UTILIZATION OF NIGERIAN MADE FABRICS FOR GARMENT MAKING AMONG ACADEMIC AND NON ACADEMIC FEMALE STAFF IN ENUGU STATE
BY
AGBO BLESSING NONYELUM PG/M.Ed/12/64238
DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
JUNE, 2017. TITLE PAGE
UTILIZATION OF NIGERIAN MADE FABRICS FOR GARMENT MAKING AMONG ACADEMIC AND NON ACADEMIC FEMALE STAFF IN ENUGU STATE
BY
AGBO BLESSING NONYELUM PG/M.Ed/12/64238
A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE IN CLOTHING AND TEXTILE
JUNE, 2017
APPROVAL PAGE
The project has been approved for the Department of Home Economics and Hospitality
Management Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
DR. MRS. N. M. EZE Prof. E. U. ANYAKOHA Supervisor Head of Department
______External Examiner Internal Examiner
______Prof. C.A. Igbo Dean, Faculty of Vocation and Technical Education
CERTIFICATION
AGBO, BLESSING NONYELUM, a Postgraduate student in the Department of Home
Economics and Hospitality Management Education with Registration Number
PG/M.ED/12/64238, has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the award of Masters
Degree in Home Economics Education (Clothing and Textile). The work embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in part or full for another diploma or degree in this or any other university.
______AGBO, BLESSING N. DR. N.M. EZE Student Supervisor
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty God for granting me wisdom, guidance and protection throughout the period of this study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher is highly grateful to all those who contributed towards the successful completion of this work. She is particularly grateful to her supervisor Dr. N. M. Eze, whose encouragement, constructive criticisms, corrections and guidance helped to shape this study. Her understanding, kindness, patience and motherly advice throughout the various stages of this work were indispensable and deeply appreciated.
The researcher also appreciates the input of Prof. E.U. Anyakoha as the chairman of her proposal panel, Dr. A. Chukwuone as the content reader and Dr. J.A. Ukonze as her design reader for helping in shaping her work during the proposal and all my lecturer who in one way or the other helped in making this work a success.
The researcher is sincerely appreciative to her husband for his unquantifiable and untiring support that included financial, moral and spiritual support throughout the period of this study.
The researcher is equally grateful to her family members for their support and for being part of her work.
Very importantly, the researcher appreciates all the respondents who out of their buzy time spared time to answer her questions and equally the typist who typeset and organized this work. Lastly, she will not forget the assistance and encouragement she received from her friends
Udo, Amaka, Evelyn, Priscilla and Uche.
AGBO BLESSING NONYELUM PG/M.Ed/12/64238
TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE i APPROVAL PAGE ii CERTIFICATION iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v TABLE OF CONTENT vi LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x
ABSTRACT xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Background to the Study 1 Statement of the Problem 9 Purpose of the Study 10 Significance of the Study 11 Research Questions 13 Hypotheses 13
Scope of the Study 14 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 15 Conceptual Framework 16
. Fabrics 17
. Utilization 39
. Garment and Styles 54
. Academic and Non Academic female staff 66
Theoretical Framework 72 . Fabric Consumption Theory 72
. Psychological Motivation Fashion Consumption Theory 73
Review of Related Empirical Studies 73 Summary of Literature Review 76
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 78 Design of the Study 78 Area of the Study 78 Population for the Study 79 Sample and Sampling Technique 79 Instrument for Data Collection 80 Validation of the Instrument 81 Reliability of the Instrument 81 Method of Data Collection 82 Method of Data Analysis 82 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 83
Research Question 1 83 Research Question 2 84 Research Question 3 86 Research Question 4 87 Research Question 5 88 Research Question 6 89 Hypothesis 1 91 Hypothesis 2 92 Hypothesis 3 94 Hypothesis 4 95 Hypothesis 5 96 Findings of Study 98 Discussion of Findings 101 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 107 Re-Statement of the Problem 107 Summary of Procedures Used 109 Summary of major findings 110 Implications of the Study 111 Conclusion 113 Recommendations 113 Suggestions for Further Studies 115
REFERENCES 116 APPENDICES: Appendix A: Respondents letter 120 Appendix B: Questionnaire 121 Appendix C: Request for validation 125 Appendix D: Reliability of the Instrument 126 Appendix E: Output of Data Analyzed 129
LIST OF TABLES
Table Pages
1. Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Factors that guide Academic and Non Academic female staff in Enugu State in selection and Utilization of Fabrics/garment. 83
2. Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Garment styles Utilized by Academic and Non Academic female staff in Enugu State. 85
3. Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Different Occasions where Nigerian Fabrics are Utilized Among Academic and Non Academic female staff in Enugu State 86
4. Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Factors Affecting Utilization of Garment made with Nigerian Fabrics among Academic and Non Academic female staff in Enugu State 87
5. Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Factors Affecting the Quality of Nigerian Fabrics 88
6. Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Measures to Improve the Utilization of Nigerian Fabrics Among Academic and Non Academic female staff 90
7. t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and Non Academic female staff on the Factors that Guide their selection and Utilization of Fabrics/Garments 91
8. t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and Non Academic female staff on the garment styles utilized among them. 93
9. t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and Non Academic female staff on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them. 94
10. t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and Non Academic female staff on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them 96
11. t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and Non Academic female staff on the factors affecting utilization of the quality of Nigerian fabrics. 97
LIST OF FIGURE
Fig. 1: Schema of Conceptual Frame work 71
ABSTRACT
The major purpose of this study was to investigate the Utilization of Nigerian fabrics for garment making among Academic and Non Academic female staff in Enugu State.The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The study was carried out using Academic and Non Academic female Staff in government tertiary institutions in Enugu State. Six research questions were developed and answered by the study; and five hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The population of the study was fourteen thousand, eight hundred and forty one (14,841)female academic and non academic staff of government tertiary institutions in Enugu state. A sample of 494 respondents was drawn from the population using purposive and proportionate 5% sampling techniques. The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire divided into two sections (A and B). Section A contained questions to elicit information on personal data of the respondents while Section B was developed based on the six research questions. The instrument had a four point rating scale of Strongly agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree. The instrument was subjected to face-validation by three experts from the Department of Home Economics and Hospitality Management Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. To establish the reliability of the instrument, thirty (30) copies of questionnaire were trial tested on thirty (30) female workers in Abuja. Cronbach Alpha reliability method was used to establish the internal consistency of the instrument which yielded reliability coefficient of 0.82.The researcher administered and collected instrument with the help of three trained research assistants. Four hundred and ninety four (494) copies of the questionnaire were returned duly completed and formed the basis of analysis. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions that guided the study while t – test was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of the study showed that seven factors guided Academic and Non Academic female staff in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment, four garment styles were utilized by Academic and Non Academic female staff using Nigerian Fabrics and five different occasions where Nigerian fabrics were utilized. The findings of the study also showed six factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics. The tested hypotheses showed that academic and non-academic Academic and Non Academic female staff differed significantly (p<0.05) in their responses on the factors that guided their selection and utilization of fabrics and also on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics were utilized in Enugu State. It was found that Academic and Non Academic female staff did not differ significantly (p>0.05) in their responses on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics. It was recommended among others that Tailors and clothing manufacturers should shift from custom made garment to mass produced, quality ready to wear garments. Government should enforce laws intended to reduce the importation of foreign garments and also encourage tailors and fabrics/clothing manufacturers through granting of loans, provision of appropriate machinery, training of staff to mass produce fabrics and garments made from them.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Utilization of Fabrics has been of considerable research interest. This is because it is the basic material used in construction of garments/clothing which is one of the basic needs of human being Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010). The varied importance of fabrics in daily life can also be understood from its wide usage in furnishing, symbolic communication and commerce.
They are also indispensable to industry, agriculture, transportation, space exploration, health services and other areas. It has been source of economic growth to many countries that are into growing of fibres and manufacture of fabrics. These fabrics are being formed through combination of two or more fibres.
Fibres can be defined as the hair-like basic unit of raw material used in making yarns and fabrics. Nkeonye (2009) defined fibre as a unit of matter characterized by flexibility and fitness and a high ratio of length to thickness. Fibres can be classified according to their sources or origins. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) classified fibre into two which include natural and synthetic or man-made fibre. Anyakoha and Eluwa stated that natural fibres are obtained from natural sources, either from plants or animal. Those obtained from plant are called vegetable fibres examples are cotton flax and ramie among others. While those obtained from animals are called animal fibres examples are Wool and Silk among others. Man-made or manufactured fibres are produced from the chemical treatment of certain raw materials like wood pulp, petroleum, natural gas and air among others. There are two types of man-made fibres: cellulose base and non cellulose base fibres. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), noted that cellulose base fibres are
1 produced primarily from wood-pulp, cotton linter with minimum of chemical steps examples are rayon, acetate and triacetate. While non cellulose base fibres are made from molecules that come from petroleum, natural gas, air and water. Examples of fibre made from non cellulose base fibres are nylon and polyester.
Fabric on the other hand is the product of fibres. Fabric is a flexible material that is made by a network of natural or artificial fibres and yarns. According to Nkeonye (2009), it is a flexible woven materials consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres often referred to as thread or yarn. Fabrics are classified according to the fibres used in their construction. Anyakoha and Eluwa(2010) classified fabrics into natural and synthetic or man-made fabrics. Most natural fabrics are breathable and never cause rashes apart from being soft and durable. Natural fabrics are mostly the best choices for everyone. They do not change color from Ultra Violet light and there is no warming until the material loses its tensile strength. Anyakoha (2010) further stated that artificial or synthetic fabrics are made from fibres which are either completely made from inorganic materials or organic materials combined with chemicals. Synthetic or man-made fabrics have numerous properties with the purpose for which it is produced and finished. Some are lightweight with ultra sheer while others are moisture wicking and fast drying. Few are very luxurious to imitate some other natural fabrics and some are very strong and tough. Fabrics are manufactured in wide varieties and designs and different designs and effects are produced on fabric with various mechanisms which are helpful to form different weaves and lots of design which enhances the look of apparels. Fabric manufacture is the process of combining two or more fibre using different methods to get fabrics. Examples of such methods are weaving, knitting and crocheting among others. Weaving is one of the various mechanisms of fabric manufacturing. Murray (2005) define weaving as the method or process of interlacing two or more sets of yarns or similar materials so that they cross each other at usually right angles to produce woven fabric. The author further explains it is the act of causing two or more systems of yarn, warp and filling to interlace. This may be done on a power or hand loom or by several manual methods. After weaving, the most prevalent method of fabric construction is knitting. Its popularity has grown tremendously over the recent years. The knitted fabric has the advantage of stretch ability which provides fit and comfort. It also gives warmth and at the same time porous and provide breathing comfort. According to Murray (2005) there are two major varieties of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting. In weft knitting, one continuous yarn forms courses across the fabric. In warp knitting, a series of yarns form wales in the lengthwise direction of the fabric. The knitting machine also called knitting frame, knitting loom, or hand knitting machine is used to manufacture knit fabrics. These fabrics are produced on a fixed bed of hooked needles. The
Knitting machines can be hand driven or motor powered. The machines come in domestic and industrial models, with either flat or circular beds that produce rectangular or tubular fabrics. The fabric produced by a knitting machine has a more fine texture than hand-knitted fabric. Murray
(2005) further explained that another major type of fabric construction method is the crocheting.
He said Crocheting is an extremely versatile and popular technique for making a variety of fashion and home decor accessories. To crochet, a hook and yarn are needed. Depending on the type of yarn to be used, a variety of different fabrics can be created. By combining crochet stitches and lighter weight or softer yarns, a delicate droppable fabric can be created. A thicker yarn produces a sturdy fabric. Beautiful textured and raised stitches are especially easy to make in crochet. Fine threads can be used to create lacy projects like doilies or even string or cord. It is started by making a slip stitch, wrapping the yarn around the hook and pulling a loop through the slip stitch. This is the basic chain stitch. A series of chains creates a foundation row and from this base you build rows of stitches. Crocheting can be done in rows, keeping the work flat, or the stitches are joined, creating a ring and work in the round.Many countries including Nigeria produce different varieties of fabrics materials using these methods. The fabrics produced by foreign countries are referred to as foreign fabrics while those produced by the local industries in
Nigeria are called Nigerian made fabrics
Made in Nigerian fabric is a general term employed by Nigerians to include wax printed fabrics that are woven and printed in Nigeria (Nkeonye 2009). Made in Nigeria fabrics are in two folds, those produced by traditional producers and those produced by the contemporary fabric industries. The traditional producers are those that do not have formal training in the production of fabrics but learnt their skill by imitating their people who have producing clothe as part of their custom. Example the Yorub as are known for the production of Aso oke fabric and the skills are passed from parents to their children. The contemporary industries are the big fabric factories who employ staff that have formal and informal training in manufacture of fabrics.
They are big, more organized companies that use machinery in production of large quantities of fabric materials. The traditional producers produce fabrics such as Adire, Batik, Tie and Dye,
Aso-Oke, Akwete, Akwa Ocha, Okene, Ota Ochi, Anger and Atu. Veritable Wax, Brocades,
Damasks and Lace are produced by contemporary fabric industries and textile mills. Some fabrics manufacturing industries in Nigeria according to Finelib 2015 include: African Textile
Manufactures Ltd. in Kano, Femro 3 Nigerian Ltd. located in Satelite town, Lagos State, ABA
Textile Mills Plc in Aba, Abia State, Afriprint Nigeria Print Nigerian Plc in Isolo, Lagos State, Asaba Textile Mill Plc in Asaba etc. Fabrics produced by these textile companies in Nigeria are utilized in so many ways by both men and women for different purposes.
Utilization means to make use especially to make profitable or effective use of. Martins,
(2004) described it as an act of using something. Fabric utilization involves deciding what to wear, how to wear, how to purchase or obtain what to wear including methods of sewing garments or making them and when to wear clothes for various occasions. Fabric utilization does not end until the clothing is worn on the body. Fabric utilization of any given individual includes all the procedures involved in planning, shopping and sewing and wearing of clothes. Each of these procedures includes various steps of making decision. If clothing is to perform its varied functions, it has to be appropriately selected for specific purposes or function. Nigerian made fabrics are used in making a growing number of fashion items like bags, shoes, dresses, jewellery and countless accessories. Different styles of these clothing items are utilized in so many areas, occasions, and events by both men and women including the working class either for cultural activities and identities, for occupational identity or traditional activities. Nigerian ceremonial parties, such as weddings, birthdays and wedding anniversaries, are usually adorned with different beautiful styles of Nigerian made fabrics by both men and women, young and old. Aso
Ebi, which is usually encouraged by families of both the bride and groom for friends and relatives adds colour and glamour to wedding ceremonies. Nigerian made fabrics are also utilized largely in attires for churches and other religious activities. Various garments are sewn using Nigerian made fabrics and they include skirts and blouses, gowns, blouse and rapper for women suits, short and long-sleeve shirts and trousers.
Garments are forms of clothes, including gowns, skirts, blouses, shirts or tops, and trousers specially constructed from fabrics or other materials to serve different functions for the wearer; including protection, promotion of health, safety and improvement of job efficiency
(Ozougwu, 2008). Garment making as one of the occupation in the clothing industry is act of designing, cutting, arranging and sewing different components of a garment. Garment making is a technical accomplishment that requires knowledge of fabrics, principles of clothing construction and skills involved in it (Tortora, 2005). The author further stated that this is the ability to select the correct fabric, colour, design and accessories to suit an individual occasion. A garment that is made will be attractive if it fits well and proper attention is paid to its finer details. Choosing garments and garment styles depends on the occasion for which the garments are meant for. For example the choice of garments for church may not be the same with that for office wear or other social occasions. Garments for churches are made in such a way as to maintain decency and modesty while that for office is mainly such that will uphold work standards, promote decorum and discipline in work place atmosphere, enforce morality and promote free movement. Working class women are among the groups that select office clothing that will help to uphold work standard, promote decorum and discipline and also promote movement in their work places.
Working class women are those who are working under the authority of a boss or are bosses themselves at work. Doob (2013) defined working class women as women employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled industrial work. The author further said that working-class women include those engaged in occupations that include blue- collar jobs, white-collar jobs, and most service-work jobs. Doob (2013) stated working class to include all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power and skills. In the context of this study working class women include all sedentary female worker in Nigeria and Enugu state in particular. They are with the age bracket of 25 – 60. These women may include both literate and non literate in private or public organizations or academic and non academic staff in institutions settings. The literates are those that are educated while the illiterates are the uneducated ones. In institutions are found the academics who are the teaching staff of the institutions and the non academics include all other staff that are not teaching or lecturing staff members, examples are the administrative staff, security, technicians etc. These working class women are generally conditioned by society and culture to pay attention to their appearance and how they portray themselves, especially in the workplace.
In Enugu state, women especially the working class women are generally attracted to possess variety of garments but what guide their selection is not known. It is being observed that these clothing items possessed by the women are mostly imported ready-to-wear garments.
Though they utilize Nigerian fabrics, it is mostly on occasions like dance troupe, naming ceremony, marriage, chieftaincy, burial, yam festival and other social functions rather than for office clothes except for few who wear them on Fridays as native garments. They choose to appear in simple Western attire because of the comfort and simplicity which is needed in clothes meant for office. Fabrics utilization among working class women are such that stabilizes the work place atmosphere, promotes decorum and has a real and reasonable connection with the successful operation of the work ethics and with the maintenance of work place. Some of the styles sewn with Nigerian made fabrics are not always comfortable when worn to office.
Examples of such styles are heavy “george", “aso oke”, long skirts and buba, blouses tied with two rappers, heavy bead, head gele and other accessories which are most times uncomfortable.
Working class women also consider fabric manufacturing, printing designs, quality of printing and ease of care of fabrics to select fabrics for their wards‟ apparel (Jones, 2009). According to
Ross (2008), a good fabric for making apparel should not fade. This is because clothing needs to be laundered and after many washings, one will not want the colour in the fabric to be washed out. Consumers look at the print on the fabric, to check whether the dye goes through the fibres or is just rolled on and barely saturating the fibres. Ross (2008)said that if the dye is not embedded in the fabric, it will probably fade out after a couple of washings. A solid colour fabric which is the same colour on the front and back because the fibres are dyed are preferred to a print which is rolled on to a plain white muslin so the dye is not totally embedded in the fibres and is more apt to fade after repeated washings. Qualities of some Nigerian made fabrics are low that they tend to wash and lose their original colour and this scare some working class women away from its utilization. Working class women equally consider the cost while selecting their office dresses as some of them earn little amount that they cannot afford expensive clothes. They go for second hand clothes (Okirika) with affordable prices rather than for expensive clothes.
Nigerian fabrics are expensive to make and as such working class women do not consider it the best option. This is because it will cost a lot of money to purchase the fabrics together with tailoring the garment. Fashion designer and tailors are other negative contributors to the low patronage of Nigerian made fabrics. Duro,(2015), noted that the inability of fashion designer and tailors to procure the right equipments together with their low skills in production of garments with these Nigerian fabrics has negatively affected their utilization by working class women.
This is because they often get disappointed either from delay in getting the garments ready or the inability of tailors to produce customers‟ desired design with the accurate measurement to fit their shapes and sizes. These has caused the underutilization of Nigerian fabrics among these important groups of the society in Enugu state and the problems has escalated to grounding of many local fabric manufacturing industries and unemployment of many graduates of clothing and textile. This has also negatively affected the economy of the nation and calls for the need for this study in order to investigate measures to be taken in order to improve the utilization Nigerian fabrics among this group.
Statement of the Problem
Garments are forms of clothes, including gowns, skirts, shirts or tops and trousers among others specially constructed from fabrics or other materials to serve different functions for the wearer including protection, adornment, safety, promotion of efficiency especially for the working class including women.
Regrettably, personal observation has shown that in Enugu state, most of the garments utilized by Academic and non academic female staff are ready-to-wear foreign made garments.
There is overdependence on foreign made garment and importation has continued even with efforts of the government to ban it. Though women utilize Nigerian fabrics in social events and other occasion, the greater percentage of their office garments are foreign garments. The flare for foreign garments from the researcher‟s finding has to do with the high cost of making garments with Nigerian made fabrics as the money used in purchasing and tailoring the fabric is enough to purchase about two to three foreign ready-to-wear garments or second hand foreign garments
(Okirika).
More so, the attendant disappointments from most fashion designers and tailors that make garments with Nigerian fabrics is another unpleasant experience. They often get disappointed either from delay in getting their garments ready or their inability to produce the desired design or styles with the accurate measurements to fit their shapes and sizes.Women equally complain about the low quality of Nigerian fabric as some of them fade. Moreover, the unavailability of garments made from these fabrics in the markets in form of ready-to-wear so that they can easily pick them from the market also contribute to low utilization of these local fabrics. These and many more reasons may have contributed to the low patronage of the Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. These have also negatively affected the local fabric manufacturing industries in Nigeria as a lot of them are now grounded. The grounding of many of these industries, undoubtedly have increased the rate of unemployment of clothing and textile graduates and this all together has affected the economy of Nigeria negatively. For these reasons, the researcher has embarked on this study in order to find out measures which will help to improve the utilization of Nigerian made fabrics for making garment among Academic and non academic female staff. This will help to improve on the growth of local fabric Industries and increase employment of graduates in this field which will consequently help to improve and maintain the economy of the country especially now that it is dwindling.
Purpose of the study
The major purpose of this study was to investigate the Utilization of Nigerian fabrics for garment making among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
The specific objectives of the study are to:
1. Investigate factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public
Tertiary Institutions in Enugu state in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment.
2. Access the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in
Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
3. Ascertain different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and
Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. 4. Investigate factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
5. Find out factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
6. Find out measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and
Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will be of immense benefit to Nigeria families, Working class of the Nigerian society, Nigeria producers, media organization, State government, Home
Economics teachers and students, curriculum planners and fellow researchers.
The findings of the study will be of immense benefits to the Nigerian families and working class in that it will help to improve their skills in fabric consumption and give them the benefits to make wise fabric choice in terms of choosing good quality fabrics. This will go a long way in saving the family a lot of money which would have been used to replace worn out clothing caused by poor consumption behaviour or inappropriate way of maintaining the fabric.
The findings of the study will also help Nigeria textile producers to improve their strength of their business in terms of quality of their product. It will help them to know the area where necessary improvement is needed for their product to suit the consumers and compete favourably with others, nationally and globally so as to remain relevant in business.
The study will help to showcase the superiority or inferiority of Nigeria or foreign made wax fabric, styles and accessories made with these fabrics which will ultimately help Nigerian producers, fashion designers and tailors to redesign their products, producing new ones, developing packages and evaluating channels of Advertisement. This will boost consumerism of home made fabrics. This is needful because Nigerian wax print fabrics symbolize our traditional motif and costume which enhance our identity and contribute in preserving our heritage. Which ultimately facilitate our better understanding of who we really are and not just allow the western culture erode our own culture.
The findings of the study will be of immense benefit to media organization since there will be increase in patronage of their business through awareness the study will create. The
Government will benefit through income tax accruing from the marketers and the money that will be paid to state television and radio houses for advertisement of their products. This will invariably increase internally generated revenue of the state. Curriculum planners will benefit from the findings of this study through its provision of relevant information for curriculum review and update to meet societal needs.
The finding of this study will be beneficial to clothing and textile teachers, lecturers and students to wisely select styles and accessories that will be relatively cheap and suit the occupational status of the teachers and lecturer through dissemination of information obtained from the study to schools by teachers and lecturers.
The findings of the study will be of immense benefits to the future researchers who would use the study as a good reference material and for further studies thereby contributing to building a body of literature on the theme. It is also expected that the findings of the study will help to further strengthen the focus of the study of any researcher with keen research interest in the utilization of Nigeria fabrics.
