20 GEOGRAPHY Anatoly V.Gavrilov * Corresponding author:[email protected] 1 SECTOR OF COASTAL ZONE OF DYNAMICS OF annual airtemperatures. The mentioned along withtheincreasing ofmean observed, canbe period andlongerice-free Seas there thedecreasing ofice coverage ofthe –in thebeginning of21thCentury Century environment. Thus, at the end of 20th changes inothercomponents ofnatural the ofcoastalzone triggering both parts on thechangesof definite impact of hydrometeorological parameters have (Zenkovich, 1962; Are, 2012). The variations (offshore) part changes ofitsunderwater of coastalzone (onshore) are by determined zone. However, changesofabove-water part processes near shore along thesubmarine are disregarding conducted often the Studies ofcoastaldynamicsincryolithozone DOI-10.24057/2071-9388-2018-11-1-20-37 Vol.11, No1,p. 20-37 coastal zone ofthe arctic. sector ofeastern-asian Geography, Environment, Sustainability, sedimentation,formationmarine ofpermafrost, stamukhas role inislandsformation are andcryogenesis for presented. stamukhas placepreviously.abrasion anddeepeningoftheseabottom hasbeentaken Arguments the islandsformation onbanksandshallows where thedominationofbottom thermal The firstgroup results inanincrease oftheretreat rate ofcoasts, thesecondresults in . ofthe new-formed coastal-marine and thesecondoneissyncriogenesis denudation,degradation permafrost, abrasion,thermal ofsubmarine includes thermal processes at the same time. and cryogenic both thermogenic seas triggers The first group oftheArctic oficeextent The papershows andshrinking thatongoingclimate warming Introduction Citation Key Abstract Lomonosov State Moscow University, Faculty ofGeology, Moscow, ; words : Anatoly V. Gavrilov, Elena ofpermafrost I.Pizhankova inthe (2018)Dynamics . dynamicsinthecoastalzone.The studysummarizes results onthecryogenic : coastalzone, coastretreat, degradation permafrost, coastal- ofsubmarine 1 , Elena I.Pizhankova, Elena THE ARCTIC PERMAFROST IN THE EASTERN-ASIAN sector oftheEurasiansector Arctic. These deposits shelf andthecoastal lowlands of theEastern wereIce Complex formed (IC) atthedrained , depositsofthe syncryogenic oftheLate thecoldperiod Holocene. In sedimentation inthelate Pleistocene and coastal zone is bydetermined climate and permafrost dynamicsinthe Recent seabed.nearby stimulates sedimentationhere andonthe nearshoresubmarine zone. This, inturn, of suspensionandmelted sedimentsatthe processes facilitate the increasing percentage conditions.that slidesinto submarine Both degradation ofpermafrost that causesfurther temperature of bottom water is inc retreat shores. rates oficy Simultaneously, the above changesleadto theincreasing of 1* reasing Century isthematter ofconsiderinthispaper.Century and the beginning of the 21th 20th Century of the climate changesin the second part theseaicecoveragein connection and natural conditions. Their characteristics processes under cryogenic multidirectional Arctic shelfwhere there are widelyspread ofEurasian sector place ontheEastern As aresult, thecoastalzone istheparticular permafrost existatthecoastalzone. often sedimentation andemergence ofrecent At thesametime, coastal-marine of theEast-Arctic seas. environmental conditionsat the coastal zone permafrost. These processes the determine and then,thedegradation ofoffshore denudation, abrasionandthermal thermal causes theshores retreat asaresult of depositstowards influence icy thethermal and East-Siberian Seas. of The vulnerability oftheshores oftheLaptev significant part contain ice wedges. They both compose the are alsoofhighicecontent (60-70%)and of theAlasComplex were formed. They deposits thesyncryogenic thermokarst, lake Holocene, astheresultofICby ofdestruction of 70-95% and thick ice wedges. the In are by characterized volumetricicecontent Pleistocene accumulative coastalplain. They uptheupper30-50mofLate make Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova Fig. 1. The research area. Numbers indicate thesites for whichthecoastal dynamics were studiedusing remote sensing data of shores survey withapplicationofspace of shores survey length ofcoastlines. We resolve theproblem more effective, especially for considerable 2015; Lantuit 2011; etc.). Such studies are 2010; Pizhankova 2011,2016;Günther2013, more (Pizhankova often and Dobrynina temporal remote sensingdatamore and replaced by studieswithusingmulti- Now fieldinstrumentalmethods are being collaboration. ofRussian–German framework Günther etal. 2013,2015;etc.) withinthe etal. etal. 2007;Junker 2008; 2013; Rachold scientists(Overduin etal.of German 2007, out with the participation is being carried to the present time the coastal zone research …1998;etc.).Dynamics From themid-1990s etal. 1996,2010; 2006;Razumov Grigoriev 1993,2008; 1984;Grigoriev 2012; Novikov (Coastal …1984;Are 1985, 21th Century –inthebeginning of of 20thCentury attheend became ofspecialimportance 1970;Are 1980; etc.). It Molochushkin 1966; (Grigoriev 70s ofthe20thCentury since the lateconducted 60s –the mid- ofRussianArctic hasbeenconstantly part The study of coastal dynamics of eastern (Fig. Sea Siberian 1). oftheEast- andwesternthe part The studyarea covers thecoastalzone of MATERIALS AND METHODS D ynamics of permafrost in

