Un Estudio Desde Mary Hesse 'Forces and Fields'

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Un Estudio Desde Mary Hesse 'Forces and Fields' LAURA BUJALANCE EL ESTATUTO EPISTEMOLÓGICO DE LA TRANSMISIÓN DE LA ACCIÓN: UN ESTUDIO DESDE MARY HESSE FORCES AND FIELDS TESIS DOCTORAL Director: Dr. Pablo Cobreros Universidad de Navarra Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Departamento de Filosofía Pamplona, Octubre 2017 A mi familia ÍNDICE PRÓLOGO ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 CAPÍTULO 1. DONDE COMIENZA EL DEBATE: FORCES AND FIELDS DE MARY HESSE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 1.1. Contexto de la obra ---------------------------------------------------- 21 1.2. La postura de Hesse en el debate positivismo - realismo ----- 30 1.3. Intención de la monografía ------------------------------------------ 36 1.4. Conclusiones de la obra ----------------------------------------------- 39 CAPÍTULO 2. LOS MODELOS FUNDAMENTALES ------------------------------- 53 2.1. Los modelos fundamentales a lo largo de la historia de la ciencia según Mary Hesse ------------------------------------------------------ 53 2.1.1. Determinación de los modelos fundamentales ------------ 54 2.1.2. ¿Por qué el mecanicismo no es un modelo fundamental? 64 2. 2. Analogías y modelos fundamentales de Forces and Fields ---- 74 2.2.1 Analogías y explicaciones pre-científicas -------------------- 74 2.2.2 La época de los modelos fundamentales --------------------- 76 2.2.3 Los modelos matemáticos -------------------------------------- 101 2.3. Modos de acción en las analogías y modelos ------------------- 117 2.3.1 Modos de acción en las analogías y modelos pre-científicas ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 121 2.3.2. Modos de acción en la época de los modelos fundamentales----------------------------------------------------------------- 131 i 2.3.3. Modos de acción en los modelos matemáticos ------------ 143 CAPÍTULO 3. LAS EXPLICACIONES CIENTÍFICAS EN EL DEBATE ACTUAL - 149 3.1. El contexto filosófico de la teoría de modelos de Hesse ------ 149 3.2. Las teorías de la explicación científica ---------------------------- 156 3.2.1 La Received View --------------------------------------------------- 157 3.2.2. Alternativas a la Received View -------------------------------- 167 3.3. Los modelos en el debate actual ----------------------------------- 192 3.3.1. Los modelos y la teoría semántica --------------------------- 196 3.3.2. Formas de representación-------------------------------------- 199 3.3.3. Representacionismo deflacionario --------------------------- 203 3.3.4. Implicaciones culturales ---------------------------------------- 206 3.3.5 La propuesta de Nancy Nersessian -------------------------- 208 CAPÍTULO 4. TRES MODELOS O TRES TRADICIONES: LOS MODOS DE ACCIÓN EN EL SIGLO XIX -------------------------------------------------------------------- 227 4.1. El reto de la electricidad y el magnetismo ----------------------- 238 4.2. Los modelos matemáticos de la acción a distancia ------------ 250 4.2.1 La tradición francesa --------------------------------------------- 252 4.2.2. Ampère ------------------------------------------------------------- 259 4.3. Las teorías del potencial y la electrodinámica de Weber ----- 264 4.3.1. El Potencial -------------------------------------------------------- 265 4.3.2 La electrodinámica ----------------------------------------------- 283 4.4. La teoría de campos -------------------------------------------------- 290 20 4.4.1. Primeras investigaciones de Faraday ----------------------- 292 4.4.2. Faraday y la inducción electromagnética ------------------ 299 4.4.3. El rol de las líneas de fuerza ----------------------------------- 308 4.5. ¿Es el siglo XIX tal y como lo presenta Hesse? ------------------ 337 CONCLUSIONES -------------------------------------------------------------------- 341 RFERENCIAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 345 iii PRÓLOGO EL PROBLEMA DE LA ACCIÓN Uno de los problemas centrales de los que las teorías científicas deberían dar cuenta es el de cómo es posible una relación entre objetos físicos en la que uno de ellos establece una influencia sobre el otro. Este problema se conoce como el problema de la explicación de la transmisión de la acción física. La necesidad de dar cuenta de esta relación, tal como se percibe en los fenómenos naturales, está presente tanto en los albores del debate filosófico — la teoría del cambio de Aristóteles1— como en los debates actuales de las ciencias cognitivas2, o de la filosofía de la ciencia, cuando tratan las teorías de la explicación científica3. Las propuestas para dar cuenta de determinadas acciones físicas instancian siempre 1 Aristóteles, Física, trans. Ute Schmidt Osmanczik (México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2001), 215a. 2 Nancy J. Nersessian, Creating Scientific Concepts (Cambridge, Mass.: Massachussetts Institute of Technology, 2008). 