The study sees Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions as a set of people that contribute in structuring/determining the future of Nigerian. In addition, this study through information generated from it will sensitize the working women and entire nation on the need to reduce overdependence on importation of consumable goods like dresses. It will help in the growth of fabric manufacturing industries in Nigeria and employment of clothing and textile graduates and those from related fields which will consequently improve the growth of the economy of the nation.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide this study:
1. What are the factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public
Tertiary Institutions in Enugu state in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment?
2. What are the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in
Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State?
3. What are the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic
and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State?
4. What are the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State?
5. What are the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics?
6. What are the measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic
and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions?
Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
H01: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of the academic and non- academic Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments
H02: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of academic and non- academic Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions on the garment styles utilized among them. H03: There is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions on the
different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them.
H04: There is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions on the
factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them.
H05: There is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions on the
factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
Scope of the Study
This study focused on the utilization of Nigerian fabrics for garment making among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu state. The types of Nigeria fabrics to be focused in this study are veritable wax, adire, asoke, brocade and
Ankara. The study will be limited to the following: Different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions,
Clothing items made with Nigerian fabrics utilized among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions, Garment styles of Nigerian fabrics utilized by Academic and
Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions, Factors affecting the quality of
Nigerian fabrics, causes of consumer preference for foreign fabrics and measures for improving the utilization. The geographical scope of this study is all Tertiary Institutions in Enugu state.
The respondents of the study will be restricted to Academic and Non-Academic female staff in
Public Tertiary Institutions in three Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State; Enugu state University of Science and Technology, Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Enugu and
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter dealt with the review of related literature. This related literature were reviewed under the following sub-headings: Conceptual framework, theoretical framework, related empirical studies and summary of literature review.
Conceptual Framework
. Fabrics
. Utilization
. Garment and styles
. Academic and non academic female staff.
Theoretical Framework . Fabric Consumption Theory.
. Psychological Motivation Fashion Consumption Theory.
Related Empirical Studies Summary of Literature
15 Conceptual Framework
Fibres
Fibres can be defined as the hair-like basic unit of raw material used in making yarns and fabrics. Nkeonye (2009) defined fibre as a unit of matter characterized by flexibility and fitness and a high ratio of length to thickness. To him, the word fibre creates a mental picture of a long, thin, hair like object and indeed all textile fibres have these physical characteristics, although he submitted that not all fibres that are having this property are suitable for textile purposes. The author further stated that fibres are used to produce fabrics by the process of interlacing the warp and weft yarns. He stressed that since the late 1990‟s there has been a great innovation in the textile industry where blended fabrics and fibres are produced. Nkeonye further observed that blended fibres are a combination of two or more natural and synthetic fibres. He explained that blended fibre allows a wide range of yarn to be produced as well as fabric. Anyakoha and Eluwa
(2010) classified fibre into two which include natural and synthetic or man-made fibre.
Anyakoha stated that natural fibres are obtained from natural sources, either from plants or animal. Those obtained from plant are called vegetable fibres e.g. cotton, ramie. While those obtained from animals are called animal fibre e.g. Wool, Silk etc. Manufactured fibres are produced from the chemical treatment of certain raw materials like wood pulp, petroleum, natural gas, air etc. There are two types of man-made fibres: cellulose base and non cellulose base fibres. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), noted that cellulose base fibres are produced primarily from wood-pulp, cotton linter with minimum of chemical steps examples are rayon, acetate and triacetate. While non cellulose base fibres are made from molecules that come from petroleum natural gas, air and water, examples of fabric made from non cellulose base fibres are nylon and polyester. Fabrics
Fabric is a flexible material that is made by a network of natural or artificial fibres and yarns. Bradon (2008), views fabric as a flexible woven material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres often referred to as thread or yarn. Simmel (2004) noted that types of fabrics include Animal-based material such as wool or silk, plant-based material such as cotton or linen and synthetic material such as polyester and rayon. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) classified fabric into two and they include natural and synthetic or man-made fabric. Anyakoha and Eluwa stated that natural fabrics are obtained from natural sources, either from plants or animal. Those obtained from plant are called vegetable fabrics example are cotton and ramie, while those obtained from animals are called animal fabrics example are wool, Silk etc. The author further mentioned that fabrics are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting or pressing fibres together.
Uses of fabrics
The quality of any fabric in relation to strength, durability determines the end use to which it is subjected to whether for apparel or home furnishing and house decoration Duro
(2015). Will (2009) stated that fabrics have an assortment of uses,the most common of which are for clothing and for container such as bags and basket. In the household, fabrics are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds and other flat surfaces and in art. In the workplace fabrics are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Will mentioned the miscellaneous uses which include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails and parachutes. Fabrics are also used to provide strengthening in composites materials such as fibre glass and industrial geotextiles. Will mentioned that technical textiles include structures for automotive fabrics which are structured for automotive applications, medical textiles (example implant), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agro textiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing against heat and radiation for fire fighters, bullet proof vests and molten metals for welders. Will (2009) stated that animal fabric are gotten from silk worm case and it is generally used in production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets and other warms coverings.
Plant fibre are used in making rope, twine, floor mats, door mats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles sacking and clothing. Mineral fibres are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting, adhesives, transit panels, and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains and fire blankets. Glass fibre is used in the production of space suits, ironing board, mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibres, insect netting, flame-retardant, protective fabric, sound proof, and insulating fibres. Metal fibres, metal foil and metal wire have a variety of uses including the production of cloth, gold and jewellery.
Fabric Characteristics/Properties and Performance
Fabric properties are those characteristics of a fabric which determines its comfort and performance during usage e.g strength, drape etc. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) stated that fabric characteristics and properties affects it‟s performance and the way the fabric reacts when it is used is determined by how the fibres are used, how the fibres are formed into fabric and how the finishes are applied to the fabric. He also observed that fabric characteristics are those traits that distinguish one fabric from another. They include the type of construction, texture, hand and weight. He noted that some types of fabric are easily identified by their construction. This can be recognized as terry cloth by its hops, velvet with a raised surface or pile while ribbed corduroy has rows of pile. Satin has a shiny look produced by its special types of weave. He pointed out that texture refers to how the surface of a fabric looks and feels. It can be smooth, rough, dull, shiny, ruby, fuzzy, or a combination. Thus the texture of a fabric often dictates its end use. For example; a rough dull texture would look off if placed in a formal environment of smooth silky fabrics. Anyakoha further noted that how a fabric handles and feels is called the fabrics handle, she said it can be described as soft, firm, crisp, stiff, or drape-able.
Handle is the impression which arises when fabrics are touched, squeezed, rubbed or handled Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010). He further described it as the feel of the material and qualitatively includes such terms as silhouettes (or umpires, hardness or softness) and roughness
(or smoothness). To her, the handle of fabric is influenced by flexibility (pliable or stiff), compressibility (Soft to hard), extensibility (stretching or non stretchy) resilience (spring to limp), density (compact to open), surface contour (rough to smooth), surface friction (harsh to slippery), and thermal character (cool to warm). Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) also explained that fabrics can range in weight from very light to very heavy weight and is determined by the yarns and the type of fabric construction. For example, chiffon and batiste are very light weight fabric, while canvas and coating fabrics are heavy weight fabrics. Bulky fabric, such as thick knits and some fur are also considered heavy weight. According to her, weight is not always related to hand. A light weight fabric can be very soft or heavy weight fabric can be very soft or very crisp.
Fabric Performance
The way fabric reacts during its usage can be as a result of fibres used for the construction or special finishes introduced to the fabric to improve on the characteristics that are not natural to the fibres. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) noted that performance refers to how a fabric will react during the life of the garment or item. Does it wrinkle? Is it comfortable to wear? Does it breathe; resist or absorb stain? Will it shrink when laundered? Is it strong and durable? Does it need ironing? She also noted that sometimes a fabric‟s performance is a result of the fibres that are used. At other times, special finishes can be applied to the fabric to provide characteristics that are not natural to the fibres. Fabric performance can be divided into three area; durability, comfort and ease of care.
Durability: According to Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), durability refers to all those characteristics that can affect how long you will be able to wear or to use a particular garment or item. These include strength, shape retention, resiliency, abrasion resistance and colour fastness.
Strength: Different fibres have different tensile strengths or ability to withstand tension or
pulling. Strength is also related to the fabric construction. Tightly woven or knitted
fabrics are usually stronger than loosely woven or knitted fabric, Nkeonye (2009). Any
fabric should possess adequate shape retention, resistance to tearing and fabrics that are
made from inherently strong fibres will tend to have adequate strength for the selected
use and care. However, other factors may influence the properties and the fabric may be
subjected to quick wear because of low resistance to tear and pulling stress (tensile
strength). One of the most important properties of textile fibres is their ability to elongate
under an applied load. Without this ability, they would be so completely brittle that they
would be harsh and useless. Kaswell in Orivir (2005) reported that by proper chemical
engineering and physical control, a wide range of stretch and elongation properties can be
attained in almost all the synthetic fibres. According to him, the breaking strength of
fabric is used as a performance standard for industrial or other purpose where the fabric is
in fact subjected to tension. He noted that it is proper that breaking strength be measure
so that in case where the fabric is not required to withstand tensile forces rightly or
wrongly, breaking strength is probably the most popular method of maintaining quality
control. Breaking strength of a fabric gives a quick and reliable indication that the fibre, yarn or fabric is up to standard. However, there are many textile applications where
strength is of little consequence and its use as standard of quality index might be
meaningless.
Abrasion Resistance: Abrasion is a series of repeated stress application usually caused by
forces of relatively low order of magnitude which occur many times during the life span
of the material. Nkeonye (2009), noted that Fabric in use are subjected to a variety of
different forces, which are repeated many times until finally the fabric wear out. Fabrics
are abraded in use against various materials (elbows on tables, fabric against fabric, under
the arm), under various pressures (the seat of a pair of slacks) under dry and wet
conditions. The life of a fabric is very dependent on its resistance to abrasion. Damage
from abrasion is the result of certain inherent fibres properties and the abrasion resistance
of a fabric is very much influenced not only by the choice of fibre but also the
construction of the yarn and fabric Nkeonye (2009) stated that Abrasion is worn spot that
can develop when the fabric rubs against something. The question then is, will the fabric
resist abrasion? According to him, abrasion can occur on the inside of a collar where it
rubs the back of your neck or at your side where you carry your books. Some fabrics can
pill or form tiny balls of fibres on the fabric. There are three methods of fabric abrasion,
namely frictional wear, surface cutting and fabric plucking or slippage Nkeonye (2009).
Crease Recovery or Resiliency: Fabrics to be used in clothing must be flexible and
capable of being creased and folded to conform to the figure and be comfortable to wear.
Morton and Hearle (2005) noted that crease resistance is that property, which prevents a
fabric from being folded and from forming undesirable wrinkle. He also noted that, if
they are to retain a good appearance however, they must have good crease shedding property that is recovery from unwanted creases that occur in a fabric in use and during
laundering. According to him, Wrinkle recovery of many fabrics is the product of a
combination of factors, including geometric and chemical finishes. Fabric with durable
press finishes for examples will behave quite different from a similar fabric without such
finish. When a fibre is bent, two things may occur.
o The cross-link may break and join in new positions. When the load is removed,
recovery from the crease is restricted by the new position of the cross-links and the
textile will show poor crease recovery.
o The cross –link may be stretched without actually breaking; so that when the load is
removed they will tend to return the fabric to its original shape. Resiliency is the
ability of the fabric to bounce or spring back into shape after crushing or wrinkling.
(Nkeonye 2009).
Shape Retention: The shape of a fabric can be lost when the fabric is washed or machine
dried. This is because some fabrics shrink when exposed to water or heat. According to
Morton and Hearle (2005), an increase or decrease in length or width of a fabric is called
dimensional change. To him, a decrease in size is referred to shrinkage and an increase as
growth. He also observed that the dimensional stability of a fabric is its ability to resist
shrinkage or stretching. He noted that heat sensitive fibres shrink when exposed to
temperatures above that at which the fabric, yarn or fibre was heat set. He recorded that
many of these fibres shows very little relaxation shrinkage if properly heat set and the
fabric have good dimensional stability but that relaxation shrinkage can occur on such
fabric if the heat setting process was improperly done. Colour Fastness: Colour of fabrics, when in use tends to fade with time. The degree of
paling and white materials colouring are established by means of colour fastness
standards (grey scales). Grey scales are two types.
o Grey scales for assessing change in colour.
o Grey scales for assessing staining.
Nkeonye (2009) stated that colour fastness means that the colour in the fabric will not
change. It will not fade from washing, from chlorine in a pool, or from exposure to
sunlight. Elebiyo (2008) stated that the colour fastness is the capacity of textile materials
to withstand the action of light, outdoor exposure, soap solution, distilled lime and sea
water, washing, perspiration, ironing, rubbing, dry cleaning and so on. He opined that the
above mentioned factors cause physical and chemical changes in the structure of dyes
and impair their cohesion with fibres, which result in irreversible changes of the material
colour and the colouring of contacting surfaces.
Comfort: According to Nkeonye (2009), comfort is another factor to consider, when selecting fabric. He also stated that, a fabric can be of right weight and texture, durable and easy to care for but uncomfortable to wear. He further said that, it may be too hot, too cold, or too clammy.
He concluded that fabric absorbency, wicking ability, breathability and stretch ability all affect how comfortable the fabric is on your body.
Absorbency: The term refers to how well the fabric takes in moisture. Absorbency can be
increased by fabric construction or by finishing process. A loosely constructed fabric or
one with a napped surface for example, is more absorptive than a smooth surface fabric.
Some fibre, such as cotton and wool, are very adsorbent, other fibres such as polyester and nylon are not (Nkeonye2009). The quickness with which a fabric absorbs moisture
and gives it up again in evaporation has an important bearing to health and comfort.
Wicking: According to (Nkeonye 2009) wicking refers to a fabric‟s ability to draw
moisture away from your body so that it can evaporate. The wicking ability of some
fibres makes up for the fact that they are very absorbent.
Breathability (Air permeability): This refers to the ability of air or moisture to pass
through fabric. Saville (2004) stated that the air permeability of a fabric is closely related
to thermal properties and is frequently a major factor in body comfort and in protection
against moisture build up as well as heat retention or release. Fabrics with good
permeability encourage heat loss by air movement. As air freely moves through the
fabric, heat can be dissipated to the outside; conversely, heat can pass through the fabric
to the body. He stressed that to make comfortable hot weather apparel from hydrophobic
fibres, fabrics should be of porous construction so that they permit air permeability,
moisture diffusion and wicking.
Fabric Drape: Fabric drape is the extent to which a fabric will deform when it is allowed
to hang under its own weight. According to Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), drape is
defined as the percentage of the total area to an annular ring of fabric obtained by
vertically projecting the shadow of the draped specimen. The author further stated that
the drape ability of a fabric or its ability to hang and fall into graceful shape and fold is
dependent upon the finish, construction and the kind of fibre in the yarn. Other factors
being equal, the pliability and springiness of the various fibres will contribute different
amount of drape. While the weight of the fabric provides the force causing it to drape, the
stiffness provides the resistance. Drape is a complex phenomenon involving parameters other than bending length. Drape is normally constructed to depict a visual reaction to the
fabric appearance as produced by its tendency to fall into pleasing and graceful folds.
However, fabric drape is dependent to a large degree on the same properties that
influence fabric handle example thickness, stiffness, flexural rigidity and compressibility.
o Fabric Thickness: Fabric thickness is the precise measurement of the distance
between the upper and lower surfaces of the material measured under “specific
pressure”. According to Booth (2005) fabric thickness is important in the study of
other fabric characteristics such as thermal insulation resistance, dimensional
stability, stiffness abrasion resistance. The thickness of textile fabrics influences
their heat insulation properties permeability, stiffness draping properties etc. The
thickness of a fabric depend on its mass per unit area, the type of yarn used, the
weave structure and the amount of crimp in the warp and weft yarn and the yarn
linear density (Nkeonye 2009).
Fabric Flammability: Flame resistance of a fabric depends on chemical composition of fabric yarn, weight of fabric and finishing. Booth (2005) stressed that a flame proof fabric is one which is self extinguishing while a flammable one is that which is supportive to or propagate flame. For fabrics which propagate flame, flame resistance is related to their weight as well as fibre content for any given fibre, the heavier the fabric the higher will be the flame resistance. He however said, to ensure adequate safety, the finishing treatment with fire proof polymer or metalized coating is necessary.
Fabric Sett: Fabric sett is also one of the factors which determine the quality of woven fabrics.
Booth (2005) stated that, fabric set is the number of yarns per centimeter in a fabric. Usually, the higher the fabric sets, the better the durability and stability of the fabric. He further stated that fabric sett is expressed in picks per centimeter (ppcm) and ends per centimeter (epcm). Picks per centimeter is the number of filling per centimetre while ends per centimeter is the number of warp yarn per centimeter.
Yarn Count: The fineness or coerciveness of yarn is described in terms of their weight per unit length. This is referred to as the yarn count. It is one of the factors which determine the fabric quality. It also determines the appearance and general behaviour of the fabrics produced from each yarns. Yarn count is also referred to as the linear density (Booth 2005).
Fabric Weight per Square Meter: This is the weight in grams per square meter of fabric. It is influenced by fabric sett and the yarn linear density with high weight per square meter drape better than those with how weight per square meter Booth (2005). Nkeonye (2009) stated that the knowledge of fibres and fabrics helps the consumer in the following ways.
i. Helps consumer to improve his skills in consumption
ii. Gives the consumer the confidence to make wise choice
iii. Help, the consumer to take better care of his cloths which will enable it last longer.
iv. Gives the consumer satisfaction with what he purchased because even after long usage
the material still look and feel good even though he has worn them over and over again.
v. Make the consumer a better shopper as he will be able to better evaluate the textile he is
thinking about purchasing
vi. Helps the consumer to care about the fabric and know what to expect when it comes to
taking care of cloths. Nkeonye (2009). Fabrics Construction and Finishes
Fibre are hair-like and very slender, thin and often short to be made directly into fabrics and as such most of them are first twisted or spun into thread or yarns. Anyakoha and Eluwa
(2010) commented on the length of the individual fibre as a determinant factor to the qualities of the yarn. They stated that yarns spun from long fibres tend to be smoother and stronger than those from short ones. They also said silk and man-made fibres are not produced as short fibres but as continuous fine filament. They also observed that yarns are constructed into fabrics and fabrics made from continuous filament yarn are often very strong. Fabric Construction Method according to Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) include: Weaving, Knitting, Crocheting, Knotting, braiding, felting and bonding. Method of weaving includes plain, ribbed, basket, twill, satin and pile weaving.
Fabric Finishes
Every fibre and fabrics has certain desirable and undesirable characteristics, therefore substances has to be applied to fabrics to improve their appearance. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) said that finishing enhances the appearances of the fabrics and also may add to its serviceability.
Nkeonye (2009) said that when fabric first comes from the loom, it is called gray without any colour. He said finishes are those substances applied to fabrics to improve their appearance, their texture, and their performance. This is because every fibre and type of fabric has certain desirable and undesirable characteristics. He further stated that finishes are added to reduce the undesirable characteristic or improve the desirable ones. He also added that finishes are added to create a specific design or offer a softer, firmer, or smoother handle. It may be permanent or temporary. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) said fabric finishes are treatment applied to fabric at some state in their production to improve their qualities in different ways. Some important finishes according to them includes.
Luster or sheen finishes: -They give a glossy surface to the fabric, example are
mercerization and glazing
Easy-care finishes: These gives fabric a drip –dry quality by helping to cut down on
wrinkling. Fabric given easy care finishes require little or no ironing.
Shrink-resistant finishes: These control the amount of shrinkage which a fabric will
undergo when it is washed. Sanforizing is a well known process which guarantees that a
fabric will not shrink more than one percentage.
Water–repellant finishes: These finishes make fabrics resist wetting so that they can be
penetrated only by continuous exposure to water.
Water-proofing treatment: This makes fabric water –proof even for heavy down pours. It
is used for rain coats or rain wear.
Flame-resistant: Finishes are applied to prevent fabric from flaring and burning up
quickly.
Handles Finishes: To restore a satisfactory handle, addition of substances like oil, or wax
and similar substance has been recently added to achieve a soft handles. In the same way
as compounds are applied to textile materials to achieve a softer handle, a compound can
be applied to obtain a stiffer, crisper handle. Nkeonye (2009) stated that some finishes are
applied to:
o Add colour and create a specific design.
o Improve surface texture and handle
o To increase their performance. Texture finishes: Most fabric have some type of finish applied to improve surface texture
and handle. These finishes according to Nkeonye (2009) include Calendaring, Glazing,
Napping, Beetling etc.
Performance Finishes: Some finishes are applied to fabrics to increase their performance,
while some finishes improve durability and others make the fabrics comfortable to wear.
Nkeonye (2009) also stated that various finishes are designed to make the fabric easier to
care for because they control wrinkling. Other finishes are used to protect the fabric from
bacteria, mildew, insects and perspiration. These finishes includes: Crease-Resistant and
wrinkles, Durable press and wash and wear finishes, Shrinkage –control finishes, Stain
and spot resistant finishes, Soil-Release finishes etc.
Temporary stiffening finishes: Finishing enhances the appearance of the fabric and also
may add to its serviceability and durability, thus increasing its value. Anyakoha and
Eluwa (2010) observed that manufacturer of cotton and linen fabric often treat them to
improve their appearance and to give them “body” or firmness, but when washed, they
lose these features. To restore the new appearance, starch and other stiffening agents has
been used for this purpose for hundreds of years. An example is starch finishes which is
used in laundry work to stiffen cotton and linen fabrics. It gives the fabric a smooth
surface and fresh look. A starched article keeps clean longer than an unstarched article
because dirt cannot adhere easily to the smooth surfaces. Here in Nigeria laundry starch
are mostly made from cassava because it is stronger than starches obtained from other
food stuff. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), stated that there are different types of starch and
they are explained as follows: Hot or Boiling Water Starch, Cold Water Starch or Instant
Starch, Spray Starch. Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), noted that other types of temporary finishes include plastic starch, Gum Arabic, Borax, Glue wax, Paraffin, Ironing, Beating
and Calendaring Colour.
Design Finishes: Colours are used to alter the appearance of fabric by dyeing or printing
the fabric. As far back as prehistoric times, people have decorated their clothing with
colour. Nkeonye (2009) said, dyes are compound that penetrate and colour fibres. They
can be used to colour the entire fabric or to create special designs on the fabric. He noted
that colour is said to be “fast” when it does not fade. He identifies three factors that
determine the fastness of colour as type of dye, the chemical structure of the fibre and the
method of application. He observed that many dyes are not colour fast to everything;
some may be more affected by washing, dry cleaning, sunlight or perspiration. He also
stated that there are two types of dyes, natural and synthetic. Natural dyes are made from
bark, root leaves of plants, berries flowers insects and animals. These materials are boiled
squeezed soaked or pounded to obtain the liquid colour. Then the fabric is soaked in the
dye. Synthetic dyes are produced from chemical reaction from substances like coal tar
etc. They have greater colour fastness and are less expensive. Warner in Muhammed et al
(2001) reported that whether or not a dyed cotton fabric will bleed or fade in a given
treatment depends on the type of dye and its fastness characteristics. Nkeonye (2009)
observed that the beauty of colour in any fabric is of no value to the consumer unless the
dyes may be considered fast under the condition in which the fabric will be used. He
noted that colour must meet such test as washing, ironing, steaming, perspiration, strong
light and dry-cleaning. Nkeonye (2009) noted that no dye is absolutely fast under all
conditions of use, and the most suitable dye for a particular end use are those which will
provide the required dyes for a particular end use. He observed that some dyes may be fast to washing and dry-cleaning but not to sunlight. Others may be fast to perspiration
and rubbing when wet but not to hot pressing and so on. This varying fastness of dye to
different agencies originates from several factors such as the chemical structure of the
dye, the type of fibre onto which it is applied, the method of application, the depth of the
dyeing and the condition of the atmosphere for light fastness.