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21 GEOGRAPHY 22 GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY, from thebottom. from thetop by dataon theirdegradation permafrost degradationon thesubmarine These results data supplemented thedrilling etal. 2012). al. 2008; Nicolsky 2006;Gavrilov et and evolution ofpermafrost (Romanovskii to thickness apply in studies of distribution, Since 1970s, mathematical modeling started 2008). (Grigoriev continued inthe21thCentury isobaths for the first time. These wereworks from 10to 40m piston tubeintheinterval bottom sedimentswithavibration-based E.N.(1973)sampled 1970 Molochushkin etal. 1981;Soloviev Soloviev 1987;etc.). In 1980, Fartyshev1999; et al. 1983; Neizvestnov 1977;FartyshevZhigarev 1993; andPlakht 1973; Are 1980,2012;Zhigarev 1981,1997; 1969,1970, 1966;Molochushkin (Grigoriev Novosibirsk Islands, themouthsofrivers Bays, thecoastalzone ofthe Sellyakhskaya Island, the Bay andMuostakh Vankina and They were inthearea conducted ofthe studiesofsediments. complex oflaboratory resources. The wasaccompaniedby work a survey, search for andexplorationofmineral 1960-1980s, for ofgeological thepurposes coastal zone oftheEast-Siberian Arctic in regions outinvarious ofsubmarine carried inboreholes monitoring geothermal were was initiated in1950s. Permafrost studiesand profiles with the help of drilling conducted and depthofpermafrost table. This study is associated closelywiththestudyofspread ofoffshoreThe sediments studyofcryogenesis data. shores wasstudiedusingremote sensing of used inthesurvey. Almost1,000km Processor Professional andMapInfo were (Pizhankova Image 2016).ScanEx Century Laptev Strait in the 20st region of Dmitry acceleration ofcoastalretreat rate for the Pizhankova 2011). There wasrevealed the 2010; Islands (Pizhankova andDobrynina Lyakhovsky 2005), theBolshoy andMaliy etal. for Island(Dobrynin Siberia theNew were dynamics. conducted Suchsurveys to investigate oftheir thespatialpatterns Islandswiththeaim of theNovosibirskiye with overlapped archival photography aerial ofmediumresolution (Landsat-7, 8) imagery ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY ice cover andclimate oftheEast-Arctic Seas. source of information about the changes in meteo.ru/ClimateR) astheimportant serve Data Center (ARRIHMI – (http://aisori. WDC) Meteorological —the Information World forAll-Russia Research and Institute Hydro- www.aari.nw.ru/projects/ECIMO/) andthe (AARI) Research (http:// Institute The electronic archives of Arctic and etal. 2006). (Romanovskii of the Stefan conditions task under various implementingthesolution and software latest achievements inpaleogeography outonthebasisof shelf wascarried permafrost current state for theEastSiberian The mathematicalsimulationofthe al. 2008). et 2008;Junker Cape to opensea(Grigoriev were established from the Mamontov Klyk informative cross-sections meridian very two In 2003and2005, scientific collaboration. ofRussian-German out withintheframework Echolocation atshallow depthswascarried confinement of processes andtheirrates. coastal zone, aswell asthe specific spatial dynamicsinthe direction ofthecryogenic the cliffs. thegeneral determine These factors in thewave zone, action andtheheight of composition and ice content of the deposits movements, vertical the of contemporary tectonic thedirection structuredetermines seabed deepening. The geological and the increased rates ofcoastalretreat and stillexists. sector Eastern This onedetermines et al. 2016),whiletheground iceofthe BP(Hughes They melted away 17-15ka forming inthewestern oftheEurasia. sector Late Pleistocene. At thattimeglacierswere the underground freezing oftheregion inthe and climate continentalconditionsthatledto wastheLate CenozoicArctic. It subsidence ofthe most continentalhigh-latitudepart location oftheresearch area intheeastern to the geological-tectonic structure and development. The latter isalsorelated closely ofits Alas Complexes) isdueto thehistory the mainrelief-forming complexes (Iceand As mentionedabove, thehighicecontent of CRYOGENIC DYNAMICS THE MAIN F ACTORS OF THE COASTAL 01 (11)2018 ice cliffs at the top (so-called“kygams”) (Fig.formation ofthermo-cirques 3)with Complex. They are by characterized the 20 mheight,composedofdepositsIce ontheshores ofmore than15- observed was ofdestruction The secondtype washes themaway (Fig. 2). down alongthecracks, andthenthesea up to 10-15m. The overlying deposits break nicheswithadepthof produces wave-cut Alas Complex. At the cliffbottom, the sea 8-12 mheight,predominantly inherent to formechanism ismosttypical shores of the structure ofthe cliffs. The first(block) mechanism ofcoastalerosion dependson denudation. abrasion andthermal The retreat undertheinfluenceofthermal groupsBoth coastal determine offactors zone. runoffinthecoastal the features ofsurface and balance ofthecoastaloutcrops surface, of snow accumulation,theradiation-heat of positive airtemperatures, thedistribution winds andwind-inducedsurges, thesum currents, thestrength anddirectionof period, They includethedurationofice-free the hydrological and climatic conditions. Another group ispresented offactors by Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova