic posture.

The results (Table 4) indicate statistically significant difference in the incidence of scoliotic poor posture (p = 0.035). There are no statistically significant differences in the incidence of kyphotic and lordotic poor posture between respondents of different age categories.

The results obtained suggest very high percentage of spinal column deformities, and the results are in agreement with the previous studies (López-Miñarro, Muyor, Alacid, 2010; Falter, Hellerer, 1982). All postural abnormalities are of the functional type, and in large part of the first degree. This indicates that postural deformities are solely the consequence of muscle imbalance, i.e., changes due to disproportion in the strength of the abdominal and thoracic muscles at one side, and the back muscles in the lumbar and thoracic parts of the trunk at the other, as well as the imbalance in the strength of the left and right muscles of the back in relation to the spinal column. This finding is in accordance to finding of Modi et al. (2008).

Actual postural status of the spinal column in female volleyball players is basically influenced only by muscular imbalance and not by decreased general level of muscular strength. It can be justified by specific motor skills, i.e., by technical elements that are performed and are the basis of volleyball, which is in

286 UDK: 796.325:612-055.2 accordance to the research performed by Kugler, Krüger-Franke, Reininger, Trouillier, Rosemeyer (1996). Technical elements are mostly performed with one hand, mainly dominant one that has leading role and suf- fers greater force, which increases the strength of that part of the body influencing the postural status of the spinal column.

Conclusion

Volleyball is an asymmetrical sport in which the predominance of performing technical elements and training is present. Training is a period of intense physical exertion. Training indicates thes pace within which changes need to be made in order to preserve the athlete’s body after his or her sports career, as well. Workout training, in addition to the regular part of a specific plan and program of the trainer, should also include compensatory exercises aimed at stretching the muscles that are activated dominantly.

Additionally, it is necessary to strength en muscles that did not have a dominant role in the training. Such a plan requires a greater commitment and reorganization of workout plans and programs made by the trainer and involvement of professionals who would perform and guide athletes through compensatory exercises for non-dominant muscle groups in the finishing part of the training. In that way occurrence of postural deformities could be preserved and postural status of the spinal column guarded for the period and quality of life aftersports career.

References

1. Baranto, A., Hellström, M., Cederlund, C. G., Nyman, R., &Swärd, L. (2009). Back pain and MRI changes in the thoraco-lumbar spine of top athletes in four different sports: a 15-year follow-up study. Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, 17(9), 1125-1134. 2. Bubanj, S., Živković, M., Živković, D., Milenković, S., Bubanj, R., Stanković, R., Ćirić-Mladenović, I., Stefanović, N., Purenović, T., Stojiljković, D., Obradović, B., Dimić, A., & and Cvetković, T. (2012). The incidence of sagittal postural deformities among high school students: preliminary study. Acta Kinesiologica, 6(2), 27-30. 3. Đurić, S., Janićijević, D., Majstorović, N., &Ilić, D. (2015). Posturalni status odbojkašicauzrastaod 12 do 16 godina (Postural status of female volleyball players aged 12 to 16 years). Fizičkakultura, 69(2), 110-118. 4. Falter, E.&Hellerer, O. (1982). High performance gymnasts during the period of growth. Morphologia- Medica, 2(1), 39-44. 5. Grabara, M. (2010). Postural variables in girls practicing sport gymnastic. Journal of Biomedical Human Kinetics,2,74–77. 6. Hawrylak, A., Skolimowski, T., Barczyk, K., &Bieć, E. (2001). Asymmetry of trunk in athletes of different kind of sport. Polish Journal of Sports Medicine, 17, 232-235. 7. Kugler, A., Krüger-Franke, M., Reininger, S., Trouillier, H.H.,&Rosemeyer, B. (1996). Muscular imbalance and shoulder pain in volleyball attackers. British Journal of Sport Medicine, 30, 256-259. 8. Külling, F. A., Florianz, H., Reepschläger, B., Gasser, J., Jost, B., &Lajtai, G. (2014). High prevalence of disc degeneration and spondylolysis in the lumbar spine of professional beach volleyball players. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 2(4), 1-6. 9. López-Miñarro, P. A., Muyor, J. M., &Alacid, F. (2010). Sagittal spinal curvatures and pelvic tilt in elite young kayakers. Medicinadello Sport, 63(4), 509-519. 10. Mannion, A. F., Knecht, K., Balaban, G., Dvorak, J., &Grob, D. (2004). A new skin-surface device for measuring the curvature and global and segmental ranges of motion of the spine: reliability of measurements and comparison with data reviewed from the literature. European Spine Journal, 13(2), 122-136. 11. Milenković, S. (2007). Korektivnagimnastika: teorijaivežbe (Corrective gymnastics: Theory and exercises). Niš: Niš: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš. 12. Milenković, S., Bubanj, S., Živković, M., Živković, D., Stanković, R., Bubanj, R., Purenović, T., Sto- jiljković, D., Obradović, B., Dimić, A., & Cvetković, T.(2011). The incidence of scoliotic bad posture among high school students: preliminary study. Facta Universitatis Series Physical Education and Sport, 9(4), 365-373. 13. Modi, H., Srinivasalu, S., SMehta, S., Yang, J. H., Song, H. R., & Suh, S. W. (2008). Muscle imbalance in volleyball players initiates scoliosis in immature spines: a screening analysis. Asian Spine Journal, 2(1), 38. 14. Post, R.B., &Leferink, V.J.M. (2004). Spinal mobility: Sagittal range of motion measured with the SpinalMouse, a new non-invasive device. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, 124(3), 187- 192. 15. Wang, H.K. & Cochrane, T. (2001) Mobility impairment, muscle imbalance, muscle weakness, scapu-

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lar asymmetry and shoulder injury in elite volleyball athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 41, 403–410 16. Yoo, J. C., Suh, S. W., Jung, B. J., Hur, C. Y., Chae, I. J., Kang, C. S., Wang, J. H., Moon, W.N., &Cheon, E. M.(2001). Asymmetric exercise and scoliosis: A study of volleyball athletes. Journal of the Korean Orthopaedic Association, 36(5), 455-460. 17. Živković, D. (2009). Osnovekineziologijesaelemntimakliničkekineziologije (Basics of kinesiology with elements of clinical kinesiology). Niš: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education.

Note

The authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation of the female players of Volleyball club Stu- dent from Niš, who made this work possible, supported by a grant of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia within project „Thedifferences and the influences of the maximum muscle strength on the bone mineral density between athletes and non-athletes of high school population“, no. 179024.

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RAZLIKE U POSTURALNOM STATUSU KIČMENOG STUBA KOD ODBOJKAŠICA RAZLIČITIH UZRASNIH KATEGORIJA

Katarina Nejić; Stefan Đorđević; Mima Stanković; Kristina Marković; Saša Bubanj Univerzitet u Nišu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Niš, Srbija

Uvod

Posturalni status tela odnosno pravilno držanje tela predstavlja preciznu pozicioniranost telesnih segmenata prilikom kojih telo ima najmanji utrošak energije, odnosno to je labilan položaj tela, sa malom površinom oslonca i relativno velikim težištem (Milenković, 2007). Držanje tela ili posturalni status u velikoj meri je deo genetskog nasleđa, ali takođe mogu uticati i brojni spoljašnjašnji faktori kao što su bolest, rast, starost, fizička aktivnost i sport, uslovi života, ishrana i drugo. Karakteristika lošeg držanja je pre svega slabost celog organizma, naročito mišićno-ligamentno-zglob- nog aparata. Kod ovakvih stanja najizraženija je funkcionalna slabost kičmenog stuba, što je uslovljeno slabošću disbalansom snage mišića (Živković, 2009). U stvari najčešće odstupanje od pravilnog držanja tela može se registrovati na kičmenom stubu, a nešto ređi slučaj je sa regijom grudnog koša ili donjim eks- tremitetima (Milenković, 2007), u skladu sa tim najčešći posturalni poremećaji su: kifoza, lordoza i skolioza. Deformiteti koji se mogu dijagnostikovati na kičemnom stubu u sagitalnoj ravni su kifoza koja predstavlja devijaciju kičmenog stuba u torakalnom delu (Živković, 2009), lordoza koja predstavlja poremećaj koji se manifestuje povećanjem fiziološke krivine kičmenog stuba ulumbalnom delu čiji je konveksitet okrenut prema napred. Deformitet koji se može dijagnostikovati u fronalnom delu kičmenog stuba jeste skolioza i u zavisnosti od svoje pozicioniranosti mesta odstupanja odnosno pojave konveksiteta možemo razlikovati skolioze koje se javljaju u torakalnom ili lumbalnom delu kao i skolioze koje se isključivo javljaju samo na jenoj strani kičmenog stuba a zahvataju ceo kičmeni stub odnosno i torakalne i lumbalne pršljenove, a takoše imamo i dupleks skolioze koje su latiničnog slova “S” odnosno koje su u toraklnom delu sa konveksitetom na jednoj a u lumbalnom delu na drugoj strani.

Posturalni status kod sportista je područje interesa za brojne istraživače, od kojih su brojni ustanovili da trening utiče na stav tela. Međutim, ne postoji jednoglasje o pravcu ovog efekta, što bi moglo biti posledica činjenice da studije obično uključuju grupe sportista različitih starosnih doba i sportova kojim se bave. Razvoj posturalnog statusa bilo da je ispravan ili ne, takođe zavisi od sportske discipline koju praktikuje pojedinac. Asimetrični sportovi mogu doprineti razvoju asimetričnog stava odnosno pojave funkcionalnih stepena deformiteta na kičmenom stubu. Sportovi koji zahtevaju specifične pozicije tela, kao što su kajak, veslanje, dizanje tegova, gimnastika ili klizanje, košarka, rukomet, uzrokuju značajno preopterećenje kičme, što utiče na oblik vertebralne kolone, povećava rizik od mišićno-skeletnih poremećaja i narušava razvoj (Ba- ranto, et al., 2009). Sportski trening kao specifičan oblik usmerene fizičke aktivnosti može imati značajan uticaj na proces pojave funkcionalnih deformiteta kod mladih usled treninga visokog opterećenja i ponovljenih jed- nostranih vežbi (Hawrylak, et al., 2001). Odbojkaški trening je, između ostalog, usmeren na poboljšanje teh- ničkih elemenata, kao što su vraćanje lopte, servis, napad i blok. Servis i napad obuhvataju niz asimetričnih tehnika koje mogu negativno da utiču na posturalni status. Asimetrični pokreti i nagibi u ramenom pojasu uzrokuju neravnotežu tonusa mišića dominante i nedominatne ruke, što može dovesti do pojave funkcionalnog lošeg skoliotičnog držanja tela a u nekim kasnijim fazama čak i na asmiteriju karlice (Wang & Cochrane, 2001). U skladu sa predhodno navedenim cilj ovog rada je utvrditi razliku u posturalnom statusu kičmenog stuba odbojkašica različitih starosnih kategorija.

Metode

Uzorak ispitanika

Ovo istraživanje je sačinjavalo uzorak 30 odbojkašica Prve lige Srbije. Od ukupnog uzorka 15 odbo- jkašica je bilo juniorskog uzrasta, a ostlih 15 seniorskog uzrasta. Ispitanice su članovi odbojkaškog kluba „Student“ iz Niša.

Uzorak varijabli i mernih instrumenata

Za utvrđivanje posturalnog statusa kičmenog stuba u sagitalnoj ravni korišćen je merni instrument „Spinal Mouse“ (Idiag, Fehraltdorf, Switzerland, www.idiag.ch). „Spinal Mouse“ predstavlja jedan od instru-

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menata iz grupe invanzivnih metoda merenja stanja kičemnog stuba u frontalnoj i sagitalnoj ravni. Validnost i relijabilnost instrumenta „Spinal Mouse“ utvrđena je u istraživanjima (Mannion, Knecht, Balaban, Dvorak & Grob, 2004; Post & Leferink 2004). Na osnovu dobijenih podataka o stanju posturalnog statusa kičmenog stuba u frontalnoj i sagitalnoj ravni dobijenih prilokom merenja ovim intrumentom izdvojene su sledeće varijable: KIF I– kifotično loše držanje tela funkcionalog prvog stepena; KIF II– kifotično loše držanje tela funkcionalog drugog stepena; LOR I – lordotično loše držanje tela funkcionalnog prvog stepena; LOR II – lordotično loše držanje tela funkcionalnog drugog stepena; NTS – normalno držanje tela u sagitalnoj ravni kičmenog stuba u torakalnom delu; NLS – normalno držanje tela u sagitalnoj ravni kičmenog stuba u lumbalnom delu; Skolioza LT – Skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u levom torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba; Sko- lioza DT - Skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u desnom torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba; Sko- lioza LL - Skoliotično lose držanje tela sa konveksitetom u levom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; Skolioza DL - Skoliotično lose držanje tela sa konveksitetom u desnom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; Skolioza TD – Totalno desno skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konviksitetom koji je u desnoj strani zahvatio je pršljenove pozicionirane i u torakalnom i u lumbalnom delu; Skolioza TL – Totalno levo skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konviksitetom koji je u levoj strani zahvatio je pršljenove pozicionirane i u torakalnom i u lumbalnom delu; Skolioza DLD – Dupleks skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u levom torakalnom desnom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; Skolioza DDL - Dupleks skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u desnom torakalnom i levom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; NF – normalno držanje tela u frontalnoj ravni kičmenog stuba.

Statistička analiza

Za utvrđivanje razlika između grupa u zastupljenosti posturalnih deformiteta kičmenog stuba u frontalnoj i sagitalnoj ravni korišćen je Hi kvadrat test za testiranje nezavisnosti. Mann Whitney test je korišćen za poređenje rezultat između dve grupe.

Rezultati sa diskusijom

Tabela 1. Posturalni status torakalnog dela kičmenog stuba odbojkašica posmatran u sagitalnoj ravni

Ukupno KYPH I KYPH II NTC (učestalost / %) (učestalost / %) (učestalost / %) (učestalost / %) Juniorke 8/53.3 1/6.7 6/40 15/100% Seniorke 3/20 4/26.7 8/53.3 15/100% Ukupan uzorak 11/36.6 5/16.7 14/46.7 30/100%

Legenda: KYPH I - Kifotično loše držanje funkcionalnog I stepena; KYPH II - Kifotično loše držanje funkcionalnog II stepena; NTC - Normalno držanje u torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba

Rezultati u tabeli 1. ukazuju na zastupljenost posturalnog deformiteta kifotično loše držanje tela kod ispitanika obe kategorije. Može se uočiti razlika u procentualnoj zastupljenoti postojanja deformiteta I to u korist seniorki kod kojih je kifotično lose držanje prisutno u procentima 46.7% a kod juniorki 60%.

Tabela 2. Posturalni status lumbalnog dela kičmenog stuba odbojkašica posmatran u sagitalnoj ravni

Ukupno LOR I LOR II FBS NLC učestalost (učestalost / %) (učestalost / %) (učestalost / %) (učestalost / %) ( / %) Juniorke 7/46.7 3/20 1/6.7 4/26.7 15/100% Seniorke 10/66.7 0 2/13.3 3/20 15/100% Ukupan uzorak 17/56.1 3/10 3/10 7/23.9 30/100%

Legenda: LOR I - Lordotično loše držanje funkcionalnog I stepena; LOR II - Lordotično loše držanje funkcionalnog II stepena; FBS - Ravna leđa u lumbalnom delu; NLC - Normalno držanje u lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba

Rezultati u tabeli 2. ukazuju na zastupljenost posturalnog deformiteta lordotično lose držanje tela kod ispitanika obe kategorije. Može se uočiti da postoji razlika u procentualnoj zastupljenoti postojanja de-

290 UDK: 796.325:612-055.2 formiteta i to u korist juniorki kod kojih je lordotično loše držanje prisutno u procentima 73.3% a kod seniorki 76.1%.

Tabela 3. Posturalni status torakalnog i lumbalnog dela kičmenog stuba odbojkašica posmatran u frontalnoj ravni

Ukupno

DSCO_ SCO_LT SCO_RT SCO_LL SCO_RL DSCO_LTRL TSCO_L TSCO_R NFS RTLL (uče./%) (uče./%) (uče. /%) (uče./%) (uče./%) (uče./%) (uče./%) (uče./%) (uče./%) (uče./%) Juniorke 1/6.7 4/26.7 1/6.7 1/6.7 1/6.7 0 0 7/46.7 0 15/100% Seniorke 0 0 5/33.3 0 1/6.7 0 0 5/33.3 4/26.7 15/100% Ukupno 1/3.3 4/13.3 6/20.6 1/3.3 2/6.7 0 0 12/39.5 4/13.3 30/100%

Legenda: SCO_LT - Skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u levom torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba; SCO_RT - Skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u desnom torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba; SCO_LL - Skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u levom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; SCO_RL - Skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u desnom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; DSCO_LTRL Dupleks skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u levom torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba i konveksitetom u desnom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; TSCO_L – Ukupno skoliotično loše držanje kičmenig stuba sa konveksitetom u levu stranu u lumbalnom i torakalnom delu; TSCO_R - Ukupno skoliotično loše držanje kičmenig stuba sa konveksitetom u desnu stranu u lumbalnom i torakalnom delu; DSCO_RTLL - Dupleks skoliotično loše držanje tela sa konveksitetom u desnom torakalnom delu kičmenog stuba i konveksitetom u levom lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba; NFS - Normalno držanje u lumbalnom delu kičmenog stuba u frontalnoj ravni.

Na osnovu rezultata u tabeli broj 3. može se uočiti da je skoliotično loše držanje tela daleko pri- sutnije kod odbojkašica juniorskog uzrasta u odnosu na odbojkašice seniorske kategorije jer je kod gotovo svih juniorki dijagnostikovan neki od oblika skoliotičnog lošeg držanja tela dok je kod seniorki procentualna zastupljenost onih koje nemaju dijagnostikovan deformitet u forntalnoj ravni 26.7%.

Tabela 4. Razlika u zastupljenosti telesnih defomiteta kičmenog stuba kod odbojkašica različite starosne kategorije

Legenda: KYPH – kifotično loše držanje; LOR – lordotično loše držanje; SCO – Skoliotično loše držanje.

Na osnovu rezultata u tabeli broj 4. može se uočiti da postoji statistilki značajna razlika (p=0.035) u zastupljenosti skoliotičnog lošeg držanja tela dok u sagitalnoj ravni nema statistički značajnih razlika među ispitanicima različite starosne kategorije. Dobijeni rezultati u ovom istraživanju ukazuju na veoma visok procenat zastupljenosti posturalnih deformiteta kičmenog stuba kako u frontalnoj tako i u sagitalnoj ravni koji su u skladu sa prethodnim istraživanjema (López-Miñarro, Muyor, & Alacid, 2010; Falter & Hellerer, 1982). Iako dobijeni rezultati u ovom istraživanju ukazuju na visok procenat zastupljenosti posturalnih deformiteta kičmenog stuba, detaljnom analizom može se ustanoviti da su sva posturalna odstupanja funkcionalnog tipa i to u velikom procentu samo prvog stepena. To nam ukazuje da je rezultat nastanka posturalnih deformiteta isključivo rezultat disbalansa mišića odnosno promene koje su nastale usled disproporcija u snazi mišića abdomena i grudnog koša sa jedne strane i mišića leđa u torakalnom i lumbalnom delu sa druge strane, kao i disbalans u snazi mišića leve i desne strane kičmenog stuba. Ovi rezultati su u skladu sa istraživanjem Modi et al. (2008). Ovakvo stanje posturalnog statusa koje ima u osnovi samo mišićni disbalans, a ne i malu mišićnu snagu može se opravdati specifičnom motorikom, odnosno tehničkim elementima koji se izvode i predstavl-

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jaju osnovu odbojkaške igre što je u skladu sa istraživanjima Kugler, Krüger-Franke, Reininger, Trouillier, & Rosemeyer (1996). Tehnički elementi se uglavnom izvode jednom rukom odnosno jedna ruka ima uvek dominantniju ulogu i trpi veću silu što utiče na povećanje snage tog dela tela tj. strane kičmenog stuba.

