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Ucalgary 2021 Stgermain Sarah.Pdf University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2021-03-22 The Development of Supraglacial Stream Canyons St Germain, Sarah St Germain, S. (2021). The Development of Supraglacial Stream Canyons (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/113173 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY The Development of Supraglacial Stream Canyons by Sarah St Germain A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN GEOGRAPHY CALGARY, ALBERTA MARCH, 2021 © Sarah St Germain 2021 Abstract Supraglacial streams can dramatically into the glacier surface. On Fountain Glacier, Bylot Island, two large supraglacial streams have formed unique canyons. Supraglacial stream canyons have only been mentioned in the literature on a few occasions and process- level understanding is lacking. The aim of this research is to determine the processes impacting formation, time-scale of development, and distribution of supraglacial stream canyons. This was accomplished through three complementary studies: 1) an examination of short-term development of supraglacial streams, particularly in reference to surface, incised, and canyon stream formation; 2) an investigation of medium-term canyon meandering and erosion development and; 3) a determination of factors controlling worldwide canyon distribution, and a prediction of future distribution. These projects utilize high-resolution imagery collected on Fountain Glacier over time, and optical satellite imagery to map worldwide distribution of supraglacial stream canyons. This study has led to three major findings. 1) Canyons have a high likelihood of forming when the stream power is greater than 140 W m-1. Canyon formation is limited in regions where stream power is low, where crevasses exist, and in areas where snow plugs are present within the channel. 2) Streambed erosion and widening at the bottom of the canyon creates greater area for solar radiation to differentially ablate the canyon walls. In 58 years, the studied canyon length, depth, and volume increased by 1 607 m, 20 m, and 1.1x106 m3 due to a combination of fluvial erosion and solar radiation. It was found that glacier volume loss in the terminus region was comprised of 68.1% surface ablation, 25.8% glacier retreat /calving loss, and 6.1% canyon erosion. 3) Supraglacial stream canyons form in cold, dry regions, with a smooth glacier surface, free from crevasses in the Canadian ii Arctic, Northern Greenland, Alaska/Yukon, and Central / Northern Asia. This research has advanced our body of knowledge by determining how supraglacial stream canyons develop over time, and the processes that contribute to their formation. In addition, the current global distribution was established, and future canyon distribution was predicted. iii Preface Chapter 4 of this thesis has been published by the “Journal of Glaciology” with major modifications and additions. St Germain SL and Moorman BJ (2019). Long-term Observations of Supraglacial Streams on an Arctic Glacier. Journal of Glaciology 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.60 iv Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to many people for their support, encouragement, and inspiration throughout my PhD. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Brian Moorman. His guidance and advice throughout my MSc and PhD has been invaluable. All the support I received during candidacy prep, writing countless scholarship reference letters, editing posters, reviewing papers, and general advice has been amazing. I have received great encouragement, not only with my thesis, but also on how to expand my skillset in academia. I have been encouraged to study abroad, join committees, learn how to peer-review papers, and instruct my first undergraduate course. In addition, the constant enthusiasm for my project during meetings, I thank you! I must thank the professors, instructors, and lab technicians that have helped me along my journey. First, I wish to thank the members of my supervisory committee Dr. Shawn Marshall and Dr. Yvonne Martin for their feedback and constructive criticisms over the last five year! I would also like to thank my field of study exam committee Dr. Brent Else and particularly Dr. Tristram Irvine-Fynn for flying halfway around the world for my exam. In addition, I’d like to thank some of the great professors and admin staff within the Geography Department including; David Goldblum, John Yackel, Greg McDermid, Paulina Medori, and Catherine Avramenko. Lastly, I would like to thank Derek Wilson for his assistance in prepping equipment and teaching me to use many of the instruments required to my conduct research. Many thanks to Ken Whitehead for the collection of the 2010 and 2011 field data and my field partners Eleanor Bash, Allison Cully, and Bryan Kinworthy who spent time iii on Bylot Island with me. Further, Elena Favaro, Kyle Plotsky, and Vishnu Nandan who helped me survive my field of study exam, and who have been amazingly encouraging and have given me great advice on the thesis procedure, arctic research, and publishing academic papers. I would also like to give a huge shout out to Kristina Miller who has provided the most amazing amount of support and encouragement during the final years of my PhD. I would also like to express my gratitude towards my family and friends. Specifically, I would like to thank my parents for facilitating my interest in the arctic, my mother for editing every important academic paper I’ve written, my dad for taking me on countless camping trips, and my three brothers for all the outdoor adventures. I’d also like to thank my fiancé, Alex Hayes, and his parents, Marg and Tom. I could not have completed this thesis without their support. I thank them for their patience and look forward to all the weekend adventures going forward. I would also like to thank my friends Jenn, Erin, my Aunt Sue and Uncle Sanjeev for being my inspiration for exercise, health, and continued education. Lastly, this research would not have been possible without the generous financial and logistical support from: Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Polar Continental Shelf Project (PCSP), Parks Canada, the Hamlet of Pond Inlet, Northern Scientific Training Program (NSTP), Arctic Institute of North America (AINA), Royal Canadian Geographical Society (RCGS), University of Calgary, and Department of Geography. iv Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii Preface ........................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ v List of Tables................................................................................................................... x List of Figures ................................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 1.1 Synopsis ................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background ........................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Foundations of Alluvial, Bedrock, and Supraglacial Streams ......................... 3 1.2.1.1 Canyon Formation ................................................................................ 3 1.2.1.2 Incision................................................................................................. 4 1.2.1.3 Meandering .......................................................................................... 9 1.2.1.4 Supraglacial Stream Channel Geometry .............................................. 14 1.2.1.5 Impact of Solar Radiation on Channel Banks ...................................... 15 1.2.1.6 Importance of Stream Power and Supraglacial Stream Slope and Discharge ............................................................................................ 16 1.2.1.7 Recent Field Studies and Remote Sensing Studies of Supraglacial Stream ................................................................................................. 18 1.2.2 Glacier Surface Energy Balance ................................................................... 19 1.2.2.1 Short-wave radiation........................................................................... 20 1.2.2.2 Longwave Radiation ........................................................................... 20 1.2.2.3 Sensible Heat Transfer ........................................................................ 21 1.2.2.4
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