Historical Development and Manufacture of some Nigerian Fabrics
The origin of fabric production can be traced to the use of fig leaves as clothing materials by Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden (Gen. 3:7). Man before making his first attempt at weaving had been using animal‟s skin, tree back and twined vegetables for his clothing needs
(Omotoso 2006).The use of fabric is exclusively the characteristic of man. Its importance ranked it second in God‟s divine order of provision for man‟s social need. (Deut. 10:18, Gen. 28:20 and
1Tim. 6:8). Popoola (2006), referring to Maslow‟s theory of the hierarchy of man‟s special needs also emphasized clothing to be second.
The presence of woven textile in Nigeria is of great antiquity. Archaeological excavation revealed the presence of woven textile made of fabric other than cotton at Igbo-Ukwu, how and by whom they were made was not known. Resist method of creating pattern on fabrics are not new in Nigeria, it is common among the Yoruba. Resist techniques are used for batik while dyeing methods are used for tie-dye materials. Omotoso (2006) explains batik to be a manual process of applying wax, paste, starch, resin or clay on fabric as resist agent, the same technique used for producing Indonesian batik. The method can be done by stenciling or using free hand application. Lala (2003) as recorded by Omotoso (2006) opined that usage of stencil gives the desired design or pattern and perfect edge which makes it more accurate compared with free hand method. In Yoruba land, dyeing is done by the women and passed down to daughters. Many families have their unique pattern passed the generation. In most Yoruba market are role of cloth with beautiful patterns. Small circular design are made in some cloth, by pinching up lots of the materials and tying them with raffia or thread before dyeing to produce the larger tucks in the fabrics. When the dyers dip the white cloth into their big drums, the indigo (now varieties of colour are used) cannot soak into the field and sown parts. The results show white after the cloth is dried up and the stitching and raffia taken out. Another dipping that will stain the white design is soft pale blue or in a different colour entirely. The patterns have a name each, there is the
“meeting place of roads” a cross- shaped pattern in the centre of a cloth. A spiral shape of beads is called “welcome to the masquerade”.
Apart from the traditional producers, there are many contemporary industries in Nigeria that are into production of fabrics that are mainly veritable wax prints. These textile mills in
Nigeria include African Textile Manufacturers Ltd. in Kano, Femro 3 Nigerian Ltd. located in
Satelite town, Lagos State, ABA Textile Mills Plc in Aba, Abia State, Afriprint Nigeria Print
Nigerian Plc in Isolo, Lagos State, Asaba Textile Mill Plc in Asaba, Delta State, Dangote
General Textile Products Ltd. in Ikoyi Lagos, Enpee Industries Plc. in Mushin Lagos, Qualitex
Textile Ltd. in Lagos Island, Lagos State, Table Source Nigeria Ltd. in Shomolu, Lagos State,
Udeofson Garment Factory Nigeria Plc. In Aba, Abia State, United Nigerian Textile Plc located in Lagos Island, Lagos State. (Finelib 2015). They produce fabrics in different varied designs and quantities using fabric manufacturing processes with their major raw material being cotton.
Nigerian Fabrics are either woven or printed. The printed fabrics were first woven as plain weave in single colour before printing on them. Some examples of Nigerian Fabrics are Aso-oke, Adire,
Ankara, veritable wax prints. Aso-oke is fabric made of strips before joined together. It is woven in 4-inch wide strips that vary in length. According to Sharne and Denys (2009), some older asoke cloths are characterized by their openwork or holes and are known for supplementary inlays, which are generally made of rayon threads on a background of silk cotton. Cotton is usually the major materials for aso oke weaving. The Yoruba in Nigeria reserve this cloth for funerals, religious rituals, and other formal occasions. Often weavers are commissioned to weave a special pattern of aso-oke for a family, friends or age groups for these event or occasions.
Adire just like aso-oke is made from cotton fabric treated with indigo dye. According
Claire (2009), it comes in two types; one is made by tie dyeing or stitching a design with raffier while the second one is painted freehand or stenciled using starchy paste made from cassava or yams. In tie dyeing, there is formation of patterns of large and small shapes in various combinations. This is found particularly among the Yoruba of Nigeria. The author further stated that there are several techniques used for resist-dyeing. For instance, a cloth is tied or stitched tightly so that the tying or stitching prevents the dye from penetrating the fabric, and sometime starchy substance is applied to the fabric. This will resist the dye giving pale areas on a dark background when it is washed at the end of the dyeing process. Another method of dyeing consists of folding a strip of cloth into several narrow pleats and binding them together. The folds and the binding resist the dye to produce a cross-hatched effect. A very popular tie-dyeing technique in Nigeria is to paint freehand with starch before dyeing in indigo in order to resist the dye.
Akwete: Akwete are clothes produced in Akwete of Abia state, eastern Nigerian. They are produced in a wide range of patterns from plain striped ones to profusely, rather picturesque type based on geometrical motifs of domestic animals. Others are patterned along symbolic objects floated or plain ground weaves by extra wafting. Some weavers derive sources of their pattern motifs from inspiration and imagination while some copy or make their original drawings and then copy again when weaving.
Ankara:Ankara is a 100 percent fine cotton fabric tightly woven in plain weave before different motifs and patterns were printed on it through various dyeing techniques using dye stuffs that dry faster and are easier to use. Ankara has good strength and smooth to touch and allows body heat to pass through (Ogunbiyi, 2006). It absorbs moisture quickly and dries faster, an ability that gives it a cooling effect and makes it ideal for hot climate. To make Ankara an even more versatile fabric, companies have most recently included Ankara prints on chiffon and silk for clothing such as kaftans. In Nigeria especially, Ankara, a once before cheap fabric meant for the poor has undergone a dramatic transformation and has become the fabric of not only the poor but the rich and the famous. In time past, Ankara was regarded as too flowery and colourful and was reserved for cultural activities but nowadays, the dramatic transformation has turned it to a sizzling fashion fad and an inevitable part of all occasions. The exponent of the use of Ankara in sewing different styles of skirt and blouse was late Mrs. Stella Obasanjo. As the First Lady of the nation, she showcased Ankara in different styles in special occasions and events. The use of
Ankara by the First Lady and others like Late Prof. Dora Akunyili of NAFDAC and Dr. Ngozi
Okonjo Iwuala, the immediate past Finance Minister influenced Nigerian women in using
Ankara to sew different fascinating styles. In spiteof varied usage of Nigerian fabrics in making garments there are still some shortcomings associated with the products especially when it comes to the quality. The quality here encompasses the colour fastness, durability, ease of care etc.
Some of the made in Nigeria Fabrics are not colour fast and tend to fade when washed. Some are also not durable but lose their quality too quickly. Many of the fabrics lack some finishing that will make them easy to care for. Examples of such finishing are crease-resistance, water repellant, moth proof finishes to mention but a few. These factors have contributed to low patronage of some of these indigenous fabrics by some consumers including the Academic and non academic female staff.
Factors that affect the Quality of Nigerian Fabrics
1. Raw Material:- Ejiofor (2009) is of the view that the quality of finished product of
manufacture cannot be much better than the quality of raw material fed into the plant and
machinery used in making them. When low quality raw material and supplies are fed into
outdated equipment, output will naturally be below expected quality level. In terms of
Geographical origin, raw material fall into two broad groups, namely imported and local raw
materials. It has been observed that some imported raw materials get into Nigerian ports in
good condition but soon suffer deterioration due to prolonged temporary storage and careless
handling at the ports. Even when they get to the factory, they may also deteriorate as a result
of prolonged storage since many manufacturers stock pile raw materials inventory to hedge
against the vicissitudes of the nation‟s economic policies, supply bottlenecks and
inadequacies of public utilities besides, inadequate storage facilities and exposure to weather
lead to deterioration in quality. Local raw materials, like the imported ones, deteriorate in the
face of prolonged and adequate storage, careless handling, and exposure to weather. This
according to Ejiofor falls under direct materials factors which is one out of a multiplicity of
factors that adversely affect the quality of locally made goods notably textiles. Other factors
as discussed by Ejiofor are human factors infrastructural factors and market forces.
2. Outdated Machinery: Yusuf (2008) observed that on plant machinery and equipment, it is
widely known that at times foreign suppliers supply out date but reconditioned equipment to their Nigerian customers. Many of these are supplied without appropriate service agreements
or even users manuals. Frequent breakdown and malfunctioning of the equipment lead to poor
quality product.
3. Human factors: Ejiofor (2009) said quality is adversely affected due to problems created by
such human factors as adulteration, inadequate standardization and grading.
Specifically human factors include lack of technical knowhow, bad management,
questionable integrity etc.
. Lack of technical knowhow: - It has been observed that Nigerian have not yet imbibed
the technological culture. As a result, even qualified technicians may fumble with
sophisticated and modern equipment. In addition, considering the low level of literacy of
the workers, many Nigerian workers are not qualified for the post which they are holding,
unqualified workers operating on even the best raw material produce substandard
products (Yusuf 2008)
. Bad Management: Ejiofor (2009) observed that just as many of the workers are
unqualified, many managers and supervisors are also inexperienced. There is inadequate
supervision. Managers and supervisors are often taken away from their factories to attend
to organizational and extra organizational problems like lobbying for contracts, chasing
payments, arranging for connection or reconnection of the utilities etc. The under
managed workers naturally produce shoddy products.
6. Questionable Integrity: Yusuf (2008) noted that many Nigerian today do not consider a place
good enough to work in unless there are some immoral deals to milk. Some ten percent to
take away or some organization‟s properties to pinch. New equipment may be stolen and replaced with old ones. Adulteration may be perpetrated to cover up diversion of materials
and parts.
4. Bribery and corruption also affect products quality. These blind the culprit to supply
deficiencies and workers inadequacies. Substandard materials and equipment supplied are
eagerly, accepted by an official who had already bargained home his ten percent. Unqualified
workers hired corruptly, and job –for – the girls found for immoral reasons place incompetent
people in position of authority and enthrone indiscipline. All these affect product quality
adversely.
5. Infrastructural Factors: Infrastructural factors adversely affect product quality. Product
quality in Nigeria fall into two broad groups: namely physical infrastructure and marketing
infrastructure. Physical infrastructure is caused due to effect of unreliable utilities such as
power failure, poor voltage, water shortage and impure water supply affects product quality.
Power failure can disrupt production and damage electrical appliances and high voltage
standby generators are not yet perfect substitute in factories, since few of them can run
continuously for 24 hrs a day, seven days a week. In addition, most factories are high quality
water users for instance textile companies are noted for using high volume and high quality
water. The quality of the water being used can affect the quality of the product.
5. Market Forces: Ejiofor (2009) opined that, while poor quality raw materials, parts and
equipment, dysfunctional human influences, and inadequate supply of public utilities
adversely affect the quality of locally made textile wax prints, what makes the production of
low quality products a foregone conclusion is inadequate competition. For some time now, the
Nigerian market has largely been a seller‟s market. Literally, whatever is produced is sold out
within a short time. Improvement of product quality comes about through market research, rigorous quality control and drastic rejection of defective products and these are expensive
measure especially in the short run. So an over age profit- maximizing investor may not see
the need to adopt these measures unless forced into it by the result of these factors. Nigerian
consumers and producers are fed with inferior quality and product (such as some textiles from
Asian countries) and industrial goods and they easily shift to imported superior quality
products at the slightest opportunity.
6. High cost of utilities. Unreliable supply of public utilities not only affect quality but also
production cost. Foreign wax print fabrics are imported textiles from other countries outside
Nigeria. Ejiofor (2009) disclosed that one reason for the disinclination of Nigerians to
patronize Nigerian made fabrics is that their foreign counterparts are available. “given that
foreign made textiles are superior in quality, it would be the height of irrationality for a
consumer or industrial buyer to patronize inferior goods. A rational consumer buys the best in
the cheapest market and sells it at a very high cost. Nigerian consumers should not be
exceptions” Ejiofor contended.
Yusuf (2008) said foreign textile fabric products are made available in Nigeria by the
dubious attitudes of smugglers and unpatriotic activities of some customer agents, despite
government ban on the importation of all forms of textile fabric. It is also known to all that
many of the Nigerian textile industries has grounded up and the very few remaining are
operating on skeletal capacity. The government contend that allowing foreign textiles product
to flood Nigerian market, will not only be unhealthy for marketing of made in Nigerian textile
fabric but will spell doom to the textile companies which is not in the interest of the
government and the Nigerian economy.
Utilization
Utilization means to make use of, especially to make profitable or effective use of something.Martin, (2004) described it as an act of using something. Thus utilization of fabrics means to make profitable or effective use of fabrics. Fabric utilization involves deciding what to wear, how to wear, how to purchase or obtain what to wear including methods of sewing garments or making them and when to wear clothes for various occasions. Fabric utilization does not end until the garment is worn on the body. Fabric utilization of any given individual includes all the procedures involved in planning, shopping sewing and wearing of garments. Each of these procedures includes various steps of making decision. If clothing is to perform its varied functions, it has to be appropriately selected for specific purposes or function.
Fabric Utilization and Decision Making Process
Fabric/garment utilization involves deciding what to wear, how to purchase or obtain what to wear including methods of sewing garment or making them, and when to wear clothes for various occasions (Uzoka, 2000). Fabric utilization does not end until the clothing article is worn on the body. Fabric utilization of any given individual includes all the procedures involved in planning, shopping, sewing and wearing of clothes (Anyakoha and Eluwa, 2010). Fabric utilization of Academic and non academic female staff requires careful thoughts in order to meet their special needs for clothing. This is owing to the fact that clothing needs for the working class should be such that will help promote efficiency, comfort and movement in the office in order not to hinder their works and ethics. If clothing is to perform its varied functions, it has to be appropriately selected for specific purposes or function.
Decision Making Process
Everyday, one is faced with choices. Decision –making is the process of selecting one course of action from a number of possible alternatives in solving a problem or meeting a situation (Cole, 2003). It is the action taken in selecting from alternative course of action
(Anyakoha and Eluwa, 2010). This concept of decision making involves defining the problem, comparing and choosing a course of action (Ombugadu, 2005). Choosing or making a decision about something is the process of making up the mind. The process may be simple or complex.
For example, picking up a belt to wear may be simple but deciding what to buy or sew is a more complex decision that relate to their clothing needs. Each time people decide what to wear, they consciously or unconsciously go through a decision making process Weber, 1990). Unconscious decisions are unplanned decisions while conscious decisions are planned decisions.
Fabric and Garment decision-making involves identifying types of fabrics and garment to be purchased (Ombugadu, 2005). The author further stated that clothing decision is a conclusion arrived at after consideration on the article of clothing to be purchased. Making the best garment choices for oneself on a regular basis requires good decision making habits. They must be consciously made or planned. Good decisions on what to wear cannot be achieved through trial and error method. A logical decision-making process should be followed for one to get better and more consistent result about one‟s choices. Decision making process is a series of steps that are followed in order to make effective decisions. According Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), good decision making involves five steps which include;
Identifying the problem
Obtaining information and searching for possible alternatives or courses of action
Considering the consequences of each alternative or course of action Selecting an alternative or a course of action after due consideration.
For the right clothing or garment choice to be selected, each of the steps in decision making process must be applied. The working class woman should first of all recognize the kind of work she does and that the decision should be such that would promote his work.
Having identified the problem, the working class woman takes the next step of obtaining information and searching for possible alternatives or courses of action (Anyakoha and Eluwa,
2010). That means considering the means – the resources (material and human), available for solving the problem. Each of the alternative means identified advantages and disadvantages.
The next step is to consider the consequences of each alternative or course of action and finally choosing a particular alternative considered best, after due considerations in the previous step, the right choice is the one that will work best for the decision maker.
Once the decision has been made, it is important to take time and evaluate it. Evaluating the result of each decision made will help the decision-maker to identify what is important in the future. According to Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), evaluating a decision has to do with looking at the outcome to see whether it was good or bad and then going back to the process for clues about why the decision turned out as it did.
This process of decision-making is very important in clothing utilization. This is so because, if clothing is to perform its varied functions, it is to be appropriately selected for specified purpose or functions. Effective decisions on the right clothing to wear, including the right methods of sewing the garment or the right style to sew, when to wear garments for various occasions require careful thought. Such decisions must therefore involve all steps of decision making.
Factors that influence selection and utilization of fabrics/garment
The way one dresses communicates messages about him or her to others. The messages about one‟s sex, age, size, nationality, occupation, religion, social status, temperament, etc, can be read through one‟s appearance or dressing. Thus, clothing has a silent language which comprises non verbal messages given to others about an individual or persons by the individual‟s appearance. Clothing is therefore, a key factor in creating first impression (Igbo 2001).
Since clothing or garment can send out strong messages about oneself to others, it is important to select garment that will highlight one‟s best features and down play problem areas.
To achieve this therefore, it is important to be thoughtful when selecting one‟s garment. This involves consideration of some important factors, which according to Mbah, Orherewe and
Osifeso (2001) are; age of the wearer, sex, colour, size, occasion, and income/cost. Other factors include fit of garment, comfort, texture, safety, quality/durability, weather condition, health condition and body shape, etc. Each of these factors affect garment selection in one way or the other as can be seen in discussion below.
Age
At different stages of life, individuals have different needs in clothing. For instance during the first years of life, the individual undergoes the greatest growth rate in the shortest period of time. Therefore, clothing for children must allow proper growth to take place.
Adolescent too grow taller and change in body proportions size and appearance. As individuals approach middle age, gradual but definite physical changes may be noted in body contour and proportions owing to increased weight and deposits around the waist, stomach and hips. As old age approaches, the body tends to grow shorter and posture and mobility changes are noticed. Thus, physiological growth and development make varying demands on clothing. That is to say that as individuals progress from one age grade to another, their clothing need vary.
Therefore, to be able to select adequate and comfortable clothing for any individual, age is an important factor that must be considered. Academic and non academic female staff have different age groups which range from 25 – 60 and so have special needs as regards age which must be put into consideration before selecting their garments.
Colour
In clothing, three of the most important element of design are line, colour and texture,
(Anyakoha and Eluwa, 2010). Understanding how they work help in selecting attractive styles.
Both the colour of the clothing items to be selected and the colour of the skin of the individual to use the items are very important in garment selection and utilization.
Just as there are fashionable garment, accessories, hair style and facial adornment, there are fashionable colours. A colour family or hues are those found in sun and fire and they include red, yellow, and orange while cool hues are those found in water and sky and they include green, blue and violet.
The warmth or coolness of a hue carries with it an illusion of visual weight. Thus warm hues are known as advancing hue because they create an illusion of moving forward (Marshall et all, 2000) Warm hues make objects, shapes, or area appear larger, more important, and closer than other colours. They emphasize the body size and contours. Cool hues on the other hand are receding hues. They make objects, shapes or area appear smaller, less important and farther away than other colours. They minimize the apparent body size and shape. If for instance two people of the exact dimensions are dressed in exactly the same style garments except that one outfit is a warm red and the other is a cool blue, when viewed from a distance and in the same colour environment, the person wearing the warmth hue will appear to be closer and large while the person wearing the cool hue will appear to be farther away and smaller. Therefore, individuals who wish to increase body size should choose warm hues while those who wish to decrease body size should select cool hue.
People‟s eye colour, skin tone and hair colour differ. In clothing selection, it is important to look at a person‟s eye colour, skin tone, and hair colour to enhance his or her natural colouring. This is called colour analysis and it enables one to select suitable clothing. Marshal et al (2000) noted that people look the most pleasing when their clothing is in harmony with the natural colouring of their eyes, skin and hair. Mbah et al (2001) also-remarked that colours that will envelope one‟s bad features and bring out the good ones are best. This information is very important to Academic and non academic female staff as this will help them in selecting best colour appropriate for them.
Texture
As earlier mentioned, texture is one of the three most important elements of design in clothing. Texture according to Marshal et al (2000) is the element of design that describes surface appearance and feel. It refers to surface qualities of things. Texture is a sensory impression involving touch and sight. Fabric, metal, leather, and straw each has a distinctive texture. Texture can be described as smooth, heavy, fine glossy or nubby (Clayton, 2006).
Texture can also be described in relation to their hand or fall or drapeability.
Texture is determined by the arrangement of the component parts in fabric which include the fibre, yarn, the fabrication (example weave or knit) and the finish that make up a fabric. The texture of fabrics is affected by the characteristics of the raw materials used and by the production processes from fibre to the final stage when the finish is applied. As such, texture determines how the fabric should be used. Garment designs too, should respect the fabric‟s texture characteristics, otherwise it cannot be satisfactory. In other words, texture and garment styling must be compatible. Thus, an understanding of the dynamics of texture helps individual consumers to make better decisions as they select apparel products and items if personal adornment.
The texture of one‟s clothing can affect his or her appearance (Anyakoha and Eluwa
2010). For instance stiff textured fabrics stand always from the body and hide body irregularities.
Some textures add volume to the body by virtue of their weight and bulky nature. These fabrics, like those in the stiff classification may by contrast be overpowering on the very slight, very thin, or petite body, but the tall, slender person can use these textures more effectively.
Texture can be used to improve appearance (Anyakoha and Eluwa 2010). For instance, dull texture make one look smaller, while nubby textures make one seem large. Shiny textures also increase size. Also, thick bulky fabrics increase apparent size while lighter-weight fabrics have a slimming effect. A heavy texture can be worn by a tall person, but may overpower a small one.
The understanding of the dynamics of texture is of immense help to Academic and non academic female staff when selecting their office garments.
Safety
In spite of all the protection that garment may provide, at times it can also be amazingly hazardous. For instance, long flowing garments can get caught in doors escalators, bicycles or motorcycle wheels or they can trip the weaver or stairs. Anything that dangles from the body such as long sleeves, ties, flowing sleeves of skirts or gowns, etc is hazardous in the sense that it is apt to get caught on something like doors, fire or other sharp pointed objects. Some textile fibres and fabrics such as cotton, rayon, and acetate, are highly flammable and when they burn directly next to the skin, the damage done is frequently fatal. Although the synthetic fibres rarely burst into flame, they frequently melt into hot sticky globs that can stick to the body and result in severe skin destruction. Fabrics with brushed or pile surface, such as velour and flannelette, are particularly fire hazards because of the air entrapped between the fibres. Some shoes too, such as spike heeled, can have safety problems. They can cause turned ankles and also trip the wearer. This is so because the higher the centre of gravity the less stable the victim.
Good clothing or any article of adornment must guarantee the safety of the wearer. They should not be a source of accident to people. Safety is an important factor to all including
Academic and non academic female staff. In selecting garment for work, flowing garments which can stuck on doors, bicycle or motorcycle and or tight garment which restrict movement should be avoided. Fabrics that are flame proof should be preferred especially for those engaged in works that has to do with fire.
Health
Garment can be healthy or non-healthful. Thus, the health that garment ensures must be considered when selecting clothing for any individual. Health is important to people of all category or groups.
According to Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), clothing is healthful to the extent that it helps to regulate body heat and protect the skin against injury and environmental irritants. It may also be non healthful to the extent that it causes skin irritations, encourage bacterial growth or restrict the body in such a way that deformation results. Skin irritations caused by wearing apparel can be owing to sensitivity to certain fibres and fabrics. Discomfort can be caused by synthetic fibres because of their low absorbency, thereby resulting to accumulation of moisture on the skin. Items of wearing apparel made from rubber or spandex such as girdles, dress shields, gloves, etc. have been reported to cause dermatitis, but in all cases the cause of irritation has been the chemicals used in processing the materials rather than the rubber or firbre itself. Resins and other finishes applied to fabrics or to leather are the chief causes of such irritation.
