amerasia journal

The national interdisciplinary journal of independent

scholarship, criticism, and literature on Asian ,

Pacific Islanders, and transcultural societies.

Published by the Asian American Studies Center Press,

University of , Los Angeles, since 1971.

subscription rates $99.00 annually for individuals; $445.00 for libraries and other institutions. Amerasia is published three times a year: spring, summer, and winter. online access to all back issues of Amerasia http://uclajournals.org/?code=ucla-site (for institutional and individual subscribers) single and back issues Available at $15.00 per issue plus $5.00 handling. indexed and/or abstracted in America: History and Life; Bibliography of Asian Studies; ProQuest; Writings on American History; Arts and Humanities Citations Index; Sage Race Relations Abstracts; and The Western Historical Quarterly. mailings and communications Articles for publication, books for review, and subscription matters should be addressed to: Amerasia Journal UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press 3230 Campbell Hall, Box 951546 Los Angeles, CA 90095-1546 Phone: (310) 825-2968; FAX (310) 206-9844 email: [email protected] www.aasc.ucla.edu www.amerasiajournal.org/blog/

Copyright © 2017 by The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Printed in the of America ISSN 0044-7471 Editor Keith L. Camacho Associate Editor Arnold Pan Design/Production Mary Uyematsu Kao Marketing Manager Barbra Ramos Information Technology Tam Nguyen

Advisory Board

Edward Taehan Chang Ethnic Studies, University of California, Riverside Emma Gee Pacific Asian American Women Writers-West

Jessica Hagedorn Literature, New York City

Russell C. Leong Asian American Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles

Glenn K. Omatsu Asian American Studies, California State University, Northridge Tritia Toyota Anthropology & Asian American Studies, University of California, Los Angeles

David K. Yoo Institute of American Cultures, University of California, Los Angeles

Editorial Board

David Chang History, University of Minnesota

Augusto Espiritu History, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Anna Guevarra Sociology and Asian American Studies, University of Illinois, Chicago

Tamara Ho Gender and Sexuality Studies, University of California, Riverside

Kyle Keoni Ikeda Asian Languages and Literatures, University of Vermont

Karen Nakamura Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley

Franklin Ng Anthropology, California State University, Fresno

Wadie E. Said Law, University of South Carolina

Cathy J. Schlund-Vials Asian and Asian American Studies Institute, University of Connecticut

Teresia Teaiwa Va’aomanu Pasifika,V ictoria University of Wellington Chau Trinh-Shevrin Population Health, New York Univerity

‘Alisi Tulua Empowering Communities, Los Angeles, California

Oliver Wang Sociology, California State University, Long Beach

Monna Wong API Equality, San Francisco, California

Judy Tzu-Chun Wu Asian American Studies, University of California, Irvine

Lisa Yoneyama East Asian Studies and Women and Gender Studies, University of Toronto

International Correspondents

Brian Hayashi History, Kyoto University,

Jacqueline Lo European Studies, Australian National University

Editorial Journal Associates Masako Ikeda University of Hawai‘i Press David Rich Lewis The Western Historical Quarterly Joseph Chamie International Migration Review Lawrence-Minh Bùi Davis The Asian American Literary Review and Gerald Maa Amerasia Journal Volume 43, Number 1 2017

Pacific Languages in Diaspora Editors: Luafata Simanu-Klutz, Akiemi Glenn, and Serge Tcherkezoff

Contents

To Our Readers

Keith L. Camacho vi Pacific Languages in Diaspora

Luafata Simanu-Klutz and Akiemi Glenn ix

Research Beyond Words Polynesian Elders and Language

Halaevalu F. Ofahengaue Vakalahi and Ofa Ku’ulei Lanimekealoha Hafoka 1 Nouméa at the Crossroads of New Caledonian Multilingualism Diasporas and Linguistic Norms

Anne-Laure Dotte, Stéphanie Geneix-Rabault, and Leslie Vandeputte 13 (Re)Constructing and (Re)Locating Chamorro Millennials, Ethnolinguistic Identities, and Prospects for Language and Cultural Maintenance in the Diaspora

Michaela Ruiz and Genvieve Leung 33 Teaching and Conserving Pacific Languages Theoretical and Methodological Considerations

David Welchman Gegeo 53

Forums

Sāmoan Language in Diaspora A Forum

Facilitated by Luafata Simanu-Klutz 73

iii iv Amerasia Journal 2017 Afro-Diasporic Women Artists on History and Blackness and History Afro-Diasporic Womenon Artists Pacificthe in Blue and Black ForumArt Language andCultureSchool Te Lumanakio i Amelika Community Spotlight Marshallese LanguageandDiaspora A Ritual) (A Reunion Global Afro-Diasporic Towardsof a WomanistEthnomusicology “The WomenGather” T PoeticsMicro/Nesian Histories, Mela/Nesian C and theRefrain ofBlack Lives Matter PerformativeA of Afro-PacificExploration Identity Me” “Something Within J Protest Poetry fromHawaiʻi Review Response Workto A These CouldBeEvidence O Self-Revelation Dancing Chamoru Black A Tånó I 2016) 6-7, (July Springdale, ForumMarshallese J F E tautalamailegaganaSā My Sā Forumspeak oy ntroduction essica onomaaitu eresia ourtney lisha jeya L ehuanani C

L moan languagespeakstomy mind! . S A.

ruz T ola eaiw -S

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F Write forFerguson: uimaono

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105 179 169 163 157 147 145 116 136 96 81 Remembering Teresia

April K. Henderson, Ojeya Cruz-Banks, Joy Enomoto, Courtney-Sāvali L. Andrews, Alisha Lola Jones 186

Book Feature & Book Reviews Jacked Up and Unjust Pacific Islander Teens Confront Violent Legacies

Katherine Irwin, Wayde Hoapili Lee, and Karen Umemoto 194

Endangered Languages, Knowledge Systems and Belief Systems. By David Hirsh.

