Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks

Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks

The processes referred to here were mostly used by Skiöld at Print Workshop and are not necessarily recommended for today’s use as health and safety issues have led to some procedures becoming obsolete.

Note: Words found in bold italics indicate their own entry.

Acetic Acid: Also called ethanoic acid is used in a dilute solution to clean/prepare plates prior to etching. It is also vinegar when very dilute.

Acid: In Printmaking it refers to the solution used to etch plates. Nitric acid is commonly used to etch copper and zinc plates.

A la poupée: A process of inking an etching plate in more than one colour and printed simultaneously; creating a colour print in one pull. Each print printed à la poupée may vary slightly. Examples of this can be viewed in BSMT 31 and BSMT 993.

Artist’s Book, also referred to as Bookwork: A term applied to a broad range of art works that are realised in the form of a book. The form and content of a book is an expression of the artist’s concept as opposed to a book about an artist. Artists’ books are often published in small editions and sometimes they are one off objects. Artists' books are realized in a wide range of forms, including bound, scrolls, fold-outs, loose leaves or loose items/objects contained in a box and often involve printmaking techniques. Although artists have been active in printing and book production for centuries, the artist's book is primarily a 20th century form, rooted in the French tradition of the Livre d’Artiste.

Aquatint: An intaglio etching technique used to create areas of tone. Generally powdered resin is evenly sprinkled, then carefully melted, onto an etching plate prior to being bitten by the etching mordant. After having been etched the surface of the plate is textured and will hold ink. The result is a finely textured tonal area, the intensity and darkness of which is determined by how long the plate is bitten by the acid. Skiöld used both box-resin aquatint and coarse or pepperpot aquatint. Density of tone can be controlled by the moment the plate goes in the resin box and the length of time it is left there. Coarse resin is shaken onto the plate through a stocking mesh stretched across a small container. Large particles of resin can be sprinkled onto the plate through a sieve or by hand.

Artist’s Proof, A/P: Prints pulled outside the edition which are reserved for the artist. Proofs are sometimes identified by Roman numerals. Artists’ proofs are usually numbered to a maximum of six.

Bleed, French Bleed: An image that runs to the edge of a sheet of paper, that is, where there are no visible paper margins.

Blended Surface-roll: A method used in relief printing at the printing stage whereby two different coloured inks are rolled up alongside each other to merge before being applied to the printing surface. See BSMT 1281, BSMT 1019, and BSMT 1003.

Blind Embossing, Embossing: A form of pressurised printing without the use of ink so that the paper takes on the form of the printing plate or relief block. A thin sheet of tissue is often placed between the plate/block and the printing paper in order to achieve a crisp, clean print. Birgit Skiöld often used this technique in conjunction with etching, relief printing and skilfully in lithography where careful registration was required. A thin rubber blanket was used in some cases to achieve a better impression. Examples can be found in BSMT 1017 and in the bookwork, Chimes 1969 Circle Press

Bloom: A term used by some to describe surface-tone, a film of ink left on the plate during the wiping process and used to enhance background tone and atmospheric effect. Skiöld used this extensively, see, V&A AAD/1997/18/153, BSMT 1274 and BSMT137.

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (1 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35] Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks

Bon à tirer, B.A.T. (French): Good to print /pull. Often written as BAT on the printing paper by the artist to indicate to the printer that this particular print is standard for the edition.

Burnishing: A method of removing and flattening part of an image on an etching plate. Burnishing can also be used to draw into an image by directly scratching the surface of an etched plate with a tool called a scraper/ burnisher.

Carborundum: An abrasive powder made of carbon and silicon. The carborundum print is created by painting a mixture of carborundum grit and acrylic medium onto a firm, flat surface such as an aluminum, zinc plate or thick card. Once the plate dries it hardens and is inked intaglio and printed with the use of an etching press. It is also used for giving new grain to lithography stones.

Catalogue-Raisonné: A catalogue containing a description of all the work made by an artist.

Chinagraph Wax Resist: A waxy crayon/pencil. Skiöld used a chinagraph pencil to draw an image which was then transferred photographically on to an etching plate. Examples of this technique can seen in the Raked Garden Square series of etchings 1976, see BSMT 674, 1710, 1259 and 135.

Chine-Collé : A method of attaching, with glue, a thin piece of paper to the surface of a print during the process of printing. The paper used is often thin and smooth in order to achieve a finer impression. In contemporary prints it is more often used for purely aesthetic reasons, exploiting visual qualities of the paper rather than its ability at subtly reproducing a printed line.

