Just when the world was convinced that the Arab uprisings of 2010 uprisings Arab the Just that world when convinced the was Introduction Palestine Egypt, Sudan, Syria, Arab Revolts, region, MENA Dissidence, Digital Keywords: organizing for action. collective capacity and digital of communication means their the repressive by regimes tothe attempts curtail circumvent continuously the techies in which a turtle, ahare and a raceof between repressive compared to and regimes that is the ground” on “techies calls Sakr Shereen Layla what contest The between territories. Palestinian the occupied and Egypt respectively, on, focused issue to special this contributions two introduces then text This revolutionaries. its of own noted in the words as digital component, a strong to thanks 2019,of in the Arab world uprising seemingly is which the most successful revolution the Sudanese on reflects shortly then article The violence. of nine years after become it has crisis into the humanitarian developed its digital components and revolution the Syrian how assesses article this case, the in Syrian on Zooming these of parcel revolts. and part is dissidence Digital taking place. currently revolts the various between differences and similarities on reflects the text in the region, demonstrations street and uprisings of the of latest developments overview a short Providing region. (MENA) African North and Eastern in the Middle dissidence and digital communication, revolutions, of into digital ongoing of layers research in studies insight an provides text this CyberOrient, of issue to special this introduction an As Abstract: University Malmö Josepha Wessels region Africa EastandNorth Middle the in Media Authoritarianism, DigitalDissidenceandGrassroots Algeria, Iraq, Lebanon and most recently, Iran, there seems to be a cyclic most to seems a cyclic recently, and be there Lebanon Iraq, Iran, Algeria, to Sudan from Emerging region. MENA protests the in mass successful, surprisingly and renewed, and new 2019 year experienced the were dead, yber

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4 Corresponding author: Josepha Wessels, Malmö University, 205 06 Malmö, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected] these times: these in what is happening (2013, described 3) Ziccardi population. succinctly not continue to generations fool younger of the their will eventually regimes long-run the in these Syria, backed Iranian and Russian Assad’s and Sisi’s as Egypt such dissent, crushing by brutally structures power on to to their hang try still regimes dictatorial rigid by date. Although use- their past getting increasingly region MENA are the in dictatorships and authoritarianism fact, In governments. repressive by their provided narrative of propagandistic type any debunk and organize communicate, tools the to them given has Internet communicationfreedom. technology and dignity, life, abetter brought demanding protesters the streets, on the have outrage moral and Austerity similarities. recurring important 2018a). (Wessels time in progressing some revolts the share Indeed, movements but not ofprotests resistance cyclic isolated are instances priorthese to whereby 2019, ripple effect agrowing indicates which protests occurred street Iran, and Lebanon both In of recurrence. pattern media monopolies and to disprove false state truths. monopolies to false media and disprove to erode aim they lives; private own their in else it all above prizing of public matters interest while surrounding secrecy of theory the refute they toand elude censorship software; silencecodes offight they down totear to filters; eradicate act They live. they which in of societies the facts the time real- in transmit they cameras, video laptops handheld and cameras, Using smartphones, countries. authorities of their by the tracked constantly are they information, disclose and anonymize andhide, encrypt, to technologies filter and surveillance development to circumvent of techniques to dedicated the divulge; they news the and express for opinions the they detained and threatened are they on often, obsolete and, technologies, thinking quick own but else their on little Relying of population. behavior the the at controlling aimed strategies government and to protest forms of repressive oppose and liberty their the worldarounddissidentsrisk digital of Thousands yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

5 Josepha Wessels communication between activists worldwide, directed at taking down down at taking directed worldwide, activists communication between facilitate space virtual transnational and egalitarian of adiverse, networks, Internet communication global through andoccupation, creation The 2013) protesters level on which a global act in realm, to a virtual parallel runs the local of aspect physical This disappearance. and torture regimes, detention of or, authoritarian but case by numbers, risking the often in astatement as protectedsometimes streets of the defiance, and squares the presence presence of protests common in resistance have these is the all that characteristic ) forthcoming 2017; et (Bray al. contexts McGarry authoritarian and democratic both in representation of people arupture and the political in acrisis region MENA signify protests latest the protests, in these movement for Fridays the and Future extinction current to the through themovementOccupy with 2008, in crisis financial global the with discontent with protests started that global of wider abackground Against sectarianism, and religious fundamentalism. religious and sectarianism, oppose for demands women’s explicit economic including they systems and rights socio- and political the in change protesters a fundamental Iraqi want The 2003. in invasion of Iraq American the with started which war, the 2011 in end to an declared Americans of since the needs its populations not government has properly for Iraqi any human the in provided the and intervention how American the influence, Iranian dominant the of protesters 2019). (Fassihi opposition Iraq, protesters In resented both hundreds forces, killing security Iranian by the attacked were brutally in streets November 2019 the filled but The protesters Iraq. in its muscles and as Syria such andYemenflexes in countries other to fightwars billions government spends their while taxes, of fuel tripling the and livelihoods on their continued the strain with 2019). people were angry Iran, In (Khneisser the streets filled they WhatsApp, applications as such media on social levies and taxes in government raise by another Ignited leaders. of political the corruption protesters the Lebanon, were fedIn up with . yber authoritarianism, neoliberalism, poverty, inequality, exploitation, inequality, poverty, neoliberalism, authoritarianism, (Tripp 2013) (Tripp C yber , the protesters’ visible physical presence in the parks, parks, the presence protesters’ in , the physical visible O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1