Avizia Y. Long 217

Identity and Language Learning: Extending the Conversation, 2nd edition. By Bonny Norton.

Masami Tsujita Levi 219

Ancestry. By Albert Wendt.

Trudie Iuli Sala 222

Staking Claim: Settler Colonialism and Racialization in Hawai‘i. By Judy Rohrer.

Demiliza Saramosing 224

This issue’s cover features the work of Yvonne Neth:

Yvonne Neth was born on the island of in the Feder- ated States of (FSM) to Pohnpeian and Chamorro parents. She spent her growing years both on Pohnpei and on the island of in the Northern Marianas. Yvonne attended university in , majoring in cultural anthropology, and also earned her FAA commercial pilot’s license during her years in . She returned to Pohnpei in 2009, and worked as a co-pilot for Air. Eventually, the FSM Govern- ment employed Yvonne as their Aviation Operations Inspector for the nation’s Division of Civil Aviation. After three years,

v vi Amerasia Journal 2017 “Woman with Veil”: Thisisacommissionedpiece.Itwasgift Artist’s discussionofherfeatured works: titude ofeducationalproducts forMicronesia. als throughout the Pacific region and has helped develop a mul- research intheregion. Yvonne hascollaboratedwithprofession- and conductinganthropological, environmental, and geological ally-relevant educational materials for Micronesia’s students non governmentalorganization dedicatedtoproducing cultur not-for-profit a (iREi), Initiative Education and Research Island she shifted from this position and became the Vice-Director for early, though perhaps outofnecessity. too comes manhood infers that here fierceness is There cal embellishments of a young man from an outer island. “Youth oftheOuterIslands”: Historicalcapture ofthelo things, includingourcultures. oneever-moving, oftime, ment ofall shiftingandevolving longer worn today. The two photographs shared an ele in thelocally made poncho and shell earrings, items no photograph this of significance the found I house. canoe a an outerislandofChuuk,wearingaponcho,standingin der oftheOuterIslands”descriptionread ofamanfrom emony torecognize theeldersofcommunity. The“El- Pohnpeians aboutthisandtheysayitmayhavebeenacer mony” ontheislandofPohnpei;Ihaveaskedseveralolder the description read that he was attending an “aging cere- year scribbledasadescription.Forthe“PohnpeianElder,” photos are minimal, sometimes having onlythelocation or a larger scale.Mostofthe time,thedescriptionsfor of these two elders striking and chose to recreate them at journals andlibrarydirectories. Ifoundthephotographs anthropological in published archives time, Islands” cific archives duringMicronesia’s “Trust Territory ofthePa- mainly withhistoricalphotographs,researching through “Pohnpeian Elder”&“ElderoftheOuterIslands”:Iwork ing from them. update soitmaybethatthisartworkisstillmiss- Since thatemail,Ihavenotheard from himofany found the artwork missing from their belongings. man, informingmethatduringtheirmove,they time later, Ireceived anemailfrom thissame the woodenframetogowiththisartpiece.Some photograph toworkfrom andwhohand-crafted to thewifeofanexpat,whohadgivenmeher - - - - Amerasia Journal 43:1 (2017): vii-viii https://doi.org/10.17953/aj.43.1.vii-viii

To Our Readers

What can we make of Pacific Islander language practices and poli- cies in the diaspora? In this special issue, anthropologists, educators, linguists, literary scholars, musicologists, social workers, and sociolo- gists address this question by analyzing how and why Pacific Island- ers maintain, transform, devalue, or protect their languages across and the greater diaspora. Guest edited by Luafata Simanu- Klutz, Akiemi Glenn, and Serge Tcherkezoff, this volume especially reveals how the urban landscapes of the diaspora have partly shaped Pacific Islander language practices and policies in the Anglophone and Francophone Pacific. In this respect, some of the most robust debates about mono-, bi- and multi-lingual fluency have surfaced in metropolitan areas like Auckland, , and Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Given the relatively large numbers of Pacific Islanders in these locales, it is no surprise that these diasporic communities have led the charge for language survival. As several contributors reveal, churches, community groups, grassroots movements, and social clubs in such cities have increasingly come to bear the responsibility for making legible and legitimate Pacific Islander languages in the public sphere. In light of these observations, they suggest that the “home” alone cannot function as the principal site for the transmission of one or more languages from one generation to another. The forums on Marshallese and Sāmoan language practices organized, respectively, by Jessica A. Schwartz and Luafata Simanu-Klutz nicely explore this matter, as does our community spotlight on the Tokelauan non-profit organization Te Lumanaki o Tokelau I Amelika in Mililani, O‘ahu. Conversely, state apathy, ignorance, or racism has likewise stifled the everyday and official usage of several Pacific Islander languages, as with Chamorro, Māori, and Native Hawaiian or Kānaka Maoli. For instance, in their on language practices by millennial Cham- orros in San Francisco, Michaela Ruiz and Genevieve Leung found that the youth generally lack the native speaking proficiency of their parents and grandparents. Attributing these violent linguistic shifts to the U.S. colonization of Guam, Ruiz and Leung therefore call on our readers to expand the language maintenance resources for Cham- orro speakers. Extending this point further, Halaevalu F. Ofahengaue Vakalahi and Ofa Ku’ule Lanimekealoha Hafoka demonstrate in their essay on Polynesian elders and language transmission in Hawai‘i that