Chop: A blind embossed image pressed into the paper by the printer and/or the print publisher. See Chimes, the bookwork, 1969, Circle Press, for an example of a Circle press seal, also BSMT 1742, for an example of a London Graphic Arts seal.

Coarse Aquatint also Pepperpot Aquatint: Uneven powdered resin is sprinkled on to an etching plate through a stocking covered shaker. The plate is then heated and the resin melted and prepared for etching. The result is a speckled, uneven aquatint. Sometimes a fine aquatint is placed and etched on top of a pepperpot aquatint to give an area of extra intensity of tone and colour. An example of this can be found in BSMT 1710.

Colophon: A page accompanying a portfolio or bound into a book giving information about the author and how the work was produced. The colophon often lists the printer, medium, paper, edition size and the typeface used. See Chimes, the bookwork, 1969 Circle Press.

Counter Proof: The artist/printer places a piece of paper over a print while the ink is still wet, and pulls another impression from the print itself.

Debossing: An inverted form of embossing in which a deeply etched plate or relief block plate is placed under (recto) the printing paper and run through the press. Examples are BSMT 991 and BSMT 1021.

Deckle Edge: The naturally irregular edge of a handmade sheet of paper. The deckle edge is formed where the paper pulp thins out at the edges of a papermaking mould. Deckle edges are also to be found on two sides of mould-made paper.

Drypoint: An intaglio form of printing but the lines are scored and scratched into the plate manually and without the use of acid. A feature that distinguishes a drypoint is a soft and often rather thick or bushy line. The printed line of a drypoint is often referred to having a ‘burr’. An example of this can be found in BSMT 1302.

Edition: The number of identical images printed from the same plates, blocks or screens with same title and date. Editions can be limited or unlimited. For example, the size of an edition can be expressed as 15/40, indicating that particular print is the 15th print from an edition run of 40. It does not necessarily mean it was the 15th impression taken. After the edition is taken it is usual that the printing matrix is cancelled or destroyed.

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (2 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35] Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks

Etching: Taken from the German word ‘atzen’ meaning to be corrosive. An intaglio process where a print is taken from a metal plate, on to which the image has been produced through the biting action of acid. (The plate can be prepared in a number of ways including covering with an acid-resistant waxy hard ground or soft ground. The artist draws through the ground with a sharp needle-like tool to expose the metal plate underneath. Another method is to apply sugarlift.) When the plate is immersed in an acid bath, the exposed parts are eaten away (etched), producing the sunken lines that will hold the ink. Ink is pushed into the etched areas, the excess removed, and the plate printed. The amount of time spent in the acid will determine the depth of the incised mark and consequently the degree of tone of the printed mark.

Ferric Chloride (iron(III) chloride or Iron Perchloride): A very corrosive salt used to etch copper plates, which does not release hydrogen gas and produces a fine etch; used at Print Workshop. For a more detailed account, see Anthony Gross, Etching, Engraving, & Intaglio Printing, 1970 p.98.

Foul Biting: The term used when the acid resistant surface is accidentally broken or scratched and then etched unintentional erosion marks occur and appear on an intaglio plate. An example of this can be found in BSMT 1274.

Ghost: An image pulled from a printing plate that has already been printed but not re-inked.

Gum-Bichromate: A photographic negative is brought into contact with paper that has been coated with a mixture of gum arabic, potassium bichromate and pigment. The paper is left to dry in a darkened room. The emulsion hardens when exposed to an ultra-violet light source. The unexposed, soft emulsion is then washed away. Gum bichromate prints can achieve broad tones and often resemble crayon or charcoal drawings.

Half-tone Film: An image in which the gradations of light to dark are obtained by the relative darkness and density of tiny dots produced by photographing the subject through a fine screen. An example of this can be found in BSMT 1612.

Handmade Paper: A sheet of paper made individually by hand using a mould and deckle. A sheet of handmade paper can sometimes be identified by the uneven distribution or paper pulp. Birgit Skiöld commissioned her own paper using her signature as watermark.

Hanko: A carved Japanese stamp used rather than a signature to authenticate documents. Also referred to as Han. Hanko is made from wood, stone or horn. Birgit Skiöld’s personal hanko / stamp can be found on many of her prints, including BSMT 1688. It appears as a small red circle with Japanese lettering inside. Traditionally printed in red. Birgit Skiöld’s personal hanko represents a shield using Japanese calligraphy (her name means shield in English). It was sometimes used instead of a signature and appears around the time of her first trip to Japan in December 1970.

Hard Ground: A mixture of asphaltum, beeswax and resin which is resistant to acid. The etching plate is warmed and the hard ground is spread in a thin, even layer over the etching plate. Once cooled the plate can be drawn into with an etching needle exposing the plate underneath. The exposed drawn areas etch and will print. Hard ground is generally used to achieve a linear quality to the etching. Examples of hard ground etching can be seen in BSMT 990 and BSMT 1300.