Fig. 2. The blockcollapse mechanism ofcoastal erosion. shore Southern ofthe Laptev Sea, 2010. PhotoSea, by A.Dereviagin studies. of different averaging usedinthese period noted thatthiswasalsohampered because It shouldbe that affect thesevariations. always ableto reveal thesignificant factors rates 1).However, (Table were they not significant invaluesof variations retreat Island, Muostah Oyogos Yar, Fig. 1),showed Peninsula, Bykovsky Buor-Khaya, Klyk, coastsusingremoteSea data(Mamontov oftheretreatingon many sections Laptev groups (Günther 2013,2015;Lantuit2011) studies,Detail by conducted international washed away by thesea. to the water’s are edge and the debris do notform there. The depositsthaw down than 3-4mheight. niches Thermo-abrasive for less terraces andalluvial-marine marine The thirdofshoreistypical type destruction coastal erosion ofthermo-terraces. precipitation,and atmospheric aswell as influence ofair temperatures, solarradiation cliffs underthe denudationoficy thermal The retreat ofsuchshores isdueto the rate exceeding abrasion. therate ofthermal retreat formterraces whenthekygams ata at the base. and thermo-terraces Thermo- D ynamics of permafrost in

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23 GEOGRAPHY 24 GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY, or more). For thefirstof them,therate of Ice Complex, retreat slower (in1.2 times deposits, underlying quaternary the ice-less of theIceComplex, whilethecoastswith water’s edge (andbelow) entirely composed to bemore rapidontheshores up to the denudationareabrasion andthermal proved shores of different exposures. Both thermal denudation are significantly various for the appearance andtheparameters ofthermal there wasrevealed thatthenature ofthe space imagery. For Islands, theLyakhovsky the basisofinterpretation ofmedium-scale shores, where on itcanbecharacterized into account onlyfortaken theIce Complex denudation in our studies was Thermal in theicesituationnearshore zone. to thechange runoffcontributing of surface snowpacks onleeward shores); theregime of snow accumulation(theformation of the effect ofsolarradiationandthenature surges; thepresence ofalongshore currents; of the coast through of storm the intensity presence ofshoalsandforeshores; exposure nearshoreof thesubmarine zone, the thedepth structure ofthecoastal section; the position ofthecoast,whichdetermines werefactors thefollowing: neotectonic Pizhankova 2011). The mostimportant 2010; Islands (Pizhankova and Dobrynina for most fullydetermined theLyakhovsky The role wasthe ofindividual factors Fig. 3.Coastal erosion withforming thethermalcirques. shore Southern of ENVIRONMENT, the Laptev 2007.Photo Sea, by A.Dereviagin SUSTAINABILITY for previous andsubsequentyears. Arctic shores andcompare themwithdata coast retreat ofdifferent alongthe sections inordera littleearlier to measure therates of use remote sensingdataobtainedin 2000or our opinion,thatiswhy itisadvisable toIn Sea. oftheEastSiberian part coverage for andthewestern theLaptev Sea average figures. Fig. 4shows dataontheice ice coverage upto valuessignificantly below reductionin seas issteady andrathersharp 2000,thecommonfeatureafter for allthe to 2000.Andfor theperiod observations value for from theperiod thebeginning of ice coverage around fluctuates the average exposed:the are Sea, weakly 1960s intheKara the exception oftheexplicitmaximum inicecover,until 2000thefluctuations with (Pizhankova 2016). This analysisshowed that role inincreasing ofthecoastretreat rates to 2014andtheir 40s-20s ofthe20thcentury coverage from andclimate warming the We analyzed the changesofArcticice entirely composedoftheIceComplex. heat balanceonthelarge cliffs thatare more significant influenceoftheradiation- abrasion,butalso,thermal apparently, to the the corresponding difference intherates of speed for thelatter. This isnotonlydueto denudationin1.4timesexceedsthermal the 01 (11)2018 Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova Fig. 6. (in 1.5-2andmore visiblein times)isclearly (Fig.21st century 5). The scaleoftheincrease increase intherates ofshore retreat inthe duration)ledto asignificant period ice-free 2000 (andcorrespondingly anincrease in that reduction of sea ice coverage after data (1951~2000and2000-2013) showed The studyofmulti-temporal remote sensing № 4 5 3 2 1 6 7 8 Table 1.Information ofthecoastal retreat oftheLaptev andEastSiberianSeas, New Siberia Siberia New Lyakhovsky Lyakhovsky Lyakhovsky Lyakhovsky Bolshoy Name andlocationofthe Island Island Island Maliy Maliy Bykovsky Peninsula Bykovsky obtained in the early 21st century byobtained intheearly21stcentury useofremote sensingdata Mamontov Klyk Muostah Island Muostah Buor-Khaya Oyogos YarOyogos shore Southeast coast Southeast Southeast coast Southeast Northeast coast Northeast South coast South South coast South North coast North West coast West coast East coast rate, m/year Coast retreat 3,2± 1,1 3,4± 2,7 1,8± 1,3 8,3± 2,8 1,2± 0,7 0,5± 0,4 4,6± 1.2 2,1± 1,2 0,6 3,4 2,4 7,7 3,4 9,4 4,3 4,2 2,7 2,1 2,3 3,6 1,5 4,1 2,5 during measurements in a short period. measurementsduring inashort of highervalues ofretreat rates obtained be noted thatAre (1980) pointed to theeffect increase of retreat rates, although itshould 2010-2013 (see Table 1),there is alsoan of2007-2011and observations short-term papers ofGüntheretal. (2013, 2015)inthe Island andtheShore Oyogos Yar. the In shoresand eastern ofBolshoy Lyakhovsky