Clean textile fabrics can afford good protection to the skin while soiled clothing encourage bacterial growth. Soiled clothing often contains large number of microbes many of which may remain alive on fabrics for extended period of time. Many of these micro-organisms are harmless but some such as staphylococcus aureus and pseudomonas can cause skin lesion, pneumonia or kidney infection and para-colon bacteria may infect the intestine (Nchekwube,
2009).
Some garments are sheer torture to wear. Some girdles and shoes are non-healthful to wear. Although many elasticized garments give healthful support to sagging muscles, any article of clothing that causes flesh to bulge above and or below it can be said to be too tight. Such garments have tourniquet effect and restrict the flow of blood in the body, which is non-healthful to the wearer.
The health condition of an individual can also affect clothing selection. The health problem suffered by an individual will to a large extent influence the type of garment that he or she will put on. For instance, an asthmatic individual can dress in a thick and warm fabric on a normal cool day while a non asthmatic, healthy person would not, because it can be irritating. Academic and non academic female staff are supposed to wear garment that are healthful especially the sick ones and those with certain disabilities.
Fit/Comfort
Fit is the correspondence in form of a piece of clothing to one‟s body (Marshal; 2000).
Properly fitted garments give one a feeling of physical comfort and self-confidence while improperly fitted clothing can never appear attractive or give the look of quality clothing. Ill fitted garment can depict both comical pathetic characters. In a comic role, oversized clothing is often used to elicit laughter, whereas the pathetic character may wear clothing that is either too tight or too loose to evoke pity.
The main indicator of improper fit is wrinkle. Clothing should fit over the body without wrinkles. Sometimes wrinkles are caused by a person‟s posture, but more likely they are caused by a garment being too tight or too loose for the individuals body build. Garments should envelop the body without wrinkles and balance evenly around the many figure defects such as pear shaped bust or chest, rounded shoulders, thickened waist hip, sagged muscles, wrinkles, etc. and they create serious fitting problems. To ensure fit in her clothing, consideration must be given to these figure defects. Styles that would conceal them are preferable.
Fit is important to Academic and non academic female staff and can be achieved through proper clothing selection. Marshal et al (2010) supported this by stating that figure variations can be successfully camouflaged, creating the illusion of a perfect figure through fit. Generally, to achieve fit too. Individual figure types must be considered.
Comfortability and fit of garment is necessary in all garments to be worn by anybody including the Academic and non academic female staff so as to allow free motion. Therefore, if proper fit is to be achieved, non restrictive clothing should be sewn Ezema, (2010). Along with good fit, Academic and non academic female staff want their garment to be comfortable in relation to temperature. Some people find polyester and other manufactured fibres too hot to wear in hot weather. Others can wear manufactured fibres in both hot and cold weather. Thus fit and comfort are very important factor in garment selection.
Durability/ Care
A wise consumer should always consider the durability of the clothing selected as well as the care needed to maintain its durability. Garment should be well made, since it is usually subjected to much strain. Ukpore (2009), remarked that although two pieces of garment may look the same, they may differ considerably such that one may last longer than the other.
The durability or quality of a garment is judged by; (a) good design, (b) the fabric or materials of which the clothing is made (c) the workmanship and method used in sewing it. To achieve a good design, everything about design in garment such as texture, colour, line, etc must be considered and an individual should then select the items that are appropriate for him/her, with respect to his/her figure. In the same vein, for one to be able to make a wise choice from the different fabrics that exist in the market today, he or she must learn about fabrics commonly used in clothing and be familiar with their characteristics and how to care for them. Workmanship on the other hand can be judged by inspecting the cutting of the garment and the care that has gone into sewing and finishing the garment. For instance, the fabric should be cut with “grain”, that is straight with lengthwise or crosswise threads. The pattern in the fabric should be matched at the seams. Button holes should be firmly made and seams should be made to permit adjustment in size. Finally, collars and labels should fit smoothly, sleeves should hang straight from the shoulders and armholes smooth and free from wrinkles. The garment should fit without being too tight or too loose. In considering the durability of clothing of garment, the colour fastness of the garment item (especially, coloured fabrics) is included. Durable or quality garment must be colour fast.
The ease of care required by a garment is an important factor. According to Nkeonye
(2009), washable, easy-to-care garments are appreciated. The Academic and non academic female staff require garment that are easy to care for.
Weather conditions
Every weather condition demands special type of clothing from the wearer. According to
Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010), the garment we have should protect us and help us to be comfortable in various kinds of weather. Dressing that does not correspond to the right weather condition can be uncomfortable and also create wrong impression about the wearer. Garment selection for all class of people including Academic and non academic female staff must seriously consider the weather condition.
Occasion
Different occasions require different garments. Dressing which is suitable in a particular occasion may not be suitable in another occasion. Different activities such as sports, office, work, sleep, religious worship, picnics, parties/social gatherings, school, domestic work, etc, require different garments. Corresponding garment should be put on each occasion an individual is involved in.
Thus, the use to which a particular garment will be subjected, will determine the type of garment to be selected.
Income/Cost/Finance
This is an important factor in garment selection. The amount of money spent on clothing depends on the income available. The income available determines the quality and quantity of clothing selected (Anyakoha and Eluwa, 2010). Mbah et al (2001) also added that the money at hand affects the care given to ones garments. There is no doubt that a garment which requires dry-cleaning given to an individual of a very low income group will suffer poor maintenance.
Academic and non academic female staff consider their income level while selecting their garments so as to curtail spending too much on garments at the expense of other needs.
Utilization of Nigerian Fabrics
Nigerians are beginning to appreciate Nigeria-made fabrics and attire more today than in the 80‟s when they were more interested in western fabrics and attires. Back in the days, young men and women usually preferred suits, T-shirt and short sleeve for office and also for birthday parties and weddings. For beach parties or picnic, a simple short sleeve with palm tree design or pictures were usually worn for such recreation – and they were usually made from western fabrics. But times have changed and public perception and appreciation of Nigerian attires have improved both locally and internationally. In the late 90s and early 2000s, there were adverts from government and Nigeria-made fabric producers, which encouraged Nigerians to embrace locally-made fabrics Okeke, (2004). Nigerian fashion designers have helped to showcase Nigerian made fabrics and attires through their many beautiful designs in-country and at international fashion shows, consequently increasing the love for Ankara, Lace, Satin, Apoche and Aso Oke by Nigerians in other countries who are always proud to dress in local taste even when outside the country (Cable News, March 06 2005).
Nigerian ceremonial parties, such as weddings, birthdays and wedding anniversaries, are usually adorned with different beautiful styles by both men and women, young and old. Aso Ebi, which is usually encouraged by families of both the bride and groom for friends and relatives, adds colour and glamour to wedding ceremonies. Nigerian fabrics are also utilized largely in attires for churches and other religious activities. Various styles sewn with Nigerian fabrics include skirt and blouse, gown, blouse and rapper for women; while suit, short and long-sleeve shirts and trousers go for men mostly made with Ankara. Sometimes, some pieces of lace are added to women‟s dresses to further beautify them. It has become customary for staff of some companies to wear Nigerian attires to office on Fridays, as a matter of office policy. Other staff wears Nigerian attire to work on Mondays and at other working days of the week in some companies where simple dress styles are allowed, and this usually looks beautiful – although not banks and other companies that emphasize strict corporate wears from Monday to Thursday.
Furthermore, from countless boardrooms to catwalks all over the world, the Nigerian fabric has proven to be so versatile that it is now recognized on the global fashion scene. A number of celebrities have been spotted in Ankara ensembles on red carpets globally. To many, the Nigerian fabric has become a wardrobe staple already. This development has led to a change in the general perception of the Nigerian fabrics worldwide. According to Obiana, (2011), blends of Nigerian outfits from elegant creativity of the designers have made Nigerian fabrics preferred choice of the rich and celebrities. The Nigerian print fabric has metamorphosed from cultural attire to a glamorous wardrobe must-have. Due to the ready availability of Nigerian fabrics like
Ankara in the local market, it has become the preferred choice of fabric when making custom designed outfits. Nigerian designers and their Ankara designs are now sought out in all the echelons of the global society. The Ankara fashion industry has proven to be a veritable goldmine in these ways and many more. A lot of Ankara fashion shows spring up daily all over the global fashion scene. One notable development is the Ankara Invasion. This has been adopted as the collective name for the current global Ankara trend. Different items fashioned out of the Ankara fabric are now spotted in places where it was once viewed as unsuitable. According Duro (2015) Countless international designers have launched various new designs revolving around the Ankara fabric. Marc Jacobs, Givenchy, Eley Kishimoto, Jean Paul Gaultier,
Diane Von Furstenberg, Gwen Stefani, Dries van Noten, Kenzo and Paul Smith among others have included items fashioned out of Ankara fabric in their recent collections. A lot of renowned celebrities and Nigerian Leaders have also taken to this fashion trend. Celebrity like Kim
Kardashian a popular music, Dr. Ngozi Okonjo Iwuala, the immediate past Minister of Finance and many other leaders have adopted the Ankara fabric and have been spotted in daring designs using one or more of the fabrics. The rise on the trend isn‟t restricted to celebrities alone. A lot of foreigners who have seen the designs at work, on TV or even at school have joined the movement.
The Ankara fabric is one that is very versatile and constantly evolving to meet today‟s fashion fads. Hence, one may go as far as saying that Nigerian fabric and the trend have come to stay on the local and global fashion market.
Clothing items produced using Nigerian Fabrics:
There are many clothing items that are made using Nigerian Fabrics. They include;
Garments:Ankara has infiltrated the fashion world, it has gone beyond its use for
wrapper and loose blouse (iro and buba), now is enjoying the favour of contemporary
fashion styles; with the skills of creative designers, Ankara when blend with other
matching fabrics, is made into endless styles and designs for both office and formal
occasions. Examples of styles made using Nigerian fabrics are: long skirts and blouses,
short skirts, long and short gowns, trousers, suits, blazers, sleeveless gowns worn with
blazers etc. Accessories: They now engage Ankara in making beautiful accessories such as bags,
shoes, dresses, bracelets, bangles, hair ruffles, earrings and even bikini. Nigerian made
fabrics are going places with Nigerians at home and in the diaspora making simple but
attractive attires with it (Sunday Times, July 2000). Ankara has gone beyond the closets
of Nigerian designers, it has found its way into the international runways and American
celebrities such as Fergie, Beyoncé and her sister Solange are now fans of the fabrics.
Garment and style
Garments are forms of clothes, including gowns, skirts, blouses, shirts or tops, and trousers specially constructed from fabrics or other materials to serve different functions for the wearer; including protection, promotion of health, safety and improvement of job efficiency.
Garment, besides satisfying human need for protection and adornment, also provide media for artistic expression for weavers, dyers, tailors and clothing designers (Vanderhoff, Frank and
Campbell, 1985). However when constructing a garment, there are several steps needed to follow meticulously in addition to the use of sewing aids which play a crucial role in the quality of any garment (Ozugwu, 2008).
Garment making according to Okeke (2004) is the act of designing, cutting, arranging and sewing different components of a dress. She said garment making is a technical accomplishment that requires knowledge of fabrics, principles of clothing construction and skills involved in it). The author further stated that this depends on the ability to select the correct fabric, colour, design and accessories to suit an individual occasion. According to Damhorst,
Mary Lynn, Kelly Jondle, and Christi Youngberg (2004), the basic garment making processes of ready to wear apparel involves many processes right from pattern drafting to garment construction which include pattern designing and pattern making, grading, marker making, apparel cutting, sewing, pressing and finishing. These basic processes are:
Pattern Making: The basic procedure for apparel making is to design a pattern and put it
into an identifiable form. The traditional method of pattern making includes creation of
hard paper patterns. The modern apparel making system has adopted the digitization of
pattern making process. These days many clothing firms provide the most modern and
technical services for garment construction. They can create fresh computerized patterns
or make modifications to existing hard paper patterns or digitize the available data. These
patterns can be made from their own samples or specifications provided by the apparel
manufacturers. Most of these firms try to provide patterns that will sew properly without
confusion in the production line.
Pattern Grading: Grading is the process used for creating sized patterns. There are
certain proportional rules and set increments that form the basis of grading. These rules
are set on the basis of analysis on body measurements of the general population. The
clothing firms also help in pattern grading using the specifications provided by the
apparel manufacturers and some of them also assist the manufacturers in establishing
specifications for their product. The grade rules are developed keeping in view the market
segment for which the product is intended such as men, women, youth, child, toddler etc.
These firms mostly use the softwares available in the market for checking the accuracy of
the grades.
Marker making: Textile fibres Fabric is the most important basic material for apparel
making and it accounts for around 50 per cent of the ex-factory cost of a garment. Thus,
material optimization or maximizing fabric utilization is the fundamental factor for every apparel firm. Marker making is done to avoid material wastage. While making markers,
fabric width, length, fabric type and subsequent cutting method, all are taken into
account. Both single size and multiple size paper markers are made using automated
marker making tools and Computer Aided Design Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CADCAM) along with traditional manual methods. The firms providing this service use
previously graded pattern or the digitized copy of styles provided by the apparel
manufacturers.
Apparel Cutting: Apart from using traditional tools such as straight knife, band knife,
shears etc. nowadays, automatic spreading equipment and computerized cutting systems
are widely used for apparel cutting. Pattern specifications are kept into consideration
while cutting which ensures that the constructed garment is exactly similar to the sample
produced. The use of markers ensures as little textile waste as possible.
Apparel Sewing: The sewing operation in most of the garment construction companies is
closely supervised for quality control. A variety of apparel styles and fabrics are sewn
these days. There are a large number of sewing machines available for almost any sewing
operation. Some of the examples of such machines are single needle, double needle,
safety stitch, automatic meter, automatic multi stitch, loop tacker, pocket welt, keyhole
buttonhole, automatic button sewer, round eyelet etc.
Pressing and Finishing: After the sewing operation, the constructed garments are
examined, pressed, tagged and bagged in the pressing and finishing department. The
automated processes adopted these days prevent the possibility of wrinkling of the sewn
garments throughout the finishing process. Most garments made from Nigerian fabrics do not come in ready to wear and may not undergo all the above stages. Most times they are cut to fit or custom made garments made by tailors according to specification of the owner and they are not mass produced. This has in one way affected the utilization of the indigenous fabrics by consumers including Academic and non academic female staff. According to statistics presented by national union of textile, garment and tailoring workers of Nigerian (2004), there was an increase in the value of imported garment over domestically produced garment. This was due to varieties of styles of the imported garments, availability in form of ready to wear, and relatively cheap price. Academic and non academic female staff are among the people that have flare for the foreign garment because of above reasons. To address the problem, the government took a step by suspending the importation of textiles and ready-to-wear garments into the country. This action was taken mostly to sustain the textile industries from total collapse, more so to promote greater consumption of Nigerian fabrics. This ban on importation will not be enough in curtailing the importation without putting strategies to increase the availability of Nigerian made fabrics and garments made from them especially in form of ready-to-wear and in varied styles so that consumers can easily pick them from the market. Once there is a positive change of attitude of consumers towards utilization of Nigerian fabrics and garments made from them, there will be an increase in production capacity of Nigerian fabrics industries which will eventually help in improving and sustaining the economy of the country.
Garment styles
A style is a collection of individual features making up a garment. Clothing styles are as varied as there are people and purposes. There are so many different types of apparel to choose among, and the options have only grown more varied throughout history. There are clothing choices for every occasion and style preference as well as choices tied strongly to culture.
According Williams-Mitchell, Christobal, (2012), several garment styles are available today depending on the purposes to which they serve. These include: Ceremonial Occasion garments,
Traditional garments, Sportswear, safety garment, Protective garment, Academic garments and
Office garments
Ceremonial and Festival garments
Ceremonies, festivals, and other rituals provide a structure for an individual or a group to reaffirm social values and ties (Williams-Mitchell, Christobal, 2012). They tend to be public events seen as different from everyday which spotlight an important personal or cultural happening. The garments worn at these times are frequently special to the occasion and dramatically symbolic; they can reflect historical or cultural preferences that are no longer in vogue. Examples of ceremonies include funerals, childbirth, and child-naming occasions, weddings, chieftaincy celebrations, and house-opening feasts. These are important social events where members of different extended families come together and dress in their finest clothing.
Men wear a garment ensemble consisting of tailored kaftans, trousers, and hats made from strip- woven cloth while women wear a wrapper ensemble, blouse, and a head tie. The Yoruba have a custom called aso-ebi, where male and female members of families and social clubs appear together in dress made of the same type of cloth. Aso-ebi cloth may be special-ordered or purchased at the market and when worn, it visually reinforces the group's cohesion.
Traditional garments: Traditional dress may be defined as the ensemble of garments, jewelry, and accessories rooted in the past that is worn by an identifiable group of people.
Though slight changes over time in color, form, and material are acknowledged, the assemblage seems to be handed down unchanged from the past. Traditional dress or costume is a phrase used widely both by the general public and writers on dress. What is called traditional dress might in the early twenty-first century be more correctly called ethnic dress, donned to express diverse identities and affiliations such as cultural pride, nationalist or ethnic group politics, or to make a statement about personal, aesthetic, and cultural values. A woman in the north would prefer a buba over a suit while the men would want to be seen in sokoto, buba, fila, Abeti-aja and agbada.
Agbada is the most preferred by northern politicians and the rich people. Nigerian fashion and sense changes as you move down the tribes from the north to the south and down to the eastern part occupied by the Igbo. You will yet be stunned by their new kind of attire, their sophisticated attire that comes with the heads of either lion or leopard round about it.
Marriage, religious rituals, festivals, folkloric dance performances, and historical re-enactments are occasions for donning the dress of the past in parts of the world
Sports garment: At the beginning of the twenty-first century, "sportswear" describes a broad category of fashion-oriented comfortable attire based loosely on clothing developed for participation in sports. "Active sportswear" is the term used to cover the clothing worn specifically for sport and exercise activities. It consists of separate pieces that may be "mixed and matched," a merchandising term meaning that articles of clothing are designed to be coordinated in different combinations: trousers or shorts or skirts with shirts (either woven or knit, with or without collars, long-sleeved or short) and sweaters (either pullovers or cardigans) or jackets of a variety of sorts. They are mainly mass produced ready-to-wear garments with different colour and design, depending on the type of sports.
Office Garments: Office garment are garments mainly worn to works. Some offices allow highly casual dress, including jeans and shorts, gown, skirts, blouses, trousers, suits, shirts flat shoes, high heeled shoes, sandals bags etc. Permissible styles vary greatly across firms, geographic areas, and occupations and age and gender of workers (Williams-Mitchell,
Christobal, 2012). The styles equally depend on whether the occupation is a uniform occupation or non uniform.
Uniformed Occupation: Occupational uniforms are uniforms worn by members of certain
professional groups during work or at official occasions. Professional uniforms have
become part of modern concepts of corporate identity and corporate culture. Uniform
dress at work is designed to communicate the philosophy of an organization or company
and thereby is an increasingly important tool of marketing strategies. According to
Chowdhary, (2002), corporate fashion can significantly raise the image of a company and
thereby elevate its stock-market value. Within a company, uniform dress, which is
comfortable, fashionable, and clean, has been shown to improve working performance of
employees by increasing their motivation and their identification with their company and
fellow workers. A good-looking professional uniform attracts new customers and
produces the image of trustworthiness and economic achievement. The style of corporate
uniforms changes according to the message a company wants to convey. In production,
tailors may be invited who followed the uniforms regulations published by the
organisation. Some prominent uniform suppliers published their own summaries of the
regulations and added illustrations and pattern drawings. The widespread need for
uniforms during the nineteenth century led to the development of factories that produced
ready-to-wear as well as made-to-measure uniforms. Eventually, large department stores
offered a whole range of civil uniforms, including very richly embroidered ones. Today,
industries offer wide varieties of clothes ranging from simple standard items, such as T-
shirts and sweaters individualized by embroideries and corporate colors, to complete corporate fashion lines. When a large organization decides to introduce new uniforms,
well-known designers are hired to work very closely with the executive management in
order to develop a unique design that communicates the company's corporate image.
Before ordering new uniforms, prudent companies find out their employees' wishes and
expectations and have them test sample garments to determine whether the uniforms can
fulfil the requirements of practical function, quality, and comfort. Some examples of
occupations that have uniform are: Military, paramilitary, professional groups (judges,
judges, priests) some corporate organisations etc.
Non Uniform Occupations: These are types of occupation that do not require or use
uniforms. People in these types of occupation go to work on any type of dress of their
choice. Examples of these occupation that do not require uniforms are teachers, ministry
workers etc. There are different types of garment that may be worn by people that belong
to these groups. Examples are suits, trousers and shirts, skirts and blouses, jeans and T-
shirts and many other casual or cooperate garments depending on their dress codes.
Academic Garments: Academic dress is the formal attire worn by students and officials at a commencement or graduation ceremony. Typically, this included a flowing gown, a hood or cape, and some sort of head wear; the contemporary form of this ensemble depends on the rules dictated by the institution with which the student or official is associated. Cap and gown has widely been adopted by many institutions, with even nursery schools conferring honours on their infant graduates.
Protective garment: Clothing has been used for protection since the beginning of time, shielding the human body from physical, social, emotional, and spiritual threats, real and imagined. Today, the term, protective clothing is generally used to denote apparel and apparel accessories that focus on physical protection for the body. The array of physical threats from which clothing provides protection today is endless. Most people use clothing to protect themselves from cold, heat, rain, snow, sun, and other aspects of day-to-day weather. But protective clothing also allows the body to exist in hazardous environments such as the deep sea or outer space. It is worn to protect individuals from many different hazards in war zones or in the workplace-from falling debris to toxic chemicals to bullets to insect bites. It provides protection for sports and leisure activities as diverse as hockey, cycling, and skiing. Many individuals with injuries or handicaps use protective clothing to prevent further body damage or to substitute for loss of body functions.
Suitable garment styles of Nigerian fabrics for Academic and non academic female staff
Nigerian dress styles are loved by the Nigerian people. Moreso, different types of
Nigerian fabrics are used to sew many styles. However, of all these styles of Nigerian fabrics, there are some that are suitable for office use and some that are not. Fabrics styles among
Academic and non academic female staff should be such that stabilizes the work place atmosphere, promotes decorum and has a real and reasonable connection with the successful operation of the work ethics and with the maintenance of work place. According to Fayokun
(2009) choice of styles of clothing in office is founded more on cogent and tenable reasoning such as: upholding of work standards, promotion of decorum and discipline in work place atmosphere, enforcement of morality and decency and security awareness. He further stated that certain styles of clothes are found suitable for office. Such styles include: suits, short/long sleeve shirts, cooperate trousers and shorts, sleeveless gowns worn with blazer suits, Ankara shoes and bags. It has become customary for staff of some companies to wear Nigerian attires to office on Fridays, as a matter of office policy for instance banks and any style of Nigerian fabrics are worn on such days.
Considering the importance of utilization of Nigerian fabric for its benefits to the economy of the country the clothing manufacturers can go into mass production of such clothing styles that are suitable for office with Nigerian fabrics in form of ready to wear so that Academic and non academic female staff would increase their utilization of Nigerian fabrics.
Factors Affecting utilization of garments made with Nigerian fabric.
The consumer is a personality whose behavior is governed by different and varied influences such as: his society beliefs, attitude, his past learning, experience, perception and his expectations. These form his taste choice and product preference. There is therefore, need to examine those factors that influence and affect consumer buying decision with a view to uncovering reasons behind Nigerian consumers seeming preference for foreign garments over locally manufactured fabrics.
The factors affecting Utilization of Nigerian made fabrics are many but they can be grouped under five broad headings: economic factors, historical forces, psychological forces, poor marketing and poor governmental control.
