Town The copyright of this thesis rests with the University of Cape Town. No quotation from it or information derivedCape from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of theof source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non-commercial research purposes only. University Transmitting the Transition: Media Events and Post-Apartheid South African National Identity MARTHA EVANS Town Cape of University Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Centre for Film and Media Studies UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN February 2012 Town Cape of University ii ABSTRACT Transmitting the Transition: Media Events and Post-Apartheid South African National Identity South Africa came late to television, and its enjoyment of the medium was diminished by the fact that just as a national television service was acquired, the rest of the world began to shun the country because of apartheid. While the ruling National Party feared the integrative effects of television, they did not foresee the negative impact that exclusion from globally unifying broadcasts would have on political rule. Television helped to facilitate the sporting and cultural bans and played an important, mostly unexamined role in the transition to democracy. While South Africa was barred from participating in some of television’s greatest global attractions (including sporting events such as the Olympics and contests such as Miss World), with the release of Nelson Mandela from prison – one of the world’s most memorable media events – came a proliferation of large-scale live broadcasts that attracted the gaze and admiration of the rest of the world. At theTown same time, the country was permitted to return to international competition, and its readmittance played out on television screens across the world. These events were pivotal in shaping and consolidating the country’s emerging post-apartheid national identity. Using Dayan and Katz’s theory of “media events” – those historic and powerful live broadcasts that mesmerise mass audiences –Cape this thesis assesses the socio-political effect of live broadcasting on South Africa’s transition to democracy and the effects of such broadcasts on post-apartheid nationhood.of The thesis follows events chronologically and employs a three-part approach: firstly, it looks at the planning behind some of the mass televised events, secondly, it analyses the televisual content of some of the events; and thirdly it assesses public responses to events, as articulated in newspapers at the time. Live broadcasting was used first by the rest of the world as a means of punishing apartheid South Africa and then by the emerging NP–ANC alliance as a means of legitimating the negotiation process. In particular, media events served as a powerful means of securing support for the country’s first democratic president, Nelson Mandela. At the same time, Universitythe apparent transparency of live broadcasting helped to rejuvenate the poor reputation of the South African Broadcasting Corporation, perceived as a government mouthpiece under apartheid and, like South Africa itself, in need of an image overhaul. The thesis argues that just as print media had a powerful influence on the development of Afrikaner nationalism, so the “liveness” of television helped to consolidate the “newness” of the post-apartheid South African national identity. iii Town Cape of University iv for Madeleine and Juliette, for whom this will all be history Town Cape of University v Town Cape of University vi Contents Timeline viii Abbreviations and Acronyms x List of Figures xi Acknowledgements xii Introduction 1 1. Media Events and South African National Identity 6 2. Apartheid and Absence: South Africa’s Exclusion Town from the Media Events of the 60s, 70s and 80s 29 3. The Shamanising Ayatollah: Mandela and the Dismantling of Apartheid 83 Cape 4. Disrupting the Centre: “Liveness” and the Negotiation of Disaster Duringof the Transition 125 5. The Televised Birth of the Rainbow Nation: The Election and Mandela’s Inauguration 171 6. Consolidation: South Africa’s Return to the Global Fold and the Making of Madiba 202 Conclusion 245 University References 253 vii Timeline This timeline focuses on some of the relevant occurrences leading up to the main televised events discussed in the thesis as well as a few additional political events that help contextualise South Africa’s history. It is not representative of the country’s national chronology in any way. 21 March 1960 In what becomes known as the Sharpeville massacre, police open fire on marchers protesting against pass laws, killing 69 and injuring 186. 8 April 1960 The ANC and the PAC are banned in South Africa. August 1960 The Summer Olympics are held in Rome; Apartheid South Africa participates in the Games for the last time until 1992. 11 July 1963 The Rivonia treason trialists are arrested and later sentenced to life imprisonment. 20 July 1969 American astronauts land on the moon and the event is broadcast live across the world. 