vii viii Amerasia Journal 2017 attests, African American Studiesand African DiasporicStudies. publication last this as Women’sand, Studies, Studies, Islander multiple academic fields, no less Asian American Studies, Pacific engage to ability exceptional her to tribute a as Blackness,” and History on Artists Afro-Diasporic Women Pacific: the in Blue and “Black forum, her print we that organizer. then, fitting, is It community stellar a teacher,and astute builder, an program tic ua, and elsewhere. Teresia was also a generous scholar, a fantas- indigenous rights indigenous Victoriaand at University,women’s for advocated tirelessly she ton, Aotearoa New Zealand. WellingTeresiain colleague - away Teaiwaand passed member board editorial our 2017, 21, March On note. bittersweet a on with ourreadership. knowledge their sharing for Umemoto Karen and WaydeLee, Irwin, Katherine acknowledge to want we again, Once 2017. 30, tive Hawaiianjuvenile justice that occurred at UCLA onJanuary are likewise pleased to feature an important public forum on Na- We levels. international and regional the at expressionscreative Micronesian promoted greatly has she heritage, Chamorro and Yvonne Neth on the cover of our issue. As an artist of Pohnpeian of articlesandforums. collection balanced and remarkable a together putting for editors sia where Spanish is the lingua franca, we want to thank our guest Polyne- in island an Nui, Rapa of territory Chilean the from sions conservation in the Pacific. And although we received no submis- language and change language examines he Islands, Solomon the guages by David Welchman Gegeo. Drawing from his research in lan- Pacific of teaching and theorizing the on article self-reflexive a is discussions these out Rounding landscape. sociolinguistic Nouméa’s in languages Iaai/Drehu and Bislama of maintenance show how French language dominance has differently affected the they case, their In ideologies. monolingual by marginalized feel languages migrant and indigenous of speakers which by manner the or insecurity” “linguistic of terms in challenges these describe Vandeputte would Leslie and Geneix-Rabault, Stéphanie Dotte, Caledonia, Anne-Laure New of context French the In future. the in thrive to are languages indigenous if identities dual/hybrid and spirituality for account also must policies and research new are most saddened to close this issue this close Weto saddened most are atAmerasiaJournal of artwork beautiful the feature to excited also are We in , Hawai‘i, , Okinawa, WestOkinawa, Pap- Kiribati, Hawai‘i, Fiji, In her capacity as a Senior Lecturer —Keith L.Camacho Amerasia Journal 43:1 (2017): ix-xxiii https://doi.org/10.17953/aj.43.1.ix-xxiii

Pacific Languages in Diaspora

Luafata Simanu-Klutz and Akiemi Glenn

‘O le tama a le tagata e fafaga i ‘upu, ‘a‘o le tama a le manu e fafaga i lau o lā‘au. A human child is fed words while the young of an animal is fed leaves1 Lāuga / Opening Oratory ‘Ua logo i tino matagi lelei Benevolent winds embrace the body ‘O lenei galuega sa fauao, faupō, This work, constructed day and night ‘Ua māe‘a i le alofa o le Atua. Is completed with God’s help. ‘Ua tātou ‘ae‘ae ai nei i ni fa‘alumaga fa‘alemāfaufau a le ‘au tusitala, We celebrate now the intellect of our writers, O ‘upu e lē pala, Words will not rot, O le gagana fo‘i e feso‘ota‘i ai tagata. Tulou! Language itself is a tool that links all humans. O lenei tusi ua fa’apitoa mo gagana a tagata Pasefika ua aumau i atunu‘u i fafo This special issue is about Pacific languages in diaspora O se taeao lea mo tagata Pasefika Is a historical moment for the native people of the Pacific.

Loau Dr. Luafata Simanu-Klutz is an Assistant Professor of Samoan Lan- guage and Literature at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. She pro- motes the importance of language proficiency in sustaining cultural and physical environments. Dr. Akiemi Glenn teaches at Te Lumanaki and is the director of research and evaluation at Te Taki Tokelau. She holds a Ph.D. in linguistics from the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, with a special- ization in Pacific language revitalization.