1, 2019 . One major (Ziccardi (Ziccardi

6 Josepha Wessels ). forthcoming et al. (McGarry public is used space how this to power determine the state has alone the idea that the challenge spaces, material and digital protesters the the both in as Issue Special forfocus this control, important to is an exercise contested states try which public in space a as space, 2017).(Bray digital in How protests manifest dissidence and for forms new of politics cosmopolitan nation-states opportunities create and many of representation plague of that ongoing crises indicative protests are these that argues article movements. the Finally, social Occupy and Spring of Arab the claims and tactics, communication, transnational the examining protests recent were generated the by global in of publicity cosmopolitan degrees varying that problems. shared It argues with then formed to deal are publics egalitarian open and which borders in cultural and territorial it that is produced by across interaction of publicity, cosmopolitan arguing an account provides first article state. The of their authority representative the at rupturing contestation directed political and criticism social connected transnationally in people engaged which in of “cosmopolitan publicity” the createdthatprotests is forms argument central The possibilities. and protest movements these to practices cosmopolitan which extent the reflect explores article This of nation-states profoundly been have challenged. claims representative the which in countries authoritarian and democratic liberal of wave protests to spread both aglobal has decade, past the In space. virtual control beyond expanding the the of nation-states the countries, and within states across translated and shared future, asustainable and environment, and climate the rights, human and representation, dignity leadership, political about corrupt practices, and values claims, global and transnational emerging (3) finally and for consequence prolonged and streets recurrences periods and protestsbeyond the (2) parks, occupation of public physical squares, and protests; the in (1) communication within presence of the cross-cultural of what is evident aspects main Bray public three (2017) space, and discusses world. work his In on publicity cosmopolitan neoliberal the in elites powerful and digitalization. Digitization and digitalization are two conceptual conceptual two are digitalization and Digitization digitalization. and concepts the of digitization between adistinction toIt make is important digitalization? or Digitization yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

7 Josepha Wessels structures. organizational and leadership political formal replace that action collective forms of decentralized leaderless and facilitated has media digital using Stohl 2012). and 2013; Political participation Bimber,Segerberg Flanagin, and (Bennett affected also are action for collective possibilities forms and whereby politics, and society civil in engaged are individuals which in manner the changes and infrastructures media communication and digital around life of social domains structures thus Digitalization emerged. has that a society” “network identified communication scholars digitalization, increasing this from and Dijk 2006) 2007;Dijck 2009; of communication (Castells influence networks” the under is changing that “infrastructure to asocial leading of digitization, sense aphotograph. Digitalizationword is making document or scanning into letter a format, awritten for from example into adigital available data Digitization terms. two these between distinction a clear making explicitly in value However, is analytical of there literature. range a broad in interchangeably used often and associated closely are that terms of a networked digital space; (1) digital dissidents inside an authoritarian (1) space; authoritarian dissidents inside an digital of a networked digital aconstellation in major of digitalization users three distinguish can we 2016). turtle, the (Donahue and hare the To between race this assess better world the pre-digital in did they than control efficiently and populations and moreeffectively information, activity, monitorto access filter online block or to censor capacities expression, enhanced increasingly states have means This versa. vice and technology of use sophisticated digital their in activists up with catching are governments whereby authoritarian (states governments), and dissidents) (digital ahare aturtle and between race the It governments. is like repression by authoritarian facilitates also technology digital violations, rights demonstrations document human and street organize dissidents communicate, helpingBesides digital is now connected. everything because collapsed, effectively has line realms off and online the between distinction the landscapes, digital these 2004). Within (Mathes surveillance governmentto research scientific production social and knowledge from ranging contexts in digitalization, yber

Metadata and algorithms have become important aspects of aspects become have important algorithms Metadata and C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019 is making analog analog is making

8 Josepha Wessels in combination with other UGC, sparked street protests against state protests against street sparked combination other UGC, in with videos, family.” brutality his police and these Eventually, Mubarak Hosni “Fuck as such solicited reactions which brutality, police of severe uploaded mobile phone UGC “Free Egypt” 2007, collective video when the 2010 on in YouTube uprisings appeared run-up toEgyptian the the in in videos online impactful first The over adecade. for around well been has East Middle the in activism video digital form of the grassroots UGC in grassroots digital and UGC non-professional 2016, (Westmoreland 254). videographers from came Uprisings Arab the depicting of videos majority the video, Man (Snowdon Tank 2014, struggle” of revolutionary 401). Egyptian the Like front theline themselves on people who find of ordinary the experience subjective the for “resource understanding extraordinary an recordings amateur these violenceto protest makes The proximity ofa source narrative. as bodies of activists’ functions of various opens up discussions also ground today but platforms production on the of videos digital and activism 2013, 1186). of interface on the Askanius area is avital Video activism and Uldam 2016;2008; Snowdonal. 2014;2013; al. Thurman Thorson et et (Mercea change about social role bringing in acentral played always phenomena, to have it remember political media is important that current “YouTube as such revolutions” “YouTubification or the such to dissent” of Papadopoulos 2014, 754). it is tempting to catchphrases connect While (Andén- media news to mainstream provided the and crafted carefully perspectives “official” record event of into an disrupts apublic that testimony personal their turn and filters censorial and editorial established to bypass now enabled –are terrorists and insurgents, activists, democratic soldiers, residents, holidaymakers, local –including people grassroots at the Ordinary media. news mainstream the of circumventing ameans provides also User Generated Content digital (UGC) activist From a broader perspective, dissidents. of digital actions the collective on the response their and themselves (3) regimes authoritarian the other, each (2) who and communicate with outside the country diasporas, yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