Economic Factors
The economic factors which tend to affect the utilization of Nigerian made fabrics center around product quality, price, and product availability (Leon and Kanuk, 2007). There is a popular belief that the qualities of local fabrics are lower than those of their imported counterparts. There is evidence in the literature to substantiate this view. In a survey of 171 consumers in Kano metropolis, Agbonifoh (1995) found that 93 percent of the respondents considered locally-produced fabrics inferior to the imported ones. Next to quality as an economic determinant of consumer choice is price. In spite of the widespread belief that locally manufactured products are inferior in quality to the foreign ones; complaints of the high prices of locally-made items are rampant. For example, Shobowale (2007) has claimed that although imported textiles are superior in quality to home-made ones, they are much cheaper especially the ready-to wear fabric or clothes.
The final economic factor considered here is fabrics availability. The abundance of foreign brands of many kinds of fabrics in our markets makes it easy for consumers to satisfy their yearnings from these imported items more so as garments made with local fabrics are not available in ready-to-wear.
Psychological Forces
A number of psychological forces operate in the consumer to influence his perception towards local and foreign fabrics. Firstly, there are individuals who, in the search for distinctiveness, exclusiveness and egotism, seek out those fabrics which can confer these qualities. For example the urge to stand in the crowd can lead one to purchase a rare fabric or garment, a fabric which can be described in popular parlance as “one-in-town”. For many
Nigerians, foreign fabrics/garments probably have images that bestow these qualities on the buyer or owner. Secondly, for many people, oversea countries are places they would cherish to visit either for sightseeing or for image-boosting purposes; as a result they buy their fabrics/garments as a way of identifying themselves with those countries.
Historical Factors
Habit and previous experiences have considerable influences on consumer perception and choice (Aire, 2008). Prior to independence most manufactured fabrics consumed in Nigeria were imported as there were very few manufacturing enterprises in the country. The qualities of the fabrics of the few local industries in the country at that time could, understandably, not match those of many imported substitutes. That era marked the origin of the notion that foreign fabrics are generally superior to locally-made ones, an ingrained belief that still lingers on in the heads of many Nigerians, perhaps particularly among those of the older generations.
In addition to the above, another historical factor that helps to explain consumer preference for foreign fabrics is the perception of the former colonial masters and early missionaries most of whom tended not to see anything good in Nigerians.
Poor Government Attitude
In two major ways, one through commission and the other through omission, the government has contributed immensely to the present perception of many consumers to local fabrics. The government has contributed to the unfavorable attitude of Nigerians to local fabrics either by allowing all kinds of fabrics to be imported (or dumped) into the country at low rates of import duties or through its feeble attempts at checking smuggling. The resultant ease with which foreign fabrics can be obtained has had negative effects on local fabrics.
Poor Marketing
Another factor that encourages consumers to patronize foreign fabrics is poor marketing.
This factor has many facets, the major ones being concerned with the status of marketing in the firm, management attitude to consumer orientation, poor fabric planning, pricing and promotion.
Alego (2007) pointed out that effective marketing management is essential in the process of building up a favorable image for any fabric. The absence of consumer orientation on the part of producers appears to have contributed to the alienation of the Nigerian consumer and the resulting consumer preference for imports.
Academic and non academic female staff
Academic and non academic female staff are those who are working under the authority of a boss or are bosses themselves at work. Doob (2013) defined Academic and non academic female staff as women employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled industrial work. The author further said that working-class women include those engaged in occupations that include blue-collar jobs, white-collar jobs, and most service-work jobs. Doob
(2013) stated working class to include all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power and skills. In the context of this study Academic and non academic female staff include all sedentary female worker in Nigeria and Enugu state in particular. They are within the age bracket of 25 – 60. These women may include both literate and non literate in private or public organizations or academic and non academic staff in institutions settings. The literates are those that are educated while the illiterates are the uneducated ones. In institutions are found the academics who are the teaching staff of the institutions and the non academics include all other staff that are not teaching or lecturing staff members, examples are the administrative staff, security, technicians etc.
Types of Academic and non academic female staff
The working class consists of all women who must work for someone else in order to make money with which to survive. This includes factory workers, maintenance people, programmers, government and private employees, temporal workers, or contract employees. It also includes artists and tradesmen, because they work for those whom will buy their goods, or they work for some employer who pays for their efforts.These career women could be persons engrossed in their occupation or vocation. This career or work engages them during the day and defines a great part of their overall life. These Academic and non academic female staff are generally conditioned by society and culture to pay attention to their appearance (dress) and how they portray themselves, especially in the workplace. However, the occupational attributes of Academic and non academic female staff are also affected by what they choose to wear. Academic and non academic female staff perceive garments as being more than just a basic necessity that covers and provides warmth to the body. They use garments especially as a tool to express their personality, hence associating themselves with a certain social status and to communicating personal values to others when not in the office or during functions. Therefore, working class woman‟s garments have an occupational and emotional aspect linked to them (Doob, 2013).
In Enugu state, women especially the Academic and non academic female staff are generally attracted to possess variety of garments. It is being observed that these clothing items possessed by the women are mostly imported ready-to-wear garments. Though they utilize
Nigerian fabrics, it is mostly on occasions like dance troupe, naming ceremony, marriage, chieftaincy, burial, yam festival and other social functions rather than for office clothes except for few who wear them on Fridays as native garments. They choose to appear in simple Western attire because of the comfort and simplicity which is needed in clothes meant for office. Some of the styles sewn with Nigerian made fabrics are not always comfortable when worn to office.
Examples of such styles are heavy “george", “aso oke”, long skirts and buba, blouses tied with two rappers, heavy bead, head gele and other accessories which are most times uncomfortable.
Academic and non academic female staff also consider fabric manufacturing, printing designs, quality of printing and ease of care of fabrics to select fabrics for their wards‟ apparel (Jones,
2009). According to Ross (2008), a good fabric for making apparel should not fade. This is because clothing needs to be laundered and after many washings, one will not want the colour in the fabric to be washed out. Consumers look at the print on the fabric, to check whether the dye goes through the fibres or is just rolled on and barely saturating the fibres. Ross 2008said that if the dye is not embedded in the fabric, it will probably fade out after a couple of washings. A solid colour fabric which is the same colour on the front and back because the fibres are dyed are preferred to a print which is rolled on to a plain white muslin so the dye is not totally embedded in the fibres and is more apt to fade after repeated washings. Qualities of some Nigerian made fabrics are low that they tend to wash and lose their original colour and this scare some
Academic and non academic female staff away from its utilization. Academic and non academic female staff equally consider the cost while selecting their office dresses as some of them earn little amount that they cannot afford expensive clothes. They go for second hand clothes
(Okirika) with affordable prices rather than for expensive clothes. Nigerian fabrics are expensive to make and as such Academic and non academic female staff do not consider it the best option.
This is because it will cost a lot of money to purchase the fabrics together with tailoring the garment. Fashion designer and tailors are other negative contributors to the low patronage of
Nigerian made fabrics. Duro,(2014), noted that the inability of fashion designer and tailors to procure the right equipments together with their low skills in production of garments with these
Nigerian fabrics has negatively affected their utilization by Academic and non academic female staff. This is because they often get disappointed either from delay in getting the garments ready or the inability of tailors to produce customers‟ desired design with the accurate measurement to fit their shapes and sizes. These has caused the underutilization of Nigerian fabrics among these important groups of the society in Enugu state and the problems has escalated to grounding of many local fabric manufacturing industries and unemployment of many graduates of clothing and textile. This has also negatively affected the economy of the nation and calls for the need for this study in order to investigate measures to be taken in order to improve the utilization Nigerian fabrics among this group.
Measures to improve the Utilization of Nigerian Fabrics
In order to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff, the development of an organized wearing apparel market, utilizing distinct distribution channel and brand names should be pursued. This will require a shift from made –to – measure outfits to mass produced, quality, ready to wear garments thereby satisfying basic domestic needs and reducing the incidence of smuggling of high quality textiles and wearing apparel into the country. The government should enforce laws intended to reduce the exploitation of consumers by producers in area of fabrics quality and price. Importation of foreign should be reduced to barest minimum in order to compel Nigerians to buy available local fabrics. Appropriate disciplinary action should be taken against the violators of the laws against the importation of foreign fabrics. The Standard Organization of Nigeria should conduct the inspection of local manufacturers more vigorously and extensively.
Moreso Nigerian industries depend on imports of the raw materials. These include a sizeable percentage of cotton requirements and almost all of the dyes and chemicals. The reliance on imported raw material and the problem of sourcing for foreign exchange have contributed to high cost of production.Government should ensure that high quality long fibre cotton is grown locally by providing farmers with high quality seeds at subsidized rates.
Government should also monitor the use of the seeds to ensure the output is used effectively.
There should also the constant supply of power as most machines used in fabric manufacturing industries consume high voltage that cannot be supplied by generators and listers. Moreover, government should empower the local industries, fashion designers and tailors through the provision of appropriate machineries, training of staff and granting of loan to mass produce garments from the indigenous fabrics. All these when put in place will help improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff and self reliance and economic growth of the country will be promoted through textile industries.
SCHEMA OF CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
Fabric
Animal Vegetable Mineral Cellulose Non-cellulose
improved utilization
fabrics Working class women
Foreign garments Nigerian fabrics
- Colour fast - Fade - Durable Clothes ClothesShoe Bags - Not durable - Ready-to-wear s - Not ready-to-wear
Measures to improve utilization fabrics
Production of Use of Empowerment Use of Apprentice Advertisement, ready-to-wear good raw of fashion good training in Ban on materials designers and quality Clothing importation of tailors. machines manufacturing foreign fabrics, and fashion government designing offer of loans and grants to local fabrics industries.
The skimmer was developed by the researcher (2016) Summary of the Schema Fabric which is used in making garments is of four types thus: animal, plant, mineral, cellulose and non-cellulose. Academic and non academic female staff utilize both foreign and local fabrics in form of clothes, shoes and bags. But it is noticed that the utilization of foreign garments is dominating that of the local fabrics. These is as a result of factors like quality, availability, durability because while the foreign fabrics are colour fast, durable and available in ready-to-wear, the Nigerian fabrics fade easily, are not durable and not available in ready-to- wear. Because of this there is over dependence on foreign garment and consequently low utilization of Nigerian fabrics.
Measures will be taken in terms of use of good raw materials in production of Nigerian fabrics, production of ready-to-wear garments using Nigerian fabrics, empowerment of fashion designers and tailors through loans to purchase machines for mass production, apprentice training in fashion and designing, granting of loan to the local industries, advertisement of the local products and ban on importation of the foreign garment. These measures will help to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics.
Theoretical Framework
There are some theories that formed the bases of this research work. Some of them are discussed below:
Fabric Consumption theory was propounded by Braudrillard (2008). He propounded that consumption are based on the acceptance of „formal rationality‟, which assures an individual to pursue his individual happiness through items expected to provide the maximum satisfaction.
According to Baudrillard, consumers are not passive victims but actors within a social system that is perpetuated by the use of it, no matter for what end. The theory related to the work in the sense that consumer only get satisfied when the expected goods are consumed and these is the reason why some Academic and non academic female staff buy fabrics that satisfy them.
Psychological Motivation Fashion Consumption Theory was propounded by Veblen
(1979). He propounded that fashion consumption has been found consistent with the consumer behaviour. He also pointed out that the psychological motivations of fashion consumption are showing off and it is of symbolic significance. The consumption adoption flow upper social classes to lower ones. Once it is adopted by the lower grades, the upper classes initiate a new fashion and cast away the old. The relationship of Veblen theory to the present study is that fabric which is part of fashion is a symbol of change and changes with class or categories of people. Consumers of fashion are always in need of purchasing more fabric items mainly to show off.
Related Empirical Studies
Related studies have been conducted on properties of fabric and consumer attitude to local textile fabrics.
Yusuf (1998) assessed the market acceptability of made in Nigeria textile fabrics.
Parameters such as quality (design, aesthetic appeal, handle, durability etc.), prices distributors and promotional effort to market the products formed the basis for the investigation. Information related to these parameters were sourced from observation, questionnaire and interviews of randomly selected textile staff, distributors, retailers and consumers of the product. A total population of six hundred respondents was involved in the study. The data were carefully examined and analyzed. The outcome of the findings revealed that made in Nigeria textile products are only of moderate quality as against the expected high quality (measure of the international quality assurance) which is what makes textiles acceptable all over the world. Thus has led to low market acceptance of the products. This study is similar to the present study, because it is a survey research on wax print made in Nigeria fabric but is dissimilar to the present in that it accessed the general market acceptability of Nigerian fabrics while the present research wishes to access the acceptability of Nigerian Fabric among Academic and non academic female staff.
Orivri (2005) also conducted a comparative study on the properties of some selected foreign and locally made furnishing fabrics. The result shows that, it is evident that these fabrics posses unique properties with a character of their own that can be optimized for suitable end-use.
The fabrics are valued for their end-use, performance and aesthetic attractiveness. The results obtained, further suggest that the locally made fabrics are better in terms of wash fastness, fabric shrinkage, air permeability and abrasion resistance while the foreign fabrics are better in terms of crease recovery, drape-ability: tensile properties, wet ability, crimp, thickness, flammability and soil retention fabric sett weight M2 light fastness and fabric handle. Analysis of the result also shows that for warp and weft text count, they both have similar values and in all cases, the warp count is greater than the weft counts. Elebiyo (2000) and Orivri (2005) research studies are very much related to the present studies, in that they also studied the properties of some fabrics objectively, hence their findings will be useful in the discussion of the present research.
Edache (2008) investigated the attitudes of consumers in Benue State towards locally manufactured textiles fabrics. The objective of the study was to find out the affective, the cognitive and the behavioral component of attitudes of consumers in Benue State towards made in Nigeria fabrics. One null hypothesis was formulated and tested. The researcher used survey research design method. The research uses a total people of 1,253,000, a target people of 23 local government councils in Benue State and a sample of 63 consumers. Questionnaire was used as a data collection instrument, and the data was analyzed using students t-test statistics at 0.05 level of significance. The findings of the study showed that affective components of attitudes of consumers toward locally manufactured textiles fabric were low. Consumers expressed high cognitive component of attitudes towards locally made textile fabrics. It was noted that behavioral components of attitudes of consumers was exhibited in clear manner that enable one to understand the reason for their behavior. The research has a lot of similarities with this study in that it is a study of locally or Nigeria textile fabrics.
Nyang‟or (2002) conducted a study on the factors influencing consumers‟ selection of imported over local clothing. Six research questions were developed to guide the study. The data for the study were collected using an interview schedule, which was administered by the researcher to a sample of 90 working. The analyzed data were presented in frequency distribution, percentages, mean scores and the spearman‟s Rank Order Correlation Coefficient.
Results on socio-economic profile of the working women showed that the most represented age bracket was (21-30) years. The clothing characteristics that mostly influenced working women‟s selection of imported over clothing included good construction/texture. On dresses, factors that mostly influenced working women were size, performance, cost, fitting qualities, construction, design and figure type, while for shoe the factors included size, styles, colour, workmanship, fitting qualities and care instructions and for brassieres, only size had most influence on their selection. The study showed that consumer (working women) had a positive attitude towards imported clothing and a negative attitude towards local ones.
This study is related to the present study in that both of them are accessing the utilization of locally made fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff. But there is a difference between the two studies because while the previous study was doing a comparative assessment in order to ascertain the preference of the working women, the present study is concerned with identifying the perception, causes of preference, problems with Nigerian fabrics and possible solutions to these problems with the aim of improving the utilization of Local
Fabrics by Academic and non academic female staff.
Summary of Review of Related Literature
Fabrics utilization has been of great research interest. This is because it has been source of economic growth to many countries that are into growing of fibres and manufacture of fabrics.
Fabric utilization involves deciding what to wear, how to wear, how to purchase or obtain what to wear including methods of sewing garments or making them and when to wear clothes for various occasions. Nigeria manufactures different types of fabrics which are utilized in different occasions by different categories of people including Academic and non academic female staff.
Historical development of Nigerian fabrics revealed by the literature showed that manufacture of Nigerian fabrics is either done by traditional producers or the contemporary industries which are located in different places across the nation. The utilization of these fabrics is helping a lot in economic development of the nation. The rate at which Nigerians especially the Academic and non academic female staff patronize foreign ready-to-wear dresses demands that measures aimed at encouraging the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Nigerians should be taken.
Under the concept of utilization, garment selection and decision making, it was pointed out that choosing appropriate clothing is very necessary and is dependent upon certain factors.
Based on that, a review was carried out on the factors affecting clothing selection, garment styles, factors affecting the utilization of garments made with Nigerian made fabrics, different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized and factors affecting the quality of made in Nigeria fabrics. Various factors for consideration in garment selection and how they affect the Academic and non academic female staff were discussed.
From the literature reviewed, improvement in the quality of Nigerian made fabrics which would make it compete favourably with foreign fabrics/garments would help in encouraging consumers to patronize them. The production of varieties of styles of garment made with
Nigerian fabrics in form of ready-to-wear, training of apprentice in production of these garments and empowerment of fashion designers, provision of adequate power supply and provision of machinery will go a long way in helping the manufacturers in meeting the consumers‟ demands.
When there is improvement in the quality of fabrics and they are available in different varieties, there will be improved utilization and this will positively affect production capacity of the fabric industries and consequently bring about the growth of the economy.
It is imperative to note that much empirical studies had been carried out on factors influencing women selection and utilization of garment, but virtually no study has specifically been carried out to investigate the strategies to improve the utilization of Nigerian made fabrics for garment making among Academic and Non Academic Female Staff of Public Tertiary
Institutions in Enugu state. This lapse is however, one of the motives behind this study, to fill the gap and identify measures to improve utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and Non-
Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter described the method for carrying out the study. Specifically, it described the design of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and method of data Analysis.
Design of the Study
The study adopted a survey research design. Alaba (2004) stated that survey design gives a picture of a situation and full understanding of phenomenon under study. Uzoagulu (2011) also explained that survey research design is a plan or blue print which specifies how data relating to a particular problem should be investigated and analyzed. Thus the survey research design was considered appropriate for this study because it got information from a representative size of
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State through the use of structured questionnaire. Information was sought from the Academic and Non-
Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State with an intention of assessing the level of utilization of Nigerian fabrics with a view to improving utilization.
Area of Study
The study was carried out in government tertiary institutions in Enugu State. The state has about five government tertiary institutions namely: Enugu State University of Science and
Technology (ESUTH), Institute of Management and Technology (IMT), University of Nigeria
Nsukka, Federal College of Education, Eha-Amufu, Enugu State College of Education
Technical. The Academic and non academic female staff in these tertiary Institutions had
78 common socio-cultural and economic affinities. They also had common geographical climate conditions. Most Academic and non academic female staff in government tertiary institutions in
Enugu State consume what is in vogue. Their female staff was fashion conscious and as such was always wanted to use the latest textile product not minding the financial implication on them as well as the effects on the country‟s economy which necessitates this study.
Population for the Study
The target population for this study consisted of all female working class in government tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. According to National University Commission, (NUC) the female staff strength of government tertiary institutions in Enugu state was 14,841 as at
November, 2015 made up of 6,216 academic and 8,625 non academic staff. University of
Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) had 2,115 academic and 2545 non academic staff, Enugu State
University of Science and Technology (ESUT) had 1457 Academic and 1,948 non academic staff, Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) had 1,005 academic and 1,705 non academic staff, FCEE had 1,010 academic and 1,441 non academic staff while Enugu State
College of Education Technical (ESCET) had 579 academic and 986 non academic staff. This population was chosen by the researcher because they contained large number and different categories of Academic and non academic female staff with different salary scales who utilized varieties of garments in made up of 6,216 academic and 8,625 non academic. Academic and non academic female staff, respectively.
Sample and Sampling Technique
Four hundred and ninety four sample was used in the study. Purposive and proportionate sampling techniques were used. Purposive sampling was used to select the most populated three Tertiary Institutions, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Institute of Management and Technology
(IMT) and Federal College of Education Ehamufu (FCEE). Five percent of the population was used for the study because Boll and Goll in Uzoagulu (2011) recommended that when the entire population is up to 10,000, 5% of the population will constitute the sample size. A sample of 494 respondents was drawn from the population using proportionate sampling of 5%. Two hundred and thirty three respondents were drawn from University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN), 138 respondents from Institute of management and Technology (IMT) and 123 respondents from
Federal college of Education Eha Amufu (FCEE) from each Institution.
Instrument for Data Collection
A structured questionnaire was used in collecting data for the study. The instrument was developed following a careful analysis of the coverage given to utilization of Nigerian Fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff. In developing the instrument, the researcher searched for relevant information through internet, journals, and literature all based on the research objectives. The questionnaire was divided into two sections; section A contained statements to elicit information on personal data of the respondents. Section B was developed based on the six research questions, it had six parts, part 1 dealt on the factors that guided
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment, part dealt on the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State part three dealt on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State part four dealt on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State, part five dealt on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics, while part six dealt on the measures to improve the utilization of
Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff. The questionnaire had a response mode of strongly agree (SA), agree (A), Disagree (SD). The response categories coded as follows:
Strongly Agree (SA) 4 points
Agree (A) 3 Points
Disagree (D) 2 Points
Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 Point
Validation of the Instrument
The instrument was subjected to face validation for clarity, coverage, format and suitability of the items and response pattern as they relate to this study. Three experts validated the instrument from department of Home Economics Education. The experts were with the purpose of the study, research questions and hypotheses with a copy of the questionnaire. Based on their corrections and suggestions a final copy of the instrument was produced. This is because face validation according to Uzoagulu (2011) judges the face and content value of an instrument.
That is the coverage of those points that will assist the instrument to measure the expected feature(s) appropriately. The number of items before and after validation remained six.
Reliability of the Instrument
Cronbach Alpha method was used to determine the internal consistency of the instrument. The questionnaire was administered on a sample size of 30 Academic and Non
Academic female staff of University of Abuja, which was outside the study area but had similar features to the studied area. The questionnaire was retrieved and analyzed. The reliability coefficients for clusters A to F were 0.85, 0.79, 0.75 0.91, 0.88 and 0.83 respectively. The overall reliability index of 0.82 was obtained. This shows that the instrument was reliable. The reliability coefficient was computed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS).
Method of Data Collection
A total of 494 copies of the questionnaire were distributed by hand to the respondents by the researcher with the help of three assistants. The research assistants were instructed on how to go about data collection. Each copy of the questionnaire was accompanied by a letter which briefly explained the aim of the instrument to the respondents. The instrument was completed by each respondent and retrieved on the spot to reduce the number of invalids and misplacement of questionnaire.
Method of Data Analysis
The statistical technique that was employed in the analysis of data of this study was mean and standard deviation and t-test. The mean and standard deviation was used to analyse research questions one to six. While t-test was used to test the null hypothesis formulated for the study at
0.05 level of significance. In taking decision on the hypotheses, any hypothesis of no significant difference was accepted if the probability value was greater than 0.05, while any cluster with a probability value less than 0.05 was rejected as significant at 0.05 level of significance. All computations were done using the statistical package for social science (SPSS).
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter presented the results of data analyzed based on data collected for the study.
The presentation followed the sequence of the research questions that guided the study and the null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance. .
Research Question One
What are the factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary
Institutions in Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment?