Similar results were obtained for thewestern D 2007(2009) -2011 2007(2009) -2011 2007(2009) -2011 ynamics Measurement 2010 -2013 1951- 2013 1999 -2013 1951- 1999 2000 -2013 1951- 2001 2000 -2013 1951- 2001 2000 -2013 1951- 2001 1951- 2001 1952- 2002 1951-2006 1965-2011 1965-2011 1965-2011 period of permafrost Dobrynina 2010; Dobrynina Dobrynina 2010 Dobrynina Pizhankova and Pizhankova and Dobrynin etal. Dobrynin 2005; Gavrilov 2005; Gavrilov Günther etal. Günther etal. The source of Günther etal Lantuit etal. information Pizhankova Pizhankova et al. 2012 2011 2015 2013 2013 2016 2016 in

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25 GEOGRAPHY 26 GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY, Fig. 5. The coastal dynamicsofthesoutherncoast oftheBolshoy Lyakhovsky Island. 5, Complex; al–segments of alluvialdeposits;noletter indications –segments ofthe Siberian Sea (2)(august)andthetrend basedonaveragingSiberian Sea curves results for afive- Fig. 4.Ice coverage oftheEast dynamicsoftheLaptev (1)andthewestern Sea part Fig. 6.Changes intheretreat rates for different segments ofthesouthern coast of Bol. Lyakhovsky Island. The IC–segments lengthofthecoast oftheIce is 70km. 6, 7–segment numbersfor whichtheretreat rates have beencalculated. ENVIRONMENT, Alas Complex (Pizhankova, 2016) SUSTAINABILITY Air photo of1951 year period 01 (11)2018 Island, 12.4km enlarged by 10.3km 13 years (from 2001 to were 2013),they for Island. the past Siberia the New Over was: 27.2km 2000) the total area of the washed out coasts have shown thatfor 50years (from 1951to etal.2010; Gavrilov 2012;Pizhankova 2016), Laptev Strait(Pizhankova andDobrynina coastoftheDm. Islands andthesouthern positions of coastlinestheNovosibirskiye ofdifferentData basedoncomparison Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova Lyakhovsky and6.5km Lyakhovsky Island, 1.7km from airtemperature the determines of bottomDependence water temperature summer radiative warming. the bottom water. The latter is dueto factor melting point,andhightemperature of of sediments, whichlowers the freezing- Thawing from thetop isdueto salinization acquires agradientless temperature profile. the top aswell asfrom itsbottom asit permafrostThe thaws submarine from ice unfrozen water), and then thawing. lattice containtogether with the crystal permafrost in permafrost (ice-bearing permafrost into ice-bearing ice-bonded is represented by thetransformation of frozensubmarine ground. This degradation thedegradation formedtriggers ofnewly from -11...-15to -0.5...+0.5°С. surface This average annualtemperature ofsediment to offshore) simultaneouslyincreases the conditions(fromto submarine onshore The transitionofpermafrost from subaerial COASTAL RETREAT SUBMARINE CONDITIONS CAUSED BY DEGRADATION OFPERMA UNDER FROST the influenceofincreasing air temperatures. shore retreat process ismore dramaticthan influence of reducing ice coverage on the ouropinion, this shows that the 2016). In dramatic -by 1.7-1.9times(Pizhankova 2011, denudation increasing wasnotthat much 1951-1999. the period The rate ofthermal increased with in2000-2013comparison region. Thus, theretreat rates in1.3-2.9times 2000 to 2013for alltheeroded coastsofthis upto 2000and6.4m/yearthe period from The average retreat rates were 3.2m/yfor 2 for theBolshoy Lyakhovsky 2 2 for Oyogos Yar, and36km for the Malyi Lyakhovsky for Lyakhovsky theMalyi 2 ofthecoastBolshoy 2 of the Oyogos oftheOyogos Yar. 2

one isto 75mW/m Peninsula Islandbelongs to andMuostakh 2008). Gavrilov The region of the Bykovsky to a flux density of 50 mW/m to a flux density flux.geothermal The firstvaluecorresponds ofthe 3 cm/year anddependsonthedensity from thefrombottom varies thickness 1.5to simulation. The decrease inthepermafrost byevidenced theresults ofmathematical from the top, but also can exceed it. This is not onlycomparable with thedegradation into thegeneralpermafrost degradation is considered. Meanwhile, itscontribution thawing from the bottom is not usually permafrost methods, bysubmarine drilling When studying the degradation of was longer. than the indicated value, and its duration should be considered substantially lower rate ofpermafrost degradation from thetop 2017). and Grigoriev Therefore, theaverage was3-4timesslowerIce Age. (Razumov It retreat rate inthepast,especiallyLittle Meanwhile, hisreconstructionshows alower basing onthecurrent rate ofshore retreat. The thawing timedurationwascalculated 2008). speed was1.9cm/year (Grigoriev from sotheaverage theshore (11.5km), at thesite oftheborehole mostremote permafrost occurred for at least 2500 years thawing of35mtop of Mamontov Klyk, lower by anorder ofmagnitude. Thus, at of thousandsyears are estimated atleast years anddecades. The rates for theperiods inthefirst the maximumandare observed the second one. However, such velocities are cm/year for thefirstcaseand9cm/year for (Are 2012), then the rate of degradation is 28 table from theseafloorare excited by waves thawed sedimentsseparatingthepermafrost intowe accountthatontheaverage take 1/3 and for deposits-6cm/year. itsunderlying If Ice Complex, therate was13.5-18.5cm/year, Island. profileMuostakh of For thesubsea for 1983-2013/2014alongthe theperiod rate ofpermafrost tablelowering wasfixed 2008;Overduin 2016). (Grigoriev The highest Peninsula andtheMamontov Klyk Bykovsky towards Island, the sea for the the Muostakh according profiles to drilling from thecoast rate ofdegradation from top canbejudged degradation withclimate dynamics. The relationship permafrost ofsubmarine D ynamics of 2 (Romanovskii etal. 2006; (Romanovskii permafrost 2 , the second in