9 Josepha Wessels technological and personal responses of the opposition. This pattern of opposition. the responses This personal and technological the impacted Faris 2016). and turn, in (Rahimi police This, cyber of to establishment a the thanks also security, to national a threat deemed as tighten networks control over foreign websites social and government made 2012). Iranian protests, toal. the the reaction In et (Elson election the following immediately days minute the per in tweets new election) at arate about Iran of the being aboutas thirty (i.e., Election” hashtag labeled Twitter “Iran using the with –marked 2011). posted (Lanzillo messages Twitter text –short sent tweets users audience content and the be to simultaneously creators activists allowing in crowd-sourcing facilitated media WebThe social 2.0 2018). related region MENA to(Aouragh the anthropology ofof digital theories development the and ethnographies to cyber respect with ofbody literature 2015). of agrowing We start at Shaikh the and are 2010; Hussain (Howard politics Eastern of Middle –for power understanding and the surveillance – matters infrastructures of digital politics 2011). Hussain and Howard 2012; et al. the (Fuchs is, That scholars center becomecommunication have the of attention for surveillance many connected toolsits all for andInternet The attempts to control cyberspace. states despite authoritarian authoritarian within dissent Internet facilitates the interaction, and decentralization, distance, speed, through that (2012) Fielder region. MENA the in (2017) Ruijgrok and demonstrate spheres of tools and dissidence of revolution digital Internet creates the how describe 2016; (2011) 2013). Alexander and Aouragh particular in 2011; 2011; 2010; 2014; Howard Kraidy Alexander Aouragh and Aouragh mobile telephony and media (Alterman to social notiondemocratic linked 2010 the and Persian Awakening of 2009 context the the in introduced been first have politics Eastern to layer Middle digital on the Major studies attention. media world’s the attracted that Cairo in protests at street Tahrir Square massive 2010 the in culminating over Egypt, all spread violencepolice that – 11 Arab Spring, often framed within a revolutionary and even even and arevolutionary within framed often Spring, 11 Arab yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. not the least in terms of terms control, in not least the 1, 2019

10 Josepha Wessels started to emerge. started 2011),dissident protests street of first the videos uploads of digital YouTubeWhen 2011 (Wessels February in Syria in available became 2011; Boëx cinema (Cécile 2019b). film Wessels documentary and arts the in found counter-culture critical increasingly asignificant, was But police, there secret and of informers system elaborate surveillance an through regime Assad by the forbiddenwas heavily controlled and 2011, Until streets on resistance. groups the on line assembly of large express and systems surveillance the to circumvent manage would they government (Wedeen 2015; 1998), proxies, through but and private in Assad authoritarian the towards followers were “ideal” they “as if” acting of by abehavior people veiled was resistance everyday for example, Syria of protests for outpour (Tripp ground the the prepares 2013).which In counter-culture oppression asubaltern created that against resistance digital forms of visible of less by were preceded decades region, everyday 2010 visible of proteststhe street The uprisings of Green Revolution the and movement of Burma Iran. in VJs the dissident movements different as many in introduced such was platforms UGCuploaded video and on video online of use digital the 2000s, the in 3CCD chips high-quality with cameras handy ofintroduction small 2017; (Bray authoritarianism Trippagainst 2013; Webb 2015). Since the protests about information their shared and themselves organized movements non-violent and social which in manner the protesters changed radically age advancement of digital the the years, twenty past the Over Studies. Eastern Middle in important is increasingly landscapes and geographies digital of changing rapidly intricacies Understanding a protest!” called This is is a shame! “This government restrictions. latest by the shaped landscape media adapt anticipate tolimited respond, and the activists which in is subjected to continuouscounterrevolutionaries change the and regime the between battle revolts. digital other words, In the 2019 to the uprisings Arab first protests, the from all in is observed yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019 – 11 MENA the in

11 Josepha Wessels March 16, 2011, freedomspark77,March crowd the that channel by the it is clear video uploadedanother In UGC on peaceful!” crowd The shouts“Peaceful, regime. the against (Intifada) uprising is the this together and Alawite and Only.” Bashar videographer thearementionsSunni thatprotesters The and Syria, shouted “God, slogan a play normally onFreedom the Only” and protesters where the shout Syria, “God, Hamadiyyeh, Souk the in video Revolution. amajorshows The demonstration of Syrian the start 15, 2011,uploaded on iconic March an video is remembered the which as amonth channel later, same than the protests and the spread, had Less the accusation. deflect and is enoughprotest!” for people present “s to if” act is a that“this consequences. accusation The severe mean could street on the family. assembly Aspontaneous to retribution be his will there He is afraid well. is treated Nassab is now to there assure minister the protest, because President, love protesters the the they Nassab’s to brotherthat end asks the some crowd reacts, protestersThe a protest!” shout called is This is ashame! At 03’41”,thieves!” people. Robbing The the “This shoutsthat minister the when crowd, one us. the slaughtering protester are shouts they “By God, to address out trying car, of his hanging minister records the video shaky The one from who of cars. is emerging the interiorto the salute minister crowd the urge for also Bashar.” sacrifice They will we blood, and souls “Our shouting crowd when by adoor the tens opens, of men start surrounded are cars other security and Police police. secret cars clothes probably a civilian At 01’56”, shouting for President, the most someone crowd starts the in Allah!” than is God no other other “There phrase Islamic shouting the out into crowd breaks the surrounded, are cars police the station. After front in of police the people humiliation!” do not take Syrian “the and thieves” “Thieves, protests.the The protesters as men) slogans repeat (all recording of crowd, mobilepolicemen. the phones Hundreds in visible are beaten violently by four was Nassab Imad citizen violence whereby Syrian police protest aspontaneous in against street the protesters in gathered of Syrian mobile shows thousands phone video the footage, grainy In uploaded on February 17,uploaded went on viral February quickly and 2011, Syria by Misbar It was of Damascus. old the in city Hamidiyeh, al protest Souk the in unplanned event an of extraordinary an videos recordedwas One of first the yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019 2 .