The data for answering research question one are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu Statein selection and Utilization of Fabrics/garment (N=494) S/N Item Statement 풙 SD Dec Age is a factor that guides a working class woman in 1 selection and utilization of garments. 3.40 0.49 Agree The skin colour guides Academic and non academic female 2 staff in selecting fabrics/garments 3.36 0.51 Agree Health condition of working class woman is not considered 3 while selecting and utilizing of garments 2.22 0.61 Disagree Durability of fabrics are considered while selecting 4 garments for a working class woman 2.95 0.65 Agree Weather condition is not considered while selecting 5 working class woman‟s garments 2.41 0.62 Disagree Texture of a fabric should not be considered when selecting 6 fabrics for a working class woman. 3.38 0.58 Agree Fit/comfort of a garment is an important factors considered 7 during selection and utilization of fabrics. 2.39 0.51 Disagree The income level of working class woman influences her 8 choice of fabrics/garments worn to office. 3.45 0.49 Agree CLUSTER A 2.95 0.21 Agree Note: 푥 = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Dec. = Decision
83 The result in Table 1 presents the mean ratings and standard deviation of responses on the factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in
Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment. Result shows that item 1, 2, 4, 6 and
8 recorded mean ratings of 3.40, 3.36, 2.95, 3.38 and 3.45 with standard deviations of 0.49, 0.51,
0.65, 0.58 and 0.49 respectively. These mean ratings are within the range of 2.50 to 3.49 for agreed. This indicates that the items were agreed on by the respondents on the factors that guide
Academic and non academic female staff in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment.
However, item 3, 5 and 7 recorded mean ratings of 2.22, 2.41 and 2.39 with standard deviations of 0.61, 062 and 0.51 respectively. The mean ratings are within the range of 1.50 to 2.49 for disagreed. This indicates that the respondents disagreed with the items on the factors that guide
Academic and non academic female staff in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment. The cluster means of 2.95 with a standard deviation of 0.21 as presented in Table 1 implies Academic and non academic female staff agreed on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garment in Enugu State.
Research Question Two
What are the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in
Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State?
The data for answering research question two are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Garment styles Utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State (N = 494) S/N Item Statement 풙 SD Dec 1 Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing suits. 2.30 0.49 Disagree 2 Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing short/long sleeve shirts 2.17 0.46 Agree Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing cooperate trousers and 3 shorts. 2.44 0.66 Disagree Nigerian fabric are used in sewing sleeveless gowns and 4 worn with blazer suits. 3.48 0.53 Agree 5 Nigerian fabrics are used in making office shoes and bags 3.45 0.51 Agree Nigerian fabrics can be combined with other fabrics in 6 making dresses. 3.34 0.52 Agree CLUSTER A 2.78 0.19 Agree Note: 푥 = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Dec. = Decision
The result in Table 2 presents the mean ratings and standard deviation of responses on the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary
Institutions in Enugu State. Result shows that item 2 and 4 – 6 had mean ratings of 2.17, 3.48,
3.45 and 3.34 with standard deviations of 0.46, 0.53, 0.51and 0.52 respectively. These mean ratings are within the range of 2.50 to 3.49 for agreed. This indicates that the items were agreed on by the respondents on the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. However, item 1 and 3 had mean ratings of
2.30 and 2.44 with standard deviations of 0.49 and 0.66 respectively. These mean ratings are within the range of 1.50 to 2.49 for disagreed. This indicates that the respondents disagreed with the items on the garment styles utilized by Academic and non academic female staff. The cluster means of 2.78 with a standard deviation of 0.19 as presented in Table 1 implies Academic and non academic female staff agreed on the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-
Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
Research Question Three
What are the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic
and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State?
The data for answering research question three are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Different Occasions where Nigerian Fabrics are Utilized Among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State (N = 494) S/N Item Statement 풙 SD Dec Nigerian fabrics are used in making dresses for cultural 1 functions 3.38 0.50 Agree Nigerian fabrics can be worn to lectures, academic 2 meetings, seminars, workshops, conferences and other 3.48 0.54 Agree formal gathering. 3 Nigerian are worn during fashion shows and beauty contests 2.37 0.52 Disagree Nigerian fabrics are used for making dresses for group 4 Strongly identifications in form of uniforms. 3.53 0.61 Agree Nigerian fabrics are used for making dresses for social 5 gathering or events like marriage ceremonies, Strongly 3.51 0.50 Agree birthday/wedding parties. Nigerian fabrics are used in making garment for religious 6 Strongly activities. 3.57 0.49 Agree CLUSTER A 3.31 0.18 Agree Note: 푥 = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Dec. = Decision
The result in Table 3 shows the mean ratings and standard deviation of responses on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. Result shows that item 4 – 6 recorded mean ratings of 3.53, 3.51 and 3.57 with standard deviations of 0.61, 0.50 and 0.49 respectively.
These mean values are within the range of 3.50 to 4.00 indicating that the respondents strongly agreed with the items on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among
Academic and non academic female staff. Results also show that, item 1 and 2 had mean ratings of 3.38 and 3.48 with standard deviations of 0.50 and 0.54 respectively. The mean ratings are within the range of 2.50 to 3.49 for agreed. This indicates that respondents agreed with the items on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and non academic female staff. However, item 3 recorded mean values of mean values of 2.37 with standard deviation of 0.52. The mean ratings are within the range of 1.50 to 2.49 for disagreed.
This indicates that respondents disagreed with the item on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and non academic female staff. The cluster means of 3.31 with a standard deviation of 0.18 as presented in Table 3 implies Academic and non academic female staff agreed on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
Research Question Four
What are the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State?
The data for answering research question four are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Factors Affecting Utilization of Garment made with Nigerian Fabrics among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State
S/N Item Statement N 풙 SD Dec 1 Quality of Nigerian fabric is lower than the imported ones. 494 3.55 0.57 Agree Foreign garment are available in the market in form ready- 2 to-wear than the Nigerian fabrics. 494 3.60 0.53 Agree 3 Foreign garment are cheaper than the Nigerian fabrics. 494 3.59 0.49 Agree Disappointments on the parts of tailors and garment 4 manufacturers. 494 3.49 0.50 Agree Foreign garments are more of official dress than the Local 5 fabrics. 494 3.59 0.73 Agree 6 Foreign garment are more durable than Nigerian fabrics 494 3.55 0.61 Agree Nigerian fabrics do not support work and office ethics 7 unlike most foreign garments. 494 3.65 0.48 Agree CLUSTER A 494 3.58 0.22 Agree Note: 푥 = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Dec. = Decision Result presented in Table 4 showed that all the items recorded mean responses ranging from 3.50 – 4.49indicating that the items were agreed on by the respondents. The standard deviation which ranges from 0.48 – 0.73 indicates that the respondents were not far from each other in their opinions. With a cluster mean and standard deviation of 3.58 and 0.22 respectively,
Table 4 indicates that Academic and non academic female staff agreed on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics in Enugu State
Research Question Five
What are the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics?
The data for answering research question five are presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Factors Affecting the Quality of Nigerian Fabrics (N = 494) S/N Item Statement 풙 SD Dec 1 Raw material used in producing the fabrics. Strongly 3.81 0.52 Agree 2 Use of outdated machines in production of the fabric 3.43 0.51 Agree Insufficient supply of electricity or low voltage, water 3 Strongly shortage or impure water 3.65 0.48 Agree 4 Lack of skills needed in fabric production 3.49 0.50 Agree
Funds meant for the purchase of raw materials are diverted 5 Strongly into the pockets of those in charge of purchasing the raw 3.65 0.48 Agree materials. Lack of supervision of the factory workers or staff by the 6 management causes truancy and subsequently affects the 3.45 0.49 Agree production capacity of Nigerian made fabrics. Strongly CLUSTER A 3.58 0.21 Agree Note: 푥 = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Dec. = Decision
The result presented in Table 5 shows the mean ratings and standard deviation of responses on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics. Result shows that item 2, 4 and
5 recorded mean ratings of 3.81, 3.65 and 3.65 with standard deviations of 0.52, 0.48 and 0.48 respectively. These mean values are within the range of 3.50 to 4.00 indicating that the respondents strongly agreed with the items on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics. Result also shows that, item 2 and 6 had mean ratings of 3.45 and 3.49 with standard deviations of 0.49 and 0.51 respectively. The mean ratings are within the range of 2.50 to 3.49 for agreed. This indicates that respondents agreed with the items on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics. The cluster means of 3.58 with a standard deviation of 0.21 as presented in Table 5 implies Academic and non academic female staff strongly agreed on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
Research Question 6
What are the measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic
and non academic female staff?
The data for answering research question six are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Mean ratings and Standard Deviation of Respondents on the Measures to Improve the Utilization of Nigerian Fabrics Among Academic and non academic female staff (N = 494) S/N Item Statement 풙 SD Dec 1 Production of ready-to wear garments with Nigerian Strongly fabrics 3.69 0.46 Agree 2 Use of good raw material in production of fabrics 3.41 0.53 Agree Empowerment of fashion designer and tailors through Strongly 3 loans to purchase sufficient machines to mass produce 3.81 0.44 garments. Agree Use of appropriate and good quality machines in fabric Strongly 4 3.53 0.49 production. Agree 5 Ban on foreign importation of fabrics. Strongly 3.75 0.43 Agree Government empowerment of the local fabric 6 manufacturing industries through loans and grants. 3.39 0.60 Agree Advertisement of Nigerian fabrics on Tv, Radio and other 7 Strongly mass media. 3.55 0.68 Agree Apprentice training on fabric manufacturing, fashion 8 designing and tailoring. 3.45 0.51 Agree Strongly CLUSTER A 3.57 0.25 Agree Note: 푥 = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Dec. = Decision
The result presented in Table 6 shows the mean ratings and standard deviation of responses on the measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff. Result shows that item 1, 3 - 5 and 7 had mean rating of 3.69, 3.81,
3.53, 3.75 and 3.55 with standard deviations of 0.46, 0.44, 0.49, 0.43 and 0.68 respectively.
These mean values are within the range of 3.50 to 4.00 indicating that the respondents strongly agreed with the items on the measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and non academic female staff. Result also shows that, item 2 and 8 recorded mean ratings of 3.45 and 3.39 with standard deviations of 0.51 and 0.60 respectively. The mean ratings are within the range of 2.50 to 3.49 for agreed. This indicates that respondents agreed with the items on the measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff. The cluster means of 3.57 with a standard deviation of 0.25 as presented
in Table 6indicates Academic and non academic female staff strongly agreed on the measures to
improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff
Testing of Hypotheses Hypothesis One
H01: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of the academic and non- academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments The data for testing hypotheses one are presented in Table 7 Table 7: t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the Factors that Guide their selection and Utilization of Fabrics/Garments
Academic Staff= 259, Non academic Staff = 235, Df = 492 S/N Item Statement Status 풙 SD t-cal sig Rmk 1 Age is a factor that guides a working class Academic Staff 3.41 0.49 0.02 0.98 NS woman in selection and utilization of Non academic staff 3.40 0.50 garments. 2 The skin colour guides Academic and non Academic Staff 3.24 0.46 -5.86 0.00 S academic female staff in selecting Non academic staff 3.50 0.51 fabrics/garments 3 Health condition of working class woman is Academic Staff 2.08 0.49 -5.52 0.00 S not considered while selecting and utilizing Non academic staff 2.38 0.68 of garments 4 Durability of fabrics are considered while Academic Staff 3.11 0.67 5.87 00.00 S selecting garments for a working class Non academic staff 2.77 0.58 woman 5 Weather condition is not considered while Academic Staff 2.49 0.66 3.09 0.02 selecting working class woman‟s garments Non academic staff 2.32 0.55 S 6 Texture of a fabric should not be considered Academic Staff 3.33 0.60 -2.19 0.02 S when selecting fabrics for a working class Non academic staff 3.44 0.56 woman. 7 Fit/comfort of a garment is an important Academic Staff 2.29 0.49 -5.11 0.00 S factors considered during selection and Non academic staff 2.51 0.50 utilization of fabrics. 8 The income level of working class woman Academic Staff 3.44 0.51 -0.34 0.74 NS influences her choice of fabrics/garments Non academic staff 3.46 0.49 worn to office. Cluster t Academic Staff 2.92 0.22 -2.63 0.00 S Non academic staff 2.97 0.21 Result in Table 7 shows the t-test analysis of the significant difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments in Enugu State. Result showed that item 1 and 8 in Table 7 showed no significant difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments. However, items 2 to 7 showed significant difference between the mean ratings of the academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments. This is because the probability values are less than 0.05 set as level of significance for testing the hypothesis. The cluster t-value of -2.63 with a degree of freedom of 492 and a probability value of 0.00 were obtained. Since the probability value of 0.00 is less than 0.05, this means that hypothesis one which stated that there is no significant difference between the mean responses of the academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments is rejected. Inference drawn therefore is that the academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff differ significantly in their responses on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments in Enugu
State.
Hypothesis Two
H02: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff on the garment styles utilized among
them.
The data for testing hypotheses two are presented in Table 8
Table 8: t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the garment styles utilized among them.
Academic Staff= 259, Non academic Staff = 235, Df = 492 S/N Item Statement Status 풙 SD t-cal sig Rmk 1 Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing suits. Academic Staff 2.40 0.54 5.03 0.00 S Non academic staff 2.19 0.39 2 Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing Academic Staff 2.15 0.43 -0.59 0,56 NS short/long sleeve shirts Non academic staff 2.18 0.48 3 Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing Academic Staff 1.79 0.74 1.58 0.11 NS cooperate trousers and shorts. Non academic staff 1.69 0.57 4 Nigerian fabric are used in sewing Academic Staff 3.48 0.52 -0.05 0.96 NS sleeveless gowns and worn with blazer Non academic staff 3.49 0.54 suits. 5 Nigerian fabrics are used in making Academic Staff 3.45 0.49 0.11 0.00 S office shoes and bags Non academic staff 3.45 0.49 6 Nigerian fabrics can be combined with Academic Staff 3.56 0.53 0.88 0.03 S other fabrics in making dresses. Non academic staff 3.51 0.50 Cluster t Academic Staff 2.80 0.22 3.14 0.02 S Non academic staff 2.75 0.16
Result in Table 8 shows the t-test analysis of the significance difference in the mean
ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the garment
styles utilized among them in Enugu State. Result showed that item 2 - 4 in Table 8 showed no
significance difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non
academic female staff on the garment styles utilized among them. However, items 1, 5 and 6
showed significant difference between the mean ratings of the academic and non-academic
Academic and non academic female staff on the garment styles utilized among them. This is
because the probability values are less than 0.05 set as level of significance for testing the
hypothesis. The cluster t-value of 3.14 with a degree of freedom of 492 and a probability value
of 0.02 were obtained. Since the probability value of 0.02 is less than 0.05, this means that
hypothesis two which stated that there is no significant difference between the mean responses of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the garment styles
utilized among them is rejected. Inference drawn therefore is that the academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff differ significantly in their responses on the
garment styles utilized among them in Enugu State.
Hypothesis Three
H03: There is no significant difference between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where
Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them.
The data for testing hypotheses three are presented in Table 9
Table 9: t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them.
Academic Staff= 259, Non academic Staff = 235, Df = 492 S/N Item Statement Status 풙 SD t-cal Sig Rmk
1 Nigerian fabrics are used in making Academic Staff 3.36 0.51 -0.91 0.36 NS dresses for cultural functions Non academic staff 3.40 0.49 2 Nigerian fabrics can be worn to lectures, Academic Staff 3.48 0.56 0.03 0.97 NS academic meetings, seminars, Non academic staff 3.48 0.52 workshops, conferences and other formal gathering. 3 Nigerian are worn during fashion shows Academic Staff 2.41 0.55 1.94 0.05 S and beauty contests Non academic staff 2.32 0.47 4 Nigerian fabrics are used for making Academic Staff 3.53 0.61 -0.06 0.95 NS dresses for group identifications in form Non academic staff 3.54 0.61 of uniforms. 5 Nigerian fabrics are used for making Academic Staff 3.51 0.51 -0.02 0.98 NS dresses for social gathering or events like Non academic staff 3.51 0.51 marriage ceremonies, birthday/wedding parties. 6 Nigerian fabrics are used in making Academic Staff 3.57 0.49 -0.16 0.87 NS garment for religious activities. Non academic staff 3.58 0.51 Cluster t Academic Staff 3.31 0.19 0.39 0.70 NS Non academic staff 3.31 0.18
Result in Table 9 shows the t-test analysis of the significant difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them. Result showed that item 3 in Table 9 showed significance difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them. However, items 1, 2 and 4 - 6 showed no significant difference between the mean ratings of the academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on thedifferent occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them. This is because the probability values are greater than 0.05 set as level of significance for testing the hypothesis. The cluster t-value of
0.70 with a degree of freedom of 492 and a probability value of 0.70 were obtained. Since the probability value of 0.70 is greater than 0.05, this means that hypothesis three which stated that there is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-academic
Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them is accepted. Inference drawn therefore is that the academic and non- academic Academic and non academic female staff did not differ significantly in their responses on the different occasions where Nige2rian fabrics are utilized among them.
Hypothesis Four
H04: There is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting utilization of
garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them.
The data for testing hypotheses four are presented in Table 10
Table 10: t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them. Academic Staff= 259, Non academic Staff = 235, Df = 492 S/N Item Statement Status 풙 SD t-cal sig Rmk 1 Quality of Nigerian fabric is lower than Academic Staff 3.54 0.54 -0.57 0.57 NS the imported ones. Non academic staff 3.57 0.61 2 Foreign garment are available in the Academic Staff 3.58 0.52 -0.53 0.59 NS market in form ready-to-wear than the Non academic staff 3.61 0.54 Nigerian fabrics. 3 Foreign garment are cheaper than the Academic Staff 3.59 0.49 0.17 0.87 NS Nigerian fabrics. Non academic staff 3.59 0.49 4 Disappointments on the parts of tailors Academic Staff 3.50 0.50 0.29 0.77 NS and garment manufacturers. Non academic staff 3.49 0.50 5 Foreign garments are more of official Academic Staff 3.58 0.72 -0.38 0.70 NS dress than the Local fabrics. Non academic staff 3.60 0.73 6 Foreign garment are more durable than Academic Staff 3.56 0.61 0.19 0.84 NS Nigerian fabrics Non academic staff 3.55 0.60 7 Nigerian fabrics do not support work and Academic Staff 3.65 0.48 0.03 0.97 NS office ethics unlike most foreign Non academic staff 3.65 0.47 garments. Cluster t Academic Staff 3.57 0.22 -0.34 0.74 NS Non academic staff 3.58 0.22
Result in Table 10 shows the t-test analysis of the significant difference in the mean
ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors
affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them in Enugu State. Result
showed that all the items in Table 10 showed no significant difference in the mean ratings of
academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting
utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them. This is because the probability
values are greater than 0.05 set as level of significance for testing the hypothesis. The cluster t-
value of -0.34 with a degree of freedom of 492 and a probability value of 0.74 were obtained.
Since the probability value of 0.74 is greater than 0.05, this means that hypothesis four which
stated that there is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non- academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting utilization of garment
made with Nigerian fabrics among them is accepted. Inference drawn therefore is that the
academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff did not differ significantly
in their responses on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics
among them.
Hypothesis 5
H05: There is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting the quality of
Nigerian fabrics.
The data for testing hypotheses five are presented in Table 11
Table 11: t-test Analysis of the mean Ratings of Academic and Non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting utilization of the quality of Nigerian fabrics. Academic Staff= 259, Non academic Staff = 235, Df = 492 S/N Item Statement Status 풙 SD t-cal sig Rmk 1 The quality of Nigerian fabrics is Academic Staff 3.45 0.49 -0.80 0.94 NS affected by: Non academic staff 3.46 0.51 2 Raw material used in producing the Academic Staff 3.83 0.52 0.65 0.52 NS fabrics. Non academic staff 3.80 0.53 3 Use of outdated machines in production Academic Staff 3.43 0.49 -0.36 0.97 NS of the fabric Non academic staff 3.43 0.51 4 Insufficient supply of electricity or low Academic Staff 3.66 0.47 0.32 0.75 NS voltage, water shortage or impure water Non academic staff 3.64 0.48 5 Lack of skills needed in fabric production Academic Staff 3.50 0.50 0.19 0.85 NS Non academic staff 3.49 0.50 6 Funds meant for the purchase of raw Academic Staff 3.64 0.48 -0.53 0.59 NS materials are diverted into the pockets of Non academic staff 3.66 0.47 those in charge of purchasing the raw materials. Cluster t Academic Staff 3.58 0.21 0.22 0.83 NS Non academic staff 3.58 0.20
Result in Table 11 shows the t-test analysis of the significant difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics. Result showed that all the items in Table 11 showed no significant difference in the mean ratings of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics. This is because the probability values are greater than 0.05 set as level of significant for testing the hypothesis. The cluster t-value of 0.22 with a degree of freedom of 492 and a probability value of 0.83 were obtained. Since the probability value of 0.83 is greater than 0.05, this means that hypothesis five which stated that there is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting the quality of
Nigerian fabrics is accepted. Inference drawn therefore is that the academic and non-academic
Academic and non academic female staff did not differ significantly in their responses on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
Findings of the Study
The following findings emerged from the study based on the research questions and hypotheses:
A. Factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary
Institutions in Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment
1. Age guides a working class woman in selecting and utilization of garment
2. Skin colour guides Academic and non academic female staff in selecting
fabrics/garments
3. Health condition of working class woman is considered while selecting and utilizing of
garments
4. Durability of fabrics are considered while selecting garments for a working class woman 5. Weather condition is considered while selecting working class woman‟s garments
6. Texture of a fabric should be considered when selecting fabrics for a working class
woman.
7. The income level of working class woman influences her choice of fabrics/garments
worn to office.
B. Garment styles utilized by Academic and non academic female staff include:
1. Short/long sleeve shirts
2. Sleeveless gowns and worn with blazer suits.
3. Making office shoes and bags
4. Combining fabric with other fabrics in making dresses.
C. Different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non- Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State include:
1. Cultural functions
2. Lectures, academic meetings, seminars, workshops, conferences and other formal
gathering occasions
3. Group identifications in form of uniforms.
4. Social gathering or events like marriage ceremonies, birthday/wedding parties.
5. Religious activities.
D. Factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu
State include:
1. Quality of Nigerian fabric
2. Availability of foreign garments in the market in form ready-to-wear than the Nigerian
fabrics. 3. Foreign garment are cheaper than the Nigerian fabrics.
4. Disappointments on the parts of tailors and garment manufacturers.
5. Foreign garments are more of official dress than the Local fabrics.
6. Nigerian fabrics do not support work and office ethics unlike most foreign garments.
E. Factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics include
1. Raw material used in producing the fabrics.
2. Use of outdated machines in production of the fabric
3. Insufficient supply of electricity or low voltage, water shortage or impure water
4. Lack of skills needed in fabric production
5. Funds meant for the purchase of raw materials are diverted into the pockets of those in
charge of purchasing the raw materials
6. Lack of supervision of the factory workers or staff by the management causes truancy
and subsequently affects the production capacity of Nigerian made fabrics.
F. Measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non
academic female staff
1. Production of ready-to wear garments with Nigerian fabrics
2. Use of good raw material in production of fabrics
3. Empowerment of fashion designer and tailors through loans to purchase sufficient
machines to mass produce garments
4. Use of appropriate and good quality machines in fabric production
5. Ban on foreign importation of fabrics
6. Government empowerment of the local fabric manufacturing industries through loans and
grants 7. Advertisement of Nigerian fabrics on TV, Radio and other mass media
8. Apprentice training on fabric manufacturing, fashion designing and tailoring
Findings on Hypotheses
1. The academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff differ
significantly in their responses on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of
fabrics/garments in Enugu State.
2. The academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff differ
significantly in their responses on the garment styles utilized among them in Enugu State.
3. There is no significant difference between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where
Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them.
4. The academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff did not differ
significantly in their responses on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with
Nigerian fabrics among them.