Zaključak

Odbojka je asimetričan sport u kome je prisutna dominantnost izvođenja tehničkih elemenata i trening. Trening predstavlja period intenzivnog fizičkog naprezanja u cilju postizanja što boljih rezultata. Trening ukazuje na prostor u okviru kojeg treba vršiti promene, kako bi se telo sportiste sačuvalo i nakon sportske karijere. Rad na treningu pored redovnog dela određenim planom i programom trenera, treba da sadrži i kompenzatorne vežbe koje imaju za cilj rastezanje muskulature koja je imala dominantniju aktivaciju, a pored toga neophodno je i jačati muskulaturu koja nije imala dominantnu ulogu na treningu. Ovakav plan i program zahteva od trenerera veću posvećenoost i reorganizaciju planova i programa rada i uključivanja u rad stručnih ljudi koji bi vršili kompenzatorne vežbe za nedominantne grupe mišića u glavnom delu treninga i time uticali na smanjenje pojave posturalnih deformiteta i očuvanje posturalnog statusa kičmenog stuba i nakon sportske karijere.

Litaratura

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&Cheon, E. M.(2001). Asymmetric exercise and scoliosis: A study of volleyball athletes. Journal of the Korean Orthopaedic Association, 36(5), 455-460. 17. Živković, D. (2009). Osnovekineziologijesaelemntimakliničkekineziologije (Basics of kinesiology with elements of clinical kinesiology). Niš: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education.

Napomena

Autori žele da odaju zahvalnost na saradnji igračica odbojkaškog kluba ,,Student” iz Niša, koje su omogućile da ovo istraživanje bude sprovedeno, ovaj projekat je podržan Ministarstvom prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike srbije u okviru projekta ,,Razlike i utacaj maksimalne mišićne snage na mineralnu gustinu kostiju između sportista i nesportista srednjoškolske populacije” br. 179024.

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SPELEOLOGICAL TRAINING OF EMPLOYEES IN THE RESAVA CAVE

Milorad Kličković1; Milorad Marković2; Gordana Milošević3 1 Institute for Conservation on Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia 2 MSC “Avala”, Belgrade, Serbia 3 PC “Resava Cave”, Despotovac, Serba

Introduction

At the request of the management of the PE (Public Company) “Resava Cave”, the Commission for Speleology MAS (Mountaineering Association of Serbia) in the spring of 2011 conducted basic speleological training for some employees in the PE. In 2010, the Resava Cave became a member of ISCA (International Show Cave Association). This completes the multi-year membership procedure, which requires that the candidate for membership have a mentor, one of the members of the association. The mentor of the Resavska cave was Postojna Cave from Slovenia.

During the visit to Postojna Cave (https://www.postojnska-jama.eu/en/), the delegation of Resava Cave noticed that all guides of Postojna Cave, and there are about 40 of them, have completed speleological training, that they are all speleologists. The PE “Resava Cave” sent a proposal for cooperation to the Commission for Speleology of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia (https://pss.rs/o-savezu/komisije/komisija-za-speleologiju-ks/), which prepared the Training Study and performed all necessary activities related to the preparation, organization and implementation of the same.

The proposal for cooperation followed the completion of the training for speleological guides for the Cerjan Cave (Wild Caving), which was conducted in 2010 by the Commission in cooperation with the Center for Environmental Thought “Space” from Nis and the Municipality of Pantelej, in which the Cerjan Cave is located.

Speleology

Speleology can, among other things, be defined as a research-scientific-sports discipline that deals with finding, conquering and exploring cavities in the earth’s crust. Most of these activities are focused on the exploration of underground forms of karst relief, caves, pits, etc. Speleology deals with the research of both naturally created and artificially created underground cavities.

A special challenge in speleological objects are vertical channels or parts of channels. To master them, special technical skills and knowledge of working with a rope are needed (Marbach, Tourte, 2002). Most of the practical topics (training or training grounds) of training deal with this issue. Staying and working in the conditions that prevail in underground cavities - speleological objects, carries with it certain risks and dangers, so good and proper management of these knowledge and skills is all the more important (Vidakov- ić, Miletić, Rajković, 2018).

Resava cave

Resava Cave is the first arranged and opened, and thus the oldest tourist cave in Serbia. It was discovered in 1962 by locals and local mountaineers (Kličković, 2016b), and after a decade of research and landscaping, it was opened in April 1972. Even if 11 tourist caves have been arranged and opened to this day, Resava has remained an icon of speleological tourism in Serbia. It is still the most famous and most visited tourist cave with 30-50 thousand tourists a year.

Resava cave is located on the northeastern edge of the karst bay Divljakovačko polje, which belongs to the karst massif of Južni Kučaj. It is located on the territory of the municipality of Despotovac. In the early phase of the research, the Resavska cave was named Divljakovačka. Later, before the opening, the name was changed to Resavska in order to give it greater, regional significance. Resava cave was protected as a natural monument in 1971 (http://resavskapecina.rs).

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Methods

Training preparation

After the proposal on cooperation and acceptance by the representatives of the Commission, the preparation of the training followed. First, the “Basic Speleological Training Project for Employees in the Re- sava Cave” was prepared. The project is the documentation basis for the training and has developed all the necessary details related to the preparation and conduct of the training, including training objectives, criteria for access to the training and the training program. The client of the PE “Resava Cave” accepted the project and a contract on training was made between the PE “Resava Cave” and MAS.

Training goals

The primary goal of the training is defined as the education of employees in the Resava Cave in the field of speleology as a discipline that deals with speleological objects, primarily caves and pits, such as the Resava Cave itself, in which and around which they perform their main activities.

The training is a methodologically and systematically complex acquisition of the necessary speleological knowledge and mastery of skills, primarily for a safe stay and work in the karst underground, and then for a functional recreational stay and useful potential research work (Miletic, 2018). The goal of the training is systematic - efficient acceptance of methodologically processed knowledge required for the level “speleologist-trainee”. Speleological training provides participants with systematic knowledge that includes procedures and techniques that reduce the risk and possibility of an accident to a minimum. It is recognized that the theoretical part of the training is useful to all employees in the PE whose jobs are in any contact with the Resava Cave. It is especially useful for the guides and management of the PE. The theoretical part aims to introduce employees to speleology as a discipline and its scientific aspect through systematically and methodologically selected and complex topics. The practical, technical part of the training is useful for all employees in the PE whose jobs are in any contact with the Resava cave and other caves in the area. It is especially useful for security guards and technical support staff. The practical part introduces the participants to the research, sports and recreational aspect of speleology through technical training through the processing of methodologically selected training grounds, where participants master the skills of using ropes and other technical means to master vertical and very steep parts of cave channels. Formally, the training gives employees-participants the title of “speleologist-trainee”, which enables their equal inclusion in speleological activities in Serbia and abroad, better quality work in the local, even independent organization of activities, etc. In that sense, future speleologists-trainees can be active hosts, support and accompaniment to researchers from the country and abroad, guests on these karst terrains who are still insufficiently researched speleologically and abound in speleological objects of various types and dimensions. Also, as a team, they can start their own research activity. And they can be involved in research and recreational speleological activities of other speleological organizations in the country, the region and abroad. Trained speleologists will have the necessary knowledge and skills to access vertical speleological objects and vertical parts of horizontal speleological objects in the vicinity and beyond. And it will also have access to inaccessible parts of the Resava cave itself. With its membership in ISCA, Resava cave has excellent predispositions for international cooperation, primarily with speleologists from Slovenia and other ISCA members. Trained “trainee speleologists” will be a good basis for the tourist use of unarranged parts of the Resava Cave and the tourist use of some other caves in the environment in unregulated conditions (Wild Caving) (Kličković, 2016a). It will also have a basis for further advancement in speleological titles. And finally, after the training and successfully completed the course, the acquired knowledge, the work of the PE will undoubtedly gain in quality in several aspects. Training program

The training was conducted according to the training program of the MAS Speleology Commission for the title of “trainee speleologist”. This program consists of theoretical and practical work as well as testing of acquired knowledge.

Table 1. Theoretical part

Therm Theme Hours Introduction. The concept of speleology. 1 2 Historical development of speleology. Speleological organizations.

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Karst process. Forms of karst relief. 2 Underground forms of karst relief. 2 Classification of subterranean forms. 3 Navigation 2 Speleological documentation. 4 2 Recording and display of speleological objects. 5 Speleological equipment. 2 Special speleology: Speleoclimatology, Biospeleology, 6 2 Speleopaleontology, Speleoarchaeology, Economic Speleology. Dangers in mountains and speleological objects. 7 2 First aid. 8 Ethics of speleological activities. 2 9 Free term. Preparing to go on the field. 2

Table 2. Practical part

Therm Theme Hours 1 Knots. Travesing 4 DED technique: 2 Introduction to equipment. 4 Climbing and descending using the DED technique. DED technique: 3 The transition from descent to climbing. 4 The transition from climbing to descending. DED technique: 4 4 Crossing the knot on the rope. DED technique: 5 4 Crossing the anchorage. Elementary technique: 6 4 Absell descent with variants. Elementary technique: 7 4 Self-rescue. Elementary technique: 8 4 Use of scales. Free term: 9 4 Exercise of your choice

Table 3. Examination

Therm Theme Duration 1 Knots. Crossing - at the pollygon 2 hours 2 Field testing of acquired knowledge and skills in real conditions 4 days 3 Written and oral test on the the Commission 3 hours

The theoretical part of the course consists of the 8 most important topics whose elementary knowledge is necessary for the title of “trainee speleologist” (table 1). The theoretical part consists of lectures accompanied by presentations, slide projections, films, etc.

The practical part of the course consists of 8 thematic trainings - practice fields where participants are introduced to the basic knowledge and skills of mastering vertical parts in speleological objects with the help of ropes, belts and accompanying techniques. The current technique of mastering vertical parts using a single rope, the so-called DED technique (SRT: Single Rope Technique). The old, elementary, so-called classical technique (rapelling, ladder ...) (table 2).

Even if the MAS management considered that the training should be reported according to a reduced program, informative-promotional character, the training providers remained firmly in the position that the training should be performed according to the training program and thus fully train the participants for speleological activity. gives a chance to engage in speleology, and the further outcome is up to them. This attitude proved to be correct, and more than that.

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Conditions for students

The first and basic condition for joining the training was complete volunteering. In addition, participants had to meet the following conditions: • To be of legal age • That they are healthy • To have appropriate physical condition • To be mentally stable

Participant structure

The training was attended by 10 employees. PE “Resava Cave” at that time had 20 employees. Among the participants were 2 (tourist) guides, 3 people from trade and catering, 2 guards (security workers), 1 accountant (former guide), a cave manager and the director of the PE, from whom the training initiative originated. The guest at the training was an associate of the Institute for Nature Protection, Working Unit in Nis (not included in the statistics). The oldest student was 50 years old, in 1961, and the two youngest were 24 years old, in 1987. The average age of the participants is 35, and the average age is 1976.

Results and discussion

Conducting training

The training was conducted in April 2011 in three terms and a total duration of 8 days. The theoretical part was performed in the premises of the PE “Resava cave” (ethno-house) in Divljakovac, and the practical part was performed on a rock in the canyon of Suvaja (Lisine). The training leader was Milorad Markovic, president of the PSS Speleology Commission, and dr Dejan Vuckovic, speleology instructor, Milorad Klickovic, speleologist, Slobodan Zarkovic, GSS instructor and mountaineering instructor, and Dejan Naumov, demnostrator, took part in the performance. The costs of training, transportation, accommodation and food for instructors, demonstrators and lecturers were borne by the PE “Resava Cave”. The theoretical part of the training was performed by the mentioned lecturers with abundant use of teaching aids and aids provided by PE “Resava Cave” while the first beginnings of “crossing” as well as the adoption of “D” technique for overcoming vertical obstacles, first aid, orientation, etc. (Miletić, 2018), performed at the Speleological training ground in the gorge of Suvaja (Lisine). Location of training - on the karst massif rich in an abundance of speleological objects allowed participants to meet the first speleological objects already during the training, and not to wait for the completion of training as is the case when conducting training on other climbing objects (Miletic, Panayotov, Ziropadja, 2016) located in urban areas. Thus, during the training, the participants with instructors and demonstrators made entrances to Canina and the Youth Cave in the Suvaja canyon and the Vlaska Cave in the valley of the upper course of the Resava. The main difficulty was the implementation of training in the season of the cave, where it was necessary to maintain a smooth process of work and reception of visitors. As May and June are the prime time with the largest number of visitors, the exam part of the training, ie the verification of the acquired knowledge and skills acquired during the training, was organized only on the first weekend of July. The test showed a high level of acquired knowledge, while the practical part of the exam consisted of locating, equipping and recording the Velika Atula cave on the southern slopes of the Beljanica massif. Ve- lika Atula is a cave (horizontal), but at the very entrance there is a cascade - a vertical part, so it is no longer possible to enter the cave without the use of technical equipment and knowledge and skills in handling them. Upon completion of the training, a detailed report on the preparation, execution and course of the training was prepared. The PE “Resavska Pećina” was handed over to the training client and the PSS (Commission for Speleology) as the training contractor. After that, the participants who successfully completed the training and acquired the title of speleologist-trainee were awarded diplomas, signed by dr Dejan Vuckovic, a speleology instructor.

Polygon - training ground

In the preparation of the training, it was necessary to find and determine the appropriate place where the training ground would be formed. An excellent locality was found in the Suvaja canyon, where, in addition to the widening on the road, an exposed limestone rock of various heights rose. The rock was compact enough to set up anchorages (spits). The height of the rock increased from the side road upstream, which enabled the participants to be gradually introduced to the technique from lower heights, where they

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could be easily controlled, according to higher heights and more demanding exercises. The rock was at the same time, both simple enough to begin with, and with enough detail for more demanding exercises, which depended on the way the rope installation was set up. Immediately before the start of the training, instructors and demonstrators equipped the polygon for the needs of performing elementary topics, and later the polygon was equipped according to the requirements and advances of technical topics provided by the program. After the training, the training ground was left for use by newly trained speleologists-trainees. They used it intensively, additionally equipped and developed it. Now it is still used as a member of MSC “Resava”, and it is also used by others, speleologists, rescuers, guests of “Resava” and others.

Conclusion

Concluding remarks

Resava Cave is the first and oldest tourist cave in Serbia and a year after the training, it marked 4 decades of work. Resava Cave is also the most visited cave in Serbia. Due to the unenviable situation on the 30th anniversary, the Resava cave marked the 4th decade of work with constant progress and improvement. Since 2010, the Resava Cave has been a member of the ISCA (International Show Caves Assiciation). On that occasion, the long-standing existing cooperation with the Postojna Cave from Slovenia, which was the proposer of the Resava Cave for membership in ISCA, was deepened. By applying the positive Slovenian experiences, the basic speleological training of the employees of the PE was organized and performed according to the standard training program of PSS for the title of “speleologist-trainee”. The training was attended by 10 employees of the PE, about half of the employees at the time. The training consisted of theoretical and practical work, as well as a final exam. The theoretical part was performed in the ethno-house across from the reception of the Resava cave. The practical (technical) part of the training was performed on a rock in the Suvaja canyon, which was found, prepared and equipped for the occasion. A total of 5 instructors, demonstrators and lecturers took part in the training. Theoretical and practical training was conducted during the month of April, in three blocks with a total duration of 8 days. The exam part of the training was held on the first weekend of July. The participants showed high interest, motivation and attention for theoretical, and especially for practical topics in the field of DED technique, which facilitated and motivated the work of the instructor team and turned it into immense satisfaction. Half of the employees in the PE “Resava Cave”, which manages and uses the Resava Cave, have completed basic speleological training and acquired the title of “speleologist-trainee”. Among them are two guides and a management. In the summary of the entire endeavor, the Resava cave received 10 “trainee speleologists”. Thus, the leading tourist cave in the country, learned from the experiences of foreign partners, went one step further and set a new standard, thus justifying the status of the leading tourist cave in Serbia. The Commission for Speleology and MAS, after all, and Serbian speleology as a whole got 11 new “trainee speleologists”. New trainees were trained and remained to exist on the edge of the Kucaj mountain massif (Beljanica and Južni Kučaj), the largest and most developed karst massif in Serbia, where they are most needed (Miletić, Rajkov- ić, Vidaković, 2016). And finally, in the cross-section of the above, the tourist Resava cave opened the door to speleology, which wisely used the opportunity and entered the form of the Commission with training and thus left the door open to MAS and speleology in general. The basis for further inevitable cooperation of mountaineering speleology with the Resava cave and all other tourist caves has been laid.

Outcomes

Ten employees completed the training and acquired the title of trainee speleologist. Thus, they acquired basic knowledge about the karst process in which caves and pits are formed, including their Resava cave, as well as about the types and other characteristics of speleological objects. They came into close contact with the research speleology, which preceded the opening of each, even the Resava Cave. They mastered the knowledge and skills to master unordered horizontal and vertical speleological objects. As a result, they gained a new view of speleology, speleological objects, and thus the Resava cave in which they work. In the following group guides, the guides were able to interpret the guide text about the cave with much more understanding, to give visitors broader information than the text provided, and all this with a view from the research angle and with the experience of staying not only in Resava cave, but also in other . The guards became more aware of the nature and significance of the building they were guarding and were able to provide them with much more information in contacts with visitors than before.

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Managers also gained new knowledge about karst and speleological objects and the skills to master them, which potentially helped them to rely on their profession, acquired knowledge and real experience in the decision-making process (Miletić, Rajković, Vidaković, 2016). New knowledge and experiences brought a new view of things and a new approach in communication with speleological and mountaineering clubs, other tourist caves and other entities (Miletić, Rajković, Toković, Gogalić, Rvović, 2019). Also to new, developmental and other ideas. Two years later, in 2013, most of the newly trained trainee speleologists gathered and founded the Mountaineering and Speleological Club “Resava”. Due to the growing needs and interests, in the fall of 2014, the club organized a new training for “trainee speleologists”, which brought the club 10 new trainees. For the purpose of conducting the training, a training ground on the rock in the Suvaja canyon was determined and formed, which remained in that capacity to function, used for the next training and to use the newly established club for regular training, and others (Rajković, Miletić, Branković, 2018). Some of the first generation participants were recruited into the Mountain Rescue Service of Serbia (MRSS), and some from the second generation into the PSS Guide Service. Cooperation was established with other speleological clubs, so this area recorded a significant increase in speleological visitors. This certainly reflected on the attendance and increase in the popularity of the Resava Cave. In addition to speleologists, the club has a significant mountaineering membership and significant mountaineering activities. An example of how initially the speleological activity led to the development of mountaineering in a small town, in a rural area in eastern Serbia. The club established the “Epiphany Ascent” to the top of Beljanica - Pyramid 1339 m above sea level every January. This action has become traditional and is held at the republic level. The formation of the club was very important. This corrected the decades-long “injustice” that there has not been a single speleological association in the area of the most intensive speleological activity for decades. It is even more significant that the headquarters of the club are not in the town of Despotovac, but in the village of Strmosten, on the very slopes of the nursery of caves and pits, the karst massif of Beljanica and Juzni Kucaj. The club has survived to this day, records significant activity and is a member of MAS.

