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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, EMOTIONAL LABOUR AND WORK EFFECTIVENESS IN SERVICE ORGANISATIONS: A PROPOSED MODEL

Abdul Kadir Othman, Hazman Shah Abdullah and Jasmine Ahmad

The paper draws together literature on (EI) and emotional labour (EL) and examines its influence on work effectiveness (WQ) in different business settings; professional service, service shop and mass service. In professional service, it is proposed that EI is important in assisting employees to achieve highly in five facets of WQ; job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role. In service shop, the influence of EI is moderate but the role of EL is increasingly important. In mass service, EI does not significantly contribute to high WQ instead EL plays its effective role in promising WQ. Therefore, the role of emotional intelligence and emotional labour in influencing service quality is dependent on the type of service organisations. Key Words: Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour, Work Effectiveness, Service Types

INTRODUCTION service settings namely professional service, service shop and mass service. Where the intensity of service provider- HIS paper examines the growing application of client interaction is high (more thick information emotional intelligence (EI) in the development of exchange, high discretion, extended interaction, high Thuman capital in modern organisations. A number value exchange, for example in a professional service), of studies have posited the importance of EI in work EI will play an important role in affecting WQ. In services performance (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Carmeli, where the intensity of service provider-client interaction 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, is low (for example consumer banking), EI has a more Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons and Schneider, 2005, Sy, limited role in promising WQ. Given the relative intensity Tram, and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, 2004) as well as and competitive centrality of human capital in service service provision (Bardzil and Slaski, 2003, Kernbach businesses, the concept of EI is viewed as particularly and Schutte, 2005,Sojka, and Deeter-Schmeiz, 2002). important in developing competitive advantage. Many service businesses compete successfully on the However, in services management, the concept of basis of high tech or high touch operations or a emotional labour (EL), which refers to “the management combination of both. The EI proponents support its of to create a publicly observable facial and bodily universal efficacy. But, it is well established in service display” (Hochschild, 1983) cannot be ignored. science that service businesses vary significantly Organisations establish display rules, which are meant (Lovelock, 1983, Schmenner, 1986, and Shostack, 1977). to control the employees’ behaviours during service This paper is an attempt to develop a contingency based encounter and generate emotional labour demands. or nuanced view of the fit between different types of Service personnel are required to display appropriate service businesses and the potential role of EI in to enhance their role. However, EL is effective influencing service providers’ work effectiveness (WQ). depending on the contexts it is applied. This paper The role of EI is defined via a set of propositions in three attempts to relate the concept of EI as well as EL to WQ 32 ● Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad according to different service settings. It is proposed that 1990). Therefore, EI is defined as the ability to perceive service provider with different levels of EI will accurately, appraise, and express ; the ability significantly influence WQ through its different to access and/or generate when they facilitate dimensions; job role, career role, innovator role, team thought; the ability to understand emotion and role and organisation role. The relationships are emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate moderated by different service settings. emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. The detail and description of each dimension is included in Table 1. Emotional Intelligence Reviewing various definitions of emotional intelligence Emotional Labour (EI), the one suggested by Mayer and Salovey (1997) is borrowed since the paper is meant to look at the EI Emotional labour (EL) is viewed as the display of a as an ability to perceive, regulate and use emotions and particular emotion in exchange for a wage. Wong and not as the competencies as proposed by other authors. Law (2002) in reviewing works on EL summarised that Mayer and Salovey’s ability model defines EI as there are at least three types of “labour” to be offered to “intelligence” in the traditional sense, that is, as a set the organisation in exchange for reward. Mental labour of mental abilities to do with emotions and the refers to the cognitive skills and knowledge as well as processing of emotional information that are a part of, the expertise of employees. Physical labour refers to the and contribute to, logical thought and intelligence in physical efforts of employees to achieve organisational general. These abilities are arranged hierarchically from goals. Emotional labour refers to the extent to which an basic psychological processes to the more employee is required to present an appropriate emotion psychologically integrated and complex, and are in order to perform the job in an efficient and effective thought to develop with age and experience in much manner (Wong and Law, 2002). the same way as crystallised abilities. Moreover, they One of the earliest works on EL is the one that has are considered to be independent of traits and talents been carried out by Hochschild (1983). The study and preferred ways of behaving (Mayer and Salovey, introduced the construct of EL as the act of managing