Hors Commerce Proof, HC: A proof outside the commercial edition.

Impression: The term used to refer a print taken from an inked or textured matrix.

Intaglio: An Italian word meaning ‘incision’. A process in which the image is carried below the printing surface and the ink is forced out of the plate by the action of the paper being pressed into it, under pressure. The plate is covered with ink, then the surface is wiped clean with muslin and the heel of the hand, leaving ink in the incised lines or textured areas of the image. This plate is then printed, using a press, on to moistened (soft) paper. The paper is forced down into the area of the plate holding ink, and the image is transferred to the paper.

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (3 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35] Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks

Letterpress: Typographic relief printing from movable type made from wood or lead. Skiöld’s Circle Press artist’s books had text mostly printed by hand-set letterpress.

Lith Film: An extreme form of line film, a high contrasting black and white film which, after development with a special lith developer, gives negatives of black and white values (clear film) with no grey tones.

Line Film: A high contrasting black and white film which, after development with a special lith developer, gives negatives of black and white values (clear film) with no grey tones.

Linocut, Relief Print: A print made from a block of linoleum from which areas which are meant to remain un-inked are cut away with a sharp instrument/tool. This method of printing is similar to a woodcut; however, the surface of the print has less texture due to the uniform nature of linoleum. Examples of this can be viewed in BSMT 1206, BSMT 1253 and BSMT 1006.

Lithograph: Derived from the Greek for writing on stone. For this printing technique the image is made with greasy drawing materials called tusche on a very flat porous stone (or a specially treated metal plate). This stone/plate is treated chemically so ink, when rolled on to the dampened stone/plate, adheres only where the drawing was made. This inked image can then be transferred to a piece of paper with the help of a high pressure press. As the surface is neither raised or lowered it is sometimes referred to planographic. Birgit Skiöld was a skillful lithographer, examples are BSMT 50, BSMT 1097 and BSMT 1067.

Lithographic Crayon: Greasy, waxy sticks used to draw on to lithographic stones and plates. The crayons come in various degrees of softness in order to achieve different marks. Examples of crayon work can be seen in BSMT 1742 and BSMT 991.

Lithography, Direct: A lithographic image is transferred from stone or plate under pressure using a direct- press (rather like a relief printing press) with a result that the deposit of ink is quite heavy and the image is printed in reverse. Pin-hole registration marks on either side of the printing paper can reveal signs of direct- press printing.

Lithography, Offset: A lithographic image is first printed on to a rubber blanket roller before being printed on printing paper, thus allowing for the image to be printed in the same direction as it appears on the lithographic plate.

Lithography, Plate: A lithographic print taken from a specially prepared plate (usually zinc) sensitised to grease. Birgit Skiöld made many lithographs, often comprising several colours and in conjunction with other techniques. Some examples are BSMT 472, BSMT 500, BSMT 681 BSMT 1624.

Lithography, Stone: Bavarian limestone is ground carefully with 3 sizes of grit. The stone needs to be absolutely level in order to take even prints.

Marbling effects: A process used in etching whereby varnish is sprinkled onto the surface of a tray of water. A plate held upside down is brought into contact with the surface and the pattern of varnish is transferred, then dried, ready for etching.

Margins: The paper beyond the plate mark or beyond the image itself.

Matrix: Any surface which is used as the physical base from which images are printed. Etching plates, lithographic stones and lino blocks are all examples of matrices.

Metal Cut: A form of relief printing from an intaglio plate. In the fifteenth century metal cuts often employed drill holes that printed as white dots. Engraved lines will print white rather than black in metal cut since the surface, rather than the marks in the plate, is inked.

Mixed Media: Works that are a combination of a variety of approaches and methods, for example, a work

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (4 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35] Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks made using etching, collage and drawing. Print elements are not necessarily part of a mixed media piece of work, however, Birgit Skiöld made a number of mixed media works employing zerox transfer printing and drawing, also tissue collage,for instance: BSMT 121 and BSMT 123.

Monoprint: A unique image taken from repeatable printing surface(s) which may be hand-coloured or have other material added such as collage creating variants.

Monotype: A form of printmaking in which the artist draws or paints with inks on to a smooth surface, such as plate, glass or perspex (mylar), and while the ink is still wet, prints the image onto paper, usually with a press although sometimes by hand. A second, much lighter impression may be taken and is referred to as a ghost image. The remaining image on the printing surface can be reworked, but the subsequent print will not be an exact version of the previous print. Monotypes may be unique prints or variations on a theme. An example is BSMT 462.

