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1401 1351. **mmÅÅ ({IS} *-mÅ), pc. of marked accusative > IE *-m / *-m=, id.accus. case ending of nouns of the animate (active) gender > AnIE: Ht -n / -an, Lw, HrLw, Pal, Car -n, Ld -n id. NaIE *-m (accus. of m. and f.) > OI, L -m, Gk -n, OLt nasalization of the stem-final vw.; after the NaIE stem-final cnss *-m= > OI -am, Gk -a, L -em, Lt -i< ¶¶ Bks 172-92, Szem. IEL 16O-92, Hirt IG III 45-6, Rsk. 54-5, Kmh. HPL 193-7, 3O1, Hb. L 4O6-9, KrlSh. XLJ 19, 25, 62 || HS: Om: SOm {Fl.} accus. ending *-m > Ari {Hw.} -m, Dm {Fl.} -im, Hm {Ldl} -(d)Äm / -(d)Än (positionally conditioned allomorphs, in which, acc. to Hw. CO 28, -m/-n go back to *-m) »» NrOm: Krt {Hw.} -m- within the predicative forms of pers. pronouns: ta-m-akko 'it is I', ne-m-akko 'it is you (thou)', nu-m-akko 'it is we' (pred. “ accus., as in NE it is me and Fr c&est moi), Bnc {Brz.} -m as a dative-benefactive ending of pers. pronouns: ta-m 'to me' (dat.-ben. “ generalized oblique case “ accus., as in M *c>i-ma- obl. of 'thou' < N **tt''''{{ uu4444}}4 mm ÅÅ 'thee', see below); but, acc. to Hw. CO 26-9, hardly here the NrOm accus. ending *-n (> Kf/Bsk/Ym {C} -n, Mj {All.} -n) (see N **nnuu 'from, of') ¶ Bnd. MO 167-8, Hw. CO 26-3O, Hw. NAL 443, Fl. OO 316, Fl. D 518, Ldl H 412, All. D 39O, Zab. CO 625 || U *-m, *-mV, accus. case ending of definite nouns > FP *- m, ending of accus. > F -n, Lp J -m, Lp S {Hs.} -m ± -b, Chr L/H -m (F kala-n, Lp J guole-m, Chr kol´-m 'piscem') »» Vg {Lml. “ Kn.}: SV/LL/ML -ma$, -m, LK/MK/UK -m´, -m, T -m‰, -mi, -m, marker of accus. of definite object Sm: accus. ending: Ne T -m?%, Slq Tz -m, Kms -m, Mt M {Sp.} -m; ending of definite accus.: Ng -m ¶¶ Wkm. FOUL 11-12, 24-5, 56, 63-71, 145-9, Coll. CG 284-6, Hs. 97-1O3, Lml. HFW 24-41, Beronka II 146-7, Mu. VNyJ II 56, III 363 and IV 158, Lav. TJM ∀, Rmb. MJ-93 29O, Srb. PGS 7O-2, Ter. NJ-93 332, Ter. NgJ 8O-2, Hl. SelJ 364, Hl. MTKJ 377, Kü. KJ 383 || A: pTg *ba/*be, (after a noun-final *n) *ma/*me, postp. of accus. of definite nouns > NrTg and AmTg accus. ending *-ba/*-be, (after a stem-final *n) *-ma/-*me > Ewk -ba/-b‰, (after a vw.) -wa/-w‰, (after a nasal) -ma/ -m‰, Lm -w, -m, Neg -wa/-w‰, -pa/-p‰, -ma/-m‰, Nn, Ul, Ork, Sln -ba/ -b‰, (after a vw.) -wa/ -w‰, Ud {Krm.} -wa/-w‰/-wo/-ma/-m‰/-mo, WrMc be (marker of accus., still preserves traces of the original analytical status of N ** mm ÅÅ , evidenced by the lack of vowel harmony) ¶ Ci. 256, Bz. 78-9, Hrl. 35, 74-5, Krm. 86 pJ {†S} *b‰, {Vv.