Table 1: EI Dimensions/Branches and Descriptions of Exemplary skills Dimensions/Branches Descriptions Ability to identify emotion in one’s physical and psychological states

Perceiving Emotion Ability to identify emotion in other people Ability to express emotions accurately and to express needs related to them Ability to discriminate between accurate/honest and inaccurate/dishonest feelings Ability to redirect and prioritise thinking on the basis of associated feelings Using Emotions to Ability to generate emotions to facilitate judgment and memory Facilitate Thought Ability to capitalise on mood changes to appreciate multiple points of view Ability to use emotional states to facilitate problem solving and creativity Ability to understand relationships among various emotions Understanding Emotions Ability to perceive the causes and consequences of emotions Ability to understand complex feelings, emotional blends, and contradictory states Ability to understand transitions among emotions Ability to be open to feelings, both pleasant and unpleasant Ability to monitor and reflect on emotions Managing Emotions Ability to engage in, prolong, or detach from an emotional state Ability to manage emotions in oneself Ability to manage emotions in others Source: Salovey, Kokkonen, Lopes and Mayer (2004)

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008 Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations ● 33 emotion in the service of one’s job. Hochschild defined Service Typology EL as “the management of feeling to create a publicly Silvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson and Voss (1992) proposed observable facial and bodily display”. She suggests that a classification scheme based on business processes, EL involves the induction or suppression of feeling in bringing together several previously suggested order to sustain in others a sense of being cared for in a classification scheme into a cohesive framework. Based convivial safe place (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild on data from eleven service industries, the authors (1983) also proposed a classification of occupations suggested three types of service processes; professional based on their EL demands. The occupations high in EL service, service shops and mass services. The are in the categories of professional technical (e.g. nurses, classification is based on six dimensions; people versus physicians, therapists, and lawyers), clerical (e.g. equipment, level of customisation, extent of employee/ cashiers, clerks, bank tellers and bill collectors) and customer contact, level of employee discretion, value service workers (e.g. protective service workers, added in back office versus front office and product personnel service workers, health service workers and versus process focus. This paper will apply the service waiters). In most theories, employees are required to typologies suggested by Silvestro et al. (1992). The three display the standard expression of emotions regardless service process types are shown in Table 2. of how they actually feel (Grandey, 2000). Research on EL primarily focuses on the two dimensions namely surface act and deep act (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002, Job Performance Brotheridge, and Lee, 2003). Surface act is fake unfelt Job performance is defined as the aggregated value to emotions and/or suppress felt emotions. Deep act, on the the organisation of the discrete behavioural episodes that other hand, is modification of felt emotions so that an individual performs over a standard interval of time genuine display of emotion will follow. (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Job The display rules are present in a number of performance, in this paper, serves as a proxy of work occupations and generate EL demands. Service effectiveness as it is used to assess how well the personnel are typically expected to display positive employees have accomplished their assigned tasks. Job emotions to promote goodwill, patronage and spending performance is divided into two dimensions; task while keeping to themselves their negative feelings performance and contextual performance (Borman and (Diefendorff and Richard, 2003, Grandey, 2000, Motowidlo, 1993). Task performance refers to Hochschild, 1983, Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987) police behaviours that are directly linked with completion of interrogators and bill collectors are demanded to display the job. It consists of two types; executing technical negative emotions to gain compliance from debtors and processes, and maintaining and servicing technical suspects (Stenross and Kleiman, 1989 and Sutton, requirements (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). 1991). In this paper, EL refers the extent to which an Contextual performance, on the other hand, refers to employee is required to display an appropriate emotion interpersonal behaviours or actions that benefit the in order to perform the job efficiently and effectively organisation. It includes activities such as helping and by using surface acting. cooperating with others, following organisational rules

Table 2: Silvestro’s et al. (1992) Service Classification Scheme Service Types Description Examples Organisations with relatively few transactions, highly customised, Consultants, corporate banks, Professional Service process oriented, with relatively long customer contact time. doctors and architects Value added process occurs in the front office where considerable judgment is applied in meeting customer needs. A category which falls between professional and mass services. Retail banks, rental services Service Shop Value added process occurs in the front office where considerable and hotels judgment is applied in meeting customer needs. Organisations where there are many customer transactions, Telecommunication, Mass Service with limited contact time and little customisation. The offering is bus services and fast foods mainly product-oriented with most of the value being added in the back office and little judgment applied by the front office staff.