References

1. Kličković M. (2016a). The Concept of Wild Caving. Proceedings of the International Scientific Confer- ence “150th Anniversary of Jovan Cvijić’s birth“, October 12-14, 2015, Volume 2, Belgrade. 2. Marbach, G., Tourte, B. (2002). Alpine Caving Techniques. A complete Guide to Safe and Efficient Caving. Speleo Project, CPI, Allschwill. 3. Marković M., Kličković M., (2010). Projekat osnovne speleološke obuke za zaposlene u Resavskoj pećini, Beograd, Komisija za speleologiju PSS. 4. Marković M., Kličković M., Žarković S., (2012). Izveštaj o osnovnoj speleološkoj obuci za zaposlene u Resavskoj pećini, Beograd, Komisija za speleologiju PSS. 5. Miletic, V., Panayotov, N., Ziropadja, A. (2016): “Architectural” characteristics of climbing objects. SPOFA, International Monograph Sports Facilities Modernization and Construction. University of Bel- grade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. Belgrade (284-295). 6. Miletić, V., Rajković, Ž., Toković, V., Gogalić, M., Rvović, M. (2019): Projekat ”Pristup isposnici Bjeličkovica u kanjonu Kratovske reke”, Knjiga radova 1. Nacionalne naučne i stručne konferencije ”Aktuelnosti u teoriji i praksi sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije”, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu. 7. Miletić, V., Rajković, Ž., Vidaković, H. M. (2016): Attitudes of students of Faculty of Sport and Physical Eduacation from Belgrade about Alpinism Activities Influence on group Socialization and Future Pro- fessional work, Physical Education and Sport Through the Centuries, 2016, 3 (2). 8. Miletić, V., Rajković, Ž., Vidaković, H. M. (2016): Outdoor Activities – A Space Released from „Chains“ of Competition Results, Physical Education and Sport Through the Centuries, 2016, 3(1) 9. Видаковић, Х. М., Милетић, В., Рајковић, Ж. (2018): Мишљења учесника едукативног кампа о утицају заступљених програмских активности на неке здравствено безбедносне аспекте, Књига сажетака, 5. Међународна научна конференција „Антрополошки и теоантрополошки поглед на физичке активности од Константина великог до данас, Копаоник. 10. Кличковић М. (2016b). Заблуде о Ресавској пећини, Заштита природе 66-1, Завод за заштиту природе Србије, Београд, 49-58 11. Милетич, В. (2018). Методика на обучение по алпинизъм. Дисертация. Национална спортна академия „Васил Левски“, София. 12. Рајковић, Ж., Милетић, В., Бранковић, Д. (2018): Преференције деце млађег школског узраста према логоровању, Спорт и здравље XIII 13. http://resavskapecina.rs/site/ 14. https://www.postojnska-jama.eu/en/ 15. https://pss.rs/o-savezu/komisije/komisija-za-speleologiju-ks/

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SPELEOLOŠKA OBUKA ZAPOSLENIH U RESAVSKOJ PEĆINI

Milorad Kličković1; Milorad Marković2; Gordana Milošević3 1 Zavod za zaštitu prirode Srbije, Beograd, Srbija 2 PSK “Avala”, Beograd, Srbija 3 JP “Resavska pećina”, Despotovac, Srbija

Uvod

Na zahtev rukovodstva JP (Javnog preduzeća) „Resavska pećina“ Komisija za speleologiju PSS (Planinarski savez Srbije) je proleća 2011. godine izvela osnovnu speleološku obuku za deo zaposlenih u JP. Resavska pećina je 2010. godine postala članom ISCA (International Show Cave Assocciation – Međunarodno udruženje turističkih pećina). Time je okončana višegodišnja procedura učlanjenja, koja zahteva da kandidat za članstvo ima mentora, jednog od članova asocijacije. Mentor Resavske pećine bila je Postojinska jama iz Slovenije.

Prilikom posete Postojinskoj jami (https://www.postojnska-jama.eu/en/), delegacija Resavske pećine je uočila da svi vodiči Postojinske jame, a ima ih 40tak, imaju završenu speleološku obuku, odnosno da su svi i speleolozi. Od strane JP „Resavska pećina“ upućen je predlog saradnje prema Komisiji za speleologiju Plani- narskog Saveza Srbije (https://pss.rs/o-savezu/komisije/komisija-za-speleologiju-ks/), koja je pripremila Elaborat obuke i izvršila sve potrebne aktivnosti vezane za pripremu, organizaciju i realizaciju iste.

Predlog za saradnju je usledio nakon okončanja obuke za speleološke vodiče za Cerjansku pećinu (Wild Caving), koju je 2010. godine izvela Komisija u saradnji sa Centrom ekološke misli „Prostor“ iz Niša i Opštinom Pantelej, na čijem području se Cerjanska pećina nalazi.

Speleologija

Speleologija se između ostalog može definisati i kao istraživačko-naučno-sportska disciplina koja se bavi pronalaženjem, osvajanjem i istraživanjem šupljina u zemljinoj kori. Najveći deo tih aktivnosti orijenti- san je na istraživanje podzemnih oblika karstnog reljefa, pećina, jama i dr. Speleologija se bavi istraživanjem i prirodno nastalih i veštački stvorenih podzemnih šupljina.

Poseban izazov u speleološkim objektima su vertikani kanali ili delovi kanala. Za njihovo savladavanje potrebne su posebne tehničke veštine i znanja rada sa užetom (Marbach, Tourte, 2002). Najveći deo praktičnih tema (treninga ili vežbališta) obuke se upravo i bavi ovom problematikom. Boravak i rad u uslovima kakvi vladaju u podzemnim šupljinama – speleološkim objektima, nosi sa sobom i određene rizike i opasnosti pa je dobro i pravilno vladanje navedenim znanjima i veštinama utoliko značajnije (Видаковић, Милетић, Рајковић, 2018).

Resavska pećina

Resavska pećina je prva uređena i otvorena, a time i najstarija turistička pećina u Srbiji. Otkrivena je 1962. godine od strane meštana i lokalnih planinara (Kličković, 2016b), a nakon decenije istraživanja i uređenja otvorena je aprila 1972. godine. I ako je do danas uređeno i otvoreno 11 turističkih pećina Resavska je ostala ikona speleološkog turizma u Srbiji. I dalje je najpoznatija i najposećenija turistička pećina sa 30 – 50 hiljada turista godišnje.

Resavska pećina se nalazi na severoistočnom obodu karstne uvale Divljakovačko polje, koje pripada karstnom masivu Južnog Kučaja. Nalazi se na teritoriji opštine Despotovac. U ranoj fazi istraživanja Resavska pećina je nosila ime Divljakovačka. Kasnije pred otvaranje je ime promenjeno u Resavska da bi joj se dao veći, regionalni značaj. Resavska pećina je zaštićena kao spomenik prirode 1971. godine (http:// resavskapecina.rs).

Metode

Priprema obuke

Nakon predloga o saradnji i prihvatanja od strane predstavnika Komisije, sledila je priprema obuke.

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Najpre je izrađen „Projekat osnovne speleološke obuke za zaposlene u Resavskoj pećini“. Projekat je do- kumentaciona osnova izvođenja obuke i razradio je sve neophode detalje vezane za pripremu i izvođenje obuke, između ostalih i ciljeve obuke, kriterijume za pristup obuci i program obuke. Naručilac JP „Resаvska pećina“ je prihvatio projekat i sačinjen je ugovor o izvođenju obuke između JP „Resavska pećina“ i PSS.

Ciljevi obuke

Kao primarni cilj obuke definisano je obrazovanje zaposlenih u Resavskoj pećini iz oblasti speleologije kao discipline koja se bavi speleološkim objektima, pre svega pećinama i jamama, kakav je i sama Resavska pećina u kojoj i oko koje oni obavlaju svoju osnovnu delatnost.

Izvođenje obuke predstavlja metodološko-sistematski složeno sticanje neophodnih speleoloških znanja i ovladavanje veštinama, pre svega za bezbedan boravak i rad u karstnom podzemlju, a zatim i za funkcionalan rekreativni boravak i koristan potencijalni istraživački rad (Милетич, 2018).

Cilj obuke je sistematsko – efikasno prihvatanje metodološki obrađenih znanja potrebnih za nivo „speleolog-pripravnik“. Speleološka obuka, polaznicima daje sistematska znanja koja podrazumevaju procedure i tehnike kojima se rizik i mogućnost nesreće svodi na najmanju moguću meru.

Prepoznato je da je teoretski deo obuke od koristi svim zaposlenim u JP čiji su poslovi u bilo kakvom dodiru sa Resavskom pećinom. Naročito je koristan vodičima i rukovodstvu JP. Teoretski deo ima za cilj da uvede zaposlene u speleologiju kao disciplinu i njen naučni aspekt kroz sistematski i metodološki odabrane i složene teme.

Praktični, tehnički deo, obuke je od koristi svim zaposlenim u JP čiji su poslovi u bilo kakvom dodiru sa Resavskom pećinom i drugim pećinama u okolini. Noročito je koristan za čuvare i kadrove tehničke podrške. Praktični deo polaznike kroz tehničku obuku uvodi u istraživački, sportski i rekreativni aspekt speleologije kroz obradu metodološki odabranih vežbališta, kojima polaznici savladavaju veštine korišćenja užeta i drugih tehničkih sredstava za savladavanje vertikalnih i jako strmih delova pećinskih kanala.

Formalno, obuka daje zaposlenima-polaznicima zvanje „speleolog-pripravnik“, što omogućava njihovo ravnopravno uključivanje u speleološke aktivnosti u Srbiji i inostranstvu, kvalitetniji rad u lokalu, čak i samostalnu organizaciju aktivnosti i dr. U tom smislu budući speoleolozi-pripravnici mogu biti aktivni domaćini, podrška i pratnja istraživačima iz zemlje i inostranstva, gostima na ovim karstnim terenima koji su speleološki još uvek nedovoljno istraženi a obiluju speleološkim objektima najrazličitijeg tipa i dimenzija. Takođe, kao tim mogu da pokrenu i sopstvenu istraživačku aktivnost. A mogu da se uključe i u istraživačke i rekretaivne speleološke aktivnosti drugih speleoloških organizacija u zemlji, regionu i inostranstvu.

Obučeni speleolozi će imati potrebno znanje i veštine za pristup vertikalnim speleološkim objektima i vertikalnim delovima horizontalnih speleoloških objekata u okolini i šire. A takođe imaće pristupa i nepris- tupačnim delovima same Resavske pećine.

Članstvom u ISCA Resavska pećine ima odlične predispozicije za međunarodnu saradnju, prvenstveno sa speleolozima iz Slovenije i drugim članicama ISCA. Obučeni „speleolozi-pripravnici“ biće dobra osnova za turističko korišćenje neuređenih delova Re- savske pećine i turističko korišćenje nekih drugih pećina u okruženju u neuređenim uslovima (Wild Caving) (Kličković M., 2016a). Takođe imaće osnovu za dalje napredovanje u speleološkim zvanjima. I na kraju, nakon obuke i uspešno završenog kursa, odnosno stečenih znanja, rad JP će nesumnji- vo dobiti na kvalitetu po više aspekata.

Program obuke

Obuka je izvedena po programu obuke Komisije za speleologiju PSS za zvanje „speleolog pripravnik“. Ovaj program sastoji se iz teoretskog i praktičnog dela kao i provere stečenih znanja.

Tabela 1. Teorijski deo

Termin Teme Časovi Uvod. Pojam speleologije. 1 2 Istorijski razvoj speleologije. Speleološke organizacije.

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Karstni proces. Oblici karstnog reljefa. 2 Podzemni oblici karstnog reljefa. 2 Klasifikacija podzemnih oblika. 3 Orijentacija u prirodi 2 Speleološka dokumentacija. 4 2 Snimanje i prikazivanje speleoloških objekata. 5 Speleološka oprema. 2 Posebna speleologija: Speleoklimatologija, Biospeleologija, 6 2 Speleopaleontologija, Speleoarheologija, Privredna speleologija. Opasnosti u planini i speleološki objekti. 7 2 Prva pomoć. 8 Etika speleoloških aktivnosti. 2 9 Slobodan termin. Priprema za odlazak na teren. 2

Tabela 2. Praktični deo

Termin Tema Časovi 1 Čvorovi. Traverziranje 4 DED tehnika: 2 Upoznavanje sa opremom. 4 Penjanje i spuštanje pomoću DED tehnike. DED tehnika: 3 Prelazak iz spuštanja u penjanje. 4 Prelazak iz penjanja u spuštanje. DED tehnika: 4 4 Prelazak preko čvora na užetu. DED tehnika: 5 4 Prelazak međusidrišta. Elementarna tehnika: 6 4 Spuštanje niz uže sa varijantama. Elementarna tehnika: 7 4 Samoizvlačenje Elementarna tehnika: 8 4 Upotreba lestvica Slobodno vreme: 9 4 Vežbanje po izboru

Tabela 3. Ispit

Termin Tema Trajanje 1 Čvorovi. Traverziranje – na vežbalištu 2 časa 2 Terenska provera stečenih znanja i veština u realnim uslovima 4 dana 3 Pisano i usmeno polaganje pred komisijom 3 časa

Teorijski deo kursa sastoji se iz 8 najznačajnijih tema čije elementerno poznavanje je neophodno za zvanje „speleolog pripravnik“ (tabela 1). Teorijski deo sastoji se iz predavanja koja su praćena prezentacija- ma, slajd projekcijama, filmovima, i dr.

Praktični deo kursa sastoji se iz 8 tematskih treninga – vežbališta na kojima se polaznici upoznaju sa elementarnim znanjima i veštinama savladavanja vertikalnih delova u speleološkim objektima pomoću užeta, pojasa i prateće tehnike. Detaljno se obrađuje aktuelna tehnika savladavanja vertikalnih delova upotrebom jednostrukog užeta tzv. DED-tehnika (engl: SRT- Single Rope Technics / Tehnika jednostrukog užeta). Informativno se obrađuje stara, elementarna, tzv. klasična tehnika (abzel, lestve...) (tabela 2).

I ako je rukovodstvo PSS smatralo da obuku treba izvesti po redukovanom programu, informativno-promotivnog karaktera, izvođači obuke su ostali čvrsto na stanovištu da se obuka u potpunosti izvede prema progarmu obuke i time polaznici potpuno osposobe za speleološku aktivnost, čime im se sa te strane daje šansa za bavljenje speleologijom, a dalji ishod je na njima samima. Ovaj stav se pokazao kao ispravan, i više od toga.

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Uslovi za polaznike

Prvi i osnovni uslov za pritupanje obuci je bio potpuna dobrovoljnost. Osim toga polaznici su morali da ispune i sledeće uslove: • Da budu punoletni • Da su zdravi • Da imaju odgovarajuću fizičku kondiciju • Da budu psihički stabilni

Struktura polaznika

Obuci je pristupilo 10 zaposlenih. JP „Resavska pećina“ u to vreme imala je 20 zaposlenih. Među polanicima su bili 2 (turistička) vodiča, 3 osobe iz trgovine i ugostiteljstva, 2 čuvara (radnika obezbeđenja), 1 računovođa (bivši vodič), upravnik pećine i direktorka JP, od koje je i potekla inicijativa za obuku. Gost na obuci bio je saradnik Zavoda za zaštitu prirode, Radne jedinice u Nišu (ne ulazi u statistiku). Najstariji polaz- nik je imao 50 godina, 1961. godište, a dvoje najmlađih 24 godine, 1987. godište. Prosečna starost polaznika je 35 godina, a prosečno godište 1976.

Rezultati sa diskusijom

Izvođenje obuke

Obuka je izvedena aprila 2011. godine u tri termina i ukupnom trajanju od 8 dana. Teoretski deo izveden je u prostorijama JP „Resavsak pećina“ (etno-kuća) u Divljakovcu, a praktični deo izvođen je na steni u kanjonu Suvaje (Lisine). Rukovodilac obuke je bio Milorad Marković, predsednik Komisije za speleolgiju PSS, a u izvođenju su učestvovali dr Dejan Vučković, instruktor speleologije, Milorad Kličković, speleolog, Slobodan Žarković, instruktor GSSa i instruktor alpinizma i Dejan Naumov, demnostrator. Troškove obuke, prevoza, smeštaja i ishrane instruktora, demosntratora i predavača snosilo je JP „Resavksa pećina“. Teoretski deo obuke izveden je od strane navedenih predavača uz obilato korišćenje nastavnih sredstava i pomagala koji su obezbedjeni od strane JP „Resavska pećina“ dok se prvi počeci „prečkanja“ kao i usvajanje korišćenja „D“ tehnike za savladavanja vertikalnih prepreka, pružanje prve pomoći, orijentacija i dr. (Милетић, 2018), izvršeni na Speleološkom vežbalištu u klisuri Suvaje (Lisine). Lokacija izvođenja obuke – na samom karstnom masivu bogatom obiljem speleoloških objekata omogućio je da polaznici susretnu sa prvim speleološkim objektima već u toku obuke, a ne da za to čekaju završetak obuke kao što su to slučajevi kod izvođenja obuka na drugim penjačkim objektima (Miletic, Pan- ayotov, Ziropadja, 2016) lociranim u gradskim sredinama. Tako su tokom obuke polaznici sa instruktorima i demonstratorima izveli ulaske u Caninu i Omladinsku pećinu u kanjonu Suvaje i Vlašku pećinu u dolini gornjeg toka Resave. Glavnu poteškoću predstavljalo je izvođenje obuke u sezoni rada pećine, pri čemu je trebalo održati nesmetan proces rada odnosno prijem posetilaca. Kako su maj i jun udarni termini sa najvećim brojem posetilaca to je ispitni deo obuke, odnosno provera usvojenih znanja i veština usvojenih tokom obuke, organizovan tek prvog vikenda jula meseca. Test je pokazao visok stepen usvojenog znanja dok se praktični deo ispita sastojao u lociranju, opremanju i snimanju pećine Velika Atula na južnim padinama masiva Beljanice. Velika Atula je pećina (hor- izontalna) ali na samom ulazu ima kaskadu – vertikalni deo, te u pećinu dalje nije moguće ući bez upotrebe tehničke opreme i znanja i veština njihovim rukovanjem. Po završetku obuke sačinjen je detaljan izveštaj o pripremema, izvođenju i toku obuke. Po primerak su predati JP „Resavska pećina“, naručiocu obuke i PSS (Komisiji za speleologiju), kao izvođaču obuke. Nakon toga polaznicima koji su uspešno završili obuku i stekli zvanje speleolog-pripravnik dodeljene su diplome, koje je potpisao dr Dejan Vučković, instruktor speleologije.

Poligon – vežbalište

U pripremi obuke bilo je neophodno pronaći i odrediti odgovarjuće mesto na kome bi se formiralo vežbalište. Pronađen je odličan lokalitet u kanjonu Suvaje na kome se pored proširenja na putu uzdizala eks- ponirana krečnjačka stena različite visine. Stena je bila dovoljno kompaktna za postavljanje sidrišta (spitova). Visina stene je rasla od bočnog puta uzvodno što je omogućavalo da se polaznici postepano uvode u tehniku od manjih visina gde su mogli lako da se kontrolišu pa prema većim visinama i zahtevnijim vežbama. Stena je istovremeno bila, i dovoljno jednostavna za početke, i sa dovoljno detalja za zahtevnije vežbe, što je za- visilo od načina postavljenja instalacije od užeta.

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Neposredno pred početak obuke instruktori i demostratori su opremili poligon za potrebe izvođenja elementarnih tema, a kasnije je poligon opreman prema zahtevima i napredovanjima tehničkih tema pred- viđenih programom.

Nakon obuke, poligon je ostavljen na korišćenje novoobučenim speleolozima-pripravnicima. Oni su ga intezivno koristili, dodatno opremali i razvijali. Sada ga i dalje koriste kao članovi PSK „Resava“, a koriste ga i drugi, speleolozi, spasioci, gosti „Resave“ i ostali.

Zaključak

Zaključna razmatranja

Resavska pećina je prva i najstarija turistička pećina u Srbiji i godinu nakon održavanja obuke obeležila je 4 decenije rada. Resavska pećina je i najposećenija pećina u Srbiji.

Od nezavidnog stanja na 30. godišnjcu Resavska pećina je 4. decenju rada obeležila konstantnim napretkom i unapređenjem. Od 2010. Resavska pećina je članica ISCA (International Show Caves Assici- ation). Tim povodom je produbljena dugogodišnja postojeća saradnja sa Postojinskom jamom iz Slovenije koja je bila predlagač Resavske pećine za članstvo u ISCA.

Primenom pozitivnih slovenačkih iskustava organizovana je i izvedena osnovna speleološka obuka dela zaposlenih u JP po standardnom programu obuke PSS za zvanje „speleolog-pripravnik“. Obuci je pristupilo 10 zaposlenih JP, oko polovina tada zaposlenih.

Obuka se sastojala iz teoretskog i praktičnog dela, kao i završnog ispita. Teoretski deo izveden je u etno-kući preko puta recepcije Resavske pećine. Praktični (tehnički) deo obuke izveden je na steni u kanjonu Suvaje, koja je za tu priliku pronađena, pripremljena i opremljena. U izvođenju obuke učetvovalo je ukupno 5 instruktora, demonstratora, predavača. Teoretska i praktična obuka izvedena je tokom aprila meseca, u tri bloka ukupnog trajanja od 8 dana. Ispitni deo obuke održan je prvog vikenda jula meseca.

Polaznici su pokazali visoko interesovanje, motivisanost i pažnju za teoretske, a naročito za prak- tične teme iz oblasti DED tehnike, što je olakšavalo i motivisalo rad instruktorskog tima i pretvaralo ga u neizmerno zadosvoljstvo. Polovina zaposlenih u JP „Resavska pećina“ koje upravlja i koristi Resavsku pećinu završili su osnovnu speleološku obuku i stekli zvanje „speleolog-pripravnik“. Među njima su dva vodiča i rukovodstvo.