ix x Amerasia Journal 2017 opening), as such components by framed is event an culture, Sāmoan In chiefs. talking or orators by only done is islands certain in which greetings, ritualized in gage en- they congregate, islanders Pacific whenever and Wherever Soifua. Manuia laufaitau. Ia aogāleneitusimooe. lafo inu‘ule‘ainā, ia fa‘afofoga‘aga, lau i fo‘i mālū lē pe sasi, e upu se iai e Afai gana atagataPasefikauaalaalaneiinu‘ufafo. ga- tau matā‘upu i talanoaga lenei manatu fa‘atupu e atonu Tulouna fo‘ifa‘asausaugaale‘aufaitaumasu‘esu‘e; fa‘apitoa. galuega lenei fa‘afoeina e matou i o vala‘aulia le mo Fa‘afetai cho maDr. Arnold Pan. Dr. Cama- o Keith faiva o matua i afioga tusi, lenei o fa‘atonu le o Ofisa le o Tulounamamalu le Ua taunu‘uaimalemanuialeneigaluega. Tatou tesi‘iailalevi‘igai Atua onaolanata‘ita‘igalelei, gana tusitusi ga- le ma mai Talataunu‘u le na o Lelei taeao le ai manatua E Happy reading. May thisissuebeusefultoyou. uninhabited lands. to it cast please dissonant, and line of out is word any If ing ofthePacificpeoplesandtheirlanguagesindiaspora. We trust that the contributors will enhance your understand- Deference toyou,thesubscribers andreaders; Pacific LanguagesinDiaspora. on issue special this compile to us inviting for you Thank UCLA’s Asian American StudiesCenter. of editors the deferenceto and Respect This workiscompletedsuccessfully. We liftourvoices inpraiseofGodforhisguidance Word andwritingarrived. Good the when history Wein moment another remember (honorifics), pa‘ia ma mamalu , or highly ritualized speeches with standard with speeches ritualized highly or lāuga, mtpyia ad metaphorical and (metaphysical tūvaoga i le afifio o afifio le i Amerasia Journal taeao Amerasia Journal at (significant events (significant Pacific Languages in Diaspora xi - - fa‘amatafi lagi ma le . ‘autū (purpose of the event), and When When European sailors arrived in in the eigh This volume is by no means exhaustive; however, it is im- Fa‘afetai tele teenth century, teenth they century, were struck by the cultural and linguistic by separated islands visited they as encountered they similarities great expanses of ocean. In his journals, English voyager James the Pacific. of the peoples he met throughout Cook wrote Pacific Languages in Diaspora in Languages Pacific Oceania is one of the most linguistically diverse, but least popu- lated regions on Earth. It covers an area about one-quarter the surface of the globe and is home to some 1,300 distinct languag- es—roughly 20 percent of the languages in the world—but only 14 million inhabitants. In short, Oceania concentrates the rich- est linguistic diversity on our planet in the area with the low- est population density. The histories of Oceanic peoples have been shaped by traditions of voyaging and exploration in some of the most remote regions of the Earth, and recent histories of creating trend, the continued have globalization and colonialism significant demographic movements, new diasporas, new com- munities, and new cultural and linguistic practices. For culture historians, language has been a key tool in unraveling the con- contributions the as and, peoples Island Pacific between nections in this special issue suggest, language is still fundamental to - un Island societies. derstanding contemporary Pacific (well wishes for the rest of the day and farewell). For the For farewell). and day the of rest the for wishes (well māvaega purposes of this journal, the above lāuga, in Sāmoan, is to wel- come you, to the the reader, voices of Oceania, where language and culture not only keep us rooted to our ancestral spaces, but also help us filternew experiences in places with very different social and cultural foundations. This lāuga does just that, and more. It also delivers our appreciation to Keith and Arnold at for inviting UCLA and allowing us to share what has been hap- the Pacific. from languages and cultures pening to diasporic portant in that it reveals how very little has research been done Gen- diaspora. in speakers heritage their and languages PI about erally speaking, there has been much about research other dias poras—Jews, Greeks, Chinese, to name Nonetheless, a this few. more motivate will this that hope we and addition significant a is research and more grassroots contributions from native and/or heritage voices. in the past), xii Amerasia Journal 2017 islands”), the related groups that inhabited geologically similar geologically inhabited that groups related the islands”), (“many Polynesia in origin apparent an shared that islands of profusion the recognized eventually voyagers Euro-American decolonize. to tough been have identities such consequently, themselves; Islanders the of and islands their of appearance cal among , Micronesia, and Polynesia based on the physi- Europeans who traversed the area and created cultural divisions by thinkingfrom theEnlightenmentperiod. ries for testing theories of the emerging social sciences influenced laborato - as promise held Pacific the of communities “isolated” the scholars, early of view the In Pacific. the of expanse vast the in island habitable every populated had tory,humans whereby his- human in migrations population intrepid most the of one of picture bigger the into stumbled had Europeans time, the at unaware perhaps were they Though landmasses. isolated such between voyaged primitive regardedas they who peoples how at marveled they period, modern the until Islands Pacific tween thelanguagesofPolynesiansandotherpeoplesthere. marveled at the perhaps less overt, but noticeable, connections be- Cook and his crew traveled to the west, they Had would have no doubt groups. the between relationships contemporary and cal histori- significant actual the to due were languages and societies Island Pacific between commonalities the of observations Cook’s varieties, these between difference only the was pronunciation spoke[n]” in the sense that we conceive of languages today, universally or that [was] Language same “the that unlikely is it While Source, but where this is even time perhaps may never discover. or Origin one had have Zelanders New the and they both that sally spoke by all the Islanders, and that this is a Sufficient proof univer is Language same the that told been always have [W]e another. and of part one between find we what than more no is and pronunciation, the in only be to me to seem’d ferance dif- this Tovybut of Poenammu; those and Aeheinomoweans the by spoke Language the in differance small some areThere as well,orbetterthan,anyoneonboard. fromhad I Mr.which Language their understands who Banks, Specimens, following the from appear will other,as the from as their Language, which differbut in a very few wordsthe one so greatis [N]othing proofa Sourceone had having all their of The people of Oceania were sorted by the eighteenth-century the of existence the of known not had Europeans Because - 2 Pacific Languages in Diaspora xiii