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008 34 ● Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad and procedures, and volunteering to carry out task and Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, and activities (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Since Varca, 2004). Employees with the abilities to perceive, there is a gap in the literature with regard to the generic understand, and regulate emotion in self and others and factors to measure job performance (authors and ability to use emotion to facilitate thought and actions researchers tend to construct factors underlying job would be able to achieve high performance in their job. performance specifically to tailor with their specific They are able to accept job challenges, overcome research needs), Welbourne, Johnson and Erez (1998) obstacles or work-related problems (Slaski and have taken the initiative to investigate the general factors Cartwright, 2002, 2003), and able to reduce the personal- underlying the job performance dimensions. They utilise job conflicts (Abraham, 1999). Those with low EI two related theories, namely Role Theory and Identity abilities tend to experience work-related stress (Slaski Theory and suggest five dimensions of job performance and Cartwright, 2002, 2003) and emotional dissonance known as Role-Based Performance Scale (RBPS), which (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987). Consequently job has been refined and tested by the authors. RBPS assesses dissatisfaction, a decline in organisational commitment, different facets of job incumbent’s roles, which consist and, in turn, withdrawal intentions will entail (Abraham, of job, career, innovator, team and organisation role. The 1998, Morris, and Feldman, 1996) as well as lower job following discussions will utilise the RBPS model in performance. Besides the significant relationship establishing the linkages between EI and work between EI and performance, some studies have failed effectiveness. to establish the association between the two constructs and some found mixed results. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) conducted meta-analytic EI, Service Typology and Job Performance investigation on 57 studies on EI performance link found A large body of research work has investigated the that EI is weakly related to job performance. Besides, relationship between emotional intelligence and Jordan and Troth (2004) found that EI was unrelated to performance. Employees’ emotional intelligence found individual performance. Instead, they found that EI it to be positively associated with job satisfaction predicted group performance and integrative conflict (Langhorn, 2004, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006 and, resolution styles. Wong and Law, 2002), positively associated with Basically, employees with high EI abilities will prediction of job advancement (Dulewicz and Higgs, achieve high level of job performance and employees 2000), positively associated with organisational with low level of EI abilities will end up with low level commitment (Wong and Law, 2002), positively of job performance. However, the relationships are associated with work performance (Abraham, 2004, moderated by types of services which they are associated Austin, 2004, Carmeli, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, with. Since the professional service is characterised as Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons and customised, high interaction and high judgment required Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, from the service providers, they need to utilise the EI 2004), negatively associated with turnover intention abilities to the highest level so that the services rendered (Wong and Law, 2002) and negatively related to stress meet the objectives and effective work can be (Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Slaski, and accomplished as in the case of account officers Cartwright, 2003). (Bachman, Stein, Campbell, and Sitarenios, 2000), counsellors (Martin Jr, Easton, Wilson, Takemoto, and EI and Job Role Sullivan, 2004), professional salespersons (Rozell, Pettijohn, and Parker, 2006) and nurses (McQueen, Job has been defined as doing things specifically related 2004). Leidner (1999) suggested that to be effective, to one’s job description (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, service provider needs more than EL so that they do not 1998). Job role is the most salient aspect of the job hold up the work. In service shops, the need for EI is performance model. Researchers have devoted a lot of moderate since the service is characterised by less efforts in trying to establish associations between EI and customised, less interaction and less judgment required work performance especially with regard to the job being on the part of service providers. In mass service, the job completed (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Bachman, performed by service providers is characterised as Stein, Campbell and Sitarenios, 2000, Carmeli, 2003, routine, low interaction and non-judgmental. The service Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, is produced with little or without personal contact with 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons the customers therefore, EI plays little role in helping