U rezimeu čitavog poduhvata Resavska pećina je dobila 10 „speleologa-pripravnika“. Tako je, i onako vodeća turistička pećina u zemlji, učena iskustvima stranih partnera, otišla još jedan korak dalje i postavila novi standard i time ponovo opravdala status vodeće turističke pećine u Srbiji. Komisija za speleologiju i PSS, na kraju krajeva i srpska speleogija u celini dobili su 11 novih „speleologa-pripravnika“. Novi pripravnici su obučavani i ostali da egzistiraju na obodu planinaskog masiva Kučaja (Beljanica i Južni Kučaj) najvećeg i najrazvijenijeg karstnog masiva u Srbiji, gde su i najpotrebniji (Miletić, Rajković, Vidaković, 2016).

I na kraju u preseku iznetog, turistička Resavska pećina je otvorila vrata speleologiji, koja je mudro iskoristila priliku i ušla u vidu Komisije sa obukom i time ostavila otvorena vrata PSSu i speleolgiji uopšte. Postavljena je osnova za dalju neminovnu saradnju planinarske speleologije sa Resavskom pećinom i svim drugim turističkim pećinama.

Ishodi

Desetoro zaposlenih su završili obuku i stekli zvanje speleolog-pripravnik. Time su stekli osnovna znanja o karstnom procesu u kome nastaju pećine i jame pa i njihova Resavska pećina, kao i o vrstama i drugim karakteristikama speleoloških objekata. Došli su u bliski kontakt sa istraživačkom speleologijom, koja je prethodila otvaranju svake, pa i Resavske pećine. Ovladali su znanjima i veštinama da savladavaju neuređene horizontalne i vertialne speleoloke objekte. Kao rezultat svega stekli su novi pogled na speleologiju, speleološke objekte, a samim tim i Resavsku pećinu u kojoj rade. Vodiči su u narednim vođenjima grupa sa mnogo više razumevanja mogli da interpretiraju vodički tekst o pećini, da posetiocima daju šire informacije od tekstom predviđenih i sve to sa pogledom iz is- traživačkog ugla i sa iskustvom boravka ne samo u Resavskoj pećini, već i u drugim, neuređenim pećinama. Čuvari su postali svesniji prirode i značaja objekta koji čuvjau i mogli su u kontaktima sa posetiocima da im pruže znatno više informacija nego do tada. Rukovodioci su takođe stekli nova znanja o karstu i speleološkim objektima i veštine njihovog sav-

304 UDK: 551.44 ladavanja što im je potencijalno pomoglo da se u procesu donošenja odluka mogu osloniti na struku, stečeno znanje i realno iskustvo (Miletić, Rajković, Vidaković, 2016). Nova znanja i iskustva donela su novi pogled na stvari i novi pristupu u komunikaciji sa speleološkim i planinarskim klubovima, drugim turističkim pećinama i drugim subjektima (Miletić, Rajković, Toković, Gogalić, Rvović, 2019). Takođe i do novih, razvojnih i drugih ideja. Dve godine kasnije, 2013. godine, se veći deo novopečenih speleologa-pripravnika okupio i os- novao Planinarsko-speleološki klub „Resava“. Usled naraslih potreba i interesovanja, jeseni 2014. klub je organizovao novu obuku za „speleologa-pripravnika“ koja je klubu donela novih 10 pripravnika. Za potrebe izvođenja obuke određen je i formiran poligon-vežbalište na steni u kanjonu Suvaje koji je u tom svojstvu ostao da fonkcioniše, korišćen i za narednu obuku i da koristi novoosnovanom klubu za redovne treninge, a i drugima (Рајковић, Милетић, Бранковић, 2018). Neki od polaznika prve generacije su regrutovani u Gorsku službu spasavanja Srbije (GSS), a neki iz druge generacije u Službu vodiča PSS. Ostvarena je saradnja sa drugim speleološkim klubovima pa ovo područje zabeležilo značajan porast speleoloških posetilaca. Svakako se to odrazilo i na posećenost i porast popularnosti Resavske pećine. Osim speleologa, klub ima i značajno planinarsko članstvo i značajne planinarske aktivnosti. Primer kako je inicijalno speleološkom aktivnošću došlo do razvoja planinarstva u malom mestu, u ruralnom području na istoku Srbije. Klub je uspostavio „Bogojavljenski uspon“ na vrh Beljanice – Piramidu 1339 m n.m. svakog januara. Ova akcija je postala tradicionalna i održava se na republičkom nivou. Veoma je značajno bilo formiranje kluba. Time je ispravljena decenijska ’’nepravda’’ da na području najintezivnije speleološke aktivnosti decenijama nema ni jednog speleološkog udruženja. Još je značajnije što sedište kluba nije u gradu Despotovcu, već u selu Strmostenu, na samim padinama rasadnika pećina i jama, karstnog masiva Beljanice i Južnog Kučaja. Klub je opstao do današnjih dana, beleži značajnu aktivnost i član je PSS.

Literatura

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PUBLIC RELATIONS AND ADVOCACY VERSUS LOBBYNG IN SPORT: A CASE STUDY OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA AND COMPARATIVES INTERNATIONAL PRACTICE

Nenad Vasić1; Daniel Heler2,3 1 Institute of International Politics and Economics, Belgrade, Serbia 2 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Political Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia 3 Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Praha, Czech Republic

Introduction

Every mentioning of lobbying is important, for people and any person in particular. Also, professional lobbying appears to be essential. At the same time, many dilemmas and ambiguities are present as most people do not know what lobbying is, as well as how and what actually lobbyists do while performing their professional work. Thus, there are many issues and dilemmas related to lobbying and no one should be surprised that this is the case. In this scientific paper, we shall try to consider different aspects and dilemmas regarding lobbying, and also clarify the relationship between three partially related but essentially different professions: 1. public relations, 2. advocacy and 3. lobbying. In particular, the focus will be on the lobbying in sport. We will start, first with the re-actualization and thematization of lobbyist-related questions. What are lobbyists or who are they? The correct and simplest answer we can give is that they are lobbyists, people who formally or informally do lobby. Besides, it should be mentioned on this occasion, that not all the people, who are famous and powerful, are involved in lobbying. In order to simply understand what lobbying is, it is necessary to give a definition of the phenomenon. “Lobbying is a set of professional measures, practical skills and official legal procedures, implemented through the lobbyist’s relationship with the lobbied in the interest of the client” (Vasić, 2015).

Lobbying is a part of lobbystology. In this context, a question inevitably arises: what is the lobbystology? Let’s clarify. Lobbystology is a brand new science in the corpus of the social sciences and humanities that was discovered and published for the first time in the world in 2015 in Belgrade, Republic of Serbia by scientist Dr. Nenad A. Vasić from the Institute of International Politics and Economics, and theoretically fully defined in 2017, when the book entitled Introduction to Lobbystology (in Macedonian Voved vo lobistologijata) was published for the first time in Skopje, then the Republic of Macedonia, with an international board of reviewers, which represented the first international recognition of lobbystology. “Lobbystology is the science of lobbystologists who study the theory and practice of different types of lobbying” (Васиќ, 2017). The first scientific recognition in the Republic of Serbia, was achieved in 2019 with the holding and subsequent publication of a hosting lecture of the scientist Dr. Nenad A. Vasić entitled: The relevance of lobbying in sport: National position of the Republic of Serbia and international perspectives (Vasić, 2019). After all that has been mentioned and clarified regarding lobbyists, lobbying and lobbystology, we should first analyse and comment on what is the differentia specifica in-between public relations, advocacy and lobbying in the modern world and in our case study of the Republic of Serbia. When we deal with the public relations, advocacy and lobbying, specifically lobbying in sport, we should point out the fact that it is not professionally treated and legally regulated in the same way internationally. In some countries, it is possible for established public relations professionals or lawyers to engage in lobbying, since often it is legally possible and socially acceptable, but sometimes it is not the case. Take, for example, the United States, where there is the Lobbying Act (United States Congress on December 19, 1995) and where anyone who wants to lobby is required to register and possess a license to legally lobby. All contracts between lobbyists and their lobbying firms are traditionally legal, public, and readily available at the United States Department of Justice. Therefore, in the United States, lobbyists are people who are engaged in any legal business or profession, being trained and duly registered in the register of lobbyists. “The term ‘lobbyist’ means any individual who is employed or hired by a client for financial or other compensation for services involving more than one lobbying contact, other than persons whose lobbying activities account for less than 20% of time spent in services, while the individual and client are engaged for more than six months” (Lobbying Disclosure Act, 1995). This bill requires to register and submit six-month reports to the Senate Secretary for all lobbyists paid for lobbying in Congress.

U.S. lobbying legislation was amended by the 1998 Lobbying Disclosure Technical Amendments Act of 1998. Lobbyists are obliged to present their financial reports, which is quite understandable and acceptable. In January 2004, an omnibus ethical reform was carried out in the Senate, including the disputed Article 220 of the Law on Lobbying, which stated that the basis of lobbying is public communication of citizens with official representatives of the American government. After the protests of a large number of influential officials from various organizations, they pointed out that the influence of their representatives is the centre

306 UDK: 796:328.184 of representative democracy. Finally, after the mentioned request and successful protests, by the decision of the American Senate, the disputed Article 220 was abolished on January 18, 2007. Prior to that, the Lobbying Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 (H.R. 4975) was enacted. It has further improved the transparency in lobbying. As for the profession of lobbyist and lobbying companies, the Honest Leadership and Open Gov- ernment Act, passed on September 14, 2007, is important. Contrary to the 1995 law, the current law on lobbying contains amendments with the aim of increasing the control of the work of registered lobbyists while prescribing new conditions for lobbying (110th Congress, Washington D.C. 2007). This law was signed by the then President of the United States of America, George Walker Bush Jr. Additionally, the attempt to regulate lobbying in the United States in 2007 was the Executive Branch Reform Act, (H.R. 985).

Lobbying laws enacted in the United States contain the following provisions: A. definition of lobbying (what is officially considered lobbying and what is not), B. who are the subjects or actors of lobbying (clients and lobbying firms), C. administrative procedures as per the registration of a lobbying firm is handled, D. official report on implemented lobbying activities, E. economic elements and the way of functioning of lobbying firms, F. manner of termination and suspension of active work of lobbyists, G. the relationship and connection of lobbying laws with other applicable legislation and H. rights, obligations and responsibilities of lobbyist.

In lobbystology and legal science, the American Law on Lobbying is considered a glaring example of good and successful legal regulation of the lobbyist profession. With the election of Barack Hussein Obama as the President of the United States and his arrival at the White House on January 21, 2009, two executive orders and three presidential memoranda were signed. One of those executive orders directly concerned lobbyists. There are three priority and binding legal principles of Obama’s executive order, as the President of the United States, which concerns the new obligations of lobbyists. • First, all those lobbyists who enter his service will not be able to perform lobbying activities, which also applies to the agency they worked for in the last two years. • Secondly, all those officials who leave his service will not be able to lobby in it for their clients while he is the President of the United States of America. • Third, officials are prohibited from receiving gifts from lobbyists.

“1. Prohibition of lobbying gift. I will not accept gifts from registered lobbyists or lobbying organizations for the duration of my service as an appointee” (Obama, 2009). Already in the mentioned point 1, the officials of the administration are explicitly forbidden to receive any gifts from registered lobbyists and their lobbying companies. In the U.S. legal practice regarding lobbying, the provision of the institute of prohibition known as the Revolving Door, or the Cooling off Periods, is traditionally used.

“2. Ban on the Revolving Door for all appointees entering the Government. I will not for a period of 2 years from the date of my appointment participate in any particular matter involving specific parties that is directly and substantially related to my former employer or former clients, including regulations and contracts” (Obama, 2009). In addition to the above-mentioned prohibitions, an important provision of prohibitions on lobbyists is written in point 3 of the Obama’s executive order.

“3. Revolving Door ban for lobbyists entering the Government. If I was a registered lobbyist within the 2 years before the date of my appointment, in addition to abiding by the limitations of paragraph 6, I will not for a period of 2 years after the date of my appointment:

(a) participate in any particular matter on which I lobbied within the 2 years before the date of my appointment (b) participate in the specific issue area in which that particular matter falls; (c) I will not for a period of 2 years from the date of my appointment participate in any particular matter involving specific parties that is directly and substantially related to my former employer or former clients, including regulations and contracts” (Obama, 2009). The provisions of the Revolving Door Institute, the aforementioned act of the then President Obama, also apply to item 4 (regulates the departure of appointed officials from the Government and a ban on lobbying for 2 years), and item 5 (regulates the departure of appointed officials from the Government and their lobbying in it). However, despite all the efforts of former President Obama, his administration had a different approach and treatment of certain lobbyists. “Despite, some officials work in the administration, thanks to certain exceptions from the president’s executive decision” (http://www.voanews. com/serbian/news/Lobby- ing-Influencing-Policy-Part-Two-09-05-2010-102257629.html). In the campaign for the second presidential election in the United States in 2012, Barack Obama received money for the election campaign through consulting firms, associated with lobbyists. Thus,Eric Lichtblau, a New York Times journalist who conducted

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the research, stated that 15 lobbyists through consulting firms in the presidential election are “involved in different aspects of the lobbying and influence industry, representing a range of corporate interests from telecommunications and high-tech software to Wall Street finance, international commerce and pharmaceu- ticals” (http://www.nytimes. com/2011/10/28/us/politics/obama-bundlers-have-ties-to-lobbying.html).

Learning from the previous experience of former President Obama with lobbyists and the implementation of restrictions on their rights, the restriction of the rights of lobbyists was also implemented by the next President of the United States of America, Donald John Trump. In his election campaign, Trump had already announced the reduction of lobbyists’ rights. That didn’t happen long afterwards. After his triumph in the presidential elections in the United States of America, on November 8 2016, President Trump announced his program for the first 100 days of his rule in six points a day later. Of those six, three were directly related to lobbyists and their lobbying, which Trump shall conduct from the first day of his rule.

“* FOURTH, a 5 year-ban on White House and Congressional officials becoming lobbyists after they leave government service; * FIFTH, a lifetime ban on White House officials lobbying on behalf of a foreign government; * SIXTH, a complete ban on foreign lobbyists raising money for American elections” (http://www.npr. org/2016/11/09/501451368/here-is-what-donald-trump-wants-to-do-in-his-first-100 -days). After the inauguration ceremony on January 20, 2016, US President Trump signed on January 28, 2016 – Executive Order: Ethics Commitments By Executive Branch Appointees. For lobbyists in the United States, Section 1, Ethical Pledge, is particularly relevant. According to this, every appointee in every executive agency appointed on or after January 20, 2017, shall sign, and upon signing shall be contractually committed to, the following pledge upon becoming an appointee: “As a condition, and in consideration, of my employment in the United States Government in an appointee position invested with the public trust, I commit myself to the following obligations, which I understand are binding on me and are enforceable under law:

“1. I will not, within 5 years after the termination of my employment as an appointee in any executive agency in which I am appointed to serve, engage in lobbying activities with respect to that agency. “2. If, upon my departure from the Government, I am covered by the post-employment restrictions on communicating with employees of my former executive agency set forth in section 207(c) of title 18, Unit- ed States Code, I agree that I will abide by those restrictions. “3. In addition to abiding by the limitations of paragraphs 1 and 2, I also agree, upon leaving Gov- ernment service, not to engage in lobbying activities with respect to any covered executive branch official or non-career Senior Executive Service appointee for the remainder of the Administration. “4. I will not, at any time after the termination of my employment in the United States Government, engage in any activity on behalf of any foreign government or foreign political party which, were it undertaken on January 20, 2017, would require me to register under the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938, as amended. “5. I will not accept gifts from registered lobbyists or lobbying organizations for the duration of my service as an appointee. “6. I will not for a period of 2 years from the date of my appointment participate in any particular matter involving specific parties that is directly and substantially related to my former employer or former clients, including regulations and contracts. “7. If I was a registered lobbyist within the 2 years before the date of my appointment, in addition to abiding by the limitations of paragraph 6, I will not for a period of 2 years after the date of my appointment participate in any particular matter on which I lobbied within the 2 years before the date of my appointment or participate in the specific issue area in which that particular matter falls. “8. I agree that any hiring or other employment decisions I make will be based on the candidate’s qualifications, competence, and experience. “9. I acknowledge that the Executive Order entitled ‘Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Appointees,’ issued by the President on January 28, 2017, which I have read before signing this document, defines certain terms applicable to the foregoing obligations and sets forth the methods for enforcing them. I expressly accept the provisions of that Executive Order as a part of this agreement and as binding on me. I understand that the obligations of this pledge are in addition to any statutory or other legal restrictions applicable to me by virtue of Government service” (https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/28/ executive-order-ethics-commitments-executive-branch-appointees).

In contrast to the United States, in the European Union (Lađevac, 2016), which is an international organization sui generis with international legal subjectivity, there is a Register in which all registered lobbyists are signed, but there is no central law on lobbying. Besides, the legal regulation of lobbying has been done except for few member states of the European Union, such as: the Republic of Austria, the Republic of Slovenia, the Republic of Poland and the Republic of Lithuania.

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As of 23 June 2011, all individuals and representatives of lobbying firms lobbying the Europe- an Commission and the European Parliament have been required to register in the Transparency Registe (http://europa.eu/transparency-register/). In relation to the old Register of Lobbyists, the possibility of lobbying has been extended to law firms, non-governmental organizations, think tanks, i.e. all individuals and representatives of organizations dealing with the creating of public policies in the European Union, but also in their implementation. An active campaign for the introduction of the Register of Lobbyists in Brussels was led by representatives of the Alliance for Lobbying Transparency and Ethics Regulation (ALTER-EU) (http:// www.alter-eu.org/). The ALTER-EU was created as a reaction to the European Transparency Initiative (ETI), in Brussels in June 2005. In the history of lobbying in the European Union, it has been noted that the changes of the Transparency Register were opposed by officials of two lobbying associations, who wanted to preserve a lesser degree of publicity and old privileges: a) The European Public Affairs Consultancy Association - EP- ACA and b) Society of European Affairs Professionals - SEAP. Professional opposition to the introduction of the Transparency Register was also expressed by commercial lobbyists who are dominant among lobbyists in Brussels and Strasbourg. The process of re-registration in the Transparency Register lasted a year and was completed on June 23, 2012.

The statistics (http://europa.eu/transparency-register/) of the Transparency Register of the Europe- an Parliament and the European Commission as of October 29, 2020, had 12,024 registered legal actors. Out of that, the most numerous are business lobbyists, 6,377 of them. In second place are lobbyists of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 3,263. In third place are Think tanks, research and academic institutions, 907. Fourth place occupy professional consultants, lawyers and independent consultants, 850 of them. In fifth place there are organizations representing local, city and regional authorities, other public and mixed actors, 568. In sixth place organizations representing church and religious communities, 59.

Table 1. Lobbying: comparation U.S. – EU

Washington Brussels

Lobbyists registration U.S. Congress: Mandatory. For now, registration in the Transparency Register is mandatory only for those lobbyists who actually enter of the European Commission and the Euro- pean Parliament.

Ethical code for officials Administration: Yes. EU Commissioners and officials: Yes. Congress: Yes. EP members and officials: Yes.

Ethical code for lobbyists and lobbying organi- Congressional legislation sets limits for lobbyists. European Commission: Yes, as part of the Regis- zations Lobbying organizations often have their own ter (mandatory) codes of ethics. European Parliament: Yes, as part of the accreditation process.

Levels of lobbying Different levels: Different levels: Legislature: Congress and National legislation. European Union and national levels, multiple EU Executive power: Federal and state. institutions (executive and legislative), European Commission, European Parliament (directly elected) and Council.

Financing of non-profit organizations Private funding, very little or no federal funding Many financed by European Commission, some for lobbying. founded by European Commission.

Revolving Door phenomenon Former legislators and government officials Rare case. often become lobbyists, but the limitations of this phenomenon are increasing.

Corporate financing of political campaigns Stable (standard) but there are limits Not standard: considered unethical. Funding: private sector, public sector and Funding: public sector, private sector and civil politicians. society.

Transparency Strict regulations, consistently implemented by the Minimal regulation and its consistent implemen- Law on Lobbying, lobbyists are required to publish tation. client lists and sources of funding.