3 - - - mélas for for “island”) reminded Europeans of Africans nésos Epeli Hau‘ofa, an anthropologist born in Fiji to Tongan par Epeli Hau‘ofa, an born anthropologist in Fiji to Tongan in the Atlantic world and, according to some reporters, the is- lands appeared black from a distance as European ships were These islands sailing flankby. the westernequatorial line north and south; they are Papua , - New Caledonia, Vanu the up make They Fiji. and Islands, Solomon Bismarcks, the atu, region known as Near Oceania. Micronesia is predominately north of the equator and includes many , islands of coral islands. coral raised larger and volcanoes, sunken of edges the at Micronesia comprises islands with various political affiliations, many under the control and influence of Rota Guam, parts are theSaipan, of Tinian, U.S. territories and have United States; been used as military bases since the Second World War. Pa- lau, the Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk, (, Pohnpei, and ), and the atolls of the are part of an arrangement of semi-independence under the Compacts of Association Free signed with the U.S. in the late twentieth cen- tury. The island nations of Kiribati and are also part of Micronesia, and are the only two groups south of the equator. notypes notypes of the inhabitants of Melanesia (“dark islands”). These three major culture areas are still widely used by scholars and others working in the Pacific,but it becomes and more ap- more parent that overlapping between these culture areas has been more pervasive than some outsiders thought. The phenotypes of Melanesians (a neologism based on ancient Greek “dark” and The Polynesian islands are mostly located south of the equator, and they include mainly volcanic resource-rich high islands like Hawai‘i, though Sāmoa, Polynesian and peoples , also in- habit atolls like those in the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, , conti- the and Islands, Marquesas and Islands Cook northern the Zealand. Aotearoa-New nental island of ents, has written that the Pacific is a “sea of islands” where the ocean has historically connected people and served as a thor oughfare. Instead of being stunned that similarities in culture and language endured over distance like Cook and his contem- poraries were, Hau‘ofa’s vision reversed the move to separate Mel- and Micronesian, Polynesian, distinct into peoples Oceanic anesian groups. Instead, as the evidence of language practices would suggest, Pacific Island peoples are linked by their his- the and tory, geology, geography of their islands, and by their islands islands in Micronesia (“small islands”), and the common phe xiv Amerasia Journal 2017 histories of colonialism and forced migration that have intervened the traditionalpatternsofmovement discussedabove. from diverged have diasporas contemporary though even cific, the analysis of the migrations and movements in the modern Pa- inform can diaspora of history a as overall Pacific the of opment a large and ancient diaspora. Recognizing the history and devel- of the result as Pacific the of peopling the of idea the with ciated tenance of a pan-Pacific identity. Part of this new identity is asso main- and creation the in instrumental been have tradition, oral and anthropology cultural with along linguistics, comparative and historical of disciplines The years. of hundreds for tinued con- has exchange and contact interregional established, long been also have groups language and societies discrete Although diaspora communities. disconnected spatially the between exchange cultural or nomic, eco lastly,social, and continuous region; a new is the there and lasting, though it may involve movement between the homeland long- be must homeland the from away presencesecondly, the regions; more or two in live now and homeland agreed-upon an from displaced be must population firstly, a diasporas: tify iden- scientists social which Therearewith three criteria vators. groups as a byproduct of political, social, or environmental moti - cultural or ethnic of dispersal the to refers diaspora however, usage, modern In wind. the in seeds of speirein—“scatter”—as aspeirein Greek. ancient from comes also diaspora term the Pacific, culturethe of the ”divisions” for terms the largerLike on states. Tokelaudependent in politically remainedholdings have land’s Zea- New or Hawai‘i, and Sāmoa American like others while states, nation independent became islands Pacific some tions, the twentieth century, through organizations like the United Na- Throughout them. missionized and colonized that powers pean Euro- the with relationships new in themselves found munities lems indynamicways. probthese complicates - Oceania in migration modern and cient an- of history the and sciences, language the and sciences social the problemin longstanding a language—is single a constitutes whatpeople—and a constitutes what of notion The movement. population and exploration, voyaging, to orientation cultural Pacific Islanders relocate to larger nation-states because the the because nation-states larger to relocate Islanders Pacific Population movement is a recurrent theme in Pacific history. com- Island Pacific Worldmany Warof II, aftermath the In is a combination of the forms for forms the of combination a is dia —“across”—and Di- - - Pacific Languages in Diaspora xv - - settings. settings. situ in Changing Needs and Reversing Language Shifts Language Reversing and Needs Changing This special issue about and research viewpoints on Pacific lan- guages in diaspora suggests that transformations of social and physical environments inevitably change language and linguis ited wanderlust. Although Pacific migration in the modern era is motivated by the pursuit of identity resources, is a simultaneous, and not as subordinate, motivator, the papers in this issue show. Instead of trying to recognize diaspora as part of a linear history of migration in the Pacific, a view of concentric diasporas informs how members - of communities and can create re-cre concurrently ate their identities through the medium of language. Language is a salient feature that individuals and communities manipulate distance for political and social means. across tic structures and functions. Such transformations also demand a creative approach to bridging the gaps in communication be- tween native and heritage speakers, or immigrants and the dia- Crossroads the at “Nouméa In respectively. local-born, or sporic of New Caledonian Multilingualism: Diasporas and Linguistic Dotte, Anne-Laure Stéphanie Norms,” Geneix-Rabault, and Les- shed much lie insight Vandeputte on language use among three Iaai, Drehu, and Ni-Vanuatu— diasporic communities—namely, in Nouméa, New Caledonia. While we especially appreciate their treatment of how these diasporic communities practice their languages in a “monolingual francophone surrounding,” their study also reveals the obvious diglossia occurring in Nou- méa, an issue that comparably resonates with other Pacific com- munities in the English-speaking countries of , New Zealand, and the United States. The authors also remind