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008 Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations ● 35 employees to achieve effective work effectiveness. 2000), and career development (Brown, George Curran Employees can achieve high job performance by and Smith, 2003, Stough, and De Guara, 2003). One conforming to the SOP (Collier, 1990) or conforming study found that EI moderates the effect of work-family to the organisation’s display rules (Brotheridge and conflict on career commitment (Carmeli, 2003). Grandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983, and Wharton, 1999). Besides, one study emphasises on the importance of Studies have shown that EL is important in specific jobs emotion management on career orientation (Pulkkinen, such as flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983), Ohranen, and Tolvanen, 1999). To sum up, employees convenience store clerks (Sutton and Rafaeli, 1988), with high abilities to accurately perceive emotion in self cashiers (Rafaeli, 1989), bill collectors (Sutton, 1991), and others, understand emotions of self and others, waitresses (Paules, 1991), fast food restaurant workers manage those emotions, and use the emotions to (Leidner, 1993, 1996) and hairdressers (Parkinson, facilitate thought and actions may achieve career role 1991). Therefore, the following proposition is effectiveness but employees with low EI abilities may developed. obtain low career role effectiveness. Again, the relationships are moderated by service types to which Proposition 1(a): Depending on service types, EI the employees are attached. significantly and positively influences work effectiveness through job role. The influence of EI Bringing in the Silvestro’s et al. (1992) service on work effectiveness (job role) is high in positioning matrix, professional service providers require professional service, moderate in service shop and EI abilities to achieve high career role. Since professional low in mass service. service providers deal with customised needs of the customers they have to equip themselves with the Proposition 1(b): Depending on service types, EL necessary skills so that they can use their judgment to significantly and positively influences work better serve the customers. Having high emotional effectiveness through job role. The influence of EL awareness facilitates the use of emotional input to form on work effectiveness (job role) is high in mass judgment, make choices, and decide among options and service, moderate in service shop and low in having the ability to express emotions enables one to professional service. effectively communicate with others to realise one’s goals (George, 2000). In service shop, the need for EI to EI and Career Role facilitate one’s career role is lower since the service is more standardised and has lesser degree of interaction Career has been defined as obtaining the necessary with customers. The urgency to acquire necessary skills skills to progress through one’s organisation to work effectively with customers is lower compared to (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The concept professional service. At the other end of the continuum, of career as suggested by the authors is related to career mass service employees require the minimum amount of commitment and career satisfaction. Career EI abilities to gain career role effectiveness. Since the commitment refers to identification with and service is standardised, EI may slightly influence service involvement in one’s occupation (Meuller, Wallace, providers to acquire necessary skills to progress in one’s and Price, 1992) and career satisfaction refers to one’s job. Career role in mass service is structured and pre feelings of satisfaction with his or her career as a whole determined by the management. It is basically associated (Lounsbury et al., 2003). Employees who are satisfied with the EL practices of how to please the customers. with their career should feel high career commitment Employees are rewarded with raises and promotions if and are willing to obtain the necessary skills to progress they comply with display rules (Sutton, 1991). Therefore, through the organisation (Poon, 2004). She added that the following proposition is suggested. people who are able to perceive and understand their feelings should be able to assess their job skills and Proposition 2(a): Depending on service types, EI interests, set appropriate career objectives, develop significantly and positively influences work realistic career plans, and obtain the developmental effectiveness through career role. The influence of experiences needed to take advantage of career EI on work effectiveness (career) is high in opportunities (Poon, 2004). Studies have found that professional service, moderate in service shop and EI is positively related to career commitment (Aremu, low in mass service. 2005, Carson and Carson, 1998), career success Proposition 2(b): Depending on service types, EL (Cooper, 1997), career progress (Dulewicz and Higgs, significantly and positively influences work