Role of local issues Senators and members of Congress focus on Members of the European Parliament are far from local issues, in order to be elected. Lobbyists and the local community. lobbying to represent local issues and interests is Lobbyists representing local interests are less very influential. influential. Local and regional interests are realized through Committee of the Regions composed of representatives of local and regional authorities.

For all registered lobbyists in the European Union, a binding “Code of Conduct” (https://ec.europa.eu/ transparencyregister/public/staticPage/ displayStaticPage.do?reference=CODE_OF_CONDUCT&locale=en#en) is also important. If someone wants to succeed in international business, they should have active communication with lobbyists “in Washington and Brussels” (Mahoney, 2007). In our case of the Republic of Serbia, although the Law on Lobbying was passed on November 9, 2018 in the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia, the provision of Article 4 enables lobbying ever in case of unregistered lobbyists who are unjustifiably and unnecessarily equated with registered lobbyists. “Lobbying may be performed by a natural person registered in the Register of Lobbyists, in accor-

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dance with this Law (hereinafter: lobbyists) or a company, i.e. an association registered in the Register of Le- gal Entities Performing Lobbying in accordance with this Law (hereinafter: legal entity conducting lobbying). Lobbying may be performed by a natural person who is not registered in the Register of Lobbyists if he/she is a legal representative or is employed by a lobbying user or represents interests of an association or company of which the lobbying user is a member (hereinafter: unregistered lobbyist)” (Zakon o lobiranju, 2018). Unregistered lobbyists should be gotten rid of by the first amendment to the Law on Lobbying.

Public relations and lobbying

Lobbyists are in a business relationship with media professionals as well, influencing public opinion through public relations. Every lobbyist who is professionally engaged in political lobbying, for example, should very carefully and responsibly strike a balance between public relations skills and lobbying strategy, in order to enable the formation and to direct the development of a coalition of common interests in the desired direction. In this way, a lobbyist engaged in political lobbying influences the creation of “public opinion in support of the goals set by politicians, which will then help them to make decisions more easily and justify these to themselves and to the public” (Dejvis, 2005). However, most lobbyists do care that, and it is understandable and justified, not to be included as a part of public relations. All of them usually want to be independent, to have their own identity, but also to acquire and preserve professional credo. To achieve their goals, lobbyists are actively using public relations resources. Lobbyists are not part of public relations, rather the opposite: public relations is a part of lobbying. “Successful public relations depends on achieving an effective connection of public relations organization and wise management” (Filipović, Kostić – Stanković, 2008). Therefore, in lobbying there is what we call influence managment.

Advocacy and lobbying

Advocate is a term that originated from the Latin word advocatus, from voco ad which means I call, specifically I call for help. In fact, a lawyer is essentially a person who, in accordance with the valid constitu- tion and other legal regulations of the state in which he/she performs professional activities, practices law. The profession of lawyer (Sibinović, 2019) is highly specific and important both for people who are lawyers and for the users of their services. The occupation of a lawyer is to represent his/her clients in court proceedings, and, if necessary, in organizations or institutions of the state administration. In this regard, lobbyists can represent their clients, and sometimes lobby for their own interests, as lawyers do. According to the Code of Professional Ethics of Lawyers adopted by the members of the Serbian Layers Association at the meeting on February 11, 2012, all lawyers are not prohibited from lobbying in their work. In Part II - Principles, in the provision of Article 11, item 11.3, which concerns incompatibility, it is strictly stated which of the functions are compatible with the advocacy and which are not. “It is incompatible with the advocacy to practice any other profession and activity at the same time, except in the fields of science, literature, art, journalism, legal education, mediation, humanitarian work, translation and sports (Advokatska komora Srbije, 2012). In, Part IV - Inadmissible Acquisition of Clients, in the already mentioned Code of Professional Ethics of Lawyers, all lawyers are strictly prohibited by Article 17 advertising, Article 18 unfair competition, and finally by Article 19 dishonest or other illicit acquisition of clients. Contemporary lobbyists, in order to succeed in the business, actually need to find connections between lobbying, public relations and advocacy (Gelak, 2008) (public representation). “Thus, advocacy is a central function of both public relations and lobbying” (Berg, 2009). Therefore, most lobbyists are fully aware that without using public relations, they diminish the possibility of their success in the lobbying process. However, for a lobbyist, just like for a lawyer, the most important thing is to have clients. The business rating directly depends on the number of clients and the success of the lawyer or lobbyist. The fact is that both lawyers and lobbyists need to be visible and recognizable among people who voluntarily are their clients in any society and state, primarily an internationally recognized member state of the United Nations. In the Republic of Serbia according to the mentioned Law on Lobbying (Provisions of Articles 2 and 4, paragraph 1, Article 8, paragraph 1 and 2), but also the provisions of the Law on Advocacy (provisions of Article 2, paragraph 1, Article 3, Item 6, Article 21, paragraphs 1 and 2) a person whose profession is a lawyer (Agencija za sprečavanje korupcije, 2020) may engage in lobbying as an activity, with the obligation to act legally, transparently, ethically and last but not least responsibly.

Lobbying in sport

From the point of view of the lobbystology, a successful combination of sport and lobbying is the sport lobbying. In this context, a justifiable accompanying question arises: what is the sport lobbying? Here are the scientific definitions, from the standpoint of the lobbystology - sport lobbying.

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“Sport lobbying is a set of professional measures, practical skills and official legal procedures, implemented through the lobbyist’s relationship with the lobbyied in the interest of the client” (Vasić, 2019). Besides, let us also mention this: sport lobbying can be constituted as an independent scientific discipline in the sport science, i.e. the science of sport, as its integral part in the corpus of social sciences and humanities. Let´s clarify the sport lobbying scientifically and theoretically. The subject of the sport lobbying is the study of sport, specifically of a sport task, which the lobbyist forms as the subject of his/her lobbying, and which is contractually ordered as an obligatory relationship in the domain of the obligation law by a known client, and of course in his interest. The method in the sport lobbying is the influence on a lobbyied, that is, on the person who decides on someone or something. Influence can also be exerted on a group of people, who also make decisions about someone or something. If a man is an athlete, powerful and involved, so he/she got elected or selected to power in one of the organizations and institutions of a democratic state, such as the government or one of the ministries, but which is also the case in one of many international sport organizations, it does not mean a priori that he/she is also a professional lobbyist. In order to be a professional lobbyist, it is necessary to be legally recognized and acknowledged, i.e. to be a licensed lobbyist in a lobbying system, as is the case with the lobbying system of the Republic of Serbia. In a smaller number of states and societies, lobbying is regulated by bylaws, and also in these cases accreditation is often required. At the same time, athletes who would also like to professionally engage in lobbying in sport clubs, sport federations, the President’s Office, ministries of the national government, judicial system where lobbyists are allowed to lobby, and relevant international sport organizations, where lobbying is allowed too, but also in diplomatic lobbying, they need to have certain specialized knowledge and skills. They do so in order to influence public decisions, official legal processes and procedures as well as sport policy guided by the interests of actors involved in certain sport, political or diplomatic affairs.

Final considerations

In this scientific paper, various aspects and dimensions of public relations, advocacy and lobbying in sport with comparative international practice are considered. Public relations and advocacy, as professions, appears to be the opposite of lobbying, and specifically lobbying in sport, according to the previously found and expertly commented arguments. Thus, there we find different professions, legal regulations, but also codes of ethics in conduct and management. However, lobbying is the profession that unites them, because their common characteristic is the impact on people with all the rights, obligations and responsibilities, in addition to the mentioned prohibitions. Considering that lobbying is a recognized and affirmed profession, it should also be in the Republic of Serbia, since now that is not the case or legal possibility. Lobbying in sport is certainly important for all athletes, sport federations and international sport organizations as well as for all those people who are involved in the sport lobbying. For that reason, people who play sports should be educated in order to realize their various sport, professional and general interests. Lobbying in the Re- public of Serbia, and so lobbying in sport, can be conducted by all those people who have obtained the legal license from the Agency for Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Serbia in Belgrade, after successfully completing required course, be it public relations professionals or lawyers.

References

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13. Lichtblau Eric, Obama Backers Tied to Lobbies Raise Millions, (Internet, 07/05/2012), http://www.nytimes. com/2011/10/28/us/politics/obama-bundlers-have-ties-to-lobbying.html. 14. Lobbying Disclosure Act, PUBLIC LAW 104-65-DEC. 19,1995 109 STAT. 691, Public Law 104-65 104th Congress, Washington D.C. 1995. 15. Lobbying Disclosure Act Guidance, Effective January 1, 2008, Revised June 15, 2010. (Internet, 04/09/2010), http:// lobbyingdisclosure.house.gov/ amended_lda_guide.html. 16. Lobbying Disclosure Technical Amendments Act, Public Law 105-166, 105th Congress, Washington D.C. April 6, 1998. 17. Mahoney, C. (2007). “Lobbying Success in the United States and the European Union”, in: Journal of Public Policy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, no. 5. 18. Obama, B. (2009). Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Personne, in: Federal Register, Washington, DC, No. 15/January 26. 19. Sibinović Đ.D. (2012). Profesija advokat, Službeni glasnik, Beograd. 20. The European Transparency Initiative and ALTER-EU, (Internet, 30/04/2012), http://www.alter-eu.org/. 21. Transparency Register, (Internet, 30/04/2012), http://europa.eu/transparency-register/. 22. Transparency Register, (Internet, 29/10/2020), http://europa.eu/transparency-register/. 23. TRUMP DONALD J., Executive Order: ETHICS COMMITMENTS BY EXECUTIVE BRANCH APPOINTEES (Internet: 29/01/2017), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/28/executive-order-ethics-commitments-executive-branch-appointees. 24. Vasić, N.A. (2015). Uvod u lobiranje: propedeutika nauke o lobiranju, Neopress Publishing, Beograd. 25. Васиќ, Н.А. (2017). Вовед во лобистологијата, Факултет за политички науки и дипломатија, ФОН Универзитет, Скопје. 26. Vasić, N.A. (2019). Aktuelnost lobiranja u sportu: nacionalna pozicija Republike Srbije i međunarodne perspektive, in: Urednici Darko Mitrović, Vladimir Miletić, Željko Rajković, Aktuelnost u teoriji i praksi sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu. 27. Zakon o lobiranju, in: Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije, Beograd, broj 87/2018.

Note

The paper presents findings of a study developed as a part of the research project “Serbia and challenges in international relations in 2020”, financed by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Tech- nological Development of the Republic of Serbia, and conducted by Institute of International Politics and Economics, Belgrade.

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ODNOSI SA JAVNOŠĆU I ADVOKATURA NASUPROT LOBIRANJU U SPORTU: STUDIJA SLUČAJA REPUBLIKA SRBIJA I UPOREDNA MEĐUNARODNA PRAKSA

Nenad Vasić1; Daniel Heler2,3 1 Institut za međunarodnu politiku i privredu, Beograd, Srbija 2 Univerzitet u Belgradu, Fakultet političkih nauka, Beograd, Srbija 3 Karlov Univerzitet, Fakultet društvenih nauka, Češka Republika, Prag

Uvod

Svako, pominjanje lobiranja je važno, za ljude i bilo kojeg čoveka konkretno. Isto tako, od suštin- ske važnosti je i profesionalno bavljenje lobiranjem. Pritom, mnoge su dileme i nejasoće prisutne kako kod većine ljudi koji ne znaju šta je to lobiranje, kao i to kako i šta rade lobisti u obavljanju njihovog profesionalnog posla. Dakle, mnoga su pitanja i dileme povezane sa lobiranjem i niko ne treba da bude začuđen što je to tako. U, ovome naučnom radu pokušaćemo da razmotrimo različite aspekte i dileme kako u vezi lobiranja, ali i razjašnjenje odnosa između tri delimično povezane i u suštini različite profesije: 1. odnosa sa javnošću, 2. advokature i 3. lobiranja. Poseban, fokus biće stavljen na lobiranje u sportu. Počećemo, najpre sa reaktuelizacijom i tematiziranjem pitanja lobista. Šta su i ko su lobisti? Tačan i najednostavniji odgovor koji možemo dati je da su lobisti, ljudi koji se formalno ili neformalno bave lobiranjem. Inače, trebalo bi ovom prilikom napomenuti i to da se ne bave lobiranjem svi ljudi koji su poznati i moćni, sportisti. Da bi se, jednostavno razumelo šta je to lobiranje, potrebno je dati i definiciju istog. “Lobiranje je skup profesionalnih mera, praktičnih veština i službenih pravnih procedura, sprovedenih kroz odnos lobiste prema lobiranom u interesu klijenta” (Vasić, 2015).

Lobiranje je deo, lobistologije. U, ovom kontekstu, postavlja se neizostavno i ovo pitanje: šta je to lobistologija? Da, pojasnimo. Lobistologija je nova nauka u korpusu društvenih i humanističkih nauka koja je otkrivena i objavljena po prvi put u svetu 2015. godine u Beogradu u Republici Srbiji od strane naučnika dr Nenada A. Vasića sa Instituta za međunarodnu politiku i privredu, a teorijski definisana u potpunosti 2017. kada je objavljena takođe po prvi put u svetu i knjiga pod tim nazivom Uvod u lobistologiju (makedonski Voved vo lobistologijata) u Skoplju u tadašnjoj Republici Makedoniji sa međunarodnim timom recenzenata, a što je predstavljalo i prvo međunarodno priznanje lobistologije. “Lobistologija je nauka kojom se bave lobis- tolozi koji proučavaju teoriju i praksu različitih vrsta lobiranja” (Васиќ, 2017). Prvo, naučno priznanje u državi Republici Srbiji, ostvareno je 2019. godine sa održavanjem i potonjim objavljivanjem predavanja po pozivu naučnika dr Nenada A. Vasića pod naslovom: Aktuelnost lobiranja u sportu: nacionalna pozicija Republike Srbije i međunarodne perspektive (Vasić, 2019). Posle, svega pomenutog i razjašnjenog u vezi lobista, lobiranja i lobistologije, trebalo bi, najpre izanalizirati i prokomentarisati, ono što je differentia specifica između odnosa sa javnošću, advokature i lobiranja u savremenom svetu pa i na našoj studiji slučaja države, Republike Srbije. Kada, spominjemo i bavimo se odnosima sa javnošću, advokaturom i lobiranjem konkretno lobiranjem u sportu, trebalo bi istaći činjenicu da to nije svuda isto profesionalno tretirano i pravno regulisano. Negde je moguće da se i afirmisani profesionalci odnosa sa javnošću ili poznati advokati, mogu se baviti i poslovima lobiranja ukoliko je to zakonski omogućeno i društveno priznasto, a negde i ne. Uzećemo za primer, Sjedinjene Američke Države u kojima postoji Zakon o lobiranju (United States Congress on December 19, 1995), gde svako ko želi da se bavi lobiranjem, u obavezi je da se registruje i ima licencu za legalno lobiranje. Svi, ugovori između lobista i njihovih lobističkih firmi su tradicionalno legalni, javni i jednostavno dostupni u resornom Ministarstvu pravde Sjed- injenih Američkih Država. Dakle, u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama su lobisti ljudi koji se bave bilo kojim legalnim poslom ili profesijom, a da su za to osposobljeni i uredno upisani u registar lobista. “Pojam ‘lobista’ označava bilo kojeg pojedinca koji je zaposlen, ili angažovan od klijenta uz finansijsku ili ostale kompenzacije za usluge koje obuhvataju više od jednog lobističkog kontakta, osim lica čije aktivnosti lobiranja čine manje od 20% vremenske angažovanosti u službama u kojima su pojedinac i klijent angažovani više od šest meseci” (Lobbying Disclosure Act, 1995). Ovim, zakonskim aktom se od lobista zahteva da se svi lobisti koji su plaćeni za lobističko angažovanje u Kongresu, dа se registruju i podnose šestomesečne izveštaje sekretaru Senata.

Američko, lobističko zakonodavstvo je dopunjeno sa Lobbying Disclosure Technical Amendments Act of 1998. godine. Njime su, lobisti obavezani da prikažu i svoje finansijsko poslovanje što je sasvim razumljivo i prihvatljivo. U, januaru 2004. godine, u Senatu je izvršena omnibus etička reforma koja je sadržala i osporavani član 220 Zakona o lobiranju, a kojim je insistirano da je osnova lobiranja javno komuniciranje građana sa zvaničnim predstavnicima američke vlasti. Najzad, odlukom američkog Senata, sporni član 220 je, ukinut 18. januara 2007. godine. Pre toga, donešen je i Lobbying Transparency and Accountability Act of 2006 (H.R. 4975). Njime je, dodatno poboljšana transparentnost u lobiranju.

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Što se tiče same profesije lobiste i lobističkih firmi, važan je Zаkon o poštenom vođstvu i otvorenoj vlаdi, donet 14. septembra 2007. godine. Nasuprot zakonu iz 1995. godine, važeći zakon o lobiranju sadrži izmene i dopune sa ciljem da se povećа kontrola rаdа registrovаnih lobistа uz propisivanje novih uslova zа lobirаnje (110th Congress, Washington D.C. 2007). Ovaj, Zakon je potpisao tadašnji predsednik Sjedinjenih Američkih Država Džordž Voker Buš mlađi. Dopunski, pokušaj u regulisanju lobiranja u Sjedinjenim Amer- ičkiim Državama 2007. godine, predstavljao je Executive Branch Reform Act (H.R. 985).

Zakoni o lobiranju koji su donošeni u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama sаdrže sledeće odredbe: A. definiciju lobirаnjа (šta se zvanično smatra lobiranjem, a šta ne), B. ko su subjekti odnosno akteri lobirаnjа (klijenti i lobističke firme), C. administrativni nаčin na koji se obalja registrаcija lobističke firme, D. zvanični izveštаj o sprovedenim lobističkim аktivnostimа, E. ekonomske elemente i način funkcionisanja lobističkih firmi, F. nаčin završetka i prekid aktivnog rаdа lobistа, G. odnos i veze zаkonа o lobiranju sa ostаlim važećim zаkonskim propisimа i H. prava, obaveze i odgovornosti lobiste.

U, lobistologiji i pravnoj nauci, američki Zakon o lobiranju smatra se eklatantnim primerom dobre i uspešne pravne regulisanosti lobističke profesije. Izborom, Baraka Huseina Obame za predsednika Sjedinjenih Američkih Država i njegovim dolaskom u Belu kuću, 21. januara 2009. godine, potpisane su dve izvršne naredbe i tri predsednička memoranduma. Jedna, od tih izvršnih naredbi se direktno odnosila na lobiste. Tri su, prioritetna i obavezujuća pravna principa Obamine izvršne naredbe, kao predsednika Sjedinjenih Američkih Država, a koja se tiče novih obaveza lobista. • Prvo, svi oni lobisti koji ulaze u njegovu službu, neće moći da obavljaju poslove lobiranja što se odnosi i na agenciju za koju su radili u poslednje dve godine. • Drugo, svi oni zvaničnici koji izađu iz njegove službe, neće moći da lobraju u njoj za svoje klijente dok je on predsednik Sjedinjenih Američkih Država. • Treće, zabranjuje se službenicima da od lobista primaju poklone.

“1. Zabrana lobističkog poklona. Neću prihvatiti poklone od registrovanih lobista i lobističkih organizacija za vreme moje službe kao službenik” (Obama, 2009). Već u pomenutoj tački 1, izričito se zabranjuje službenicima administracije da primaju bilo kakve poklone od registrovanih lobista i njihovih lobističkih firmi. U, američkoj pravnoj praksi u vezi sa lobiranjem, koristi se tradicionalno i odredba instituta zabrane poznata kao vrata koja se okreću – (Revolving Door), ili period mirovanja – (Cooling off Periods).

“2. Zabrana Revolving Door-a za sve postavljene koji ulaze u Vladu. Neću u periodu od 2 godine od dana mog postavljenja učestvovati u nekom predmetu koji uključuje određene stranke koje su se direktno i suštinski odnosile na mog bivšeg poslodavca ili bivšeg klijenta, uključujući propise i ugovore” (Obama, 2009). Pored navedenih zabrana, važna odredba zabrana na lobiste zapisana je u tački 3, Obamine izvršne naredbe.