} *bo3 > OJ, ClJ wo, accus. and emph. (focalizing?) pc. > J o id.; b- is still preserved in some Ryukyu dls (M. Robbeets, p.c., 2OO3) ¶ pJ *b- is probably a regular reflex of N **mm-- in grammatical particals and pronominal roots (cp. pJ *ba 'I, we' from N **mmii ??aa 'we') ¶ Vv. LDROJ 1O6, Mur. KAJ 13O, Mill. JAL 25-7, BBl. 52, 57, 96, Hag. W ∀ , Syr. DJ 1O6-8 M *-ma- in the 1402 accus. and other oblique cases of pronouns: M *c> i-ma-yi 'thee' (originally accus. *c>i-ma 'thee' + nominal accus. *-yi that was added by analogy [see s.v. N ? **hhVVyyaa 'for']) > MM c7imayi, WrM cimai 'thee' etc., M *i-ma-yi 'him' accus. (demonstr. *i + accus. *ma + M nominal accus. ending *-yi). The prehistory of these forms may be reconstructed as follows: N **tt''''{{ uu4444}} mmÅÅ 'thee' (= **tt''''{{ uu4444}} 'thou' + ** mm ÅÅ accus.) > ppM *tæima 'thee' > pM *c>i-ma-yi 'thee', the form *c>i-ma- being generalized as the stem of the oblique cases, whence the dative *c>ima-dur, the ablative *c>imac>a etc. ¶ AD PP 78-9, Pp. IM 2O9-14 ¶¶ Mng. JA 11, 14 || ? D *-n (if from *-m), accus. case ending > Kt -nÀ, Td -n, -nÀ, OKn -a(:)n, Tu -nË, OTl -n3 (-n), -in3 (-in), -n3u, Klm -(u)n, Prj -(i)n, Gdb -(i)n ≠ -(i)N, Knd -N, Png -iN, Krx -in, -an, -an, Mlt -e(n), -i(n). Traces of the former ending *-m may be discerned in the OKn accus. ending -am ¶¶ Zv. CDM 27- 3O, MhS 165, Shanm. DN 37O-1, Ktl. G 43, Gai 42, An. SG 2O2-5, Rmn. OT 191 ˚˚ IS II 48-51 (*-mÅ > IE, U, A, D), AD PP 92, Mng. MP 21-36, Coll. IUS 21, Coll. HUV 13O, Ivn. VNZN 148 (on the original analytical status of this accus. ending), Gr. I 129 (IE, U, A, incl. J) ˚˚ I am grateful to Blz. for drawing my attention to the Om cognate. In IE the nouns of the non-animate (neuter) gender do not distinguish between nom. and accus. (and hence have no accus. ending), because there is no syntactic necessity for it: nouns of the non- animate gender do not usually appear as subjects of a trans. verb, therefore in sentences with trans. verbs they always function as their object. In other words, in IE (as in many lges) the marker of accus. is used only when it is necessary for syntactic distinctions. It is a trace of an old N syntax that had no obligatory grammatical categories (unlike in later IE lges with their grammatical categories of compulsive usage, even when not necessary for communication). In F the morpheme of accusative is not used after the imv., which reflects the same original situation: the form is not used wherever the syntactic function (object of the verb) is obvious from the context. In Sm and Tg this case marker denotes a definite object. All this suggests that originally ** mm ÅÅ denoted a marked accusative. 