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effectiveness through career role. The influence of providers. Creativity and innovation in one’s job is EL on work effectiveness (career) is high in mass highly valued in attending to the customers’ needs and service, moderate in service shop and low in concern. In service shop, the need for EI is lower professional service. compared to professional service. Complying with the job requirements and using little discretion and judgment are expected from the employees. Their role EI and Innovator Role is restricted to the organisations’ established rules Innovator has been defined as creativity and innovation (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983, in one’s job and the organisation as a whole and Wharton, 1999). In mass service, since the services (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). If organisations offered are standardised, routine and with minimum intend to remain competitive in a complex and changing level of interaction with the customers, service environment, they must have the employees who are providers cannot use EI abilities to facilitate their not only creative in their jobs but also contribute to the innovator role. Employees in fast food restaurants, for effectiveness and adaptability of the organisations as a example, are working in accordance to the established whole (Schein, 1980). Thompson and Werner (1997) standard operating procedures (SOP) with little asserted that “in most organisations, it is no longer interaction with the customers. Deviation from the sufficient for an employee simply to carry out his or procedures is not tolerated therefore, the need for EI to her essential job functions. Employees today are facilitate employees’ innovator role is minimum in mass expected to take initiative and engage in those service. They need EL more than EI in performing behaviours which insure that the organisation’s goals effective work. Therefore, the following proposition is are realised. Moreover, the rapid pace of change in suggested. many industries today has made the “job descriptions” Proposition 3(a): Depending on service types, EI per se somewhat obsolete”. Creativity has been defined significantly and positively influences work as “the product of novel and useful ideas” (George and effectiveness through innovator role. The influence Zhou, 2002, Madjar, Oldham, and Pratt, 2002). Creative of EI on work effectiveness (innovator role) is high ideas are derived from the employees’ abilities to in professional service, moderate in service shop and identify relationships or associations that others did not low in mass service. see. Innovation or creativity is not a straight forward process. According to Easterby-Smith, Crossan and Proposition 3(b): Depending on service types, EL Niccolini (2000), innovative learning is obviously significantly and positively influences work complex, involving a mix of rational, intuitive, effectiveness through innovator role. The influence emotional and social processes. Similarly, a number of of EL on work effectiveness (innovator role) is high studies have fairly established that emotion plays an in mass service, moderate in service shop and low important role in employees’ readiness to be creative in professional service. and innovative (Amabile, Barsade, Mueller and Staw, 2005, Fenwick, 2003, Fong, 2006, Fredrickson, 1998, EI and Team Role 2001, and Park, 2005). Studies have shown that EI is Team has been defined as working with co-workers and related to innovation and creativity (Stough and De team members towards success of the firm (Welbourne, Guara, 2003, Suliaman, and Al-Shaikh, 2006). Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The importance of team role Employees with high EI will result in high innovator in organisation as well as in research has recently been role but employees with low EI will end up with low realised and given a special attention due to its effect in innovator role. Emotionally intelligent employees are creating a synergy in work outcomes. Thus, teamwork able to identify, understand, manage and use negative has been included in the new performance models or positive feelings by the way of finding associations (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997, and Campbell, 1990). among available elements to find novel and creative A number of studies have highlighted the link between solution to the problem at hand. EI and team performance. Rice (1999) suggested that EI The relationships, nonetheless, are moderated by plays a role in certain aspects of effective team leadership service types in which the employees are working. In and team performance. Stough and De Guara (2003) professional service, services offered are customised found that emotional control, a component of EI was and require discretion and judgment from the service positively related to the ability to work as a team member

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008 Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations ● 37 towards the success of the organisation. Similarly, for the employees to achieve effective team role. Feyerherm and Rice (2002) found that understanding Complying with display rules or adopting EL practices emotion and managing emotion were positively corelated may be adequate to work in highly structured team as with some measures of team performance especially with the case in mass service. According to Wharton and regard to customer service dimensions suggesting the Erickson (1993) employees are required to display importance of EI in customer service environment. integrative emotions intended to bring people together. Perlini and Halverson (2006) found both intrapersonal One has quoted that “in highly standardised situation, it competency and general mood, components of EI, may be easy to fake an emotion. In less standardised predicted number of National Hockey League points and situations (such as in professional service) there is the games played. Jordan, Ashkanasy, Hartel and Hooper danger that the true feelings may lurk through and may (2002) found that high EI teams operated at high level be recognised by other people” (Zapf, 2002). Therefore, of performance throughout the study period. Rapisarda the following proposition is formed. (2002) found that EI competencies of influence, and achievement orientation were positively related to Proposition 4(a): Depending on service types, EI students and faculty ratings of team cohesiveness. She significantly and positively influences work also found that empathy was positively related to student effectiveness through team role. The influence of and faculty ratings of team performance, whereas EI on work effectiveness (team role) is high in achievement orientation was positively related to student professional service, moderate in service shop and ratings of team performance. Jordan and Troth (2004) low in mass service. found that EI predicted successful problem solving of Proposition 4(b): Depending on service types, EL cognitive tasks in teams and contributed to integrative significantly and positively influences work conflict resolution styles and team performance. The effectiveness through team role. The influence of findings are consistent with their earlier studies (Jordan EL on work effectiveness (team role) is high in mass and Troth, 2002). service, moderate in service shop and low in To sum up, employees who have high EI abilities professional service. will attain effective team role but employees with low EI abilities will result in ineffective team role. Team EI and Organisation Role effectiveness is obtained through empathy, cooperation, collaborative efforts in problem solving and conflict Organisation has been defined as going above the call avoidance. The relationships, nevertheless, are of duty in one’s concern for the firm (Welbourne, moderated by the types of service the employees are Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The concept is associated with affiliated to. In professional service, employees are organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) (Organ, expected to work in team so that they can perform at 1988) where OCBs are defined as discretionary their best. Therefore, the abilities to perceive, understand, behaviours on the part of a person that are believed to manage and use emotions in self and others are critical promote directly the effective functioning of an in contributing to the team role effectiveness. In service organisation. Researchers have recently realised the shops, since the services are more standardised and less importance of organisation role in employees’ work interaction, the need for EI abilities is moderate. performance model (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993, Although team work is important, it is not as critical as Brief and Motowidlo, 1986, Campbell, 1990, Johnson, in professional service. Usually, there are some 2001, MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Ahearne, 1998, guidelines stipulated by the management of how the team Motowidlo and Van Scotter, 1994, Podsakoff and should work together. In mass service, the employees MacKenzie, 1997, and Rotundo and Sackett, 2002). OCB are offering standardised and routine services with consists of behaviours that go beyond specific role minimum interaction with the customers. Although requirements, with the stipulation that such behaviours working in team is required, the management usually are performed voluntarily without expectation of rewards has already determined every aspects of team so that the (Brief and Motowidlo, 1986). They include altruism team can function effectively. Rules and regulations are (helping others), conscientiousness (going beyond the established, roles and functions of team members are minimum role requirements), courtesy (preventing work- predetermined, and methods are fixed by the related problems from occurring), sportsmanship management. Therefore, in mass service, because of (tolerating unfavourable circumstances without structured team role, the need for EI is the least significant complaining) and civic virtue (participating in, involving