“3. Zabrana Revolving Door-a za lobiste koji ulaze u Vladu. Ako sam bio registrovani lobista u roku od 2 godine pre datuma mog postavljenja, uz poštovanje ograničenja iz paragrafa 2, neću za period od 2 godine od datuma mog postavljenja: (a) učestvovati u nekoj stvari za koju sam lobirao u roku od 2 godine od datuma mog postavljenja; (b) učestvovati u specifičnoj oblasti odluke u kojoj se posebna stvar nalazi; (c) tražiti ili prihvatiti zaposlenje u bilo kojoj izvršnoj agenciji gde sam lobirao u roku od 2 godine, pre datuma mog postavljenja” (Obama, 2009). Odredbe, instituta Revolving Door-a, pomenutog akta ondašnjeg predsednika amerike Obame odnose se i na tačku 4. (reguliše odlazak postavljenih službenika iz Vlade i zabranu lobiranja od 2 godine), i tačku 5. (reguliše odlazak postavljenih službenika iz Vlade i njihovo lobiranje u njoj). Ipak, i pored svih nastojanja bivšeg predsednika amerike Obame, u njegovoj administraciji je bilo drugačije stanje stvari i tretman pojedinih lobista. “Uprkos tome, pojedini rade u administraciji, zahvaljujući određenim izuzecima u odnosu na predsednikovu izvršnu odluku” (http://www.voanews. com/serbian/news/ Lobbying-Influencing-Policy-Part-Two-09-05-2010-102257629.html). U, kampanji za druge predsedničke izbore u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama 2012. godine, Barak Obama je dobio novac za predizbornu kam- panju preko konsultantskih firmi, povezanih sa lobistima. Tako je Erik Nihtblau, novinar Njujork Tajmsa koji je sproveo istraživanje konstatovao je da su 15 lobista preko konsultantskih firmi u predsedničku izbornu “ukl- jučeni u različite aspekte lobiranja i industrije uticaja, a koji predstavljaju niz korporativnih interesa iz oblasti telekomunikacija i visoke tehnologije softvera u Vol strit finansijama, međunarodnoj trgovini i farmaceutskim proizvodima” (http://www.nytimes. com/2011/10/28/us/politics/obama-bundlers-have-ties-to-lobbying.html). Poučen, predhodnim iskustvom bivšeg predsednika amerike Obamom sa lobistima i sprovođenjem ograničenja njihovih prava, restriktivnu politiku ograničenja prava lobista sproveo je i naredni predsednik

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Sjedinjenih Američkih Država Donald Džon Tramp. I, Tramp je u svojoj izbornoj kampanji najvljivo smanjivan- je prava lobistima. To se nedugo, potom i desilo. Posle, trijunfa na predsedničkim izborima u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama, 8. novembra 2016. godine, predsednik Tramp je dan kasnije objavio svoj program za prvih 100 dana njegove vladavine u šest tačaka. Od, tih šest, tri su se neposredno odnosile na lobiste i njihovo lobiranje, a koje će Tramp sprovoditi od prvog dana njegove vladavine.

“*ČETVRTO, 5 godina zabrane da zvaničnici Bele kuće i Kongresa postanu lobisti pošto napuste vladinu službu; *PETO, doživotna zabrana zvaničnicima Bele kuće da lobiraju u ime strane vlade; *ŠESTO, potpuna zabrana stranim lobisitima da sakupljaju novac za američke izbore” (http://www. npr.org/2016/11/09/501451368/here-is-what-donald-trump-wants-to-do-in-his-first-100 -days).

Posle, svečane inauguracije 20. januara 2016. godine, predsednik SAD Tramp, potpisao je 28. januara 2016. godine – Nalog za izvršenje: ETIČKE OBAVEZE IMENOVANIH U IZVRŠNOJ VLASTI. Za, lobiste u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama relevantna je posebno Sekcija 1, Etički zalog. Njime je, svako ko je imenovan u svakoj izvršnoj agenciji na dan ili posle 20. januara 2017.godine, u obavezi da potpiše i na osnovu potpisivanja je ugovorno obavezan na sledeći zalog, a na osnovu njegovog imenovanja. “Kao uslov i u razmatranju mog zaposlenja u vladi USA u poziciji imenovanog u koju je uloženo poverenje javnosti, ja posvećujem sebe sledećim obavezama, koje ja razumem kao moje obaveze, i koje su pravosnažne na osnovu zakona:

1. Ja neću u roku od 5 godina posle raskida mog zaposlenja kao imenovanog u bilo kojoj izvršnoj agenciji u kojoj sam imenovan da služim, da se angažujem u aktivnostima lobiranja s obzirom na tu agenciju. 2. Ako sam na osnovu mog odlaska iz vlade, pokriven obavezom nakon zaposlenja koja se odnosi na restrikcije u komunikaciji sa zaposlenima u mojoj prethodnoj izvršnoj agenciji a koje su utvrđene u selkiji 207(c) naslov 18, Kodeksa USA, ja sam saglasan da ću se pridržavati ovih restrikcija. 3. Uz pridržavanje ograničenja iz paragrafa 1 i 2, ja sam takođe saglasan da se nakon napuštan- ja službe u vladi ne angažujem u aktivnostima lobiranja s obzirom na bilo kog zvaničnika izvršne vlasti, ili imanovanog ne-karijerne više izvršne službe, za preostali deo Administracije. 4. Ja se neću angažovati, u bilo kom trenutku posle mog zaposlenja u vladi USA, u bilo kojoj aktivnosti u ime strane vlade, ili strane političke partije koja, ako je to preuzeto 20. 01. 2017., bi od mene zahtevala registraciju na osnovu zakona o registraciji stranih agenata iz 1938., sa izmenama i dopunama. 5. Ja neću prihvatiti poklon od registrovanih lobista, ili lobističkih organizacija, tokom trajanja moje službe imenovanog lica. 6. Ja neću u periodu od 2 godine od datuma mog imenovanja učestvovati u bilo kojoj posebnoj stvari koja uključuje posebne strane koje su direktno i bitno u odnosu sa mojim prethodnim poslodavcem, ili prethodnim klijentima, uključujući propise i ugovore. 7. Ako sam bio registrovani lobista u periodu od 2 godine pre datuma mog imenovanja, uz pošto- vanje ograničenja iz paragrafa 6, ja neću u roku od 2 godine posle datuma mog imenovanja učestvovati ni u jednoj posebnoj stvari u kojoj sam lobirao tokom 2 godine pre datuma mog imenovanja, ili učestvovao u posebnoj oblasti pitanja kojoj ta posebna stvar pripada. 8. Ja sam saglasan da će moje odluke o angažovanju ili drugom zaposlenju biti bazirane na kvali- fikacijama kandidata, kompetenciji, i iskustvu. 9. Ja priznajem da Nalog o izvršenju pod naslovom Etika obaveze od strane imenovanih predstavnika vlasti koji je izdao Predsednik 28. 01. 2017.godine, a koji nalog sam pročitao pre potpisivanja ovog dokumenta, definiše određene uslove koji se primenjuju na gore pomenute obaveze, i propisuje metode za njihovo sprovođenje. Ja izričito prihvatam odredbe Naloga o izvršenju kao deo ovog angažovanja i kao obavezu na mojoj strani. Ja razumem da su obaveze ovog zaloga dodatak bilo kojoj statutarnoj ili zakonskoj zabrani koja važi za mene na osnovu državne službe” (https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/28/executive-order-ethics-commitments-executive-branch-appointees).

Nasuprot, Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama, u Evropskoj uniji (Lađevac, 2016), a koja je međun- arodna organizacija sui generis sa međunarodnopravnim subjektivitetom postoji Registar u kome se nalze svi registrovani lobisti i nema centralnog Zakona o lobiranju. Inače, zakonsko regulisanje lobiranja, izvršeno je osim u nekolicini država punopravnih članica Evropske unije, kao što su: Republika Austrija, Republika Slovenija, Republika Poljska i Republika Litvanija. Od, 23. juna 2011. godine, svi pojedinci i predstavnici lobističkih firmi koji se bave lobiranjem u Ev- ropskoj komisiji i Evropskom parlamentu, bili su u obavezi da se registruju u Registar transparentnosti (http:// europa.eu/transparency-register/). U, odnosu na stari Registar lobista, mogućnost lobiranja je proširena i na advokatske kancelarije, nevladine organizacije, think tankove, odnosno sve pojedince i predstavnike organizacija koji se bave kreiranjem javnih politika u Evropskoj uniji, ali i njihovoj primeni. Aktivnu kam- panju za uvođenje Registra lobista u Briselu, vodili su predstavnici Saveza za transparentnost lobiranja i etičku regulaciju – The Alliance for Lobbying Transparency and Ethics Regulation (ALTER-EU) (http://www.

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alter-eu.org/). Inače, ALTER-EU je nastao kao reakcija na European Transparency Initiative (ETI), u Briselu juna 2005. godine. U, istoriji lobiranja u Evropskoj uniji ostalo je zabeleženo da su se promenama, Registra transparentnosti usprotivili zvaničnici dva lobistička udruženjanja, a koji su hteli da se sačuva manji stepen javnosti i stare privilegije: a) The European Public Affairs Consultancies Association – EPACA i b) Society of European Affairs Professionals – SEAP. Profesionalno protivljenje uvođenju Registra transparentnosti iska- zivali su i komercijalni lobisti koji su dominantni među lobistima u Briselu i Strazburu. Proces preregistracije u Registar transparentnosti, trajao je godinu dana i završen je 23. juna 2012. godine.

Statistika (http://europa.eu/transparency-register/). Registra transparentnosti Evropskog parlamenta i Evropske komisije zaključno sa 29. oktobrom 2020. godine, imala je 12.024 registrovanih pravnih aktera. Od toga, na prvom mestu najmnogobrojniji su poslovni lobisti, njih 6.377. Na, drugom mestu su lobisti Nevladinih organizacija (NVO) i to njih 3.263. Na, trćem mestu su Think tank-ovi, istraživačke i akademske institucije, 907. Na, četvrtom mestu su profesionalni konsultanti, advokati i samostalni konsultanti, njih 850. Na, petom mestu su organizacije koje predstavljaju lokalne, gradske i regionalne vlasti, ostali javne i mešoviti akteri, njih 568. Na, šestom mestu su organizacije koje predstavljaju crkvene i religijske zajednice, njih 59.

Tabela 1. Lobiranje: komparacija Sjedinjene Amerčke Države – Evropska unija

Vašington Brisel

Registracija lobista Američki Kongres: Obavezno. Za sada, obavezna je registracija u Registru transparentnosti samo za lobiste koji ulaze u zgrade Evropske komisije i Evropskog parlamenta.

Etički kodeks za zvaničnike Administracija: da. EU Komesari i osoblje: da. Kongres: da. Članovi EP i osoblje: da.

Kodeks delovanja za lobiste i lobističke organi- Legislativa kongresa utvrđuje ograničenja za Evropska komisija: da, kao deo registra (koji je zacije lobiste. obavezan) Lobističke organizacije često imaju sopstvene Evropski parlament: Da, kao deo procesa etičke kodekse. akreditacije

Nivoi lobiranja Različiti nivoi: Različiti nivoi: Zakonodavna vlast: Kongres i Državno zakono- Evropska unija i nacionalni nivoi, davstvo. multiple institucije EU (izvršna i zakonodavna Izvršna vlast: federalna i državna. vlast), Evropska komisija, Evropski parlament (direktno izabran) i Savet ministara.

Finansiranje neprofitnih organizacija Privatno finansirenje, vrlo malo ili nimalo federal- Mnoge finansira Evropska komisija, a ponekad ih nog finansiranja za lobiranje. čak i osniva.

Fenomen vrata koja se obrću Bivši zakonodavci i vladini zvaničnici često postaju Ređi, slučaj. lobisti, ali se povećavaju ograničavanja ovog fenomena.

Korporativno finansiranje političkih kampanja Ustaljeno (standardno) ali postoje limiti Nije standardno: smatra se ne etičkim. Finansiranje: privatni sektor, javni sektor i Finansiranje: javni sektor, privatni sektor i civilno političari. društvo.

Transparentnost Striktna regulativa, dosledno sprovedena Minimalna regulativa i njeno dosledno spro- Zakonom o lobiranju, a od lobista se zahteva da vođenje. objavljuju liste klijenata i izvore finansiranja.

Uloga lokalnih pitanja Senatori i članovi kongresa fokusiraju se na loka- Članovi Evropskog parlamenta su daleko od lna pitanja, kako bi bili izabrani lobisti i lobiranje lokalne zajednice. kojim se zastupaju lokalna pitanja i interesi su Lobisti koji zastupaju lokalne interese su manje veoma uticajni. uticajni. Lokalni i regionalni interesi se posmatraju kroz Komitet regiona sastavljenog od predstavnika lokalnih i regionalnih vlasti.

Za, sve registrovane lobiste u Evropskoj uniji, važan je i obavezujući “Kodeks ponašanja” (https:// ec.europa.eu/transparencyregister/public/staticPage/displayStaticPage.do?reference=CODE_OF_CON- DUCT&locale=en#en). Ukoliko, neko hoće da ostvari uspeh u internacionalnom poslu, trebalo bi da ima aktivnu komunikaciju sa lobistima “u Vašingtonu i Briselu” (Mahoney, 2007). U, našem slučaju Republike Srbije, iako je donesen Zakon o lobiranju 9. novembra 2018. godine u Narodnoj skupštini Republike Srbije, omogućeno je odredbom člana 4. bavljenje lobiranjem i neregistro- vanim lobistima koji su izjednačeni neopravdano i nepotrebno sa registrovanim lobistima.

“Lobiranje može da obavlja fizičko lice koje je upisano u Registar lobista, u skladu sa ovim zakonom (u daljem tekstu: lobista) i privredno društvo, odnosno udruženje koje je upisano u Registar pravnih lica koja obavljaju lobiranje u skladu sa ovim zakonom (u daljem tekstu: pravno lice koje obavlja lobiranje).

Lobiranje može da obavlja fizičko lice koje nije upisano u Registar lobista ako je zakonski zastupnik ili je zaposlen kod korisnika lobiranja ili zastupa interese udruženja ili privrednog društva čiji je član korisnik lobiranja (u daljem tekstu: neregistrovani lobista)” (Zakon o lobiranju, 2018). Neregistrovane, lobiste trebalo bi prvom izmenom i dopunom Zakona o lobiranju izbrisati.

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Odnosi sa javnošću i lobiranje

Lobisti se nalaze u poslovnoj relaciji i sa mediskim poslanicima, vršeći uticaj na, javno mnjenje preko odnosa s javnošću (Public Relations). Svaki, lobista koji se profesionalno bavi na primer političkim lobiranjem, treba veoma pažljivo i odgovorno da napravi ravnotežu između veštine odnosa sa javnošću i strategije lobiranja, kako bi omogućio formiranje i usmeravao razvoj koalicije zajedničkih interesa u željenom pravcu. Na, taj način lobista koji se bavi političkim lobiranjem, utiče na kreiraje “javnog mnjenja za podršku ciljevima koje su političari zacrtali i koji će im onda omogućiti da lakše donose odluke i opravdaju ih pred sobom i pred javnošću” (Dejvis, 2005). Međutim, većini, lobista je i te kako razumljivo i opravdano stalo da ih ne ubrajaju u deo odnosa sa javnošću. Svi oni najčešće žele da budu nezavisni, da imaju sopstveni identitet, ali i da steknu i sačuvaju profesionalni credo. U tom cilju, lobisti aktivno koriste resurse odnosa sa javnošću. Lobisti nisu deo odnosa sa javnošću, već je obrnuto: odnosi sa javnošću su deo lobiranja. “Uspešni odnosi sa javnošću zavise od dostignuća efikasne sprege organizacije sa javnošću i mud- rog upravljanja” (Filipović, Kostić – Stanković, 2008). Samim time, u lobistologiji postoji to što nazivamo upravljanje uticajima.

Advokatura i lobiranje

Advokat je pojam koji je nastao iz latinske reči advocatus, od voco ad što znači pozivam, konkretno pozivam u pomoć. Zapravo, advokat je u suštini čovek koji se u skladu sa važećim ustavom i ostalim zakonski propisima države u kojoj obavlja profesionalnu delatnost, bavi se advokaturom. Profesija, advokat (Sib- inović, 2019) je veoma specifična i važna kako za ljude koji su advokati, tako i za korisnike njihovih usluga. Posao advokata je, da zastupa svoje klijente u sudskim procesima, po potrebi i u organizacijama ili ustanovama državne administracije. Stim u vezi, i lobisti mogu predstavljati svoje klijente, a ponekada i lobirati za sopstvene interese kao što to rade i advokati. Prema, Kodeksu profesionalne etike advokata koji su usvojili članovi Advokatske komore Srbije na sastanku 11. februara 2012. godine, svim advokatima nije zabranjeno da lobiraju u svom poslu. U, delu II – Načela, u odredbi član 11, taka 11.3 koja se tiče nespojivosti, striktno je navedeno šta je od funkcija spojivo sa advokaturom, a šta ne. “Nespojivo je sa advokaturom istovremeno obavljanje bilo koje druge profesije i delatnosti, izuzev u oblasti nauke, književnosti, umetnosti, publicistike, pravnog obrazovanja, posredovanja, humanitarnog rada, prevodilaštva i sporta” (Advokatska komora Srbije, 2012). U, delu IV – Nedopušteno sticanje klijenata, u već pomenutom Kodeksu profesionalne etike advokata, svim advokatima je striktno zabranjeno odredbom član 17, reklamiranje, odredbom člana 18, nelojalna konkurencija i najzad odredbom člana 19, zabrana nečasnog ili drugog nedopuštenog pridobijanja klijenata. Savremeni lobisti da bi poslovno uspeli, zapravo treba da pronađu veze između lobiranja, odnosa sa javnošću i advocacy (Gelak, 2008) (javnog predstavljanja). “Tako je advocacy centralna funkcija i odnosa sa javnošću i lobiranja” (Berg, 2009). Zato je, veći deo lobista potpuno svestan da bez korišćenja odnosa sa javnošću, umanjuju mogućnost svog uspeha u procesu lobiranja. Ipak, za lobistu baš kao i za advokata je najvažnije, da imaju klijente. Od, broja klijenata i uspeha advokata ili lobiste neposredno zavisi i poslovni rejting. Činjenica je da i advokati i lobisti trebaju da budu vidljivi i prepoznatljivi među ljudima koji su dobrovoljno njihovi klijeti u bilo kojem društvu i državi, prvenstveno međunarodno priznatoj državi članici Ujedinjenih nacija. U, Republici Srbiji kao državi, a prema pomenutom Zakonu o lobiranju (Odredbama članova, 2 i 4, stav 1, člana 8, stav 1 i 2), ali i odredbama Zakona o advoka- turi (odredbama člana 2, stav 1, člana 3, tačka 6, člana 21, stav 1 i 2) čovek čija je profesija advokat (Agencija za sprečavanje korupcije, 2020), može se baviti lobiranjem kao aktivnošću, uz obavezu da postupa prilikom lobiranja zakonito, transparentno, etično i poslednje, ali ne i najmanje važno – odgovorno.

Lobiranje u sportu

Sa, stanovišta lobistologije, uspešan, spoj sporta i lobiranja je sportsko lobiranje. U ovom kontekstu, postavlja se opravdano prateće pitanje: šta je to sportsko lobiranje? Evo, i naučne definicije, sa stanoviš- ta lobistologije – sportskog lobiranja. “Sportsko lobiranje je skup profesionalnih mera, praktičnih veština i službenih pravnih procedura, sprovedenih kroz odnos lobiste prema lobiranom u interesu klijenta” (Vasić, 2019). Uzgred, napomenimo i ovo: sportsko lobiranje, može se konstituisati kao samostalna naučna disciplina u sportologiji, dakle nauci o sportu, kao njen integralni deo u korpusu društvenih i humanističkih nauka. Da, naučno i teorijski, pojasnimo sportsko lobiranje. Predmet, sportskog lobiranja je proučavanje sporta, konkretno nekog sportskog zadatka, kojeg lobista formira kao predmet njegovog lobiranja, a koji je ugovorno naručen kao obligacioni odnos iz domena obligacionog prava od strane poznatog klijenta i naravno u njegovom je interesu. Metod u sportskom lobiranju je, uticaj na lobiranog to jest na onog čoveka koji odlučuje o nekome ili nečemu. Uticaj se, takođe može sprovoditi i prema grupi ljudi, koji takođe donose odluke o nekome ili nečemu.