12 Josepha Wessels closer surveillance of protesters. surveillance closer however, of government, for the was movemotivation part on for the this 2011). of (Wessels use proxies the accessible been through only The to YouTube, access government allowed Syrian had prior to this, which 2011, February the In avoid and government surveillance. themselves Facebook media, groups,Twitter,social maps to Google and organize of use made clever 2019a). protests, activists pro-democracy early the In of outbreak since violence the (Wessels uploaded been have Syria from YouTubeWessels 2019a; digital thousand 2017). hundred six Over clips 2017; Stinson 2012; Boëx 2013; Cecile Boëx Wessels2013; 2011; Cécile Pantti and 2014; Andén-Papadopoulos (Andén-Papadopoulos landscape YouTube,like media and geography digital new helped to establish which content platforms explosionof led on to digital video an uprisings popular 2014;tool government (Al-Rawi 2014). for Aouragh Assad’s The Syrian a public relations as by opposition disinformation, created post and groups space into to virtual hack the trained warriors cyber of Syrian consisting (SEA), Army Electronic form of Syrian the the in crackdown digital the militarized and state institutionalized authoritarian the Syria, In out war to full grassroots From digital YouTube 2019a). (Wessels a consequent and rapid of spread UGC on funerals and crackdown and demonstrations, state of violence, street into acycle acceleration in an revolution Syrian the spiraled then torture, under died and arrested was who one of teenagers Khateeb, the of Hamza upload of funeral the of Dera’a. city of southern The the isqat walls on the an-nizam”) yurid (“ of regime” the fall people the want “The Dera’a from of 15 teenagers 6for writing on March torture and arrest brutal by the 2011). enraged But particularly protesters were also (Flock prisoners of political arrest the and bans, of use travel expanded the threats of Internet atightening censorship, of including violence, of Assad-regime, the measures repressive the tors against were protesting “Free The demonstra Syria.” and people, is a traitor” own his who kills shout: when they “He regime, Assad the against and outraged is morally yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. النظام إسقاط يريد Ash-sha’b“ الشعب,” 1, 2019 -

13 Josepha Wessels protests, some of whom disappeared in the catacombs of the Syrian prisons, prisons, catacombs the of Syrian protests, in the some of whom disappeared on the in early activists society civil young leading arrested and targeted regime Assad the Syria, In activists. video the including activists, grassroots these to silence effort great taken have oppressive regimes and Authoritarian diaspora. continue Syrian to the do in so who survived those and uprisings, popular the of Syrian phases theearly in figures activist major media became urbanites of Damascene young collectives secretive these 2010.in line and on members this uploaded of Eventually, efforts record their video did They effort. humanitarian do their clandestinely only could and 2010 in secretly to had act activists Damascene the context, authoritarian an 2014).the(DeChatel prolonged drought their fled home-area in having Butin Damascus, around who camped of country the north-east the from Syrian displaced toapproximately 160 the aid internally thousand humanitarian bring foundation 2019b) and (Wessels to organize throughout 2010 and started they Share’ Al informal the in themselves educated youth organized ofgroup urban scattered By end on aDamascus-based of the line. 2009, intelligence Syrian the application to circumvent VPN of and about use proxies the creative 2011. been in youth had prior uprisings to the For Syrian decade, past the history protesters a had pro-democracy of Syrian andsavviness experience The agencies. by government surveillance tracked being avoiding while this did They agencies. news international and community activist wider the within information applications, share communicate and findnew andencrypted VPN, code use images, line verify protests, off and on in line themselves to organize continued to clock work the around outside inside and both of country the activists pro-democracy Syrian time, same At the 2018 the Ghouta siege of Damascus. during eastern in and 2016 the Ghouta in siege of 2013, during in Aleppo attacks of chemical images digital of verification the concerning wars information the during poignant particularly was This intermediaries. other digital and media social on twitter, Internet and trolling of spread the fake-news in increase involvement The actors. international and promptedof Russia national an local, different involving catastrophe unprecedentedan humanitarian revolution into since developed has 2011 in apeaceful as started What yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

14 Josepha Wessels general elections in 2022. 2022. in elections general and governance of process civilian formed to eventual to lead was an government transitional A jail. removedand office in from put arrested, el-Bashir,Omar Sudan’s long was autocratic decade dictator and ruler, 2019,April months Khartoum, capital protests of the massive in following non-violentis one world. of most successful the In revolutions Arab the in revolution region MENA since 2011, the popular in uprisings Sudanese the Western other the in However, coverage press. to compared all little very revolutionSudanese The 2019 of had were morehas successful. regimes authoritarian against uprisings world, popular of Arab the other parts In Revolutions Successful targets. other civilian and schools, bombardments markets, of hospitals, thetargeted and places different many from civilians of Syrian cleansing emergence of ISIS long-term and forced sieges, ethnic displacement and the resistance, up voidsarmed of to groups fill armed Islamic extremist and militants of jihadi displacement entry ofmass people outside inside and Syria, the in disaster, culminating humanitarian and nine-year-long war brutal led to what is a now eventually uprisings the of Syrian militarization The (FSA). Army Free the Syrian forming opposition, join the and eventually to defect army regime of soldiers Syrian many the caused response regime ofviolent crowd control. means as The grenades, rocket and tanks, artillery, army protesters deployment demonstrations the at and of street heavy kill to shoot and bullets of use live the with hand went in hand crackdown This protests gatherings. dissidents plan to and and coordinate digital the of capacities avoid organizational in the in resulted Syria dissidents in digital intelligent and bright, young, these on crackdown early The brutal (Wessels2019b). 2012 in filmmaker, young talented and activist Homs video in Shehadeh, of awell-known Bassel killing targeted the 2016; Wessels (McKernan 2018b) activist pro-democracy and and speech pro-free and developer open-source software Palestinian–Syrian renowned a Safadi, of execution Bassel eventual and torture incarceration, the are Examples protesters. street known of killings targeted specifically as well as yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