that the us hegemonic nature of the mainstream language, such as in insecurity minority to leads Nouméa, in French - re have period contact pre-European the and present the between shaped the currents of human resettlement in the Pacific Ocean. Pacific Island communities are part ofthe fastest growing dias- poras in the world. While diaspora is a phenomenonwidespread in human the history, motivations for relocation in twenty-first century Oceania and the consequences of migration are not just part of a quest for more resources or the expression of an inher We findWe in New Caledonia an ongoing subjugation common in third-world rural areas by urbanites whose modern achieve- ments have given them license to deem outer islanders or vil- lagers far from town as intellectually and materially backward. xvi Amerasia Journal 2017 and organic supplyofimmigrantsfrom thehomeislands. active an is there as insofar possible been has longevity spaces, such some For languages. own their in economics kinship and rituals perform could they where villages surrogate as churches of establishment the with 1980s and 1970s the in possible made was This cultures. and tongues native their hear to continue could they which in zones comfort sought ever,immigrants the how- enough, Soon this. necessitated employment paying good and education better a of lure The homes. adopted their into quickly assimilate to need the felt migrants Islander Pacific of waves Early ability. production and comprehension language adjustment optionsinnewortemporaryhomesare impactedby that aware are communication wider of languages European in structures, liketheSāmoan fa‘alavelave. cultural and remittance through networks kinship throughout es ocean voyages, strengthening the distribution of economic resourc long been have would what for airplane via travel same-day in es advanc- by easier made Islanders, Pacific many for norm the come be- now there.Circularhas work migration returnedto and home centers cosmopolitan in education pursued communities and als what Murray Chapman calls circular migration, wherein individu- in engaged often they communication; wider of languages the and tongues mother respective their both in bilingual were migrants of waves initial The movement. and migration of currents the by shaped marketplaces cultural and economic new the in currency nication—English, French, Spanish, Portuguese—took on a greater commu- wider for used colonizers former of languages the stage, world this On unprepared. fully still are and were inhabitants its of many which for world a stage, world a onto Pacific the pushed centers for better education and employment opportunities rapidly urban the of lure the years, postwar the during that evident is It navigate inevitablechangesinsyntaxandmeaning. Bislama and their own native languages in a new environment to grants, such as those from Vanuatu, who find the freedom to use immi- non-Kanak of institutionalization linguistic the for plan especially with homeland interlocutors.” New Caledonia has no language their speak to legitimate feel not do they Nouméa in that blame speakers and make them feel insecure. Consequently, pressurenorms producesinstitutional Drehu, and Iaai speaking communities diasporic domestic “[f]or suggest, authors the As Even Pacific migrants with limited ability to communicate to ability limited with migrants Pacific Even The cultural structures of diaspora also define language choice. - Pacific Languages in Diaspora xvii In spite of the fact that the diasporic generations become less become generations diasporic the that fact the of spite In limited with parents immigrant Pacific groups, other with As fluent or fluid in the ancestral cultures, it is at these sites that immigrant families hope to pass on ancestral traditions and cus- and Ofa Hafoka’s contribution to this toms. Halaevalu Vakalahi issue “Beyond Polynesian Words: Elders and Language” - high lights the critical role that Polynesian grandparents play in mul- tigenerational households in Hawai‘i. Such spaces speak to the perpetuation of an island ethos in diaspora, in that the family is still unit the of core survival and that language perspectives and practices point more to their contribution to the maintenance of cultural values and traditions, rather than whether one is fluent or not. Here, the grandparents are very clear that in places order of landscape economic to and education tough the in survive like Hawai‘i, English proficiency is critical, while for nativecul- ture maintenance, one does not need to be fluent. This perhaps heritage or local-born insecure the for relief of sigh huge a allows speaker who constantly feels insecure when in the company of native speakers. Over time, it appears that the institutionaliza- Hawai‘i and Zealand New like places in tongue native the of tion is an accommodation for which many heritage speakers have been hoping. proficiency in the host language and culture eventuallyrely on their youngsters to mediate their relationships with mainstream populations, adding urgency to younger generations’ - assimila tion into the host culture’s way of life. With each subsequent generation, members find themselvesunable tospeak and/or particularly is This (L1). language first parents’ their understand true of families in which as native parents speakers and their di- asporic-born offspring mutually possess low proficiency in each other’s L1—that is, for their children, their first language is that At the have same time, these youth routinely of the host society. ex- languages, heritage their maintain to incentive and access less to networks kinship of demands the between tensions periencing be linguistically innovative in learning and mastering languages of wider communication and being to required communicate in traditional ways within families and their immigrant communi- ties. These vectors of push and pull are the crux of what makes the state of Pacific Island languages in diaspora such a rich site for understanding the mutability of identities, and how tradi- tional values and modern knowledge are disseminated across distances of time and space. networks and across xviii Amerasia Journal 2017 was part of the second generation of his family’s migration to the who Mānoa, at Hawai‘i of University the attending California are as citizens of their natal countries. A millennial Sāmoan from ancestral languages and cultures is integral to shaping what they their learning that found have generations younger and second their Americanness. about ambivalent appear islanders diasporic wealth, and curity se- means American an being where islands, the in rootsWith an American. as identified being at frustration or hesitancy ing seem- a be can further,there probed When ethnicity. one’s pride in this with comes identity national dominant a deny or vocalize either to reluctance a time, same the at identity; their more as members of the “other” identifyethnic group when asked about America in raised and born millennials PI not, than often More insignificant. as society mainstream by construed mis- been has which side, ethnic