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Ukoliko je, neki čovek sportista, moćan i umešan pa se izborno ili nameštenički obre na vlast u nekoj od organizacija i institucija demokratske države, kao što su vlada ili neko od resornih ministarstava, ali i što je takođe slučaj u nekoj od mnogobrojnih sportskih međunarodnih organizacija, ne znači a priori da je i profesionalni lobista. Da bi neko bio, profesionalni lobista potrebno je da bude, zakonski prepoznat i priznat, dakle licenciran lobista u nekom lobističkom sistemu, kao što je slučaj i sa lobističkim sistemom Republike Srbije. U, manjem broju država i građanskih društva lobiranje je regulisano podzakonskim nor- mativnim aktima i u tim slučajevima potrebna je često akreditacija. Pri tome, spotisti koji bi hteli da se pored sporta profesionalno bave i lobiranjem u sportskim klubovima, sportskom savezu, kabinetu predsednika države, resornim ministarstvima nacionalne Vlade, sudskom sistemu gde je lobistima dozvoljeno lobiranje i relevantnim sportskim međunarodnim organizacijama gde je takođe dozvoljeno lobiranje, ali i diplomatsko lobiranje, potrebno je da imaju određena specijalizovana znanja i veštine. To, utoliko pre, kao bi uticali na javne odluke, službene pravne procese i procedure, ali i sportsku politiku vođenu interesima aktera koji su uključeni u određene sportske, političke ili diplomatske poslove.

Završno razmatranje

U, ovome naučnom radu, razmotreni su različiti aspekti i dimenzije odnosa sa javnošću, advokature i lobiranja u sportu sa uporednom međunarodnom praksom. Odnosi sa javnošću i advokatura, kao profesije jesu nasuprot lobiranju, a posebno lobiranju u sportu iz pre nađenih i stručno komentarisanih argumenata. Dakle, različite su profesije, zakonska regulativa, ali i Etički kodeksi u ponašanju i poslovođenju. Međutim, upravo je lobiranje ta profesija koja ih objedinjuje jer im je zajednička karakteristika uticaj na ljude sa svim pravima, obavezama i odgovornostima, pored pomenutih zabrana. S obzirom na to, da je lobiranje prizna- ta i afirmisana profesija, trebalo bi to da bude i u državi, Republici Srbiji jer sada to nije slučaj i zakonska mogućnost. Lobiranje u sportu je svakako važno za sve sportiste, sportske saveze i sportske međunarodne organizacije kao i sve one ljude koji se bave sportskim lobiranjem. Iz tog razloga, trebalo bi edukaovati ljude koji se bave sportom kako bi ostvarivali njihove različite sportske, profesionalne i univerzalne interese. Lo- biranjem u Republici Srbiji, pa i lobiranjem u sportu mogu se baviti svi oni ljudi koji su stekli legalnu licencu od Agencije za sprečavanje korupcije Republike Srbije u Beogradu, posle uspešno završenog kursa bili oni profesionalci koji se bave odnosima sa javnošću ili advokati.

Literatura

1. An Act, To provide greater transparency in the legislative process. PUBLIC LAW 110–81—SEPT.14, 2007, 110th Congress, Washington D.C. 2007. 2. Tusinski, B.K. (2009). Finding Connections between Lobbying, Public Relations and Advocacy, in: Public Relations Journal, Public Relations Society of America, Boston, No. 3/. 3. DA LI LICE ČIJA JE PROFESIJA ADVOКAT MOŽE DA SE BAVI LOBIRANJEM, Agencija za sprečavanje korupcije, Beograd, br. 014-011-00-0048/20 od 21.02.2020. godine. 4. Dejvis, A. (2005). Public Relations od A do Z – Sve što treba da znate o odnosima s javnošću uz pomoć 501 pitanja, Adižes, Novi Sad. 5. Filipović, V., Kostić – Stanković, M. (2008). Odnosi sa javnošću, Zuhra, Beograd. 6. Galek, D., (2008). Lobbying and Advocacy, TheCapitol.Net, Alexandria. 7. Injac, O.B., Stanković, M. (2019). Advokatska čitanka: saveti, rokovi, obrasci, izvori, “Štampar Makarije”, Beograd/ Obodsko slovo, Podgorica. 8. Jang, Dž. Kako da lobiranje ne bude otvoreno podmićivanje? (Internet, 28/09/2010), http://www.voanews.com/serbian/news/Lobbying-Influencing-Policy-Part-Two-09-05-2010 -102257629.html. 9. Kelly, A., Sprunt B. Here Is What Donald Trump Wants To Do In His First 100 Days, (Internet: 23/11/2016), http://www. npr.org/2016/11/09/501451368/here-is-what-donald-trump -wants-to-do-in-his-first-100-days. 10. Code of Conduct, (Internet: 02/11/2020), https://ec.europa.eu/transparencyregister/public/ staticPage/displayStat- icPage.do?reference=CODE_OF_CONDUCT&locale=en#en. 11. Kodeks profesionalne etike advokata, Advokatska komora Srbije, Beograd, 11.02.2012. 12. Lađevac, I. (2016). Međunarodnopravni subjektivitet Evropske unije, Institut za međunarodnu politiku i privredu, Beo- grad. 13. Lichtblau Eric, Obama Backers Tied to Lobbies Raise Millions, (Internet, 07/05/2012), http://www.nytimes. com/2011/10/28/us/politics/obama-bundlers-have-ties-to-lobbying.html. 14. Lobbying Disclosure Act, PUBLIC LAW 104-65-DEC. 19,1995 109 STAT. 691, Public Law 104-65 104th Congress, Washington D.C. 1995. 15. Lobbying Disclosure Act Guidance, Effective January 1, 2008, Revised June 15, 2010. (Internet, 04/09/2010), http:// lobbyingdisclosure.house.gov/ amended_lda_guide.html. 16. Lobbying Disclosure Technical Amendments Act, Public Law 105-166, 105th Congress, Washington D.C. April 6, 1998. 17. Mahoney, C. (2007). “Lobbying Success in the United States and the European Union”, in: Journal of Public Policy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, no. 5. 18. Obama, B. (2009). Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Personne, in: Federal Register, Washington, DC, No. 15/January 26. 19. Sibinović Đ.D. (2012). Profesija advokat, Službeni glasnik, Beograd.

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20. The European Transparency Initiative and ALTER-EU, (Internet, 30/04/2012), http://www.alter-eu.org/. 21. Transparency Register, (Internet, 30/04/2012), http://europa.eu/transparency-register/. 22. Transparency Register, (Internet, 29/10/2020), http://europa.eu/transparency-register/. 23. TRUMP DONALD J., Executive Order: ETHICS COMMITMENTS BY EXECUTIVE BRANCH APPOINTEES (Internet: 29/01/2017), https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/28/executive-order-ethics-commitments-executive-branch-appointees. 24. Vasić, N.A. (2015). Uvod u lobiranje: propedeutika nauke o lobiranju, Neopress Publishing, Beograd. 25. Васиќ, Н.А. (2017). Вовед во лобистологијата, Факултет за политички науки и дипломатија, ФОН Универзитет, Скопје. 26. Vasić, N.A. (2019). Aktuelnost lobiranja u sportu: nacionalna pozicija Republike Srbije i međunarodne perspektive, in: Urednici Darko Mitrović, Vladimir Miletić, Željko Rajković, Aktuelnost u teoriji i praksi sporta, fizičkog vaspitanja i rekreacije, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja Univerziteta u Beogradu. 27. Zakon o lobiranju, in: Službeni glasnik Republike Srbije, Beograd, broj 87/2018.

Napomena

Rad je nastao u okviru naučnoistraživačkog projekta “Srbija i izazovi u međunarodnim odnosima 2020. godine”, koji finansira Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije, a realizuje Institut za međunarodnu politiku i privredu tokom 2020. godine.

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EVALUATION OF PROCEDURES FOR BANED OF USE OF A MOUNTAINEERING FACILITY ON THE EXAMPLE OF VIA FERRATA “BRUNO BIONDI” (ITALY), AND PROPOSALS FOR IMPROVEMENT MEASURES

Ilija Andrejić1; Milorad Marković2; Dragan Petrić1; Nikola Rvović1 1 MC “Kamena Gora”, Prijepolje, Serbia 2 MSC “Avala”, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction

From tourism to adventure tourism

The phenomenon of tourism in the segment of physical culture plays a significant role and as such is manifested through active (recreational) tourism, which moves to the limits of adventure tourism.

“Tourism is by its nature a massive socio-economic phenomenon that encompasses and connects different aspects of different human activities around the world. Depending on the appropriate approaches and research methods, it is considered in different ways: as part of the world and national economy; as a component of general and physical culture; as a means of physical education and physical recreation, etc.” (Малчев, Сотиров, Базелков, 2011).

“Adventure tourism is a broad term that encompasses all types of outdoor commercial tourism and recreation with a significant element of excitement. It is closely connected with nature-based tourism, with certain overlaps. Although nature-based tourism products focus on seeing, adventure tourism products focus on doing. A wide range of outdoor activities are packaged in the commercial products of adventure tours, from short hiking trips, expensive tours that include the use of helicopters and fast cruises. Adventure tourism sometimes involves independent travel that travelers provide or experience as an adventurous experience. It can also be considered to include large outdoor sports facilities, fixed locations, such as ski resorts and yacht marinas, and related retail and residential components” (Buckley, 2010).

The previous paragraph clearly indicates the wide space of physical culture through outdoor activities and its unbreakable connection with tourism (Miletić, 2018), when it is an integral segment. For the needs of this work, mountaineering will be singled out as a part of adventure tourism that uses special movement techniques, but also special sports facilities for movement. These objects in mountaineering are “made” by nature, which can also be partially equipped by man (Miletić, Panayotov, Žiropađa, 2016).

Alpinism as part of tourism

Alpinism as one of the most extreme segments of mountaineering (Стојановић, Савић, Милетић, 2013) encompasses certain disciplines, which also means climbing permanently secured objects via ferrata. Different forms of mountaineering (Милетич, 2018) today represent an attractive offer for slightly more demanding categories of tourists eager for adrenaline. This is the part of mountaineering that is mostly applied outside the traced and marked hiking trails (Milojković, Miletić, 2019) and provides a specific and attractive challenge to the participants of the climb as a tourist offer.

Via Ferrata

Via feratta is a term that in free translation from the Italian language means “iron road”, it is a movement on organized mountaineering routes (directions) that are mastered by all available built-in elements (Würtl, Larcher, 2007). These elements include: cables, handrails, sidewalks, ladders and the like. This form of mountaineering requires technical equipment to have a specially designed kit that integrates a dynamic shock absorber (figure 1), whose main function is to maintain a constant and safe connection of climbers with the object on which they move, regardless of the movement technique and in the case loss of the climber’s connection with the object to reduce the coefficient of dynamic impact as a function of the pentagon - the fifth contact point of the climber (Милетич, 2018).

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Figure 1. Ferata set (http://www.aktivnostiuprirodi.com/gallery/)

Due to the existence of established legal regulations, which must be respected, the competent institutions related to mountaineering activities such as federations, associations, organizations, sports clubs and the like. (Steering Board of the Mountaineering Association of Serbia, 2017), certain prohibitions are often placed on certain arranged climbing facilities in order to prevent access and their use. These prohibitions are often imposed without any further explanation. The practice is that only one sector of the impassable road affects the process of closing the entire route, which should in some way prevent and perform a certain bridging, and ultimately result in the passability of the road, if there are justified conditions for such a thing. These prohibitions come into force, most often due to the evasion of responsibility of the authorities in the event that a certain activity in the mountain goes unforeseen. It is logical that with the setting of a certain ban, an explanation should be offered in parallel why it followed and thanks to the principle of awareness (Вишњић, Јовановић, Милетић, 2004) a certain population makes further decisions and takes steps regarding the further outcome of the movement. The essence of this paper is to see the problem in detail on a specific path and to provide access to a certain population of users with the possibility of correcting - bridging the ban. This procedure was performed experimentally at one of the most visited mountaineering locations in Italy - San Lorenzo. At the location of San Lorenzo (Italy), an experimental ascent was made to a permanently secured route - via ferrata “Bruno Biondi” (https://www.ferrate365.it/vie-ferrate/ferrata-biondi-rose-d-inverno/), with the current ban on movement - closed route. The ascent was purposely carried out in spite of the ban, in order to determine the causes that were not stated during the closing of the wedged road, above all publicly published in the media. The task of the formed group of alpinists from Serbia was to analyze the safety structure of the wedged road and to determine all the potential dangers (Schubert, 1997) of the mentioned ferrata. This procedure preceded a detailed report according to which the mentioned climbing route could be used sequentially and thus prevented the “stagnation of mountain traffic” of importance for the mountain tourism of the visited region.

Theoretical framework of the work

When there is any change in a particular climbing facility that threatens to close it (natural disaster, landslide, accident, equipment malfunction…), there is no universal procedure that will treat the announce- ment, reporting, repair and return of the facility to its previous state. This evaluation is done in different ways and depends on individuals, societies, clubs, federations, local governments, etc. from country to country and from case to case. In such cases, there is room to organize, systematize and present something in more detail, starting from the local to the global level, and it is possible to do a larger number of activities in nature (Милетић, 2018; Томић, Милетић, Рајковић, Братуша, 2020). The presented example is valid for each individual mountaineering facility (standard climbing routes, landscaped ferratas, artificial rocks, caves, mountain peaks, etc.) as well as for various movement activities (BASE jumps, buildering, speleology, free climbing, etc.) (Miletić, Milojković, Marković, Rajković, 2019). Via ferrata ascent, as stated earlier in the text, is a movement on permanently placed climbing facilities while respecting all safety measures. Each such secured facility generally offers different approaches, weights, types of adaptations made, height differences, duration of movement, exposure, attractiveness, etc.

Specification Via ferrate “Bruno Biondi”

Ferata “Bruno biondi” is one of the easily accessible climbs. Access to the ferrata is provided by

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an asphalt road, and parking for vehicles is located only a few hundred meters next to the entrance in the direction shown on the map (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Map of access and ferrata of the building in relation to the surrounding places

Access to the entrance to the building takes about 15 minutes from the parking position. The length of the building is about two and a half kilometers, the duration of the passage is approximately three hours. The facility is considered a training ferrata, with a quality and solid rock. It offers a wealth and variety of pas- sages present (https://www.ferrate365.it/en/vie-ferrate/ferrata-biondi-rose-d-inverno/). Individual technical equipment for the smooth execution of the action included a standard ferrata set, a seat climbing belt and a protective helmet. For the purpose of solving unforeseen tasks on the climbing facility, the team had other mountaineering equipment for climbing in dry rock, which included dynamic ropes, anchor and connection elements and friction devices. This accessory was not used during the movement, because the team mastered the damaged part of the route routinely, without any difficulties.

Methods

The paper uses the method of theoretical analysis, which was preceded by the experimental ascent of a group of specially trained alpinists, in which the provided route was recorded in detail. Shooting during the climb was done with two devices: a GoPro video camera and a Nikon D3000 camera. Photographs and videos were analyzed in detail, from which the conclusions discussed in this paper were subsequently made.

Results

During the observation of the terrain and its detailed analysis, it was determined that the ban referred to a 15-meter-long ferrata segment, where several anchor points that secure the horizontally placed cable were damaged (pulled out) (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Clearly visible torn wedge as a cause of closure of the climbing object 322 UDK: 796.52.02

In this part of the mountaineering-alpinist direction or in short the climbing facility (Miletić, Pan- ayotov, Žiropađa, 2016), the ferrata was bridged through the traverse (Милетич, 2018) and unhindered movement was established until the exit from the equipped direction. The logic in itself is such that due to fifteen meters of damaged route, the complete procedure of moving on a road approximately two kilometers long was suspended. If this length and the length of the degree of damage are compared, then it is logical to simply bridge the damaged part, which puts the ferrata on the market until detailed corrections are made, which should be under the jurisdiction of the parent union (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Overview of the ferrata segment on which the interruption occurred (1) and its bridging for the purpose of undisturbed mountain traffic (2)

Measures to improve the treated problem

The direct product of launching the expedition was the idea of researching the causes of the ban, its re-examination and deeper research on hierarchical responsibility. In the given case, the situation was completely unclear as to who was in charge of the maintenance, care and organization of the climbing facilities. A similar situation applies to many other facilities in the function of tourism. Thanks to the conducted expedition and additional collection of relevant information, it was concluded that all the above information on the closure procedure is not available. This means that someone who would find himself in a similar situation could only believe, doubt or completely ignore the ban, information and the like. In practice, unfortunately, there are cases of abuse of prohibition signs. For users of facilities such as the investigated ferrata, it is only necessary to define clear procedures if there is a ban on use and detailed information that indicates specific causes. The established ban on general use of the researched permanently equipped mountaineering facility should be preceded by the provision of detailed information due to the real possibility of its „partial use“ by certain categories of mountaineers, who can perform movement on the most demanding terrains (climbers, free climbers, security services and other trained categories). The closure of a certain equipped direction, which is in someone’s jurisdiction, should, according to the rules, be done by the institution under whose jurisdiction the facility is. The question is who is responsible for closing the facilities and setting a ban on its use? The procedures applied after the closure of the climbing facility are unclear and should be clearly defined and emphasized in the future. The database for most of the regulated routes is not centralized, so it could be thought in that direction, so that data of importance for planning could be available to potential users (Милетич, 2018), who will analyze them in the phase of preparation for the climb. This could be one of the solutions and guidelines in which direction to move when such field problems arise.

References

1. Buckley, R. (2010). Adventure Tourism Management. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. 2. Miletic, V., Panayotov, N., Ziropadja, A. (2016): “Architectural” characteristics of climbing objects. SPOFA, Internation- al Monograph Sports Facilities Modernization and Construction. University of Belgrade, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. Belgrade (284-295). 3. Miletić, V., Milojković, B., Marković, M., Rajković, Ž. (2019). Global scheme for learning sports outdoor activities. International Scientific Conference “Effects of Physical Activity Application to Anthropological Status with Children, Adolescents and Adults”. Book of Abstracts (86-87). 4. Milojković, B., Miletić, V. (2019). Safety Aspects of using Mountain Roads. International Scientific Conference “Effects of Physical Activity Application to Anthropological Status with Children, Adolescents and Adults”. Book of Abstracts (92-93).

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5. Schubert, P. (1997). Sicherheit und Risiko in Fels und Eis. DAV, München. 6. Würtl, W., Larcher, M. (2007). Via Ferrata Technik und Taktik auf Klettersteigen.Sicher am Berg, Innsbruck. 7. Вишњић, Д., Јовановић, А., Милетић, К. (2004). Теорија и методика физичког васпитања. Факултет спорта и физичког васпитања Универзитет у Београду, Београд. 8. Малчев, М., Сотиров, Ч., Базелков, С. (2011). Туризъм, алпинизъм, ориентиране. Шуменски Университет ”Епископ Константин Преславски”, Шумен. 9. Милетић, В. (2018). Практикум предмета активности у природи - друго издање. Факултет спорта и физичког васпитања Универзитет у Београду, Београд. 10. Милетич, В. (2018). Методика на обучение по алпинизьм. Докторска дисертация. Национална Спортна Академия ”Васил Левски”, София. 11. Стојановић, Т., Савић., З., Милетић, В. (2013). Планинарење и логоровање. Факултет физичког васпитања и спорта, Бања Лука. СВЕН, Ниш. 12. Управни одбор Планинарског савеза Србије (2017). Правилник о безбедном извођењу планинарских активности. Планинарски савез Србије, Београд. 13. http://www.aktivnostiuprirodi.com/gallery/ (pristupljeno 19.09.2020.) 14. https://eu.blackdiamondequipment.com/en/qc-lab-via-ferrata-1.html (approach 17.08.2020.) 15. https://www.ferrate365.it/vie-ferrate/ferrata-biondi-rose-d-inverno/ (approach 13.07.2020.) 16. https://www.galaxus.ch/en/s3/product/lacd-set-via-ferrata-pro-evo-via-ferrata-sets-6579918 (approach 15.08.2020.) 17. https://www.via-ferrata.de/klettersteige/topo/via-ferrata-bruno-biondi (approach 13.07.2020.)

