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Space-Based Observations Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation Volume IV – Space-based Observations 2018 edition WEATHER CLIMATE WATER CLIMATE WEATHER WMO-No. 8 Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation Volume IV – Space-based Observations 2018 edition WMO-No. 8 EDITORIAL NOTE METEOTERM, the WMO terminology database, may be consulted at http://public.wmo.int/en/ resources/meteoterm. Readers who copy hyperlinks by selecting them in the text should be aware that additional spaces may appear immediately following http://, https://, ftp://, mailto:, and after slashes (/), dashes (-), periods (.) and unbroken sequences of characters (letters and numbers). These spaces should be removed from the pasted URL. The correct URL is displayed when hovering over the link or when clicking on the link and then copying it from the browser. WMO-No. 8 © World Meteorological Organization, 2018 The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate this publication in part or in whole should be addressed to: Chair, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03 P.O. Box 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 81 17 CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland Email: [email protected] ISBN 978-92-63-10008-5 NOTE The designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WMO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO in preference to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised. PUBLICATION REVISION TRACK RECORD Part/ Date chapter/ Purpose of amendment Proposed by Approved by section CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................... 1 1.1 Historical perspective ........................................................ 1 1.2 Spatial and temporal scales ................................................... 1 1.3 Complementary nature of space-based and surface-based measurements ........... 2 CHAPTER 2. PRINCIPLES OF EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE ..................... 3 2.1 Orbits and Earth viewing from space ........................................... 3 2.1.1 Satellite instrument field of view ......................................... 3 2.1.2 Orbital period, geostationary orbit, observing cycle and repeat cycle .......... 4 2.1.3 Orbital precession, Sun-synchronous orbits and drifting orbits ............... 9 2.1.4 Elliptical orbits ........................................................ 10 2.1.5 Launchers and injection into orbit. 12 2.2 Principles of remote-sensing .................................................. 13 2.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum and the ranges used for remote-sensing ....... 13 2.2.2 Basic laws of interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter ....... 17 2.2.3 Observations in the atmospheric windows ................................ 19 2.2.3.1 Emerging radiation ........................................... 19 2.2.3.2 Measurements in the visible, near-infrared and short-wave infrared range ............................................... 20 2.2.3.3 Measurements in the medium-wave infrared and thermal infrared range ............................................... 21 2.2.3.4 Measurements in the microwave range .......................... 23 2.2.4 Observations in absorption bands ........................................ 25 2.2.4.1 The radiative transfer equation ................................. 25 2.2.4.2 Profile retrieval ............................................... 26 2.2.4.3 Limb sounding. 28 2.2.5 Active sensing ......................................................... 29 2.2.5.1 Radio occultation. 29 2.2.5.2 Radar ....................................................... 31 2.2.5.3 Lidar ....................................................... 35 2.3 Space and ground segments .................................................. 38 2.3.1 Space segment ........................................................ 38 2.3.1.1 Platform services ............................................. 39 2.3.1.2 Navigation and positioning systems ............................. 39 2.3.1.3 Orientation and stabilization ................................... 40 2.3.1.4 Housekeeping system. 41 2.3.1.5 Data transmission ............................................ 41 2.3.1.6 Data relay services ............................................ 42 2.3.2 Ground segment ...................................................... 43 2.3.2.1 Central station for satellite command and global data acquisition .... 43 2.3.2.2 Mission and operation control centres ........................... 44 2.3.2.3 Data processing and archiving centres. 44 2.3.2.4 Data and products distribution ................................. 45 2.3.2.5 User receiving stations ........................................ 45 2.3.2.6 Product processing levels. 46 CHAPTER 3. REMOTE-SENSING INSTRUMENTS .................................... 48 3.1 Instrument basic characteristics ............................................... 48 3.1.1 Scanning, swath and observing cycle ..................................... 48 3.1.2 Spectral range: radiometers and spectrometers ............................ 51 3.1.3 Spatial resolution (instantaneous field of view, pixel, and the modulation transfer function) ...................................................... 53 3.1.4 Radiometric resolution ................................................. 55 3.2 Instrument classification ..................................................... 57 3.2.1 Moderate-resolution optical imager ...................................... 58 3.2.2 High-resolution optical imager .......................................... 63 vi GUIDE TO INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION - VOLUME IV Page 3.2.3 Cross-nadir short-wave sounder ......................................... 66 3.2.4 Cross-nadir scanning infrared sounder. 68 3.2.5 Microwave radiometers ................................................ 71 3.2.6 Limb sounders ........................................................ 74 3.2.7 Global navigation satellite system radio-occultation sounders ................ 75 3.2.8 Broadband radiometers ................................................ 77 3.2.9 Solar irradiance monitors ............................................... 79 3.2.10 Lightning imagers ..................................................... 79 3.2.11 Cloud radar and precipitation radar ...................................... 81 3.2.12 Radar scatterometers ................................................... 82 3.2.13 Radar altimeters ....................................................... 84 3.2.14 Imaging radar (synthetic aperture radar) .................................. 85 3.2.15 Lidar-based instruments ................................................ 87 3.2.16 Gradiometers/accelerometers ........................................... 90 3.2.17 Solar activity monitors .................................................. 91 3.2.18 Space environment monitors ............................................ 91 3.2.19 Magnetometers and electric field sensors ................................. 92 CHAPTER 4. SATELLITE PROGRAMMES ........................................... 94 4.1 Operational meteorological satellites ........................................... 94 4.1.1 Satellite constellation in geostationary or highly elliptical orbit ............... 94 4.1.2 Satellite constellation in Sun-synchronous orbits ........................... 96 4.2 Specialized atmospheric missions .............................................. 98 4.2.1 Precipitation .......................................................... 98 4.2.2 Radio occultation ...................................................... 98 4.2.3 Atmospheric radiation .................................................. 99 4.2.4 Atmospheric chemistry ................................................. 99 4.2.5 Atmospheric dynamics ................................................. 100 4.3 Missions on ocean and sea ice ................................................. 101 4.3.1 Ocean topography ..................................................... 103 4.3.2 Ocean colour ......................................................... 103 4.3.3 Sea-surface wind ...................................................... 103 4.3.4 Sea-surface salinity. 104 4.3.5 Waves ............................................................... 104 4.4 Land-observation missions .................................................... 104 4.4.1 Main operational or near-operational missions. 104 4.4.2 The Disaster Monitoring Constellation .................................... 105 4.4.3 All-weather high-resolution monitoring (by synthetic aperture radar) ......... 107 4.5 Missions on solid Earth ....................................................... 107 4.5.1 Space geodesy ........................................................ 108 4.5.2 Earth’s interior ........................................................ 110 4.6 Missions on space weather .................................................... 110 4.6.1 Solar activity monitoring ...............................................
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