the particularly identities, brid hy- their with comfortable become to way a as this see courses languages heritage in enroll who students PI Most evident. become has generations, older during ality,missing was which receive financialsupportforteachingit. not do instructorstherefore, and, U.S. the in language foreign a orro is offered, albeit on a pro bono basis because it is seen not as Cham- Tahitian,UH. at available arealso Māori Chamorro,and definitely taught at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. Tongan, is it and Hawai‘i, in schools high certain in available is Sāmoan Zealand; New in levels K-16 at available now are languages PI Certain languages. heritage their learn to for Islanders Pacific amonginterest consequently,quirement; rising a been has there re- graduation a foreign on mandates institutional in the U.S. and the refugee crises in the Middle East have sparked 9/11globalization, and postmodernity of result a As available. are they when courses language university taking in interest an language. As they reach adulthood, many millennials now show heritage the speak elders where households multigenerational traditionally in up grow not do who islanders for illustrative is This language. Chamorro the learn to millennials Chamorro by desire strong a reveals Diaspora,” the in Maintenance Cultural and Language for Prospects and Identities, Ethnolinguistic als, “(Re)Constructing and (Re)Locating Guam: Chamorro Millenni- Nonetheless, what has come into focus in recent years is that nation- as well as ethnicity one’s in pride Toextent, large a This issue’s offeringby Michaela Ruiz andGenevieve Leung, Pacific Languages in Diaspora xix - New Zealand-born Islanders—mostly - Polynesians—insti Two Two forums on Marshallese and Sāmoan language - pros ally good quality to possess (although not critical to survival), to yes a as passionate to and resounding why Sāmoan should be Zealand New in Sāmoans lives. one where of regardless learned appear to have more clarity about what they are in diaspora: Sāmoan and New Zealander, or in the words of Lupematasila Zealand-born. New the University, Auckland of Anae Melani Dr. In the words of Neil Ieremia, the famous CEO of Black Grace and choreographer of Sāmoan ancestry in NZ, his identity was not only shaped by his parents’ culture, but also by the streets on which he grew up, surrounded by different Pacific Islanders, Māori, and pakeha. tutionalized native languages through “language nests,” which originated in Māori as communities and church-driven emerged “nests.” Such a move has resulted in national policies and the consequential revival or reversal of language shifts for Māori, Sāmoan, and other PI languages. The Māori renaissance—or sovereignty movement—of the mid-1970s and government sub- lan- the adopting communities church PI to led arts the for sidies in preschoolers interested immersed which approach, nest guage available made was Sāmoan 1990s, the By language. and culture as an elective in high school; yet without bridging at the middle was proficiency school, high and preschool between school-level U.S., reported to us he is now enthusiastic to learn his heritage This so. do to right his is it that but reason other no for language, student chose to study at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa in part because it has the only Pacific Islands languages and litera- whole nation. in the programs tures pects and practices in the United States elaborate and confirm the nuances of group approaches toward resolving heritage lan- guage issues. In “ and Diaspora,” Jessica Schwartz - facilitates an of Marshallese excellent orga roundtable Islands Marshall the to ties have whom of all teachers, and nizers and their diasporic community in Springdale, Arkansas. The roundtable discusses matters of Marshallese language use and preservation. The forum conducted by this issue’s guest - edi tor Luafata Simanu-Klutz presents a continuum of views from Sāmoans of all ages residing in New Zealand, Hawai‘i, or the continental United States. While all agree on the importance of understanding and producing Sāmoan in diaspora, the reasons are complex and responses vary from language being a gener xx Amerasia Journal 2017 successful program. successful a of components ily, integral are community and neighborhood, fam- which in maintenance, language to approach ecological an as recommended has Fishman what with resonate efforts Such bilinguals. competent are Sāmoans, particularly Zealand, New in Islanders Pacific college. to preschoolfrom available Sāmoan made has policymaking correctiveRecently, goal. elusive an the numbers and wealth do to establish longevity. PI parents PI longevity. establish to do wealth and numbers the religiousand ethnic groupsother that have means who the have mental support at any level; additionally, PI communities do not though not so much in the United States, since there is no govern - Zealand, New like place a in islanders many for working is this mentioned, already As nests. language and villages surrogate tinue speaking the ancestral languages, with churches serving as day-a-week ishardly sufficienttoachieve proficiency. language—one- the learn to time of real lack the is languages cific Pa- for issue sustainability major the that appears It diaspora. the in maintenance of worthy Tokelauanis why of community their convince to and families, and students among interest sustain to ways creative seek to had have staff Saturdays, on just ming program- offering Initially home. founders’ the at started school Tokelauanthe 2000s, early the in program family a as Founded guage school is featured in our Community Spotlight in this issue. TokelauAmerica”—lan- of in FutureTokelau Amelika—“The o i Te Lumanaki enough, Aptly languages. Sāmoan Tokelauanand the for programsculture and language grassroots-driven two are date to nests language promising most the Perhaps trying. from philanthropists spiritual stopped not has this though sustainable, un- been have schools language for years the across efforts Thus, initiatives. these on funds philanthropistsshower land could who is- wealthy or schools, the in languages PI for policies of lack a to largely due longevity lack start-ups however, States, United the In languages. heritage for vehicles maintenance and bators taught, withartifactsrepresenting theoldways. the way the in reflected is culture ancestral basis; daily a on breathe and live learners the what of als in most NZ Sāmoan language nests are created along the lines Appropriately,environments.materi- and language tures then, cul- local learners’ the in acquisition language organic for lows al- approach curriculum language ecology,NZ linguistic the of Other island groups also feel the same commitment to con- to commitment same the feel also groups island Other incu been have Zealand New like places in churches Island 4 Exemplifying Peter Mühlhäusler’s notion Mühlhäusler’s Peter Exemplifying , or respect system, is system, respect or vafealoa‘i, - Pacific Languages in Diaspora xxi ”— tala tala e pala le ma‘a le pala e tala taumusumusu—or gossip