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27 GEOGRAPHY 28 GEOGRAPHY on the southern coastoftheislandisquite on thesouthern formation ofspits. The accretion ofthespit and southwestern onesare dueto the of beachesandmarches; thesouthern are accreted becauseoftheformation coastsof this island and northeastern Island. Lyakhovsky western The northern, of shoresfor isthemosttypical Malyi Studies indicated thattheincrement the march level. with thecontinuationofsedimentation-to intocoastal slope turns beach level, and decreases. Subsequently, thesubmarine where thecapacitanceoflandshore drift bars and foreshores are formed in the places runoff to thecoastal In thiscase,zone. spits, to theinputofasignificant volume ofsolid occurs intheareas anddue oftectonic uplift, studies have shown thatthecoastincrement Islands usingremote sensingdata. These studied intheregion oftheLyakhovsky sedimentationwas The coastal-marine COASTAL-MARINE SEDIMENTS RECENT FORMATION ANDFREEZINGO degradation from thetop. ormoretwo timeshigherthantherate of degradation from the bottom can be atleast should betaken. Thus, therate ofpermafrost the Ust- for whichthesecondvalue rift, GEOGRAPHY, Fig. 7.Accumulative relief forms ofBolshoy Lyakhovsky Island:above seawater ones: a- recent (1950-2001),b-recent andHolocene; forms: underwater c-recent; d- formed inthe past. The retreat ofthe shore -e. Air photo of 1951 ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY Island and1.6km of theforeshores usuallyconsistofsaline Islands. of theLyakhovsky The sediments main source oftheirformation, asinthecase isthe abrasion andthermo-denudation, Ice Complex, whichisaffected by thermo- oftheLate Pleistocenein theeast.Debris and deposited sediments are transported of theseforeshores the are washedaway; many tens ofkilometers. The western parts the dimensionsofwhichare measured by areas andEbelyach foreshores, ofSellyach inthedynamicsof the evident particularly inthecoastline. by explicitvariability This is buildingsareCoastal-marine characterized increment was1.8km slope (Fig. 7). The total area of theshore terraces, whichstepwise upto theroot rise of spits subsequentlyform thesurface incoming angleofacoastcontour. Accreting accumulation occursthrough thefillingan Peninsula, whereeast oftheKigilyakh the coastal areas andfor theareas adjacentto the accretion for istypical thenorth-northeastern Island, theshoreOn theBolshoy Lyakhovsky section ofthespitforsection 50years. the seaaveraged about70mfor the6km pronounced, ofthecoastto theextension and Dobrynina 2010) and Dobrynina for 50years (from 1951to 2000)(Pizhankova 2 for Malyi Lyakhovsky Island for Lyakhovsky Malyi 2 for Bolshoy Lyakhovsky 01 (11)2018 of theislandsinrecent years. is identifieddue to thenew formation in shallow waters isquite interesting. It ofsedimentation activation Contemporary in closeproximity to them. ofthe deltaareremains oftheeroded parts formed several thousandyears ago. The ofbars, can alsobethesameelevated parts Island. The Aeros’yemki andSamoletaIslands the western coastoftheArga-Muora Ceese them isachainofislandsstretching along many tens of kilometers. The largest of fragments ofbarsbordering thedeltafor to west oftheLena delta. These are elevated byevidenced thenumerous islandslocated is accompaniedby itssyncriogenesis. This is The formation sediments ofcoastal-marine layers. merge permafrost relict withtheunderlying 1974). (Zhigarev andPlakht They generally permafrost is estimated as 25 m thick Vankina Bay, submarine recent syncryogenic aleurites,material,In silty and fine dust sands. Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova Fig. 8. The Yaya Island appeared at Vasilievsky and discovered Bank in2013. Photo by Pavel S.Sayapin (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=30168239) sediments are stored around stamukhas wind surges and storms, whenthethawed to bemobile. Accumulation occursunder thawing ofbottom sediments, whichturn bottom waterwarmed onshallows induces summer,In asseaiscleared from theice, 2007). etal. (Gorbunov Sea in theEastSiberian etal.(Gorbunov 2008)and7962stamukhas were foundstamukhas intheLaptev Sea according tosurveys, incomplete data,2086 three decadesofvisualicereconnaissance consistent withavailable data(Fig. 9).For facilitate theirformation.likely This is locating ontheground most -stamukhas, disputed. ouropinion,icehummocks In The way offormation of such islandsis were ontopographic recently maps. marked shorenear thesoutheastern ofBungeLand Islands the Lena deltaandtheNeizvestnyye The IslandZatoplyayemyy, eastof in60km 2014;Fig. (Gukov aerovisual observations 8). at Vasilyevskaya Bankwasrevealed in D ynamics of permafrost in