15 December 1969 The South African government sets up the Meyer Commission to investigate the desirability of acquiring a national television service. 23 March–7 April 1973 The South African Games are held in Pretoria. 5 January 1976 The first television broadcast is screened in South Africa. 16 June 1976 The Soweto uprising begins when police openTown fire on around 10 000 students protesting against Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in schools. 1976 Twenty-six African countries boycott the 1976 Montreal Olympics in protest against apartheid. 1977 South Africa participates in Miss World for the last time until 1991. 12 September 1977 Stephen Biko dies in detention in Port Elizabeth. 24 July 1978 Miss South Africa MargaretCape Gardiner is crowned as Miss Universe. 9 October 1978 PW Botha becomes prime minister of South Africa 25 July 1981 The SABC attempts ofto broadcast the first live rugby match from abroad to citizens, but protests in Hamilton lead to the match’s postponement. 29 July 1981 The wedding of Prince Charles of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer is broadcast to audiences around the world, including in South Africa. 20 August 1983 The UDF is launched in opposition to the introduction of the Tricameral Parliament. September 1984 PW Botha becomes state president of South Africa. 11 December 1984 Archbishop Desmond Tutu is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. February 1985 President PW Botha offers Nelson Mandela and several other political prisoners conditional freedom. 10 February 1985 Nelson Mandela’s daughter, Zindzi, reads out her father’s reply to Botha’s offer at UniversitySoweto’s Jabulani stadium. 18 March 1985 Ted Koppel’s Nightline, airing from South Africa for a week, features a live debate between Desmond Tutu and Pik Botha. 15 August 1985 PW Botha’s “Rubicon speech” is broadcast live to audiences in South Africa, America and Britain. November 1985 COSATU is formed. May 1987 The CP replaces the PFP as the official opposition in South Africa’s general election. 10 July 1988 The Mandela Birthday Tribute concert is held at Wembley Stadium. 20 September 1989 PW Botha resigns in August and FW de Klerk becomes state president in September. October 1989 FW de Klerk releases Walter Sisulu and several other political prisoners. 2 February 1990 FW de Klerk announces the unbanning of several liberation movements, including the ANC, and the impending release of various political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela. viii 11 February 1990 Nelson Mandela is released from Victor Verster Prison. April 1990 The Mandela “Release” Concert is held at Wembley Stadium. 9 August 1991 Police clash with AWB members at what becomes known as the “Battle of Ventersdorp”. 20 September 1991 The government and 18 political parties establish CODESA and sign a declaration of intent. 28 December 1991 South Africa participates in Miss World for the first time since 1977. February 1992 The CP defeats the NP in the Potchefstroom by-election. 22 February–25 March South Africa participates in the Cricket World Cup for the first time. 1992 17 March 1992 The National Party holds an all-white referendum to establish support for reform. 13 April 1992 Nelson Mandela announces his separation from Winnie Mandela. 17 June 1992 Over 45 people are killed in what becomes known as the Boipatong massacre when IFP supporters attack residents of Slovo Park squatter camp. June 1992 The ANC withdraws from CODESA in protest against the Boipatong massacre. 7 July 1992 The South African national football team plays its first international game in two decades, beating Cameroon 1–0. 25 July 1992 South Africa participates in the Olympic Games for the first time since 1960. 15 August 1992 South Africa plays its first international rugby match since 1981. 7 September 1992 Twenty-nine protestors are killed when the Ciskei Defence Force opens fire on ANC protestors in Bisho. September 1992 The government and the ANC sign a recordTown of understanding and CODESA talks resume. 12 December 1992 South Africa hosts Miss World at Sun City. 10 April 1993 Chris Hani is assassinated and senior CP member Clive Derby-Lewis and Polish immigrant Janusz Waluś are arrested for his murder. 19 April 1993 Chris Hani’s funeral is broadcast live throughout South Africa. 7 May 1993 The Afrikaner Volksfront is Capeestablished by 21 right-wing groups demanding self- determination. 25 June 1993 The Afrikaner Volksfrontof and the AWB storm the Kempton Park World Trade Centre where negotiations are taking place. 25 July 1993 Eleven people are killed and 58 are injured when APLA cadres open fire on the St James Church congregationalists in Cape Town. 1 May 1993 Five people are killed when masked gunmen attack the Highgate Hotel in East London. 25 August 1993 American Fulbright scholar Amy Biehl is murdered in Gugulethu, Cape Town. 10 December 1993 FW de Klerk and Nelson Mandela jointly win the Nobel Peace Prize.