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008 38 ● Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad in, and concerning about the life of the company) to the SOP is the norms. Therefore, the following (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter, 1990). proposition is recommended. Research has demonstrated that positive emotion (e.g. Proposition 5(a): Depending on service types, EI and ) is related to organisational significantly and positively influences work citizenship behaviour (OCB) whereas negative emotion effectiveness through organisation role. The (e.g. and ) is related to counterproductive influence of EI on work effectiveness (organisation work behaviour (CWB) (Spector and Fox, 2002). OCB role) is high in professional service, moderate in is associated with empathy and perceived ability to help. service shop and low in mass service. Abraham (1999) claimed that EI may enhance certain prosocial behaviours, one of which is assisting co- Proposition 5(b): Depending on service types, EL workers with personal matters. Research has also shown significantly and positively influences work mixed results on the ability of EI to enhance citizenship effectiveness through organisation role. The behaviours. Day and Carroll (2004) found that EI were influence of EL on work effectiveness (organisation unrelated to individual-level citizenship behaviour but role) is high in mass service, moderate in service somewhat related to group-level citizenship behaviour. shop and low in professional service. Similarly, Côté and Miners (2006) found that the association between EI and OCB directed at the CONCLUSION organisation becomes more positive as cognitive Service work involves interacting with others (customers, intelligence decreases, but not the association between colleagues and managers), therefore dealing with EI and OCB directed at the individual. emotions is inevitable. This paper examines the role of Employees who have high EI abilities are able to EI in influencing work effectiveness in service generate positive emotion and reduce negative one organisations. EI as an ability to perceive, use, understand through emotion management to achieve high and manage emotions is critical for service providers to organisation role but employees with low EI abilities may effectively carry out their work. Borrowing Welbourne, end up with low organisation role. Again, the Johnson and Erez’s (1998) model of job performance, it relationships are moderated by the types of services with has been shown that EI plays a salient role in influencing which the employees are associated. In professional service providers’ job role, career role, innovator role, service, since the service is customised dependent on team role and organisation role towards an extent that is employees’ discretion and high interaction with the required by types of services to which they are associated. customers, the abilities to perceive, understand, manage Using Silvestro’s et al. (1992) service positioning matrix, and use emotions in self and others will significantly the propositions are made based on the characteristics contribute to organisation role. Employees with high EI of service types. EI is proposed to be the most salient abilities are able to align their needs and organisation concept in professional service whereas EL is the most needs and able to anticipate their future with the important concept in mass service to influence organisation. Besides, they are able to see others’ work employees’ work effectiveness. The role of EI as well related problems and are willing to offer their help. In as EL in service shop is believed to be moderate. The service shops, since the services are more standardised diagram in Figure 1 depicts the influence of EI as well and less interaction with the customers as well as other as EL on service employees’ work effectiveness by employees, going above the call of duties e.g. helping considering the effects of service types on their others and promoting the company may produce better relationships. outcomes but not as significant as in professional service. In mass service, offering standardised and routine service Managerial and Research Implication does not significantly require employees’ discretion and judgment as well as interaction with others. Therefore, Since it has been established that EI affects work EI role is the least significant in helping the employees effectiveness of the service providers especially those to perform well as suggested by Zapf (2002) that doing who are associated with professional service, the “object-related work” does not require effective emotion management should consider selecting staff with high management. Besides, going above the call of duties, to EI and developing the EI skills and abilities so that the help others and promoting the organisation for example, human capital is ready to pursue particular strategies of is the least significant in the service delivery. Conforming customer intimacy, care and nurturing. Given that EI abilities can be developed, training in specific facets of