1352. ** mm ÅÅ , a marker of nominalized syntactic constructions (≈ subordinate sentences), nominalizer (originally a prn.) that formed analytic equivalents of nomina actionis, nomina agentis and other derived nouns > HS *mV-, prefix of derived (mainly deverbal) nouns: S: [1] S *mV- as a px of prtcs: (a ) *mu-1 a 2 ≤2 i 3 -, act. prtc. of the D -stems > Ak mu1 a 22i 3 -, Ar mu1a22i3-, BHb m´1a2≤2e23, Aram m´1a2≤2e3, Sr m´1a2≤2E3 (on the meaning of E in Sr cf. below in the chapter "Phonetic symbols and other signs used in the etymological entries", III, B]), Gz ma1a 22´ 3 id., (b) *mu-1a2≤2a3-, ps. prtc. of the D -stems > Ar mu1a22a3-, Sr m´1a22a3, BHb (with an analogical u) m´1u22a3, (g) *mu-s7a1≤2i3-, act. prtc. of the Sh-stem (causative) > Ak 1403 mus7 a 12i3-, Ar mu12i3-, BHb ma2≤2ï3, Sr ma2≤2E 3 etc. [2 ] S nomina actionis *ma12a3- > Ar ma?kal- '(act of) eating', BHb lk1a9m2 ma?â≤k3a2l 'food', ox`1m2 mas≤sa÷ 'trip' (ÿ √ns÷ 'fahren'), Gz mans'ar 'the front part exposed to view' (“ 'looking at' ÿ √ns'r 'look [at]'), whence nomina loci *ma12V 3- > Ak mas7 kanum 'place, tent', BHb Nƒ1S6m5 mis7≤ka2n 'dwelling (place)', Sr marba÷ 'womb' (ÿ √rb÷ 'lie down'), Ar maqbar- 'cemetery' (ÿ √qbr 'bury'), Ak mu2s7abum 'seat, dwelling place' (√ws7b 'sit, reside'), BHb bS1&m mo2≤s7a2b3 'seat, dwelling place'; nomina abstracta *mV12V 3-at- > Hb em1h1l6m5 milHa2≤ma2 'fight, war', Ar maHmidat- n. act. 'praise', Gz mang´s6 t 'government, kingdom', JA m´12a3 [inf. of the G-stem], Ak mu2 rakum 'length' (√?rk 'be long') etc. [3 ] S *ma12i3-≠*ma12a 3-at-, patterns of nomina instrumenti > BHb h@T4f6m2 map3≤te2aH 'key' and Ak nipte2tum id. (both ÿ √ptH v. 'open', Ak n- < *m-), BHb eb1ƒ1rm3 mErka2≤ba2, JA aTb6ƒ2r^m2 markab3≤t-a2, Sr æ4,ob˚arµa markab3≤t3-a2 and Ak narkabtum 'chariot' (*√rkb v. 'ride, voyage') [4 ] ? possibly a S sx *-m-: Ar fusHum- 'wide', s7adqam- 'wide-mouthed' ¶ Br. G I 375-82 [§§ 195-2O3], Br. 731, JB NB 233- 73, Sd. G 64-6, Js. 844, MSUS 8O-3 Eg mV-, px of derived (deverbal and denom.) nouns (nomina loci, instrumenti): mzwt 'food made of wheat' (ÿ zwt 'wheat'), msXn 'abode (of gods)', msXnt 'bearing stool; necropolis' (ÿ sXny 'descend'), mX¿t 'balance (Waage)' (ÿ X¿y v. 'measure'); mV-, px of prtcs and nomina actoris: mnhzyw 'bewachende' (ÿ nhzy 'wake'), mÓnk 'Beschenker' (ÿ Ónk v. 'present so. with') ¶ Ed. 1O9-1O, Fk. 119 C: Bj {R} ma- / me- / (before sibilants) mi-, px of n. act.: ma-≤dir ≠ ma-≤de2r n. act. 'killing' (ÿ -dir 'kill'), ≤ma-fnik ≠ ma-f≤ne2k ≠ mefnek 'Biß, das Beißen' (ÿ -fnik 'bite'), mi-≤sa2? ≠ mi≤sa? 'seat, sitting' (ÿ -sa2? 'sit, sit dowm') »» Af m-, px of derived abstract nouns (n. act. etc.): ma2 baka 'birth, being born' (ÿ o2boke- 'be born'), mabul 'observation, sight' (ÿ uble- 'see'), midir 'possessions' (ÿ eddere- 'possess') ¶ R BedS §§ 3O5 and 358, R A Ch: Hs circumfix of nomina agentis ma-...-ï (m. pl. ma-...-a2, f. sg. ma-...-iya2, f. pl. ma-...-iyai\) (mad'inkï 'tailor' [ÿ d'inka 'sew'], maginï 'builder' [ÿ gina 'build'], mak'e2rï 'smith' [ÿ k'e2ra 'forge'], maZ7iyï 'ear' [ÿ Z7i 'hear']), Hs circumfix of nomina instrumenti ma...-ï (pl.
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