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29 GEOGRAPHY 30 GEOGRAPHY Molochushkin 1973),the forming average Molochushkin and PudovVankina Bay (72°N, Katasonov 1972, 2.5 to 0m.According to thedataobtainedfor ofisobaths of oftheinterval into theupperpart accumulation falls ofcoastal-marine surface Therefore, thedepositsfreeze iftherising especially significantly neartheseaedge. the sumofsummerpositive temperatures, sums ofwinter negative temperatures exceed the bottom water upto 10-14°C,theannual winter time. of Despite thesummerwarming adfreezing the long withthebottom during the bottom depositsoccursthrough theice zone. Here, intensive cooling of conductive at70-76°N. Seas Siberian This isthefastice the seasonalicecover intheLaptev andEast of The firstonecorresponds to thethickness 0...2-2.5 m;2.5...6-8mandmore than6-8m. 1981, 1997). There are three sea depths intervals, temperatures ofbottom permafrost (Zhigarev role intheformation oftheaverage annual the bottom water andiceplay animportant shallows, of thesummerradiationwarming Freezing fixes them Indeed,for alongtime. on such islands in the process of sedimentation. Freezing role plays in formation a key of non-saline. theirmeltingmay after below or stamukhas bottom sedimentslocated atthesite ofthe Freezing is facilitated that the by the fact shape of atoll, which was frozen winter. in next the accumulative formation remains inthe meltsattheendofsummer,Stamukhas and adfreezing withthebottom nearthecoastline. GEOGRAPHY, Fig. 9. The average (blackdots)andthefastice long-term positionofthestamukhas border (b) (black line)intheLaptev (a)andEastSiberianSea Sea ENVIRONMENT, A SUSTAINABILITY (Gorbunov etal. 2007,2008) the summer. throughoutconstant presence ofstamukhas plausible due to the above seemsvery formation according to described thepattern of the Arctic seas. of their The possibility shape ofanatoll isratherunusualfor islands are IslandsPeschanyy (Fig. 10),Nanosnyy. A similar or close to that shown in Fig. 8. These several islands, a shape of which is completely topographic show mapsofthe1950-80period the shallows alsooccurred inthepast. The andformationSedimentation ofislandsin 2005;Are andRazumov 2012). Grigoriev deposits are mainlyformed (Zhigarev 1981; temperatures ofthebottom water andbottom Below thesedepths, negative meanannual to accrete theirtops andform islands. material isasupplierofterrigenous elevations of depths within the underwater This interval by thewaves.sediments freely transporting existence ofthawed andseasonallythawing average annualtemperature, causingthe warming, thebottom water here has a positive In theconditionsofcontemporary significant. from 2.5 to 6-8 m Theis also depth interval ice zone iseven lower. temperature ofbottom sedimentsinthefast oftheUSSR,1989), -12...-15°С (Geocryology temperature permafrost is ofthesubaerial Islands(74°N),where the of theLyakhovsky -10...-11.5°C. Onforeshores, nearthecoasts annual temperature ofbottom sedimentsis B 01 (11)2018 increased. increase in the The large-scale storms, and thewind-inducedsurges has and the strengthlength, the frequency of period, the waveduration ofthe ice-free and intensification ofbottom erosion. The a result ofaccelerating coastalretreat as material in thevolume ofsedimentary scale.warming Warming causesanincrease caused by theincrease ofcontemporary inshallow waterslithomorphogenesis was of our opinion,thechangeinorientation depths andeven theformation ofislands. In was replaced by thestabilizationoftheir thatoccurred inthepast, Siberia, of Eastern Vasilievskaya and other shoals in the seas constant deepeningoftheSemenovskaya, RAS (Dudarev etal. 2003,2008,2015),the of thePacificInstitute,Oceanological FEB according to the hydrographic monitoring al. 2003;Dudarev etal. 2003).However, wereinherited deepened(Gavrilov et disappeared, andtheshallows thatthey Complex were continuouslydestroyed, relicts islandsoftheLate Pleistocene Ice the19thand20thcenturies, the During period.increase inthedurationofice-free is closely related toand an warming islands and frozen ground, in our opinion, ofapresentThe possibility formation of Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova (https://yandex.ru/maps/?clid=2220323-129&win=196&ll=116.290258%2C74.310081 Fig. 10.Peschanyy Island &z=10&l=sat) permafrost. retreat, and degradation ofthe submarine denudation causingarapidcoastal thermal The mainprocesses are erosion, thermal Holocene AlasComplex initsstructure. Late Pleistocene IceComplex andthe deposits of the syncryogenic of ice-rich of studyarea isdueto theparticipation processesthermogenic) inthecoastalzone 2. (primarily ofcryogenic The highactivity formation. permafrost are under syncryogenic subaerial and on theotherhand, submarine modern into degrading offshore permafrost, and, here theonshore permafrost istransformed permafrost environment. Onthe one hand, of theArcticisarea withhighlydynamic 1. The coastalzone oftheEastAsian sector theformed islands.preserves The freezing ofaccumulated sediments of sedimentsalongtheirperimeter. up to freezing-over results inaccumulation exist energy inconditions whenstamukhas volume ofterrestrial andwave material CONCLUSIONS D ynamics of permafrost in