15 Josepha Wessels (RSF) is wielding a lot of power. The government institutions in Sudan still a lot still ofSudan in power. is wielding institutions government The (RSF) Forces Hemedti leader of Support Rapid as the should end 2022. in which period transitional this alow-profile keeping although during process, democratization the stalling in active are dictatorship of previous the supporters government and positions of transitional the leading in still are Burhan, al Fattah Abdelrahman (General Hemedti) Abdel General and Two Dagalo Hamdan Mohammed regime, members of previous the emerged. abuse sexual and of rapes reports and Nile River the in were thrown 2019; Bean 2019). and Diab Boshar (Akram Tensheadquarters of bodies force air sit-in amass in front in who of military were participating the protestersone than morehundred killed and Khartoum of city the flooded June 3, 2019, Janjaweed, Forces Support Rapid called commonly (RSF), the On price. Revolutionwithout did not a Sudanese The heavy succeed Square.” “Liberation into the baptized immediately Green at Square, the gathering a mass with protesters the celebrated arrested, dictator was the protests. When street the to join Khartoum into corners Sudan of thefrom far arrived Thousands went out streets. on the Millions supporters. into regime the fear to instill of numbers protesters were instrumental large the and size the rebellion, the to crush tried regime the louder although and became to step down regime the for revolution.calls older joinedSudanese The the the generations also adifference, not to join, protests when the to seemed making be children their warning often youth protests. joined the the Although where mainly non-violent and popular movement, mass growing arapidly emerged was What went and rapidly viral. were shared on that mobile phone clips video majorAnother elementdocumentation of protests the the was of success meetings and reactions to government reprisals for their dissidence. for their to government reprisals reactions and meetings swift groups organized WhatsApp of use Internetthe technology. Their (SPA),Association through revolution themselves led the prepared and Professionals theSudanese in united unions, trade The to Khartoum. came of numbers protesters that large in response demonstrations the and and meetings communication technology, of the use Facebook the to organize of of revolution the success velocity the in is the crucial as out themselves pointedOne of major revolutionaries the young elements Sudanese that yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019 3

16 Josepha Wessels digital resistance can be found in the contexts of Israel contexts found the be in can resistance digital anti-authoritarian and Anti-colonial oppressive groups. and structures state authoritarian opposing region, MENA over the all popped that centers hacker’s and media collectives blogospheres, grassroot of Arab fall and rise the with hand went in hand resistance creative and dissidence Digital universe. on line forged a parallel has dissidence region. Digital MENA the in resistance creative and dissidence on digital research art is to Issue presentof state-of-the-CyberOrient Special this of The purpose cyberspace? in reality online digital and a space in material line reality off aphysical, between theboundary Where is developments?virtual? the How define should we conducted digital into these How research space. is scholarly digital the in mediated and shared owned, collectively and becomehave publicly developments on reflection These how beg deeper memories of conflict geographies. digital and of conflict memorialization digital the in seen outside is also Creative region. non-Arab dissidence and the activists Arab other with collaboration in often boundaries, other, geographical crossing each to communicate with tactics to need change day,Every activists the actors. other repressive states and front in stay up of authoritarian and the to keep region MENA continuously the from tries generation of activists young Internet savvy an turtle, the and hare the between race the In aturtle and ahare Between generation. Internet to won seems young been have by the turtle the and hare the between race the Sudan, In civilians. is felt as a state. relief big forSudanese This many by the presence nor police Internet secret surveillance is no there active and to demonstrate to speak, free people are anymore, monitoring journalists Information is of not near-total the and absence ofMinistry censorship. The of freedom speech visible the as such Sudan, new the in a noticeable change is However, there supporters. old ground, on the from regime the resistance despite succeed, the transformation the night, to and make day working, SPA the and regime members of many previous include the is continuously yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019 – Palestine, Iran, Iran, Palestine,

17 Josepha Wessels in 2010 in uprisings longbefore popular theinnovators.” were active techies These technological or grassroots ground on the “techies revolutionaries cyber Egyptian the She calls languages. borders and communication across of digital limits the and promises, the indispensability, the reveals of revolution counterrevolution and experience Egyptian the that argues She realm. virtual the in culture political the blogs to and describe posts, tweets, by analyzing revolution media counterrevolution and on social of Egyptian the experience the Um describes Amel) (VJ Shereen Sakr 2011,” Egypt “Techies Laila Ground: on Revisiting the article the In groups. Islamic extremist and occupiers Turkey, autocratic colonial governments, Egypt, against Sudan, and Syria, the two worlds of activists and scholars closer together. closer scholars and worlds of activists two the R-shief brings analytics, data R-Shief, through twitter as such analysis tools both and productions. By providing cultural in shifts emerging addressing media, on social analysis computational textual in and gaps to application attend to built critical R-Shiefscholarship. asoftware was technology, and conceived of and intersection art, atdeveloped the converging. Therefore than other rather to each R-Shiefwas parallel to seem run which on ground, the techies Arab the activists, cyber and academics gapbetween widening and a disconnect a finds Sakr Um Amel, VJ named cyborg of Arabic-speaking the Under guise the content revolutionary for way to the pave structure existing movement the sought to destabilize World. Arab the in This activists generation anew in of digital Fattah ushered al Abd Alaa developer software blogger and Egyptian work the of attention. particular, In scholarly blogosphere gained 2011, and 2014). of Arab the et rise al. the 2004 (Etling Between processes democratic engagement and of Internet the onimpact civic the University, investigates which at Harvard for Internet Society and Center Berkman at the initiative Project, aresearch Democracy and blogosphere it Internet mapped and the Arab out emerging through the observed quickly scholars 2006, Twitter March in launched was yber – 11. When Mark Zuckerberg launched Facebook in 2004 and Facebook launched 2004 11. Zuckerberg in Mark When C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

18 Josepha Wessels user mobility. and of circulation data disordering, and ordering, the through primarily occurs that cyberspace in de-territorialization and imaginary of spatial form anew sees Cristiano face, hackers Palestinian that battle uphill outside for (in of example). Germany its territory Despite seemingly the of use servers by making blocks, territorial to circumvent ability their continue and find improve to collectives hackers’ The services. of Israeli disruption as well as intelligence for gathering strategies intrusive both include These land. occupation of Palestinian contestand territorial disrupt to warfare cyber effective, highly sometimes and a sophisticated, occupied West the and wage Bank Gaza in collectives hacker Palestinian cyberspace, Palestinian occupies that Internet ecology high-tech efficientdominated well-developed and a Israeli extremely acomplicatedwithandline, and tough line on battle. Faced off both government systems, Palestinian and Israeli repressive the and ground the on techies Palestinian between therace makes This circulation. data and on mobility user limitations severe by imposing cyberspace in state (PA) of is replicated Israel Authority occupying the and Palestinian the between cooperation security line off the that argues Cristiano activism. of cyber dissident effectiveness the affect how this and does restrictions and limitations on and line realities line off between are linkages and boundaries what questions the critically territory. article The of Palestinian fragmentation geographical current consistent the are with strategies these whether assesses Cristiano control over cyberspace, territorial disrupt and enact, intersect, strategies Palestinian and how Israeli Exploring boundaries. on line with parallel run line off boundaries is question how The territorial dissidence. and resistance, digital ofTerritories contestation, become afield has (OPT), cyberspace Occupied Palestinian the in as such fragmentation, geographical Normative.” complex ofas and context profound the In territorial Cyberspace National the Sovereignty, and Hackers, Palestine: in Warfare and Security Cyber “Deterritorializing article his in realm dissident cyber Palestinian on out the astudy Fabio carries Cristiano yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