5. There is no significant difference between the mean responses of academic and non-
academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting the quality of
Nigerian fabrics.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of the study are discussed in relation to the research questions and the null hypotheses that guided the study
Factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment
The findings of the study as presented in Table 1 showed that the following are factors that guide Academic and non academic female staff in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment: Age guides a working class woman in selecting and utilization of garment, skin colour guides Academic and non academic female staff in selecting fabrics/garments. This finding is supported by Anyakoha and Eluwa, (2010) who stated that in clothing, three of the most important element of design are line, colour and texture. The authors further stated that understanding how they work help in selecting attractive styles. Both the colour of the clothing items to be selected and the colour of the skin of the individual to use the items are very important in garment selection and utilization. Finding of the study also showed that health condition of working class woman is considered while selecting and utilizing garments. Also durability of fabrics, weather condition, texture of fabrics, the income level of working class woman are considered while selecting garments for a working class woman or her choice of fabrics/garments worn to office.
This finding is in line with the assertion made by Mbah, Orherewe and Osifeso (2001) who noted that age of the wearer, sex, colour, size, occasion, and income/cost influence choice of fabrics and garments. Other factors include fit of garment, comfort, texture, safety, quality/durability, weather condition, health condition and body shap, among others. Each of these factors affects garment selection in one way or the other. In collaboration with the above,
Anyakoha and Eluwa (2010) noted that texture can affect the appearance of a wearer. For instance, dull texture make one look smaller, while nubby textures make one seem large. Shiny textures also increase size. Also, thick bulky fabrics increase apparent size while lighter-weight fabrics have a slimming effect. A heavy texture can be worn by a tall person, but may overpower a small one. The finding from the test of hypothesis (I) also shows that academic and non- academic Academic and non academic female staff differ significantly in their responses on the factors that guide their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments in Enugu State.
Garment styles utilized by Academic and non academic female staff
The result of the study as presented in Table 2 showed that the following are garment styles utilized by Academic and non academic female staff; short/long sleeve shirts, sleeveless gowns worn with blazer suits, office shoes and bags, fabrics are combined with other fabrics in making dresses. This finding is supported by Obiana, (2011), who stated that blends of Nigerian outfits from elegant creativity of the designers have made Nigerian fabrics preferred choice of the rich and celebrities. The finding is also in line with the assertions by Williams-Mitchell,
Christobal, (2012), who noted that several garment styles are available today depending on the purposes to which they serve. These include: Ceremonial occasion garments, Traditional garments, Sportswear, Safety garment, Protective garment, Academic garments and Office garments. Collaborating with the above, Christi Youngberg (2004) stated that the basic garment making processes of ready to wear apparel involves many processes right from pattern drafting to garment construction which include pattern designing and pattern making, grading, marker making, apparel cutting, sewing, pressing and finishing.The finding from the test of hypothesis
(II) also showed the academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff differed significantly in their responses on the garment styles utilized among them in Enugu
State.
Different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non- Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State The finding of the study as presented in Table 3 showed that the following are different occasions where Nigeria fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in
Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State: making of dresses for cultural functions, fabrics are worn to lectures, academic meetings, seminars, workshops, conferences and other formal gathering, making dresses for group identifications in form of uniforms, making dresses for social gathering or events like marriage ceremonies, birthday/wedding parties, making garment for religious activities. The study is in line with the assertion made by Mbah et al (2001) who stated that dressing which is suitable in a particular occasion may not be suitable in another occasion. Different activities such as sports, office, work, sleep, religious worship, picnics, parties/social gatherings, school, domestic work, etc, require different garments. Corresponding garment should be put on each occasion an individual is involved in. The finding from the test of hypothesis (III) showed that there was no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them.
Factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State The finding of the study as showed in Table 4 revealed that the following are factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State: Quality of Nigerian fabric is lower than the imported ones, foreign garment are available in the market in form ready-to-wear than the Nigerian fabrics, foreign garment are cheaper than the Nigerian fabrics, disappointments on the parts of tailors and garment manufacturers, foreign garments are more of official dress than the Local fabrics, Nigerian fabrics do not support work and office ethics unlike most foreign garments. The finding of the study is in agreement with Shobowale (2007) who claimed that although imported textiles are superior in quality to home-made ones, they are much cheaper especially the ready-to wear fabric or clothes. The finding of the study also agrees with Alego
(2007) who pointed out that effective marketing management is essential in the process of building up a favorable image for any fabric. The absence of consumer orientation on the part of producers appears to have contributed to the alienation of the Nigerian consumer and the resulting consumer preference for imports. Finding from the test of hypothesis (IV) also showed that academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff did not differ significantly in their responses on the factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them.
Factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics
The result of the study as presented in Table 5 showed that the following are factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics; raw material used in producing the fabrics, use of outdated machines in production of the fabric, insufficient supply of electricity or low voltage, water shortage or impure water, lack of skills needed in fabric production, funds meant for the purchase of raw materials are diverted into the pockets of those in charge of purchasing the raw materials, lack of supervision of the factory workers or staff by the management which causes truancy and which subsequently affects the production capacity of Nigerian made fabrics. The finding of the study is in agreement with Ejiofor (2009) who opined that, while poor quality raw materials, parts and equipment, dysfunctional human influences, and inadequate supply of public utilities adversely affect the quality of locally made textile wax prints, what makes the production of low quality products a foregone conclusion is inadequate competition. In collaboration with the above Yusuf (2008) noted that physical infrastructure is caused due to effect of unreliable utilities such as power failure, poor voltage, water shortage and impure water supply which affect product quality. Power failure can disrupt production and damage raw materials and high voltage standby generators are not yet perfect substitute in factories, since few of them can run continuously for 24 hrs a day, seven days a week. Finding from the test of hypothesis (V) also showed that there is no significant different between the mean responses of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
Measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff
The finding of the study as presented in Table 6 showed that the following are measures for improving the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff; production of ready-to wear garments with Nigerian fabrics, use of good raw material in production of fabrics, empowerment of fashion designer and tailors through loans to purchase sufficient machines to mass produce garments, use of appropriate and good quality machines in fabric production and adequate power supply, ban on foreign importation of fabrics, government empowerment of the local fabric manufacturing industries through loans and grants. This finding is in line with Doob (2013) who suggested measures to improve utilization of Nigerian fabrics thus: Government should empower the local industries, fashion designers and tailors through the provision of appropriate machineries, training of staff and granting of loan to mass produce garments from the indigenous fabrics. Government should also ensure the local growth of cotton.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the summary of the statement of the problem, procedures used and the major findings of the study. Also presented in the chapter are the conclusions, implications of the findings, recommendations and suggestions for further studies.
Re-statement of the Problem
Garments are forms of clothes, including gowns, skirts, shirts or tops and trousers specially constructed from fabrics or other materials to serve different functions for the wearer including protection, adornment, safety, promotion of efficiency especially for the working class including women.
Regrettably, it has been observed by the researcher that in Enugu state, most of the garments utilized by Academic and non academic female staff are ready-to-wear foreign made garments.
There is overdependence on foreign made garment and there importation has continued even with efforts of the government to ban it. Though they utilize Nigerian fabrics in social events and other occasion, the greater percentage of their office garments are foreign garments. Their flare for foreign garments from the researcher‟s finding has to do with the high cost of making garments with Nigerian made fabrics as the money used in purchasing and tailoring the fabric is enough to purchase about two to three foreign ready-to-wear garments or second hand foreign garments (Okirika). More so the attendant disappointments from most fashion designers and tailors that make garments with Nigerian fabrics is another unpleasant experience as they often get disappointed either from delay in getting their garments ready or their inability to produce the desired design or styles with the accurate measurements to fit their shapes and sizes.They equally complain about the low quality of Nigerian fabric as some of them fade. Moreover, the
107 unavailability of garments made from these fabrics in the markets in form of ready-to-wear so that they can easily pick them from the market also contribute to low utilization of these local fabrics. All the above reasons have contributed to the low patronage of the Nigerian fabrics among this important group in Enugu state and subsequently this has negatively affected the local fabric manufacturing industries in Nigeria as a lot of them are grounded. Because of the grounding of many of these industries, there is also unemployment of clothing and textile graduates and this all together has affected the economy of country negatively. For these reasons, the researcher has embarked on this study in order to find out measures which will help to improve the utilization of Nigerian made fabrics for making garment among Academic and non academic female staff as this will help to improve the growth of local fabric Industries and employment of graduates in this field which will consequently help to improve and maintain the economy of the country especially now that it is dwindling. It was based on the above background that the study sought to investigate the Utilization of Nigerian fabrics for garment making among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in
Enugu State. In carrying out the study, the following specific purposes guided the study;
1. Investigate factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public
Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment.
2. Access the garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in
Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
3. Ascertain different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and
Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
4. Investigate factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. 5. Find out factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
6. Find out measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and
non academic female staff.
Summary of Procedures Used
The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The study was carried out in government tertiary institutions in Enugu State. Six research questions were developed and answered by the study; and five hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The population of this study was a total number of14,841female academic and non academic staff of government tertiary institutions in Enugu state. A sample of 494 respondents was drawn from the population using proportionate sampling of 5%. 233 respondents were drawn from University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN), 138 respondents from Institute of management and Technology (IMT) and 123 respondents from Federal college of Education Eha
Amufu (FCEE) from each Institution.
The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the researcher from literature based on the objectives of the study. The questionnaire was divided into two sections. Sections A and B, section A contained statements to elicit information on personal data of the respondents while Section B was developed based on the six research questions. The instrument had a four point rating scale with scoring range of point for point
1strongly agree, point 2 Agree, point 3 Strong Disagree and point 4 Disagree. The instrument was subjected to face-validation by three experts from the Department of Home Economics and
Hospitality Management Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Each validate was served with a copy of the instrument to ascertain the clarity, correctness and suitability of the items of the instrument. The researcher used their corrections, comments, suggestions, and amendments to produce the final copy of the instrument.
To establish the reliability of the instrument, 30 copies of questionnaire were trial tested on 30 female workers in Abuja. Cronbach Alpha reliability method was used to establish the internal consistency of the instrument and it yielded the overall reliability coefficients of 0.82.
The researcher administered and collected the instrument with the help of three research assistants. 494 copies of the questionnaire were returned duly completed and formed the basis of analysis. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions that guided the study while t – test was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
Major Findings of the Study
Based on the data collected and analyzed, the study specifically identified
1. seven factors that guide Academic and non academic female staff in selection and
utilization of fabrics/garment;
2. four garment styles are utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public
Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State;
3. five different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among Academic and Non-
Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State;
4. six factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics Academic and
Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State;
5. six factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics; and
6. eight measures to improve the utilization of Nigeria fabrics among Academic and non
academic female staff
Hypotheses
1. Findings on hypothesis 1 revealed that academic and non-academic Academic and non
academic female staff differed significantly in their responses on the factors that guide
their selection and utilization of fabrics/garments in Enugu State.
2. Findings on hypothesis 2 revealed that academic and non-academic Academic and non
academic female staff differed significantly in their responses on the garment styles
utilized among them in Enugu State.
3. Findings on hypothesis 3 revealed that there was no significant different between the
mean responses of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff
on the different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized among them.
4. It was found out in hypothesis 4 that the academic and non-academic Academic and non
academic female staff did not differ significantly in their responses on the factors
affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among them.
5. It was found out in hypothesis 5 that there was no significant different between the mean
responses of academic and non-academic Academic and non academic female staff on
the factors affecting the quality of Nigerian fabrics.
Implications of the Study
This study has a number of educational implications not only for Home Economics teachers and students but also for Nigeria families, Working class of the Nigerian society,
Nigeria producers, media organization, State government, curriculum planners and fellow researchers. The finding of the study revealed that certain factors such as age, skin colour, health condition, income level among others guide Academic and non academic female staff in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment. This implies that Nigeria families irrespective of their locations can be guided accordingly in selection and utilization of fabrics. Students can equally apply these factors to educate their families in selection and utilization of Nigerian fabric/garment.
Findings of this study also showed the garment styles utilized by Academic and non academic female staff, different occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized, factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics and measures to improve the utilization of
Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff. The outcome of this study when published will immensely contribute to the advancement of knowledge of the Nigerian fabric producer, the fashion designers and tailor by guiding them in production of appropriate fabrics/garments for Academic and non academic female staff using Nigeria made fabrics especially for office ones which will enhance their work and office ethics. This implies that
Nigerian producers can adopt these findings to improve the quality of their products.
The findings of the study have implications for Home Economics teachers and lecturers by providing them with useful information that would help them educate themselves and also the students in the selection and the use of Nigerian made fabrics/garments especially when they enter into the work force.
The findings of the study also have implications for the federal, state and local governments. The study will help to provide government with necessary information on how to empower the local fabrics manufacturing industries, fashion designers and tailor so that they will maximize productions of Nigerian made fabrics/garments to consumed by individuals especially the working class which will in turn contribute to the growth of the country‟s economy. This will invariably increase internally generated revenue to government at all levels.
Conclusion
The study concluded that age, skin colour, wealth condition, income level among others are factors that guide Academic and non academic female staff in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment. Different garment styles are utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State for different occasions. Production of ready-to wear garments with Nigerian fabrics, Use of good raw material in production of fabrics,
Empowerment of fashion designer and tailors through loans to purchase sufficient machines to mass produce garments, Use of appropriate and good quality machines in fabric production, Ban on foreign importation of fabrics among others are measures to improve the utilization of
Nigerian fabrics among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn from this study, the following recommendation were made:
1. Fabric Industries should endevour to enhance the quality of the fabrics so as to compete
favourably with the foreign fabrics. This if achieved will to a large extent guide the
choice of the Academic and non academic female staff in favour of Nigerian fabrics. The
government should also make a deliberate policy to enforce wardrobe allowances for staff. For example by purchasing the Nigerian fabrics themselves for the staff who will
subsequently take them to their garments and fashion designers.
2. Mass production of garments in form of ready-to-wear using Nigerian fabrics in various
designs should be encouraged. Special training should equally be designed for garment
makers and fashion designers through agencies such as National Directorate of
Employment (NDE) on how to make various designs of garments.
3. Organizations should encourage the use of Nigerian fabrics in their offices by setting out
at least two days in a week where every staff should appear in Nigerian fabrics. The
uniform organizations in Nigeria like Military and para militaries, doctors and nurses
among others should also promote the Nigerian fabrics by including it in their uniforms
and professional attires.
4. Government should revamp the fabric industries in order to enhance the production
capacity and quality of Nigerian fabrics which will in turn increase patronage and
increase internally generated revenue.
5. The reliance on imported raw material and the problem of sourcing for foreign exchange
have contributed to high cost of production. Government should ensure that high quality
long fibre cotton is grown locally by providing farmers with high quality seeds at
subsidized rates. Government should also monitor the use of the seeds to ensure the
output is used effectively.
6. There should also be constant supply of power as most machines used in fabric
manufacturing industries consume high voltage that cannot be supplied by generators and
listers. 7. The government should enforce laws intended to reduce the importation of foreign
garments in order to compel Nigerians to buy available local fabrics. Appropriate
disciplinary action should be taken against the violators of the laws against the
importation of foreign fabrics. The Standard Organization of Nigeria should conduct the
inspection of local manufacturers more vigorously and extensively.
Suggestions for Further Research
The following related areas are suggested for further research:
1. The study should be carried out to cover a wider area, for example South-eastern States.
2. Market acceptability of made in Nigeria textile fabrics in South east Nigeria.
3. Similar studies should be conducted in each state of the federation where the study
had not been done
4. Properties of some selected foreign and locally made fabrics in Enugu State.
References
Agbonifoh, B.A. (2005) Consumer preference for foreign products. Nigerian Management Review, 10, ( 5). Aire, J.U., (2008) Consumer Attitudes to Made-In-Nigeria Goods and the Implications for Marketing Management in Nigeria, 9, (2). Alego, S. B., (2007). Exploring the problem-prone consumers: hypothesis and empirical findings. Marketing Journal, 11, (12). Anyakoha, E.U. and Eluwa M. (2010). Home management for schools and colleges. Africana First Publishers Limited. Aremu, P. (2002) Yoruba traditional weaving: Kijipa Motifs, colou and symbols. Nigerian Magazine, 140:3-10. Aruwgun, I.I (2002). African prints in different forms. Saturday Punch Newspaper, 8-9 Ayers, R. (2003). Consumer satisfaction with men’s shirts and with women’s slips casual street dresses. Cornell University Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin 984, New York State College of Home Economics, Ithaca, New York. Baudrillard, J. (2008). The theory of fashion culture symbolic. Niger: University Press. Bavley, S. (2005). Booth, J.E. (1989). Principles of textile testing 5th Edition. A Butterworth Publication, London pp 350-450. Booth, J.E. (2005). Principles of textile testing 5th Edition. A Butterworth Publication, London pp 350-450. Bradon (2008). Piesoelectric Non wires turn fabric into power source [Retrieved February 13 2013] from www.ask.com.Q.A. industries. textiles,and.paper. Braguglia, M.H and Rosencranz, M.L (2008) A comparison of clothing attitudes and ownership of negro and white women of low-economic statue. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 11, 182-187. Cable News, March 06 2005Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary 5th Edition. Chowdhary, Usha, (2002). Clothing for special needs: an annotated bibliography. (3rd Ed.) Mount Pleasant, Mich.: U. Chowdhary. Claire, Polakoff (2009). African Textiles and Dyeing Techniques. [Retrieved November 16, 2015) from www.da-viva.com/content/7-africanfabrics. Clayton, H. (2006). Young Living. New York: Glencoe? McGraw-hill Companies. Cole, G.A and Drake, C (2003). Management theory and practice. London: Oxford Colour Press. Damhorst, Mary Lynn, Kelly Jondle, and Christi Youngberg, (2004)"How Personnel Interviewers See Women's Job Interview Dress-A 2002 Update." In The Meanings of Dress 2nd ed. Edited by Mary Lynn Damhorst, Kimberly A. Miller, and Susan O. Michelman. New York: Fairchild Publications, 2004. Debora P.O (2015) Resurgence of Ankara Fabrics. [retrieved December 11, 2015] from htt://wwwfinelibe.com/business/manufacturing-industries/textile-manufacturing. Doob, B. Christopher (2013). Social inequality and social stratification in US Society. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-205-79241-3. Duro. O.L. (2014) Fashion Trend[retrieved March 23, 2015] fromhtt://www.cablenews.ng. Edache, A. (2008). Attitude of consumers in Benue State towards locally manufactured textile Fabric, JHER 9, (113) 283-290.113. Eicher, J.B. (2005). Nigeria handcrafted textile Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press. Ejiofor, P.N.O (20099). “Acceptability of made in Nigeria goods” foundations of business administration. Lagos: African Feb Publishers Ltd. Elebiyo, O.M.A. (2008). Comparative Study of Wax Print Fabrics Versus Hand Woven Nigeria Fabrics B.Sc Dissertation A.B.U Zaria. Gawthorpe, L.M. (1974). Fabrics and laundering work. London: Hullon Educational Publication. Hurren, C.J, Kaynak A. and Wang X. (2007). Effect of Laundering on Conductivity of Polypyrrole –Coated Textiles. RJJA Vol. II No3. 2007. Ikechi M.O (2015) Enugu State tertiary institutions complaints and compliments. [retrieved December 11, 2015) from htt://www.theunion.com.ng>opinion. Igbo , C.A. (2001). Clothing likes and dislikes of different age groups. Unpublished Mimeography on Psychological Foundation of Clothing and Textile, Department of Vocational Teacher Education. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Jones, G. (2009). Finding out about Textile. England: Stanley Thompson Publishers Ltd. Leon G.S., Kanuk , L.L. (2007) Consumer Behavior, New York: Prentice Hall. Marshal, S.G, Jackson H.O. and Stanlecy M.S (2000). Individuality in clothing selection and appearance (6th Edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Martin Glaberman (2004). "Marxist views of the working class". Marxists.org. Retrieved 18 January 2013. Mbah, P.E., Orhewere, G.I. and Osifeso, G.A.T. (2001). Home Economics at a Glance. Lagos: Daban Publishing Enterprise. Morton, W.E, and Hearle, J.W.S (2005). Physical properties of textile fibers. London: Willain Heireman. Muhammed, .I., Ahmad., N. and Shabaz (2001). Rubbing ironing and dry clearing fastness of reactive dyed cotton knitted fabric as influenced by salt, Alkali and Dye. Department of Fibre Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad – 38040, Pakistan. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 1560- 8530/2001/03-1-109-112. http://www.ijab.org. Murray, K. (2005) Women’s weaving among yoruba at Omu-aran in Ilorin Pronvince, Nigerian Field 5(4): 182-183) Nchekwube, J.N. (2009) Clothing selection practices of ageing women in Enugu State. An Unpublished M.ED Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Nkeonye, P.O. (2009). Introductory Textiles S. Asekome and Co Publishes Semaru Zaria Nigeria. NTA News of 3rd February, 2011. Nyang‟or, E.A. (2002). Factors influencing consumer‟s selection of imported over local clothing among working women in Nairobi. Kenya.htt://www.ku.ac.ke/school/human_science/image//stories/docs/apptheses. Obiana, V. (2011). Comparative effect of laundering on the properties of nigerian and foreign made wax print fabrics. An Unpublished M.ED Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Okeke, C.A. (2004). Strategies for the improvement of apprenticeship training in dressmaking in Anambra State. An Unpublished M.ED Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Ombugadu, E.A. (2005). Clothing purchasing decision making practices of homemakers in Nasara.Journal of Home Economics Research. 6(2), 10 – 14. Omotoso, K. (2006). The role of traditional textiles in the transformation of nigeria designs, ideals and material culture. Ijinle Asa. 3, 4952. Orivri, D.P (2005). Studies on the properties, of foreign and locally made finishing fabrics. An Unpublished B.Sc Research Project of A.B.U Zaria Hornby, S.A. (2000) Oxford advance learners dictionary of current English (6th Edition). New York: Oxford University Press. Ozougwu, S.U. (2008). Evaluation of sewing aids utilization in garment construction by commercial dress maker. Journal of Home Economics Research, 291-301. Parkin D. (2004) Textile as commodity, dress as text. Swahili kanga and women‟s statement‟, in Ruth Barnes (ed) Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies. London New York: Routledge, 47-67) Payananth .K. (2004) History of Thai Weaving Fabric: In Rural Economics Promotion and Environment Development Foundation. from www.da-viva.co./content/7-african- fabrics. Popoola, V.A. (2006). Textile: Now and Then Inaugural Lecture Series 26 delivered at, The Federal University of Technology, Akure Ondo State, Nigeria. Ross, D. (2009). Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity. UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. Los Angeles. Ryan, M. (2007) Clothing: A study in Human Behaviour. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Saville, B.P (2004). Physical testing of textile. Woodhead Publishing Ltd and CRC Press IIC Reprinted 2004. Sharne Algotsson and Denys Davis (2009). The Spirit of African Design. [Retrieved August 15, 2015] from www.da-viva.co./content/7-african-fabrics. Tortora, P. & Eubank, K (2005). A survey of historic costume: A history of western dress. New York: Fairechild Publication. Ukpore, B.A. (2009). Fundamentals of consumer education. Benin City: Jodus Publishing Enterprise. Uzoagulu, A.E. (2011). Practical guide to writing research report in tertiary institution. Enugu: Cheston Ltd. Uzoka, F.A. (2000). Clothing selection practices of homemakers in Anambra State. An Unpublished M.ED Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Vanderhoft, .M. (2008). Clothing concept and construction. New Trsey: Prentice Hall. Will, B. (2009). Importance of textile [Retrieved November 10, 2013] from www.textilefabric.com.Homo.Articles. Williams-Mitchell, Christobal, (2012).Dressed for the Job: The Story of Occupational Costume. Poole and New York: Distributed by Sterling Publication. Yusuf, Y. (2008). An assessment of the market acceptability of made in nigerian textile products: A case study of selected textile companies. Unpublished M.B.A Thesis A.B.U. Zarai.
APPENDIX A
Department of Home Economics and Hospitality Management Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Dear Respondent,
This study is designed to assess the utilization of Nigerian fabrics for garment making among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
Your honest response is kindly required as findings of this research work will be of great benefits to Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu
State.