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High Professional Service

High Low Service W Q E1 Med Shop EL Low High Customization

Mass Service Low

Figure 1: A Normative Model of EI, Service Typologies, EL and WQ

EI; appraising, understanding emotions and managing scale should be used so that the researcher should obtain in self and others as well as utilising emotions to facilitate an acceptable response rate. Second, the homogeneity performance would guarantee that the service providers of the sample should be ensured by looking at the could deliver services as expected by the management. organisation with a comparable size or operation (e.g., Training in EI is proven to enhance service provision HQ or branch) (Calder, Phillips and Tybout, 1981). A (Bardzil and Slaski, 2003). Moreover, the management proper selection of the sample is able to reduce the should consider the organisation’s compensation system unexplained variance due to sampling error, and what to value not only the hard skills but also the soft skills of remains is the one explained by the variables in the the employees. Besides, the compensation system should model. As an internal measure, job performance should also reflect on the employees’ creativity and innovation, be observed from two different perspectives; peer teamwork effectiveness and organisation citizenship evaluation and supervisor evaluation. It is suggested behaviours. These employees’ extra-job roles require because looking at job performance from different high EI abilities. Another aspect to consider is the current perspectives can eliminate or at least reduce the bias selection process practiced by the organisations. Again, associated with the single source ratings. Furthermore, the selection process should reflect not only on the the accuracy of the assessment is more likely to be applicants’ hard skills but also their soft skills. New achieved because the peer can provide information that employees with high emotional awareness and regulation the supervisor is lacking since the peer is closer to the should be hired (Ashkanasy, 2002, Jordan, Ashkanasy employee than the supervisor. and Hartel, 2002, and Leidner, 1999). The paper limits its scope in investigating the REFERENCES relationship between EI and WQ. Some moderating Abraham, R. (1998), “Emotional Dissonance in Organisations: A factors that naturally embedded in the service types Conceptualisation of Consequences, Mediators and (Silvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson, and Voss, 1992) have Moderators,” Leadership and Organisation Development been included (by design) but, some are omitted (those Journal, 19.3, pp. 137 - 146. related to personal differences such as personality traits). Abraham, R. (1999), “Emotional Intelligence in Organisations: A Future research should include these factors to control Conceptualisation,” Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 125.2, pp. 209 - 225. the unintended variances. Besides, future research should Abraham, R. (2004), “ as Antecedent to focus on testing the conceptualisation of the relationships Performance: A Contingency Framework,” Genetic, Social between EI and WQ in different service settings. and General Psychology Monographs, 130.2, pp. 117 - 143. However, proper care should be taken in ensuring that Amabile, T. M., Barsade, S. G., Mueller, J. S. and Staw, B. M. the findings are valid and reliable so that they can be (2005), “ and Creativity at Work,” Administrative generalised to the whole service industry. First, there are Science Quarterly, 50, pp. 367 - 403. abundant of EI measures available to be adapted. Aremu, A. O. (2005), “A Confluence of Credentialing, Career Experience, Self-efficacy, Emotional Intelligence and Researchers should properly select the best measure that Motivation on the Career Commitment of Young Police in can produce the intended results. A brief but practical

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Abdul Kadir Othman ([email protected]) is Lecture at the Faculty of Office Management and Technology, MARA University of Technology, Terengganu Branch. He is currently pursuing his PhD on the Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Work Effectiveness in Service Industry at the Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. Hazman Shah Abdullah ([email protected]) is Professor, Human Resource Management , Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. He has written and published numerous articles on different themes, which include Human Resource Management, Quality Management, Administrative Science and Strategic Management, to name a few. Jasmine Ahmed ([email protected]) is Associate Professor , Human Resource Management Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. Her work has been published in number of local as well as international journals.

VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008