19 Josepha Wessels the turtle is thus by far not finished yet. not by finished far is thus turtle the and hare the between race The line. off and online both of transformation middle of amajorthe in era day, region MENA finds itself the that means by the increasing ground on the techies of these capacity and skills the with Iraq and Iran, Lebanon, protestersin Internetwith savvy filled being still are thatrapid the streets developmentsare fact The ongoing, territories. occupied Palestinian the and of complexities Egypt and contexts political respective the highlight Issue Special Two this follow in that articles it whether and dissidence is successful. to digital place which in contexts other andpolitical MENA countries between differences vast are There conceded power. eventually and not successful was but this employed acrackdown, also Internet technology, regime the and media of protesters touse social and the success most dedicate of their where activists Sudan, In more even brutal. forces became authoritarian the which in catastrophe a humanitarian caused of uprisings, the militarization eventual an combined with cyberspace, the from techies bright grassroots of disappearance the dissidents and on protesters, digital crackdown brutal theearly that shows article first the revolution Sudan, in successful the with Syria in authoritarianism against uprisings the Comparing governments. olderover the members generation of and representatives authoritarian advantage adistinct region MENA have generations the younger in turtle, the and hare the to between arace Compared hand. in hand go battles online and linerealities of The off government. systems repressive down contest, take and to disrupt, take ground on the techies grassroots that opportunities the and role on the is focused issue of digitalization special demonstrations anti-government of and protests street waves 2019, in the latestthe on Reflecting region. MENA throughout the waging currently movements of are context revolutionary that geographic and scholarly wider a follow in that articles to put two the aimed region MENA has the in Dissidence Digital on issue of CyberOrient thespecial introduction to This Conclusion yber C yber O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019

20 Josepha Wessels wbiea1982. Anthropology of Encyclopedia The International In Anthropology.” “Digital 2018. Miriyam. Aouragh, 2019. and-Offline-Maneuverings-in-Syria%60s-Counter-Revolution,December accessed 10, Jadaliyya Counter-Revolution.” Syria’s in Maneuverings Offline and 2014. “Online Miriyam. Aouragh, Communication International Journal of Media.” Mainstream and Protest the Between Brokering Activists: Diaspora Work of Media Syrian “The 2013. Pantti. Mervi and Kari, Andén-Papadopoulos, no. 55: 753–769. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813489863. 16, Society and Media New Self-Communication.’” Mass of ‘Mediated Age the in Dissent Political Embodied Camera-Witnessing: 2014. “Citizen Kari. Andén-Papadopoulos, 103–116. no. 4: 34, https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2011.610714. Quarterly Be Not The Will Washington Tweeted.” Revolution 2011. Jon B. “The Alterman, alliance-of-mena-socialists/. allianceofmesocialists.org/solidarity-with-the-mena-2019-uprisings-statement-by- 10, 2019. https://www. December 2019. 6, Accessed December Socialists. African North and Eastern of Middle Alliance Socialists.” of MENA Alliance by Statement 2019 Uprisings: MENA the with 2019. “Solidarity Socialists. of MENA Alliance pubrev.2014.04.005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. no. 3: 420–428. 40, Review Relations Army.” Public Electronic the Syrian of Case The East: Middle the in Warriors 2014. “Cyber K. Ahmed Al-Rawi, 10, 2019. December accessed protests-massacre/, Magazine Sudan.” in Uprising and 2019. “Massacre Bean. Brian and Shereen, Boshar, Akram References yber , June 13, 2019. 13, , June https://jacobinmag.com/2019/06/sudan-revolution-khartoum- (blog). September 5, 2014. https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/30870/Online- September (blog). , 1–10. American Cancer Society. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118924396. Society. Cancer , 1–10. American

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21 Josepha Wessels news/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-sudan-revolution/. Magazine Words 500 Revolution.” Sudan the You About to Know Need 2019. Ola. “Everything Diab, University. Nijmegen diss, PhD East.” Middle the in Water Landscapes 2014. “Vanishing Francesca. DeChatel, Communication Power 2009. Manuel. Castells, 10.1080/14747731.2016.1217616. Globalizations of Nation-States.” Claims Representative the Challenging Publicity: Cosmopolitan and 2017. Protests Bray, Daniel. “Global Méditerranée révolte de mouvement du lumière àla Syrie en cinématographique création “La 2013. Cécile. Boëx, IMG/pdf/abounaddara_en.pdf. 2019, 20, https://booksandideas.net/ December Accessed 2012. (blog). Net Ideas and Books Abounaddara.” Collective Syrian with Interview An Cinema, “Emergency 2012. Cecile. Boëx, no. 139–155. 2: https://doi.org/10.1080/19436149.2011.572411. 20, Critique East Middle Production.” Artistic and of Cultural Commodification the Toward Culture: over Monopoly State the End of 2011. “The Cécile. Boëx, Press. University Cambridge . Cambridge: Change Technological Era of an in Engagement and Interaction Organizations: in Action Collective 2012. Stohl. Cynthia and J. Flanagin, Andrew Bruce, Bimber, Media and the Personalization of Contentious Politics Digital Action: Connective of Logic The 2013. Segerberg. Alexandra and W. Lance, Bennett, 1–15.no. 0: of Communication Journal International Revolution.” Internet of the Nonsense and Sense Experience: Egyptian The Spring| Arab 2011. “The Alexander. Anne and Miriyam, Aouragh, yber , June 16, 2019. Accessed December 20, 2019, 20, http://500wordsmag.com/sudan- December 16, 2019., June Accessed Revue des mondes musulmans et de la la de et musulmans mondes des Revue récits.” nouveaux pratiques, : nouvelles , no. 134 (December): 145–156. (December): https://doi.org/10.4000/remmm.8309. , no. 134 C yber O rient, Vol. . New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. University Oxford York,. New Oxford: 13, Iss. . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Press. University Cambridge . Cambridge: 14, https://doi.org/ no. 5: 685–699. 1, 2019 5, 5,