3 Stephan Hartmann, Carl Hoefer, and Luc Bovens, eds., Nancy Cartwright's Philosophy of Science, Routledge Studies in the Philosophy of Science (New York: Routledge, 2008). 1 PRÓLOGO uno de los dos modos de transmisión de la acción: acción por contacto y acción a distancia. Por ejemplo, el empuje (push) como explicación de la transmisión de la acción instancia el modo de acción por contacto. De esta manera, el problema de dar cuenta de la transmisión de la acción tiene como lugar privilegiado para su análisis la evolución del debate acerca de los modos de la acción presente en las teorías científicas a lo largo de la historia de la ciencia. Como se ha señalado, el problema de la acción para las teorías físicas reside en dar una ‘explicación’ de cómo tiene lugar la transmisión de la acción. Esto implica que el problema no solo concierne al ámbito de las ciencias, sino también al de Filosofía de la Ciencia, disciplina a cuyo ámbito pertenece dar cuenta de las características de las explicaciones en la ciencia y, del mismo modo, determinar si una explicación es o no científica. Por tanto, una de las principales preguntas en torno al problema de la transmisión de la acción es si las explicaciones acerca de cómo actúan unos cuerpos sobre otros son explicaciones que pertenecen al ámbito de lo científico. La respuesta a esta pregunta establece el estatuto epistemológico de los modos de transmisión de la acción, a saber, metafísico, filosófico —en el sentido que la Filosofía de la Ciencia de tradición analítica entiende este término—, o científico. Las acepciones del término ‘acción’ consideradas como metafísicas en el debate actual se remontan a los escritos aristotélicos, en las que dicho término se define como la actividad 2 PRÓLOGO propia de aquello que provoca un cambio4. Aunque en las obras de Aristóteles este término aparece intrínsecamente vinculado al estudio de los cambios naturales, la recepción posterior del corpus aristotélico relegó el contenido de este término al campo de lo que se consideraba metafísica5. En las ciencias físicas —área científica en la que surge este término— el término ‘acción’ está vinculado a la definición de movimiento: es la magnitud escalar que se define como la diferencia entre energía cinética y energía potencial a lo largo de un tiempo. Dicha variación se produce como resultado de la variación del estado de un cuerpo y tiene como caso paradigmático el cambio de estado que se produce con el movimiento, considerado como variación del espacio a lo largo de un tiempo. Con las connotaciones que tiene esta acepción en la física, a saber, como la influencia que un cuerpo ejerce, el término ‘acción’ no aparece en la literatura hasta 13606. A partir de este momento, las definiciones que las tradiciones científicas dieron de este término no fueron homogéneas. Esta diversidad surge de la consideración que cada tradición hacía de en qué consiste “influir” en un cuerpo. 4 Aristóteles, Física, 202a15-30. 5 Para un análisis de la evolución de las interpretaciones del término aristotélico leáse Susan James, Passion and Action. The Emotions in Seventeenth-Century Philosophy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), pp. 27-81. 6 James A. H. Murray, "Action" in A New Dictionary of Historical Principles. Founded on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1888). 3 PRÓLOGO Estas interpretaciones contribuyeron a los debates sobre la transmisión de la acción que tuvieron lugar a partir del siglo XVII. En el siglo XIX, se realizaron grandes avances y desarrollos en las explicaciones de los fenómenos físicos. A pesar de ello, aún en su segunda mitad, el término ‘acción’, si bien ya claramente vinculado a la mecánica y a la física, seguía sin ser definido de modo unificado y preciso. Esto se debía, principalmente, a que los términos gracias a los cuales se delimitaba la noción de ‘acción’ por aquel entonces —a saber, movimiento, fuerza, energía, causa, etc.— no tenían tampoco una definición precisa, ni universalmente aceptada. Por ejemplo, se podía describir el movimiento de un cuerpo, pero no siempre adscribirle acción; o se podía vincular su movimiento con las nociones de energía o fuerza. Tan intrincada era la relación entre el término ‘acción’ con otros términos físicos relacionados con el cambio y el movimiento que, por ejemplo, desde la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII hasta la primera mitad del siglo XIX, los términos ‘acción’ y ‘fuerza’ no solo se distinguían con pocos matices sino que incluso en alemán se identificaban en una sola palabra, Kraft. Se puede decir, por tanto, que en la terminología científica de mediados del
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