Mordant: A term which refers to the acid or solution used to etch a plate. Anthony Gross gives Mordant recipes used in the 1960s and 1970s, see Etching, Engraving, & Intaglio Printing, 1970, pp 91-99.

Mould-made Paper: High quality paper made on a cylinder mould machine. Mould-made papers have a deckle edge on 2 sides.

Open bite: An intaglio process in which unprotected areas of an etching plate are exposed to acid. The acid lowers the surface of the plate around any STOPPED OUT areas, but since both etched and un-etched areas remain smooth, ink will only be held in the edge of the bitten / etched area. Examples of this can be seen in BSMT 1272, BSMT 483 and BSMT 998.

Original Print: A print designed and printed by, or under supervision, of the artist. In the case of Skiöld, her prints are autographic, the matrix being prepared by the artist herself.

Photo-etching: A light sensitive, acid resistant surface is applied to an etching plate. The plate is exposed to an image, usually photographic and developed. The plate is then etched and inked intaglio. Examples can be seen in BSMT 1612 and BSMT 192.

Photo-lithography: Light sensitive plates are exposed to an image, often photographic and the image is developed and printed from the plate. An example can be seen in BSMT 1063.

Printers’ Proof: A number of extra prints are pulled after the edition is complete and kept by the printer.

Proof: A pulled print usually taken to check the progress of the design of a print.

Registration: The alignment of a series of printing surfaces to create a colour print. Some registration marks can be seen on BSMT 1060.

Relief Etching: A print taken from an etching plate but the plate has been surface-rolled rather then inked intaglio.

Relief Printing: Is the process where the raised areas of the block, for example, lino or wood are inked and printed while the cut, sunken parts are not.

Retroussage: A refinement of intaglio printing used to achieve a softening and more atmospheric effect. Fine, soft muslin pressed lightly over the surface of an inked and wiped plate, catches a small amount of the ink in the lines and draws it slightly upwards, these traces of ink at the side of the lines cause them to lose some of their sharpness of definition when printed. Birgit Skiöld used this technique in BSMT 1300, and BSMT 993.

Roll-up or Surface-roll relief: A thin layer of ink is applied with a roller to the surface of an inked or un- inked etched plate. When printed it gives the impression of a background colour to the print. Examples of this

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (5 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35] Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks are BSMT 1668, BSMT 1016, BSMT 1047 and BSMT 1045.

Screenprinting: A print made by pushing ink or paint, with a squeegee, through a screen of cloth, to which a stencil has been adhered. The stencil may be applied manually or photographically to the silk screen. Originally silk was stretched across the frame but nowadays synthetic materials are used for the screen mesh. Birgit made only a small number of screen prints, an example can be seen in BSMT 487.

Signed in Pencil by the artist: Normally this implies that the print is an original work of art by the artist. It could also indicate that the signed impression has the artist’s approval.

Soft Ground: Similar to hard ground but with the addition of tallow which keeps the wax soft and tacky. Once spread over the etching plate certain objects can be pressed into the soft ground and etched to reproduce their texture, for example cloth, leaves and feathers may be used. Soft ground can also be used to achieve a softer, more granular linear effect. By laying a piece of thin paper on top of a soft grounded plate it can be drawn upon with a pencil, and the resulting etched image will resemble a pencil line drawn on paper. Examples can be seen in the following prints BSMT 23 and BSMT 1054.

Spit Bite: Acid is painted on to an aquatinted plate to create watery tonal effects. It can also be used to repair an existing aquatint.

Straw Hat Varnish: A thin and fast drying methylated spirit based solution made. From shellac and pigment. It is painted on to etching plates and used as an acid resist. It is commonly used to protect the back of plates while immersed in an acid bath.

State: A term which refers to a particular stage in the development of a print. Any alteration to the printing surface, after a proof has been taken, involves the creation of a new state.

Stencil: A process in which the areas not to be printed are masked out.

Stop, stopping, Stop-out Varnish: A means of protecting parts of an etching plate, usually with a varnish, while the remainder is left to continue to bite in the acid.

Sugar Lift or Lift ground: An etching method whereby a saturated solution of sugar mixed with a little Indian or Chinese ink is painted over an etching plate, then covered with a resist, such as thinned varnish (or ashphaltum). The plate is then placed in a bath of warm water, the sugar solution dissolves and lifts up through the varnish exposing the plate below. The exposed areas can now be aquatinted or etched straight away without any aquatint. The exposed areas are bitten in the acid while the varnished areas remain protected. Birgit Skiöld often employed this technique, examples include BSMT 1036 and BSMT 1002.