22 Josepha Wessels Internet and Surveillance: The Challenges of Web 2.0 and Social Media Social and of 2.0 Challenges Web The Surveillance: and Internet 2012. Sandoval. Marisol and Albrechtslund, Anders Boersma, Kees Christian, Fuchs, assads-regime/2011/03/15/ABrwNEX_blog.html. washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/syria-revolution-revolt-against-bashar-al-- Post.” Washington - The Washington Post Regime Assad’s al- Bashar against Brews ARevolt Revolution: 2011. “Syria Elizabeth. Flock, of Iowa. University diss., PhD States.” Authoritarian in Dissent and Internet The Digital: in “Dissent 2012. Douglas. James Fielder, com/2019/12/26/world/middleeast/iran-protests.html. YorkNew Times Vows On.” The to Fight Amid Protesters, Honor Dead 2019. “Iranians Farnaz. Fassihi, 2009 2016. eds. Faris, M. David and Babak, Rahimi, US. Macmillan 49–74. York: New Palgrave Kirk, Mimi and Iskandar, Adel Hudson, Leila by edited Spring Arab the of Eve the on Evolution Media In Dissent.” and Culture, Politics, Blogosphere: Arabic the 2014. “Mapping Palfrey. John and Faris, Robert Kelly, John Bruce, Etling, 2019, 20, https://www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/TR1161.html. December Accessed RAND. Election: 2009 the After Mood and Opinion Public Iranian to Gauge Media Using Social Nader. 2012. Alireza and Bohandy, R. S. Roshan, Yeung, Parisa Douglas Beth, Sara Elson, software-has-eaten-world-what-does-it-mean-human-rights-security-governance. 2019, 20, https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/03/22/so- December Accessed 2016. 22, March and Security Rights, for Human It Mean Does World: the What Eaten Has Software “So 2016. Eileen. Donahue, Publications. Sage CA: Oaks, Media of New Aspects Social Society: Network The 2006. van. Jan Dijk, Press. University Stanford Age. Stanford: Digital the in Memories Mediated 2007. van. José Dijck, . Reprint edition. New York: State University of New York of New Press. York: New University State edition. . Reprint yber , December 26, 2019. Accessed December 26, 2019, 26, https://www.nytimes. December 2019. 26, Accessed , December Human Rights Watch Watch.” Rights Human Rights |Human Governance? C yber O rient, Vol. Social Media in Iran: Politics and Society after after Society and Politics Iran: in Media Social 13, Iss. , March 15, 2011. 15, https://www. , March 1, 2019 . New York: Routledge. York:. New Routledge. . 2nd ed. Thousand Thousand ed. . 2nd (blog). (blog). ,

23 Josepha Wessels Social Movements. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. University Amsterdam Movements. Amsterdam: Social Forthcoming. Forthcoming. Umut Korkut. and Olu Jenzen, Eslen-Ziya, Hande Erhart, Itir Aidan, McGarry, Mediated Computer Communication Metadata.” Shared Through Communication and Classification “Folksonomies-Cooperative 2004. Adam. Mathes, iran-and-the-green-movement/. 2019, 20, https://changingcommunications.wordpress.com/research/ December Accessed 2011. (blog). Spring Arab and Media Social on Project AResearch Communications: Changing Communications.” | Changing Movement Green the and 2011. “Iran Amanda. Lanzillo, Cairo of Blogger Naked The 2016. M. Marwan Kraidy, doi.org/10.1080/14791420.2013.815526. Opportunities.” and Challenges Age: Digital the in As Medium Body “The 2013. M. Marwan Kraidy, movement-saad-hariri-arab-spring. 2019, 20, https://jacobinmag.com/2019/11/lebanon-protest- December 2019. Accessed November Started.” Getting Just Is Movement 2019. Protest Mona. “Lebanon’s Khneisser, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743815000136.366–368. 47, Studies no. 2: East Middle of Journal International Affairs.” East Middle in Politics Digital Interrogating for Arenas “Three 2015. Shaikh. Jawaid Sonia and M., Muzammil Hussain, no. 3: 35–48. 22, Democracy of Journal Media.” Digital Role of Tunisia: The and Egypt in Upheavals 2011. “The Hussain. M. Muzammil and N., Philip Howard, Islam Political and Technology Information Democracy: and Dictatorship of Origins Digital The 2010. N. Philip Howard, book/9780415891608. Challenges-of-Web-20-and-Social-Media/Fuchs-Boersma-Albrechtslund-Sandoval/p/ December 2019,Accessed 20, https://www.routledge.com/Internet-and-Surveillance-The- yber The Aesthetics of Global Protest, Visual Culture and Communication and Culture Visual Protest, Global of Aesthetics The Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies Communication and Critical/Cultural C yber . Oxford Studies in Digital Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. University Oxford Oxford: Politics. Digital in Studies . Oxford O rient, Vol. 13, Iss. . Harvard: Harvard University Press. University Harvard . Harvard: 1, 2019 10, no. 2–3: 285–290. https:// 10, no. 285–290. 2–3: 47, no. 10: 1–13. . Protests and and . Protests