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31 GEOGRAPHY 32 GEOGRAPHY

then perennial freezing begins when the freezingsedimentation. Seasonal firstand where thecoastlinefeatures to contribute and occur intheareas uplifts ofmodern freezing sediments ofcoastal-marine accumulationand 5. Contemporary bottom -1.5-3cm/year. the top may be1.5-2cm/year, andfrom the average rate ofpermafrost degradation from rates ofthisprocess inthe21stcentury. The temperature allows usto assumehigher the bottom water temperature onair of thebottom water. of Dependence and high annual average temperatures bottom sediments, theirhighicecontent, from the top is caused by salinization of 4. Degradation oftheoffshore permafrost thistime.times during denudationincreasedof thermal by 1.7-1.9 the secondhalfof20thcentury. The rate compared with 2.9 timesinthe21stcentury retreat by rate 1.3- of studied coast sections resultclimate warming inanincrease inthe and period) (an increase inanice-free 3. The current decrease intheseaicecover GEOGRAPHY, References Sea. PacificSea. Geology. vol. 22, № 1.pp. 51-60.(in RussianwithEnglishsummary). zone Laptev StraitoftheEastSiberian oftheDmitriy shelfcryolitic within thenear-coastal sedimentation (2003).Modern A.N. Semiletov Charkin I.P. A.I., Botsul and Dudarev O.V., pp. 76-82.(inRussian). ofthe Materials Third Conference MSU, vol. ofRussianGeocryologists. III,ch.6,Moscow: ofmultitemporal remote Islandbasedonthe comparison Siberia New sensing materials// D.V.,Dobrynin Pizhankova E.I., Tumskoy V.E. F.M. andRivkin (2005). The coastal dynamicsof MSU, 248p. oftheArctic coastsofRussia(1998).Moscow: (inRussian). Dynamics Coastal 135p. processes inthepermafrost (inRussian). zone Nauka, (1984).Novosibirsk: House “Geo”, 2012,291p. (inRussianwithEnglishsummary). Are F.E. (2012).Coastal erosion ofthearcticlowlands, Academic Novosibirsk: Publishing summary). sea sedimentbalance. Zemli. Kriosfera vol. II,No. 1,pp. 55-61.(inRussianwithEnglish Are F.E. (1998). shores abrasionoftheLaptev to Sea Thermal the anditscontribution (in RussianwithEnglishsummary). Are F.E. 172p. (1985).Basicsofforecasting Nauka, abrasion.Novosibirsk: ofcoastalthermal Are F.E. 160p. (1980). (inRussian). Nauka, abrasionofseashores.Thermal Moscow: ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY published topographic maps. also formed inthepastanddesignated on at SimilarislandswereVasilyevskaya Bank. these islands – Yaya – was recently formed shape ofanatoll are fixed by freezing. Oneof freeze-up, andaccumulative formations ina before thaw shortly around them.Stamukhas oftheformationpattern oftheislands located in the zone of fast ice show the shallows andthenumerous stamukhas 7. of sedimentation in the The activation freezing. there offixingits isthepossibility results by shallows, where, from thedepthsof1-1.5m, The sedimentationoccursonbanksand pronounced ofsedimentation. activation period, leads to a distinctly of ice-free abrasion, owing to theincreasing duration from thecoastalandbottom thermal and intheamountofsedimentscoming 6. increase inwaveThe large-scale energy through fastice. of2-2.5to 0mandoccurs depth interval fallswithina accumulationsurface rising 01 (11)2018 Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova pp. 74–94.(in RussianwithEnglishsummary). coast: majorfactors,East ArcticSea regularities andtendencies. Zemli, Kriosfera vol. X,№4, S.O., M.N.,Razumov Grigoriev Kunitzkiy V.V., Spektor V.B. oftheRussian (2006)Dynamics 136-155. (inRussian). oftheEarth’s Institute natural processes inCentral Asia. Irkutsk: Crust,SBRAS,ch.2,pp. transformationof long-term geodynamics anddangerous ofthecoastalzone//Modern permafrost inthe coastal-shelfzone oftheLaptev and East-Siberian seasasaconsequence S.O. M.N.and Razumov andevolution ofsubaquatic Grigoriev (2005).Distribution Russian). ofGeographical Sciences. seas. …Doctor Siberia of the Eastern Abstract Yakutsk, 38 p. (in andlithodynamicsofthecoastal-shelfzone M.N.(2008).Cryomorphogenesis Grigoriev Permafrost SBRAS,176p. Institute (inRussian). region oftheLena oftheestuary river. M.N.(1993).Cryomorphogenesis Grigoriev Yakutsk. Arctic andAntarctic, No. 2(79),pp. 111-116.(inRussianwithEnglishsummary). Gorbunov Yu.A., Probl. oftheLaptev Sea. L.N.(2008).Stamukhas Losev S.M.and Dyment English summary). of glaciological Seas. Materials research,Chukchi vol. 102, pp. 41 – 47. (in Russian with Gorbunov Yu.A., and oftheEastSiberian L.N.(2007).Stamukhas Losev S.M.andDyment Russian). and the Far of theUSSR.Siberia Eastern Nedra, 515 p. (in Geocryology East (1989). Moscow: Russia,June25–29, District, Vol. 3(Contributions inRussian)pp. 97-100(inRussian). Tenth Conference International onPermafrost Salekhard, Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Natural processes of the Northern Yakutia coastal accumulative plains. Proceedings of the A.V.,Gavrilov Pizhankova E.I.,Derevyagin A.YU. andChizhov A.B. (2012).Ecologically adverse MSU, 48p. Sciences.Geological Moscow: andMineralogical (inRussian). of ....Doctor Abstract Pleistocene-Holocene). ofdevelopment intheMiddle history A.V.Gavrilov Arcticshelf(current Siberia ofthe Eastern state and (2008). Cryolithozone and Periglacial Processes, 14,pp. 187-198. Arctic Shelf. of Ice Complex on the Siberian Eastern Remnants Reconstruction Permafrost A.V.,Gavrilov N.N.,Romanovsky V.E., Romanovskii H.