Tusche (German): The name for the greasy substance or “ink” used to make marks on a lithographic stone or plate. It can be thinned or thickened to achieve various effects. Where tusche is laid down it will produce a surface that will eventually print. Tusche is available in stick or solid form. Examples can be viewed in BSMT 1108 and BSMT 479.

Watermark: An image formed in the paper as it is being made. Wire or cast metal designs are sewn to the papermaking screen against which the paper pulp is drained. Examples include Birgit Skiöld’s own watermark, in the form of her signature.

Water Resist: A method used in lithography exploiting the fact that water and grease repel each other. A small amount of a mixture of water and oil is applied to the surface of a stone or plate with the result that the surface takes on the effect of water droplets and rivulets. Used for this effect by Skiöld in many lithographs, see BSMT 69.

White Ground: A mixture of washing detergent, linseed oil and water is painted on to an aquatinted etching plate. Where the solution is thinnest, the acid will bite first. Gradually the ground dissolves in the

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (6 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35] Glossary of terms and techniques with reference to Birgit Skiöld’s prints and bookworks acid resulting in an aquatint effect that is more painterly in appearance.

Woodcut: A print produced from a wood block, made by cutting into the broad face of a plank, usually with a knife or ‘v’ or ‘u’ shaped tools. The artist cuts away areas not to be printed and which will appear as white parts of the image. When the wood is inked with a roller, the raised parts of the block hold the ink and are pressed against the paper in the printing process. Woodcut is a form of relief printing.

Zerox Transfer Print or Colour-xerox Transfer: A photocopied image, which in some cases has had its colour balance manipulated, is transferred on to another surface, usually paper, with the use of cellulose thinners. Images can be transferred with the use of a press or by applying pressure with a pencil. A process which was used by Skiöld in the 1980s. Examples include BSMT 132 and BSMT 99.

Websites searched http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/glossary/definition.jsp?entryId=91 http://www.tunickart.com/printglossary http://www.intute.ac.uk/artsandhumanities http://www.spencerart.ku.edu/print09a.html http://infopedia.nlb.gov.sg/Research/articles/PFPrintmaking.pdf http://warnockfinearts.com/Printmaking.htm http://library.wisc.edu/libraries/Art/artistsbooks/Introduction.html http://www.answers.com/topic/halftone#Wikipedia http://photography.about.com/library/glossary/bldef_gum.htm http://www.clevelandart.org/museum/collect/prntglos.html http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/online/edo/woodblock/aboutPrinting.php http://www.silentpc.com/printglossary.html http://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&defl=en&q=define:gum +bichromate+print&sa=X&oi=glossary_definition&ct=title http://artmondo.net/printworks/articles/ferric.htm http://www.lemonstreet.com/layout/glossary.asp http://www.waterbasedinks.com/gallerycarb.html http://www.collectorsprints.com/glossary/counterproof.asp http://www.jun-gifts.com/personalizedgifts/hanko/hanko1/hanko1.htm http://www.thejapaneseconnection.com/Glossary/hanko.htm http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/~hmc/hsci/chemicals/ethanoic_acid.html http://www.meyerovich.com/info/glossary.html http://www.magical-secrets.com/studio/video/aquatint

Useful references for the glossary: Ayres, Julia, Printmaking Techniques, Watson-Guptill Publications/New York 1993 Dawson, John, (Ed) The Complete Guide To Prints and Printmaking, Techniques and Materials Phaidon Press Limited 1981 Chamberlain, Walter, The Thames and Hudson Manual of Etching and Engraving, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London 1972 Gilmour, Pat, Artists at Curwen, Tate Gallery Publications Department, 1977 Gilmour, Pat, The Mechanised Image, an historical perspective on 20th century prints, exhibition catalogue, Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978 Gilmour, Pat, Understanding Prints: A Contemporary Guide, Waddington Galleries, London, 1979 Gilmour, Pat, Artists in Print, BBC, 1981 Gross, Anthony, Etching, Engraving, & Intaglio Printing, London, Oxford University Press 1970 Lambert, Susan, Prints, Art and Techniques, V&A Publications, 2001 Tallman, Susan, The Contemporary Print from Pre-Pop to Postmodern, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, 1996 Trevelyan, Julian, Etching, Modern Methods of Intaglio Printmaking Studio Books (Longacre Press Ltd) 1963 Simmons, Rosemary, Dictionary of Printmaking Terms, A & C Black Ltd.

file:///D|/OTHERWork/Ree/glossery/glossary.html (7 of 7) [25/11/2008 20:08:35]