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EVALUACIJA PROCEDURA ZABRANE KORIŠĆENJA PLANINARSKOG OBJEKTA NA PRIMERU VIA FERATE “BRUNO BIONDI” (ITALIJA) I PREDLOZI MERA ZA POBOLJŠANJE

Ilija Andrejić1; Milorad Marković2; Dragan Petrić1; Nikola Rvović1 1 PK “Kamena Gora”, Prijepolje, Srbija 2 PSK “Avala”, Beograd, Srbija

Uvod

Od turizma do avanturističkog turizma

Fenomen turizma u segmentu fizičke kulture igra jednu značajnu ulogu i kao takav manifestuje se kroz aktivni (rekreativni) turizam, koji se kreće i do granica avanturističkog turizma.

”Turizam je po svojoj prirodi masovni društveno-ekonomski fenomen koji obuhvata i povezuje ra- zličite aspekte različitih ljudskih aktivnosti širom sveta. U zavisnosti od odgovarajućih pristupa i metoda istraživanja, on se razmatra na različite načine: kao deo svetske i nacionalne ekonomije; kao komponenta opšte i fizičke kulture; kao sredstvo fizičkog vaspitanja i fizičke rekreacije itd.” (Малчев, Сотиров, Базелков, 2011).

„Avanturistički turizam je širok pojam koji obuhvata sve vrste komercijalnog turizma na otvorenom i rekreaciju sa značajnim elementom uzbuđenja. Usko je povezan sa turizmom zasnovanim na prirodi, uz određena preklapanja. Iako se turistički proizvodi zasnovani na prirodi fokusiraju na viđenje, proizvodi avan- turističkog turizma fokusiraju se na činjenje. Širok spektar aktivnosti u prirodi upakovan je u komercijalne proizvode avanturističkih tura, od kratkih planinarskih putovanja, skupih tura koje uključuju upotrebu he- likoptera i brza krstarenja. Avanturistički turizam ponekad podrazumeva i samostalno putovanje koje putnici pružaju ili doživljavaju kao avanturističko iskustvo. Takođe se može uzeti da uključuju velike sportske objekte na otvorenom, fiksne lokacije, kao što su skijališta i marine za jahte i povezane maloprodajne i stambene komponente“ (Buckley, 2010).

Prethodni pasus jasno ukazuje na široki prostor fizičke kulture preko aktivnosti u prirodi (outdoor) i njegove neraskidive veze sa turizmom (Милетић, 2018), koga je on integralni segment. Za potrebe ovog rada izdvojiće se alpinizam kao deo avanturističkog turizma koji koristi posebne kretne tehnike, ali i posebne sportske objekte za kretanje. Ovi objekti u alpinizmu su „izrađeni“ od strane prirode, koji takođe mogu biti delimično opremljeni i od strane čoveka (Miletić, Panayotov, Žiropađa, 2016).

Alpinizam u sastavu turizma

Alpinizam kao jedan od najekstremnijih segmenata planinarstva (Стојановић, Савић, Милетић, 2013) obuhvata oređene discipline pod kojima se podrazumeva i uspon po trajno obezbeđenim objektima via ferata. Različiti oblici ispoljavanja alpinizma (Милетич, 2018) danas predstavljaju atraktivnu ponudu za malo zahtevnije kategorije turista željnih adrenalina. Ovo je onaj deo planinarstva koji se uglavnom aplikuje izvan trasiranih i obeleženih planinarskih staza (Milojković, Miletić, 2019) i pruža specifičan i atraktivan izazov učesnicima uspona kao turistička ponuda.

Via Ferata

Via feratta je termin koji u slobodnom prevodu sa italijanskog jezika znači ”gvozdeni put”, predstavlja kretanje po uređenim planinarsko-alpinističkim trasama (smerima) koje se savladavaju pomoću svih raspoloživih ugrađenih elemenata (Würtl, Larcher, 2007). Pod ovim elementima podrazumevaju se: sajle, gelenderi, nogostupi, merdevine i slično. Ovaj oblik alpinističkog kretanja od tehničke opreme zahteva pose- dovanje posebno dizajniranog kompleta u koji je integrisan absorber dinamičkog udara (slika 1), čija je osnovna funkcija da održava konstantnu i bezbednu vezu penjača sa objektom po kome vrši kretanje, bez obzira na zastupljenu kretnu tehniku i u slučaju gubitka veze penjača sa objektom da smanji koeficijent din- amičkog udara u funkciji petougla – pete kontaktne tačke penjača (Милетич, 2018).

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Slika 1. Komplet za osiguravanje kretanja po via ferata objektima (Ferata set) (http://www.aktivnostiuprirodi.com/gallery/)

Zbog postojanja ustanovljenih zakonskih regulativa, koje moraju da poštuju, nadležne institucije vezane za planinarske aktivnosti kao što su Savezi, udruženja, organizacije, sportski klubovi i sl. (Управни одбор Планинарског савеза Србије, 2017), često se na pojedinim uređenim penjačkim objektima postavljaju određene zabrane kako bi se onemogućio pristup i njihova upotreba. Ove zabrane često se postavljaju bez ikakvog dodatnog objašnjenja. Praksa je da takva da samo jedan sektor neprohodnog puta utiče na postupak zatvaranja čitave trase što bi se u neku ruku trebalo sprečiti i izvršiti određeno premošćavanje, da bi na kraju rezultiralo prohodnošću puta, ako za tako nešto postoje opravdani uslovi. Ove zabrane stupaju na snagu, najčešće zbog izbegavanja odgovornosti nadležnih u slučaju da određena aktivnost u planini pođe nepredviđenim tokom. Logično je da se sa postavkom određene zabrane treba paralelno da se ponudi i ob- jašnjenje zbog čega je usledila ista i zahvaljujući principu svesnosti (Вишњић, Јовановић, Милетић, 2004) određena populacija donosi dalje odluke i preduzima korake koji se tiču daljeg ishoda kretanja. Suština ovog rada je da se na konkretnom putu detaljno uvidi nastali problem i da se za određenu populaciju korisnika omogući pristup sa mogućnosti korigovanja - premošćavanja postavljene zabrane. Ovaj postupak je eksperimentalno izvršen na jednoj od posećenijih alpinističkih lokacija na teritoriji Italije - San Lorenzo. Na lokaciji San Lorenzo (Italija), izvršen je eksperimentalni uspon na trajno obezbeđenu smer - via feratu ”Bruno Biondi” (https://www.ferrate365.it/vie-ferrate/ferrata-biondi-rose-d-inverno/), sa aktuelnom zabranom kretanja - zatvorenom trasom. Uspon je namenski izveden uprkos postavljenoj zabrani, kako bi se utvrdili uzroci koji nisu bili navedeni prilikom zatvaranja oklinčanog puta, ispred svega javno objavljeni u glasilima. Zadatak oformljene grupe alpinista iz Srbije bio je da se analizira bezbednosna struktura oklinčanog puta i da se utvrde sve potencijalne opasnosti (Schubert, 1997) navedene ferate. Ovaj postupak prethodio je detaljnom izveštaju po kome bi se sekventno mogla koristiti navedena penjačka trasa i time sprečio ”zastoj planinskog saobraćaja” od značaja za planinski turizam posećene regije.

Teorijski okvir rada

Kada dođe do bilo kakve promene na određenom penjačkom objektu kojа preti da isti bude zat- voren (elementarna nepogoda, odron, nesreća, neispravnost opreme…), ne postoji univerzalna procedura koja će tretirati objavu, javljanje, popravak i povratak objekta u prethodno stanje. Ova evaluacija vrši se na različite načine i zavisi od pojedinaca, društava, klubova, saveza, lokalnih samouprava itd. od zemlje do zemlje i od slučaja do slučaja. U ovakvim slučajevima postoji prostor da se ovako nešto detaljnije uredi, sistematizuje i predstavi počevši od lokalnog pa sve do globalnog nivoa, a moguće je uraditi na obuhvatu većeg broja aktivnosti u prirodi (Милетић, 2018; Томић, Милетић, Рајковић, Братуша, 2020). Predočeni primer važi za svaki pojedinačni planinarski objekat (standardne penjačke smeri, uređene ferate, veštačke stene, pećine, planinski vrhovi itd.) kao i na različite kretne aktivnosti (BASE skokovi, buildering, speleologija, slobodno penjanje itd.) (Miletić, Milojković, Marković, Rajković, 2019). Via ferata uspon, kako je ranije u tekstu navedeno, predstavlja kretanje po trajno postavljenim penjačkim objektima uz poštovanje svih bezbednosnih mera. Svaki ovakav obezbeđeni objekat uopšteno nudi različite pristupe, težine, vrste urađenih adaptacija, visinske razlike, trajanje kretanja, eksponiranost, atraktivnost itd.

Specifikacija Via ferate ”Bruno Biondi”

Ferata ”Bruno biondi” spada u red lako pristupačnih uspona. Pristup ferati je omogućen asfaltiranim

326 UDK: 796.52.02 putem, a parking za vozila nalazi se svega par stotina metara pored samog ulaza u smer, prikazano na mapi (slika 2).

Slika 2. Mapa pristupa i ferata objekta u odnosu na okolna mesta

Pristup ulazu u objekat traje oko 15 minuta od parking pozicije. Dužina objekta iznosi oko dva ipo kilometra, trajanje prolaska je približno tri sata. Objekat se smatra trening feratom, sa kvalitetnom i čvrstom stenom. Nudi bogatstvo i raznolikost prisutnih prolaza (https://www.ferrate365.it/en/vie-ferrate/ferrata-biondi-rose-d-inverno/). Pojedinačna tehnička oprema za nesmetano izvođenje akcije podrazumevala je standardni ferata komplet, sedešni penjački pojas i zaštitni šlem. Za potrebe rešavanja nepredviđenih zadataka na penjačkom objektu, tim je posedovao ostalu alpinističku opremu za uspon u suvoj steni koja je podrazumevala din- amičku užad, sidrišne i konekcione elemente i frikcione uređaje. Ova dodatna oprema za vreme kretanja nije se koristila, zbog toga što je tim savladao oštećeni deo smeri rutinski, bez poteškoća.

Metode

U radu je korišćen metod teorijske analize kome je prethodio eksperimentalni uspon grupe posebno obučenih alpinista, pri kome je detaljno zabeležen obezbeđeni put. Snimanje za vreme trajanja uspona vrše- no je sa dva uređaja: video kamerom marke GoPro i foto aparatom marke Nikon D3000. Fotografije i video zapisi su detaljno analizirani iz čega su naknadno doneti zaključci razmatrani u ovom radu.

Rezultati

Prilikom opservacije terena i njegove detaljne analize utvrđeno je da se zabrana odnosila na segment ferate u dužini od 15 metara, na kome je oštećeno (iščupano) nekoliko sidrišnih tačaka koje obezbeđu- ju horizontalno postavljenu sajlu (slika 3).

Slika 3. Jasno uočljiv isčupani klin kao uzrok zatvaranja penjačkog objekta 327 UDK: 796.52.02

Na ovom delu planinarsko-alpinističkog smera ili ukratko penjačkog objekta (Miletić, Panayotov, Žiropađa, 2016) izvršeno je premošćavanje ferate kroz traverzu (Милетич, 2018) i uspostavljeno nesmetano kretanje do izlaska iz opremljene smeri. Logika sama po sebi je takva da je zbog petnaestak metara oštećene trase bio obustavljen kompletni postupak kretanja na putu dužine približno dva kilometra. Ako se ova dužina i dužina stepena oštećenja uporede onda je logično da se deo sa oštećenjem jednostavno premosti, čime se ferata stavlja u promet dok se ne izvrše detaljne korekcije, koje bi trebale da su pod ingerencijom matičnog saveza (slika 4).

Slika 4. Prikaz segmenta ferate na kome je nastao prekid (1) i njegovo premošćavanje u svrsi nesmetanog planinskog saobraćaja (2)

Mere za poboljšanje tretiranog problema

Direktan proizvod pokretanja ekspedicije bila je ideja za istraživanje uzroka postavljanja zabrane, njeno preispitivanje i dublje istraživanje o hijerarhijskoj odgovornosti. U datom slučaju potpuno je bila nejas- na situacija ko je zadužen za održavanje, brigu i organizaciju penjačkih objekata. Slična situacija se odnosi na mnoge druge objekte u funkciji turizma. Zahvaljujući sprovedenoj ekspediciji i dodatnom prikupljanu relevantnih informacija izveden je zak- ljučak da su sve prethodno navedene informacije o proceduri zatvaranja nedostupne. Ovo znači da neko ko bi se našao u sličnoj situaciji mogao samo da veruje, da sumnja ili da u potpunosti ignoriše postavljenu zabranu, informaciju i slično. U praksi na žalost postoje slučajevi zloupotrebe znakova zabrane. Za korisnike objekata kao što je istraživana ferata samo je potrebno definisati jasne procedure ukoliko dođe do zabrane korišćenja i detaljne informacije koje ukazuju na konkretne uzroke. Ustanovljenom zabranom za opštu upotrebu istraženog trajno opremljenog planinarskog objekta, trebalo bi da prethodi pružanje detaljnih informacija zbog realne mogućnosti njegove ”parcijalne upotrebe” od strane određenih kategorija planinara, koji mogu izvoditi kretanje i po najzahtevnijim terenima (alpinisti, slobodni penjači, pripadnici bezbednosnih službi i ostale obučene kategorije). Zatvaranje određene opremljene smeri koja je u nečijoj nadležnosti trebalo bi da je po pravilima urađeno upravo od institucije pod čijom je ingerencijom objekat. Postavlja se pitanje ko je to odgovoran za zatvaranje objekata i postavljanje zabrane upotrebe istog? Nejasne su procedure koje se primenjuju nakon zatvaranja penjačkog objekta i treba ih u budućnosti jasno definisati i naglasiti ih. Baza podataka za većinu uređenih smeri nije centralizovana, pa bi se moglo razmišljati u tom pravcu, kako bi podaci od značaja za planiranje mogli biti dostupni potencijalnim korisnicima (Милетич, 2018), koji će ih analizirati u fazi priprema za vršenje uspona. Ovo bi moglo biti jedno od rešenja i smernica u kom pravcu se kretati kada se jave ovakvi terenski problemi.

Literatura

328 UDK: 796.52.02

329 INDEX OF AUTHORS INDEKS AUTORA

Аleksandar Janković 41, 46 Nataša Starčević 84, 95 Aleksandar Stefanović 252, 257 Nebojša Đošić 61, 66 Aleksandra Lakić 252, 257 Nebojša Jotov 274, 279 ___ Nenad Baša 220, 225 Nenad Vasić 306, 313 Boban Milojković 106, 113; 262, 268 Nikola Majstorović 182, 187 Bojan Leontijević 41, 46 Nikola Rvović 320, 325 Branka Marković 240, 246 Nikola Stojanović 134, 140 Branko Škof 29, 35 Nikolay Panayotov 274, 279 ______

Daliborka Stanković 182, 187 Olivera Knežević 230, 235 Daniel Heler 306, 313 ___ Dragan Kolev 153, 162 Dragan Petrić 320, 325 Predrag Đokić 134, 140 Dražen Rastovski 149 ___ Dušan Stošić 192, 199 ___ Sanja Mandarić 240, 246 Sanja Vuletić 84, 95 Ena Crnoja 12 Saša Bubanj 284, 289 ___ Slobodan Tošić 71, 78 Stanimir Stojiljković 220, 225; 120, 127 Franjo Lovrić 146 Stefan Đorđević 284, 289 ___ Stefan Radojičić 170, 176 Svetislav Šoškić 192, 199 Goran Bošnjak 29, 35 ___ Goran Nešić 182, 187 Goran Prebeg 220, 225 Uroš Kostić 192, 199 Gorana Tešanović 29, 35 ___ Gordana Milošević 294, 300 ___ Violeta Šiljak 17, 23 Vladimir Jakovljević 29, 35 Igor Ranisavljev 120, 127 Vladimir Miletić 106, 113; 262, 268 Ilija Andrejić 320, 325 ___ Ivana Čerkez Zovko 252, 257 Ivana Kujundžić Lujan 146 Zdravko Aničić 230, 235 ___ Zoran Čuljak 146 Zvezdan Savić 134, 140 Josip Cvenić 12 Zvonimir Tomac 149 ______

Katarina Nejić 284, 289 Željko Rajković 71, 78; 262, 268 Kristina Marković 284, 289 Lazar Tomić 41, 46 Lazar Toskić 206, 213 Ljiljana Stankov 84, 95 Ljubica Papić 120, 127 ___

Marija Macura 120, 127 Marko Ćosić 170, 176; 220, 225 Marko Erak 230, 235; 252, 257 Marta Ćirković 240, 246 Mateja Beck 149 Milan Marković 206, 213 Milinko Dabović 29, 35; 252, 257 Milivoj Dopsaj 206, 213 Milorad Kličković 294, 300 Milorad Marković 294, 300; 320, 325 Milorad Marković 262, 268 Miloš Mudrić 51, 56 Miloš Petrović 230, 235 Mima Stanković 284, 289 Mira Jovanović 84, 95 Мiloslav Fabok 41, 46 Miroslav Milovanović 51, 56

330 REVIEWERS RECENZENTI

Aleksandar Nedeljković Aleksandra Popović ___

Branka Marković Branka Savović ___

Danica Janićijević Dejan Suzović Dragan Mirkov Dušan Mitić ___

Đorđe Stefanović ___

Goran Prebeg ___

Irina Juhas ___

Lazar Tomić ___

Marija Macura Milan Matić Miloš Hadži Vidaković ___

Oliver Injac ___

Slađana Mijatović Slobodan Tošić Slobodanka Dobrijević ___

Velimir Jeknić Vladimir Miletić Vladimir Milošević ___

Željko Rajković

331 INSTITUTION INSTITUCIJE

1. Charles University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Praha, Czech Republic 2. European Center for Peace and Development UN University for Peace, Belgrade, Serbia 3. Faculty of Education, University J.J. Strossmayer of Osijek, Croatia 4. Faculty of science and education, University of Mostar, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina 5. Fakultet za sport i fizičko vaspitanje, Univerzitet u Prištini - Kosovska Mitrovica, Leposavić, Srbija 6. Fitness klub “Life active”, Beograd, Srbija 7. Gimnazija „Kirilo i Metodije“, Dimitrovgrad, Srbija 8. Institute of International Politics and Economics, Belgrade, Srbija 9. JP „Resavska pećina“ Despotovac, Srbija 10. Kriminalističko-policijski univerzitet - Departman kriminalistike, Beograd, Srbija 11. Nacionalna služba za zapošljavanje, Beograd, Srbija 12. National sports academy „Vasil Levski“, Sofia, Bulgaria 13. PK ”Kamena gora”, Prijepolje, Srbija 14. PSK “Avala”, Beograd, Srbija 15. Sveučilište u Mostaru, Fakultet prirodoslovno-matematičkih i odgojnih znanosti, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina 16. Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za šport, Ljubljana, Slovenija 17. Univerzitet odbrane, Vojna Akademija, Beograd, Srbija 18. Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci, Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta, Banja Luka, Bosna i Hercegovina 19. Univerzitet u Beogradu - Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Beograd, Srbija 20. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Medicinski fakultet, Beograd, Srbija 21. Univerzitet u Nišu, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja, Niš, Srbija 22. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet za diplomatiju i bezbednost, Beograd, Srbija. 23. Univerzitetski sportski savez Beograda, Beograd, Srbija 24. Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača i trenera, Subotica, Srbija 25. Visoka škola strukovnih studija za vaspitače, Šabac, Srbija 26. Žandarmerija, Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije, Beograd, Srbija 27. Zavod za zaštitu prirode Srbije, Beograd, Srbija

CIP - Katalogizacija u publikaciji Narodna biblioteka Srbije, Beograd

796/799(082) 371.3::796(082) МЕЂУНАРОДНА научна конференција Ефекти примене физичке активности на антрополошки статус деце, омладине и одраслих (2019 ; Београд) Zbornik radova / Međunarodna naučna konferencija Efekti primene fizičke aktivnosti na antropološki status dece, omladine i odraslih, 11-12. decembar 2019, Beograd ; urednici Željko Rajković ... [et al.]. - Beograd : Univerzitet, Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja = University, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, 2020 (Beograd : 3D+). - 334 str. : ilustr. ; 30 cm Na spor. nasl. str.: Book of Proceedings. - Uporedo tekst na srp. i engl. jeziku. - Tiraž 30. - Registar. ISBN 978-86-89773-61-3 a) Спорт - Зборници b) Физичко васпитање - Зборници COBISS.SR-ID 27406857

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