24 Josepha Wessels Misbar Syria. 2011. 2011 Syria. Misbar 80/1369118X.2015.1109701 Ecologies.” Communication “Protest 2016. D. Loader. Brian and Iannelli, Laura Dan, Mercea, as-residents-flee-slow-descent-into-hell-a7445641.html. independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/russia-aleppo-syria-putin-liberation-claims- Two.’” World since War Worst Massacre Witness ‘Could “Aleppo 2016. Bethan. McKernan, org/10.1177/1461444807085325. Media.” News Online by Initiatives Content Generated of User Adoption Journalists? for Citizen “Forums 2008. Neil. Thurman, no. 3: 421–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.756051. Communication Movement.” Information, and Society Occupy the Twitter and “Youtube, 2013. Wells. Chris and K. Vraga, Emily Swartz, Lana Schrock, Andrew Thompson, Gamber Liana Edgerly, Stephanie Ekdale, Brian Driscoll, Kevin Kjerstin, Thorson, sudaneseprofessionals.org/en/declaration-of-freedom-and-change/ 2019, 15, https://www. December 1, 2019. Accessed January Association. Professionals Sudanese change.” and of freedom 2019. “Declaration Association. Professionals Sudanese December 2019,Accessed 20, https://www.wired.com/2015/11/abounaddara-film-collective-syria/. WIRED Syria.” in Like Really Life’s What Record Filmmakers 2017. Liz. “Secretive Stinson, org/10.3384/cu.2000.1525.146401. Spring.” Arab the and Video Be Uploaded: Vernacular Will Revolution Peter.Snowdon, 2014. “The Regimes.” Authoritarian under Protests and 2017. Internet Web Streets: the Kris. “From to the Ruijgrok, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDHLsU-ik_Y 20, 17, 17, February 2011”) February 4:55. Video, 2011. February Accessed Damascus, in anger The The Independent yber 6, no. 2: 401–429. https://doi. no. 401–429. 2: 6, Research Cultural Current of Journal Unbound: Culture Democratization Information, CommunicationInformation, and Society C , November 29, 2016. Accessed December 20, 2019, 20, http://www. December 29, Accessed 2016. , November yber

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25 Josepha Wessels East at Large.” at Large.” East Trouble Middle for the Spell Could Iran in “Protests 2018a. Ivanka. Josepha Wessels, doi.org/10.1163/18739865-01002005. Kinoks’?” ‘Modern-Day as Raqqa and Aleppo from 2017. Activists “Video Ivanka. Josepha Wessels, Syria and Symbols in Ambiguities Contemporary 2015. of Politics, Domination: Rhetoric, Lisa. Wedeen, S0010417598001388. https://doi.org/10.1017/ no. 3: 503–523. 40, History and Society in Studies Comparative Syria.” in Control Social and Politics Symbolic ‘As “Acting 1998. If’: Lisa. Wedeen, https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512113516901. International Political Review Science Countermovement?” to aGlobal Spring Arab the From Traditionalists: Cosmopolitan the of Rise “The 2015. K. Webb, Adam 1204. on YouTube.” Activism Change of Communication Journal International Climate Debating Cultures? Civic “Online 2013. Askanius. Tina and Julie, Uldam, Press. University Cambridge East in Middle the Resistance of Paths People: the and Power The 2013. Tripp, Charles. and Transformation ResolvingIn InternationalDynamics of Escalation, Conflict, Continuation Escalation.” Conflict in Videos of Grassroots Role the Images, Moving “Syria’s 2019a. Ivanka. Josepha Wessels, pacifist-young-left/. opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/how-assad-tortures-and-kills-syria-s-young- Leftists.” Pacifist Young Syria’s Kills and Tortures Assad 2018b. “How Ivanka. Josepha Wessels, large-89588. theconversation.com/protests-in-iran-could-spell-trouble-for-the-middle-east-at- . University of Chicago Press. of Chicago . University yber Open Democracy 10, no. 159–174. 2–3: Communication and https:// Culture of Journal East Middle The Conversation The . London: Routledge. . London: C yber , May 4, 2018. Accessed December 20, 2019, 20, https://www. December Accessed 2018. 4, , May O , February 1, 2018. Accessed December 20, 2019, 20, http:// December Accessed 1, 2018. , February rient, Vol. 13, Iss. 1, 2019 36, no. 4: 425–440. 425–440. no. 4: 36, 7, no. 7: 1185- .

26 Josepha Wessels Association (2019). Association Professionals Sudanese see on-line, available is declaration Their Sudan. Khartoum, 3 2 1 Notes https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5276-4_1. Netherlands. 1–25. :Springer Age Digital the in Rights Human and Technology Liberation Resistance, In Dissidence.” Digital and Hacking Remarks: “Opening 2013. Giovanni. Ziccardi, Anthropology Visual Egypt.” in Video Revolutionary of The Politics Scenes: “Street 2016. R. Mark Westmoreland, wessels/. and-youtube-reflections-on-the-%e2%80%9cegypt-effect%e2%80%9d-in-syria-by-joshka- 2019, https://sapiensproductions.wordpress.com/2011/02/11/syria-lifts-ban-on-Facebook- MENA MEANINGS in Syria.” Effect’ ‘Egypt the on Youtube, Reflections and on Facebook Ban Lifts 2011. “Syria Joshka. Wessels, Revolution and Activism Video Film-Making, Syria: 2019b. Documenting Ivanka. Josepha Wessels, See Misbar Syria(2011) Misbar See (2019). Socialists of MENA Alliance see on-line, Available Personal communication board members Sudanese Professionals Association (SPA), Association Professionals Sudanese members board communication Personal yber . I. B. Tauris. B. . I. 29, no. 3: 243–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/08949468.2016.1154420. 29, no. 3: 243–262. C yber O rient, Vol. (blog). February 11, 2011. Accessed December 20, 20, December 11, 2011. Accessed February (blog). 13, Iss. 1, 2019 , by Giovanni Ziccardi, Ziccardi, Giovanni , by

27 Josepha Wessels