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Anishiniiwi Bimaadisiwin: Ojicree and (East) Cree Experiences of Aboriginal Literacies from Kasabonika, Mistissini, Waswanipi, and Waskaganish

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Anishiniiwi Bimaadisiwin: Ojicree and (East) Cree Experiences of Aboriginal Literacies from Kasabonika, Mistissini, Waswanipi, and Waskaganish Anishiniiwi bimaadisiwin: Ojicree and (East) Cree Experiences of Aboriginal Literacies From Kasabonika, Mistissini, Waswanipi, and Waskaganish By Justine Macdonald A thesis submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the degree requirements of Masters Applied Language School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Department of Applied Language Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada January 2011 Copyright © 2011 - Justine Macdonald Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your We Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-81636-3 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-81636-3 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1+1 Canada The undersigned recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research acceptance of the thesis Anishiniiwi bimaadisiwin: Ojicree and (East) Cree Experiences of Aboriginal Literacies From Kasabonika, Mistissini, Waswanipi, and Waskaganish Submitted by Justine Macdonald in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Applied Language Devon Woods, Thesis Supervisor (# Chair's Name #), Chair, Department of Applied Language Carleton University 2011 Abstract In this study, the experiences of literacy for three Ojicree and four (East) Cree participants are discussed. Respondents reside in the communities of Kasabonika, Mistissini, Waskaganish, and Waswanipi in northern Ontario and Quebec. The research takes a qualitative approach with seven interviews in three areas of interest: 1) Aboriginal literacy development among participants who attended residential or community schools (where reading and writing in their ancestral languages was not taught), 2) Past and current uses of the syllabic and roman scripts, and 3) The relationship between Aboriginal literacy and identity. The paper includes a literature review that provides a general background to the research question and a discussion of the origins of syllables in Ontario and Quebec. The distinction between 'Ojicree' and 'Cree', and a general description of the shared characteristics of northern communities where these languages are spoken as the LI is discussed. A personal narrative description of life in Kasabonika is also given as context for analysis. The concluding chapter makes suggestions for further research and consolidates the findings of the study. Keywords: Cree, Ojicree, biliteracy, Aboriginal literacy, syllables, roman orthography, Kasabonika, Waswanipi, Mistissini, Waskaganish, East Cree, Our Native language embodies a value system about how we ought to live and relate to each other ...it gives a name to relations among kin, to roles and responsibilities among family members, to ties with the broader clan group. There are no English words for these relationships. Now, if you destroy our language you not only break down these relationships, but you also destroy other aspects of our Indian way of life and culture, especially those that describe man's connections with nature, the Great Spirit, and the order of things. Without our languages, we will cease to exist as a separate people. -Elder Eli Taylor (Assembly of First Nations, 1990) For my grade 7 student, Lance Brown, who reminded me once: 'there's always a chance' and was right. Acknowledgements I am deeply grateful to the many people who have supported me during the writing of this paper. My supervisor, Dr. Devon Woods, took me as his student late in September of 2010 after I returned from Kasabonika. I had the interviews and an idea, but nothing written. He helped me understand the writing process on a deeper level and transfer my thoughts to paper. I am also grateful to my initial co-supervisors: Dr. Marie-Odile Junker, who gave forum for me to think about Aboriginal languages in her culture class and who continues to do outstanding work through her collaboration with Cree Language of Instruction Program (C.L.I.P.) in support of the Cree language; and Dr. Guillaume Gentil, who gave me guidance in the beginning phase of planning this research. My initial interests in Aboriginal culture and language stem from time spent in the north of Ontario. During 2005-2006 I worked in forestry for a Native tree-thinning company, owned by Darren Landry and based out of Shining Tree. Landry taught me many things about the animals and forest during the many hours we spent walking through the bush. In 2008,1 met and interviewed four Cree women, Pearl, Ruth, Emily, and Anna, while they were involved in the creation of the online East Cree dictionary, and to whom I am very appreciative. In 2009-2010,1 had the life-changing opportunity to work in Kasabonika as the grade 7 teacher. I met some fantastic kids and observed a different way of life that will always stay with me. I am deeply grateful to the Native language teachers there, Judy, John, and Saloma, who agreed at a busy time of year, to be interviewed. I am also grateful to Norman Semple for his help in recording these sessions, his insights into Native issues, and many hours of discussion in the library. I moved to Ottawa in the winter of 2006. I have no family here and have always worked full-time while attending school. The relationships with my friends and coworkers in this city have been paramount to my academic successes. The completion of this paper would not have been possible without the stable environment to write that was provided to me by the Zaine family, and the unwavering encouragement and support that were always offered. I am deeply grateful to all of you. Thank you to Fred Oxtoby for his constant reminders of the importance of education, and to Four Seasons Sunrooms in allowing me to leave the jobsite for the classroom on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Thank you to Tosh, for your spiritual support in the days before my leaving to Kasabonika. Thank you to Angela, who gave me a place to live when I came back, where I was able to write the initial proposal for this research. Thank you to Greg, who always listened and was there with me through my hard times. Thank you to Brenda for helping me manage the stress and reminding me of my priorities. Also, to Michel Robitaille, whose presence in my life since 2008 has kept me on track in achieving my goals and who taught me more skills than are possible to list here. Thank you for believing in me. Finally, to my mum and dad, thank you for always being there and ready to help. I wrote the bulk of this paper from the 5{ floor of Macodrum library, at the corner computer of the grad room. During thoughtful moments, I would lift up my eyes and watch the geese flocking to the river. They remind me of my students in Kasabonika. It is the end of January now and the birds are still there, every time I look: flying level with the horizon, in perfect rhythm, all together. Michel says they will keep going to the water until it freezes over completely, until there is nowhere else for them to land. This is the strength of spirit those kids have. Every word in this is for them. Table of Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements vi Table of Contents viii List of Tables ix List of Figures xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of Paper 5 Chapter 2: Literature Review 6 2.1 Aboriginal Identity and Litearcy 7 2.2 Literacies, Bilitleracy, and Northern Bilingual Communities 13 2.2.1 "Literacies" and "Biliteracy" 13 2.2.2 Aboriginal Bilingual Communities in Northern Ontario and Quebec 15 2.2.3 Theoretical Framework 18 2.3 Issues Related to Aboriginal Writing Systems in Northern Ontario and Quebec 21 2.3.1 "Ojicree", "(East) Cree", "Cree", and "Ojibwe" 21 2.3.2 The Cree Syllabary: A Background 28 2.3.3 Indigenous Origins of the Cree Syllables 31 2.3.4 Modern Syllables 32 2.3.5 The Roman Orthography 33 2.3.6 Ojicree and Cree Literacy Today 36 2.3.7 The Uses of the Scripts 38 2.3.8 The Learning and Teaching of the Cree Writing Systems
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