”—”words do not.” ”—”words The twenty-first century has already positioned us to observe to us positioned already has century twenty-first The In the words of Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese, the Head of State Tamasese, Atua Tupua In the of words Tui Language in Pacific Diasporas Pacific in Language New Directions in the Study of Study the in Directions New It is our hope that this issue will initiate conversations both in is- critical the of some about academics among and communities sues facing Pacific Island languages in diverse contexts that are rapidly changing. For some linguistic anthropologists, the cen- tral question of the language sciences is “Why talk?”—that is, why do human communities invest so many biologi- resources, moment, current the In connection? of mode this in cultural, cal, we may add another layer to that “Why query talk and wonder, in Pacific languages?,” especially in a world that incentivizes their obsolescence. on of the Pacificcurrents population pressures urgent ever more and grandparents see their languages as vital to the maintenance maintenance the to vital as languages their see grandparents and of their ancestral cultures for their children, who suffer a loss of values in and beliefs—and potentially Moreover, their identity. the case of the Sāmoans, language must be sustained in its - vari ous registers in order for the children to understand the - correla tion between words and respect. The opening oratory is a good lan- mean not should and not do shifts language how of example guage loss, but rather In adjustments order to sustain currency. to keep the peace in interpersonal relationships, their children must know what language to use when speaking to those in au- such thority, as elders, church ministers, government officials, and strangers. Also based in Hawai‘i, Le Fetuao is a has It Sāmoan funds. outside on depended largely has that nest language now been incorporated by the Department of Education as an after-school language program in one of the elementary schools in O‘ahu. Waipahu, Children are socialized to observe and lis- language. To or inappropriate ten and learn what is appropriate keep the peace, must children understand that “ “stones rot”—but “e le pala le tala “stones rot”—but of the independent nation of Sāmoa, language is both about the oral traditions whispered down from generation to generation, and about the gossips whispered about and around with the in- tention to hurt and humiliate. It’s the difference between —stories, tu‘umumusu hence knowledge, whispered down from ear to ear—on the one hand, and other hand. with the intention to hurt, on the around whispered xxii Amerasia Journal 2017 Notes Besnier Niko as such scholars century,and nineteenth the in region the throughout adopted quickly was Pacific, the into Europeans by introduced technology a Writing, Snapchat. and Facebook like platforms using especially distance, the despite touch in keep erations gen- multiple media, social Via changed. also have inhabited entangled culturalcommitments? moreand more resources,scarcermaterialand scarcerand with world a in engagements social new into move communities our as anticipate we can What consequences. and causes complex many has and rate swift a at occurs Pacific the in shift language show, issue this peoples? of Pacific papers tureof the history As new veins of language contact never before developed in the cul- up open settlement their will or countries, colonizing former in out by earlier Pacific migrants in the twentieth centuries, settling staked migration of patterns same the Willfollow they ritories? ter new in resettle they as face refugees climate of communities speech will pressures of kinds What decades. immediate the in complete to poised are acidity ocean and rise level sea global region, our of resources extracting and populations displacing in accomplished colonization What Pacific. the of islands small the threatening change climate accelerating as such movements, arise ateveryturn. that innovation linguistic creativity,and rupture, of moments the and generations between knowledge heritage of transferrals among tensions the with engage who artists creative and gists, Wetherethat morehope be anthropolowill scientists, language - space for language innovation and accelerated language change. hyper a as potential their underscore communication private intelligible. These kinds of rapid interactions in semi-public and members, but also others for whom Pacific languages may not be in-group be may posts for audiences the as semi-domains, into usage language bring to potential the has also Facebook kin? among bonds affective and community of maintenance the for site important an as serves messaging text instantaneous when now,happens What communication. of form asynchronous an was writing centuries, past In Pacific. the of economies affective and social the altered radically kin distant with communicating 1. In this new world, the social climates Pacific Islanders have Islanders Pacific climates social the world, new this In Sāmoan proverb. 5 have accounted for the ways writing and writing ways the for accounted have - - Pacific Languages in Diaspora xxiii (New York: Taylor and Francis e-Library, 2003). e-Library, Francis and Taylor York: (New Linguistic Ecology: Language Change and Linguistic Impe- Language Change Linguistic Ecology: Literacy Emotion and Authority: Reading and Writing on a Poly- a on Writing and Reading Authority: and Emotion Literacy The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery: of Discovery: Voyages His James Cook on Captain of The Journals , Nos. 34-37 (London: Hakluyt Society Hakluyt (London: 34-37 Nos. , 1768-1771 of the Endeavor, The Voyage 1955). Press, at the University south of the equator. north and partly Kiribati is partly James James Cook, Peter Mühlhäusler, Mühlhäusler, Peter Region Pacific the in rialism Niko Besnier, Besnier, Niko (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). University Press, nesian (Cambridge: Cambridge

2. 3. 4. 5.

Many Bridges, One River: Organizing for Justice in Vietnamese American Communities Edited by thuan nguyen and Vy Nguyen

a co-publication of the UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press & thuan nguyen and Vy Nguyen, 2017 ISBN: 978-0-934052-50-4 Many Bridges, One River is the first published collection of interviews with organizers and activists who have been working in Vietnamese American communities throughout the United States, starting in the 1970s. Co-edited by Vy Nguyen and thuan nguyen, these interviews document the strategies and lessons learned in the fight for social justice and progressive social change by Vietnamese Americans. Send this order form to: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press 3232 Campbell Hall, Box 951546 Los Angeles, CA 90095-1546

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