All the necessary confidentiality will be adequately provided for respondents. Please tick in the appropriate column or box for your response.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
Agbo Blessing Nonyelum.
APPENDIX B
SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA
Please indicate in the column provided by ticking () on the degree to which you agree to each of these statement on utilization of Nigerian fabrics for garment making among
Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
Key: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD).
Please tick () in the appropriate column provided:
1. Age: below 30 31 – 35 36 – 40 above 40
2. Work experience: 1 – 5 6 – 10 11 – 15 16 – 20 above 20
3. Academic qualification: WASC NCE B. Sc Masters Others
4. Academic staff Non Academic Staff
SECTION B 1. Factors that guide Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State in selection and utilization of fabrics/garment.
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD
1. Age is a factor that guides a working class woman in selection and utilization of garments. 2. The skin colour guides Academic and non academic female staff in selecting fabrics/garments 3. Health condition of working class woman is not considered while selecting and utilizing of garments 4. Durability of fabrics are considered while selecting garments for a working class woman 5. Weather condition is not considered while selecting working class woman‟s garments 6. Texture of a fabric should not be considered when selecting fabrics for a working class woman. 7. Fit/comfort of a garment is an important factors considered during selection and utilization of fabrics. 8. The income level of working class woman influences her choice of fabrics/garments worn to office.
2. Garment styles utilized by Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. S/N Item Statement SA A D SD
1. Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing suits.
2. Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing short/long sleeve shirts
3. Nigerian fabrics are used in sewing cooperate trousers and shorts. 4. Nigerian fabric are used in sewing sleeveless gowns and worn with blazer suits. 5. Nigerian fabrics are used in making office shoes and bags
6. Nigerian fabrics can be combined with other fabrics in making dresses.
3. Occasions where Nigerian fabrics are utilized by Academic and non academic female staff.
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD
1. Nigerian fabrics are used in making dresses for cultural functions 2. Nigerian fabrics can be worn to lectures, academic meetings, seminars, workshops, conferences and other formal gathering. 3. Nigerian are worn during fashion shows and beauty contests
4. Nigerian fabrics are used for making dresses for group identifications in form of uniforms. 5. Nigerian fabrics are used for making dresses for social gathering or events like marriage ceremonies, birthday/wedding parties. 6. Nigerian fabrics are used in making garment for religious activities.
4. Factors affecting utilization of garment made with Nigerian fabrics among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State.
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD
1. Quality of Nigerian fabric is lower than the imported ones.
2. Foreign garment are available in the market in form ready-to- wear than the Nigerian fabrics. 3. Foreign garment are cheaper than the Nigerian fabrics.
4. Disappointments on the parts of tailors and garment manufacturers. 5. Foreign garments are more of official dress than the Local fabrics. 6. Foreign garment are more durable than Nigerian fabrics
7. Nigerian fabrics do not support work and office ethics unlike most foreign garments.
5. Factors affecting the quality of Nigeria fabrics used for garment making among Academic and non academic female staff.
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD
The quality of Nigerian fabrics is affected by:
1. Raw material used in producing the fabrics.
2. Use of outdated machines in production of the fabric
3. Insufficient supply of electricity or low voltage, water shortage or impure water 4. Lack of skills needed in fabric production
5. Funds meant for the purchase of raw materials are diverted into the pockets of those in charge of purchasing the raw materials. 6. Lack of supervision of the factory workers or staff by the management causes truancy and subsequently affects the production capacity of Nigerian made fabrics.
6. Measures to improve the utilization of Nigerian fabrics among Academic and non academic female staff.
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD
Utilization of Nigerian fabrics can be improved by:
1. Production of ready-to wear garments with Nigerian fabrics
2. Use of good raw material in production of fabrics
3. Empowerment of fashion designer and tailors through loans to purchase sufficient machines to mass produce garments. 4. Use of appropriate and good quality machines in fabric production. 5. Ban on foreign importation of fabrics.
6. Government empowerment of the local fabric manufacturing industries through loans and grants. 7. Advertisement of Nigerian fabrics on Tv, Radio and other mass media. 8. Apprentice training on fabric manufacturing, fashion designing and tailoring.
APPENDIX C
Department of Home Economics and Hospitality Management Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
November 20, 2015.
Dear Sir/Madam,
REQUEST FOR FACE-VALIDATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
I am a postgraduate student presently undertaking a research work on the Utilization of Nigerian fabric for garment making among Academic and Non-Academic female staff in Public Tertiary Institutions in Enugu State. Attached here are the questionnaire and the research questions which will enable you do the rating as to ensure its validity. Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
Agbo Blessing Nonyelum.
APPENDIX D Reliability
Scale: Cluster A: Case Processing Summary
N % Valid 30 100.0 Cases Excludeda 0 .0
Total 30 100.0 Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .851 8
Reliability Scale: Cluster B: Case Processing Summary
N % Valid 30 100.0
Cases Excludeda 0 .0 Total 30 100.0
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .79 6 Reliability Scale: Cluster C: Case Processing Summary
N %
Valid 30 100.0 Cases Excludeda 0 .0 Total 30 100.0
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .745 6
Reliability
Scale: Cluster D: Case Processing Summary
N % Valid 30 100.0 Cases Excludeda 0 .0 Total 30 100.0
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .91 7
Reliability
Scale: Cluster E: Case Processing Summary
N % Valid 30 100.0
Cases Excludeda 0 .0 Total 30 100.0 Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .88 6
Reliability
Scale: Cluster F: Case Processing Summary
N % Valid 30 100.0 Cases Excludeda 0 .0 Total 30 100.0
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .83 8
Reliability
Scale: Overall Reliability Case Processing Summary
N % Valid 30 100.0 Cases Excludeda 0 .0 Total 30 100.0
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .82 41
APPENDIX E Descriptives
RESEARCH QUESTION ONE
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation ITEM 1 494 3.40 .495 ITEM 2 494 3.36 .498 ITEM 3 494 2.22 .608 ITEM 4 494 2.95 .652 ITEM 5 494 2.41 .617 ITEM 6 494 3.38 .581 ITEM 7 494 2.39 .510 ITEM 8 494 3.45 .498 CLUSTER A 494 2.94762 .212760 Valid N (listwise) 494
Descriptives
RESEARCH QUESTION TWO
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation ITEM 9 494 2.30 .484 ITEM 10 494 2.17 .456 ITEM 11 494 1.74 .662 ITEM 12 494 3.48 .532 ITEM 13 494 3.45 .498 ITEM 14 494 3.54 .515 CLUSTER B 494 2.779690 .1945598 Valid N (listwise) 494
Descriptives
RESEARCH QUESTION THREE
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation ITEM 15 494 3.38 .503 ITEM 16 494 3.48 .539 ITEM 17 494 2.37 .516 ITEM 18 494 3.53 .609 ITEM 19 494 3.51 .500 ITEM 20 494 3.57 .495 CLUSTER C 494 3.309042 .1847075 Valid N (listwise) 494
Descriptives
RESEARCH QUESTION FOUR
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation ITEM 21 494 3.55 .574 ITEM 22 494 3.60 .531 ITEM 23 494 3.59 .492 ITEM 24 494 3.49 .500 ITEM 25 494 3.59 .725 ITEM 26 494 3.55 .608 ITEM 27 494 3.65 .477 CLUSTER D 494 3.575188 .2214496 Valid N (listwise) 494
Descriptives
RESEARCH QUESTION FIVE Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation ITEM 28 494 3.45 .498 ITEM 29 494 3.81 .524 ITEM 30 494 3.43 .496 ITEM 31 494 3.65 .478 ITEM 32 494 3.49 .500 ITEM 33 494 3.65 .477 CLUSTER E 494 3.582321 .2082210 Valid N (listwise) 494
Descriptives
RESEARCH QUESTION SIX
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation ITEM 34 494 3.45 .498 ITEM 35 494 3.69 .462 ITEM 36 494 3.41 .532 ITEM 37 494 3.81 .440 ITEM 38 494 3.53 .499 ITEM 39 494 3.75 .432 ITEM 40 494 3.39 .600 ITEM 41 494 3.55 .675 CLUSTER F 494 3.57389 .253112 Valid N (listwise) 494
T-Test
HYPOTHESIS ONE Group Statistics
STAFF CATEGORY N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic Staff 259 3.41 .492 .031 ITEM 1 Non academic Staff 235 3.40 .500 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.24 .456 .028 ITEM 2 Non academic Staff 235 3.50 .510 .033 Academic Staff 259 2.08 .499 .031 ITEM 3 Non academic Staff 235 2.38 .677 .044 Academic Staff 259 3.11 .673 .042 ITEM 4 Non academic Staff 235 2.77 .581 .038 Academic Staff 259 2.49 .661 .041 ITEM 5 Non academic Staff 235 2.32 .552 .036 Academic Staff 259 3.33 .601 .037 ITEM 6 Non academic Staff 235 3.44 .555 .036 Academic Staff 259 2.29 .494 .031 ITEM 7 Non academic Staff 235 2.51 .501 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.44 .497 .031 ITEM 8 Non academic Staff 235 3.46 .499 .033 Academic Staff 259 2.92375 .224689 .013962 CLUSTER A Non academic Staff 235 2.97394 .195909 .012780
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. 95% Confidence tailed) Differen Error Interval of the ce Differenc Difference e Lower Upper Equal variances .252 .616 .026 492 .979 .001 .045 -.087 .089 ITEM assumed 1 Equal variances not 485.6 .026 .979 .001 .045 -.087 .089 assumed 28 ITEM Equal variances 52.807 .000 -5.861 492 .000 -.255 .043 -.340 -.169 2 assumed Equal variances not 471.7 -5.829 .000 -.255 .044 -.340 -.169 assumed 79 Equal variances 84.870 .000 -5.524 492 .000 -.294 .053 -.398 -.189 ITEM assumed 3 Equal variances not 427.0 -5.445 .000 -.294 .054 -.400 -.188 assumed 94 Equal variances .119 .731 5.867 492 .000 .334 .057 .222 .445 ITEM assumed 4 Equal variances not 490.7 5.909 .000 .334 .056 .223 .445 assumed 99 Equal variances 16.884 .000 3.099 492 .002 .171 .055 .063 .279 ITEM assumed 5 Equal variances not 488.7 3.126 .002 .171 .055 .063 .278 assumed 63 Equal variances .140 .709 -2.192 492 .029 -.114 .052 -.217 -.012 ITEM assumed 6 Equal variances not 491.8 -2.200 .028 -.114 .052 -.217 -.012 assumed 49 Equal variances 22.503 .000 -5.118 492 .000 -.229 .045 -.317 -.141 ITEM assumed 7 Equal variances not 485.9 -5.114 .000 -.229 .045 -.317 -.141 assumed 01 Equal variances .442 .507 -.338 492 .736 -.015 .045 -.103 .073 ITEM assumed 8 Equal variances not 487.0 -.338 .736 -.015 .045 -.103 .073 assumed 44 Equal variances - - 1.720 .190 -2.634 492 .009 .019053 -.012755 CLUS assumed .050191 .087627 TER A Equal variances not 491.2 - - -2.652 .008 .018927 -.013002 assumed 34 .050191 .087380
T-Test
HYPOTHESIS TWO
Group Statistics
STAFF CATEGORY N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic Staff 259 2.40 .536 .033 ITEM 9 Non academic Staff 235 2.19 .391 .026 Academic Staff 259 2.15 .431 .027 ITEM 10 Non academic Staff 235 2.18 .483 .031 Academic Staff 259 1.79 .735 .046 ITEM 11 Non academic Staff 235 1.69 .570 .037 Academic Staff 259 3.48 .523 .033 ITEM 12 Non academic Staff 235 3.49 .542 .035 Academic Staff 259 3.45 .499 .031 ITEM 13 Non academic Staff 235 3.45 .498 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.56 .528 .033 ITEM 14 Non academic Staff 235 3.51 .501 .033 Academic Staff 259 2.805663 .2195890 .0136446 CLUSTER B Non academic Staff 235 2.751064 .1581666 .0103177
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variances F Sig. t Df Sig. (2- Mean Std. 95% Confidence Interval tailed) Difference Error of the Difference Differen Lower Upper ce Equal variances 97.182 .000 5.031 492 .000 .214 .043 .131 .298 ITEM assumed 9 Equal variances 5.106 470.643 .000 .214 .042 .132 .297 not assumed Equal variances 1.528 .217 -.591 492 .555 -.024 .041 -.105 .056 ITEM assumed 10 Equal variances -.588 471.154 .557 -.024 .041 -.105 .057 not assumed Equal variances 7.152 .008 1.578 492 .115 .094 .060 -.023 .211 ITEM assumed 11 Equal variances 1.597 480.528 .111 .094 .059 -.022 .210 not assumed Equal variances .797 .372 -.052 492 .959 -.002 .048 -.097 .092 ITEM assumed 12 Equal variances -.052 483.571 .959 -.002 .048 -.097 .092 not assumed Equal variances .048 .826 .110 492 .913 .005 .045 -.083 .093 ITEM assumed 13 Equal variances .110 487.445 .913 .005 .045 -.083 .093 not assumed Equal variances .712 .399 .885 492 .377 .041 .046 -.050 .132 ITEM assumed 14 Equal variances .887 491.025 .375 .041 .046 -.050 .132 not assumed Equal variances .017372 .020465 CLUS 2.390 .123 3.143 492 .002 .0545990 .0887320 assumed 3 9 TER Equal variances .017106 .020984 B 3.192 468.510 .002 .0545990 .0882137 not assumed 4 2
T-Test
HYPOTHESIS THREE
Group Statistics
STAFF CATEGORY N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic Staff 259 3.36 .513 .032 ITEM 15 Non academic Staff 235 3.40 .492 .032 Academic Staff 259 3.48 .559 .035 ITEM 16 Non academic Staff 235 3.48 .517 .034 Academic Staff 259 2.41 .553 .034 ITEM 17 Non academic Staff 235 2.32 .469 .031 Academic Staff 259 3.53 .611 .038 ITEM 18 Non academic Staff 235 3.54 .608 .040 Academic Staff 259 3.51 .501 .031 ITEM 19 Non academic Staff 235 3.51 .501 .033 ITEM 20 Academic Staff 259 3.57 .496 .031 Non academic Staff 235 3.58 .495 .032 Academic Staff 259 3.312098 .1852656 .0115118 CLUSTER C Non academic Staff 235 3.305674 .1844268 .0120307
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances F Sig. T df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Equal variances .001 .972 -.912 492 .362 -.041 .045 -.130 .048 ITEM assumed 15 Equal variances 490.4 -.914 .361 -.041 .045 -.130 .048 not assumed 97 Equal variances 3.436 .064 .036 492 .971 .002 .049 -.094 .097 ITEM assumed 16 Equal variances 491.8 .037 .971 .002 .048 -.093 .097 not assumed 04 Equal variances 18.119 .000 1.936 492 .053 .090 .046 -.001 .181 ITEM assumed 17 Equal variances 489.8 1.951 .052 .090 .046 -.001 .180 not assumed 18 Equal variances .017 .898 -.061 492 .951 -.003 .055 -.111 .105 ITEM assumed 18 Equal variances 487.9 -.061 .951 -.003 .055 -.111 .105 not assumed 22 Equal variances .002 .965 -.022 492 .983 -.001 .045 -.090 .088 ITEM assumed 19 Equal variances 487.3 -.022 .983 -.001 .045 -.090 .088 not assumed 54 Equal variances .107 .744 -.163 492 .870 -.007 .045 -.095 .080 ITEM assumed 20 Equal variances 487.5 -.163 .870 -.007 .045 -.095 .080 not assumed 59 CLUST Equal variances .008 .930 .386 492 .700 .0064241 .0166548 -.0262993 .0391474 ER C assumed Equal variances 487.7 .386 .700 .0064241 .0166511 -.0262927 .0391408 not assumed 86
T-Test
HYPOTHESIS FOUR
Group Statistics
STAFF CATEGORY N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Academic Staff 259 3.54 .544 .034 ITEM 21 Non academic Staff 235 3.57 .605 .039 Academic Staff 259 3.58 .524 .033 ITEM 22 Non academic Staff 235 3.61 .539 .035 Academic Staff 259 3.59 .492 .031 ITEM 23 Non academic Staff 235 3.59 .493 .032 Academic Staff 259 3.50 .501 .031 ITEM 24 Non academic Staff 235 3.49 .501 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.58 .724 .045 ITEM 25 Non academic Staff 235 3.60 .729 .048 Academic Staff 259 3.56 .609 .038 ITEM 26 Non academic Staff 235 3.55 .607 .040 Academic Staff 259 3.65 .477 .030 ITEM 27 Non academic Staff 235 3.65 .478 .031 Academic Staff 259 3.571980 .2202019 .0136827 CLUSTER D Non academic Staff 235 3.578723 .2232335 .0145621
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. 95% Confidence tailed) Differenc Error Interval of the e Differen Difference ce Lower Upper
ITEM Equal variances 3.394 .066 -.566 492 .572 -.029 .052 -.131 .072 21 assumed Equal variances -.563 472.561 .574 -.029 .052 -.131 .073 not assumed Equal variances .026 .872 -.533 492 .595 -.025 .048 -.120 .069 ITEM assumed 22 Equal variances -.532 484.460 .595 -.025 .048 -.120 .069 not assumed Equal variances .109 .741 .166 492 .868 .007 .044 -.080 .095 ITEM assumed 23 Equal variances .166 487.086 .868 .007 .044 -.080 .095 not assumed Equal variances .217 .641 .287 492 .774 .013 .045 -.076 .102 ITEM assumed 24 Equal variances .287 487.391 .774 .013 .045 -.076 .102 not assumed Equal variances .000 .984 -.384 492 .701 -.025 .065 -.154 .103 ITEM assumed 25 Equal variances -.384 486.725 .701 -.025 .065 -.154 .103 not assumed Equal variances .005 .941 .199 492 .842 .011 .055 -.097 .119 ITEM assumed 26 Equal variances .199 487.753 .842 .011 .055 -.097 .119 not assumed Equal variances .005 .946 .034 492 .973 .001 .043 -.083 .086 ITEM assumed 27 Equal variances .034 487.259 .973 .001 .043 -.083 .086 not assumed - Equal variances - .019968 .521 .471 -.338 492 .736 .045977 .0324908 CLUS assumed .0067433 5 3 TER - D Equal variances - .019981 -.337 485.998 .736 .046004 .0325181 not assumed .0067433 8 6
T-Test
[HYPOTHESIS FIVE Group Statistics
STAFF CATEGORY N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic Staff 259 3.45 .499 .031 ITEM 28 Non academic Staff 235 3.46 .499 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.83 .518 .032 ITEM 29 Non academic Staff 235 3.80 .532 .035 Academic Staff 259 3.43 .496 .031 ITEM 30 Non academic Staff 235 3.43 .497 .032 Academic Staff 259 3.66 .476 .030 ITEM 31 Non academic Staff 235 3.64 .480 .031 Academic Staff 259 3.50 .501 .031 ITEM 32 Non academic Staff 235 3.49 .501 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.64 .481 .030 ITEM 33 Non academic Staff 235 3.66 .473 .031 Academic Staff 259 3.584299 .2113136 .0131304 CLUSTER E Non academic Staff 235 3.580142 .2051867 .0133849
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances F Sig. t Df Sig. (2- Mean Std. 95% Confidence Interval tailed) Difference Error of the Difference Differenc Lower Upper e Equal variances .025 .874 -.080 492 .937 -.004 .045 -.092 .085 ITEM assumed 28 Equal variances not -.080 487.287 .937 -.004 .045 -.092 .085 assumed Equal ITEM variances 1.043 .308 .646 492 .519 .031 .047 -.062 .123 29 assumed Equal variances not .645 484.530 .519 .031 .047 -.062 .123 assumed Equal variances .005 .943 -.036 492 .971 -.002 .045 -.089 .086 ITEM assumed 30 Equal variances not -.036 487.309 .971 -.002 .045 -.090 .086 assumed Equal variances .410 .523 .321 492 .748 .014 .043 -.071 .098 ITEM assumed 31 Equal variances not .321 486.458 .749 .014 .043 -.071 .098 assumed Equal variances .105 .746 .193 492 .847 .009 .045 -.080 .097 ITEM assumed 32 Equal variances not .193 487.371 .847 .009 .045 -.080 .097 assumed Equal variances 1.140 .286 -.533 492 .594 -.023 .043 -.107 .062 ITEM assumed 33 Equal variances not -.533 488.691 .594 -.023 .043 -.107 .062 assumed Equal variances .313 .576 .221 492 .825 .0041567 .0187769 -.0327360 .0410495 CLUS assumed TER Equal E variances not .222 489.732 .825 .0041567 .0187500 -.0326837 .0409971 assumed
T-Test
HYPOTHESIS SIX Group Statistics
STAFF CATEGORY N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic Staff 259 3.45 .499 .031 ITEM 34 Non academic Staff 235 3.46 .499 .033 Academic Staff 259 3.68 .466 .029 ITEM 35 Non academic Staff 235 3.70 .458 .030 Academic Staff 259 3.42 .532 .033 ITEM 36 Non academic Staff 235 3.41 .534 .035 Academic Staff 259 3.82 .433 .027 ITEM 37 Non academic Staff 235 3.80 .448 .029 Academic Staff 259 3.51 .501 .031 ITEM 38 Non academic Staff 235 3.56 .497 .032 Academic Staff 259 3.77 .420 .026 ITEM 39 Non academic Staff 235 3.73 .444 .029 Academic Staff 259 3.37 .599 .037 ITEM 40 Non academic Staff 235 3.41 .602 .039 Academic Staff 259 3.59 .667 .041 ITEM 41 Non academic Staff 235 3.50 .682 .044 Academic Staff 259 3.57577 .260654 .016196 CLUSTER F Non academic Staff 235 3.57181 .245070 .015987
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances F Sig. t Df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval of tailed) Differenc Difference the Difference e Lower Upper Equal variances .025 .874 -.080 492 .937 -.004 .045 -.092 .085 ITEM assumed 34 Equal variances 487.28 -.080 .937 -.004 .045 -.092 .085 not assumed 7 ITEM Equal variances .812 .368 -.450 492 .653 -.019 .042 -.101 .063 35 assumed Equal variances 488.81 -.450 .653 -.019 .042 -.101 .063 not assumed 6 Equal variances .000 .983 .177 492 .860 .008 .048 -.086 .103 ITEM assumed 36 Equal variances 486.93 .177 .860 .008 .048 -.086 .103 not assumed 1 Equal variances .471 .493 .360 492 .719 .014 .040 -.064 .092 ITEM assumed 37 Equal variances 483.73 .359 .720 .014 .040 -.064 .092 not assumed 2 Equal variances - 3.881 .049 492 .214 -.056 .045 -.144 .032 ITEM assumed 1.243 38 Equal variances - 488.04 .214 -.056 .045 -.144 .032 not assumed 1.244 0 Equal variances 4.270 .039 1.036 492 .301 .040 .039 -.036 .117 ITEM assumed 39 Equal variances 480.88 1.033 .302 .040 .039 -.036 .117 not assumed 3 Equal variances .190 .663 -.700 492 .484 -.038 .054 -.144 .068 ITEM assumed 40 Equal variances 486.81 -.700 .484 -.038 .054 -.144 .068 not assumed 7 Equal variances .986 .321 1.396 492 .163 .085 .061 -.035 .204 ITEM assumed 41 Equal variances 485.10 1.394 .164 .085 .061 -.035 .204 not assumed 8 Equal variances 1.328 .250 .174 492 .862 .003964 .022825 -.040884 .048811 CLUS assumed TER F Equal variances 491.37 .174 .862 .003964 .022757 -.040750 .048677 not assumed 0