-W. Hubberten and Tumskoy V.E. (2003). 135p. (inRussian). Nauka, Novosibirsk: Fartyshev A.I.(1993).Features oftheLaptev Sea. ofthecoastal-shelf cryolithozone pp.111-126. (inRussian). Nauka, Novosibirsk: ofSiberia. of thecryolithozone Sea. shelf of the East Siberian Thermophysicalconditions of studies the North-Lyakhovsky Fartyshev A.I.,Shamshurin V.Yu. andUritskiy V.F. (1983). The permafrost-geothermal 1. pp. 510-516.doi:10.7868/S0869565215140194. Sciences. vol. 462. № Earth Land). Doklady shoal (Vasema Semenovskaya Shelf: Laptev Sea N.E. andSergienko V.I. (2015).Peculiarities onthe ofthepresent-day morpholithogenesis Dudarev O.V., A.N., Semiletov I.P., Charkin Pipko I.I.,Pugach S.P., D.V., Chernykh Shakhova vol. 419,pp. 225-261.(inRussianwithEnglishsummary). Sciences. Earth the current state ofsubsea island relics shelf . Doklady ontheEast Siberian Dudarev O.V., A.N.,Semiletov I.P., Charkin ShiloI.N.,SalyukA.N.andSpivakE.A.(2008).About D ynamics of permafrost in

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33 GEOGRAPHY 34 GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY, Sea. CoastalSea. processes pp. in thepermafrost zone. 20–28. (inRussian). Nauka, Novosibirsk: Novikov V.N. anddynamics of the (1984). Morphology Vankina Bay shores oftheLaptev Region. J. Geophys. Res., 117, F03028, doi:10.1029/2012JF002358. I. P. ArcticShelf: permafrost intheEastSiberian The Laptev Sea sub-sea (2012). Modeling D.J., Nicolsky Romanovsky N.E.,SemiletovV.E., A.L.,Shakhova N.N.,Kholodov Romanovskii pp.139-146. (inRussian). sheetS-53-55(Novosibirsk series), USSR, scale1:1000(new Islands).Leningrad: VSEGEI, Neizvestnov Ya.V. (1999). Hydrogeology. note to the geological map of Explanatory the Sciences. ofGeological Leningrad, and Mineralogical ... Doctor 31p. (inRussian). Neizvestnov Ya.V. (1980).Engineering geologyof theArcticShelfzone oftheUSSRAbstract Yakutsk, pp. 52-57.(inRussian). in thecoastalzone Proceedings oftheLaptev Sea. Conf. ofIIIntern. onpermafrost, issue2. abrasiononthe temperature ofthermal ofpermafrost E.N.(1973).Influence Molochushkin Russian). MSU, ...Candidate ofGeographical 20p. Sciences. Moscow: of theDissert (in Abstract Sea. E.N.(1970). Molochushkin regimeThermal oftheLaptev ofrocks part inthesoutheastern pp.121-126. (inRussian). in thecoastalzone Questionsofthegeography oftheLaptev Sea. of Yakutia. Yakutsk, E.N.(1969).Onthenature oftheheatexchange ofwater andbottomMolochushkin rocks 1951-2006.Polar Siberia, Research, 30,7341,doi:10.3402/polar.v30i0.7341.north H.-W. Peninsula, (2011).Coastal erosion Bykovsky dynamicsonthepermafrost-dominated D.,Lantuit H.,Atkinson Overduin P. P., M.N.,Rachold, Grigoriev V., Grosse, G.&Hubberten, Bay //Permafrost oftheLaptev Sea studies, vol. XII,MSU, pp. 130-136.(inRussian). E.M. and Pudov studies in the areaKatasonov of the G.G.(1972).Cryolithological Vankina permafrost boreholes.measurements J. indry Geophys. 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(inRussianwithEnglishsummary). coastline (results of aerospace image interpretation). Zemli, Kriosfera vol. № 4, pp. XVI, 66- M.S.(2010). Pizhankova Islands E.I.andDobrynina The dynamicsoftheLyakhovsky 46–59. vol. Cryosphere, Laptev Straitarea. XX,coastal dynamicsoftheDmitriy Earth`s No. 1,pp. Pizhankova climate change at high latitudes and its influence onthe E.I. (2016). Modern with Englishsummary). (interpretation ofaerospace Zemli, images). Kriosfera vol.XV, №3,pp. 61-70.(inRussian Pizhankova E.I. (2011). Termodenudation Islands in the coastal zone of the Lyakhovsky https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1449-2016. shallow water EastSiberia. ofthecentralLaptev Sea, The 10,pp. Cryosphere, 1449-1462. H.-W.,Hubberten, and Makarov, A. (2016). Coastal permafrost in dynamics and submarine Overduin, P. P., Wetterich, S.,Günther, F., Grigoriev, M.N.,Grosse, G.,Schirrmeister, L., London SpecialPublications, 388,pp. 103-129,doi:10.1144/SP388.13. Gunther F. and Wetterich S.(2013).Coastal of changesintheArctic, Geological Society Overduin P.P., D. M.N.Couture N.LantuitH.St-Hilaire-Gravel M.C.,Grigoriev Strzelecki doi:10.1130/2007.2426(07). Harff, J., Hay, W., and Tetzlaff, D., Boulder, ofAmerica, Geological Society The CO, 97–111, Coastline of Climate Changes: Interrelation and Geological Processes, vol. 426, edited by: in: thelastclimaticcycle, during Seas permafrost intheLaptev andEastSiberian M.(2007). Theand Kasymskaya, evolution anddegradation ofcoastalandoffshore Overduin, P. P., H.-W., Hubberten, Rachold, V., N.N.,Grigoriev, M.N., Romanovskii, D ynamics of permafrost in

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35 GEOGRAPHY 36 GEOGRAPHY Received onNovember 1 GEOGRAPHY, 9 Oct. 2017]. 9 Oct. maps/?clid=2220323-129&win=196&ll=116.290258%2C74.310081&z=10&l=sat [Accessed yandex.ru, (2017). Yandex [Online]. Available Maps at:https://yandex.ru/ 2017]. [Accessedcommons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30168239 9Oct. commons.wikimedia.org, (2017). Commons [Online]. AvailableWikimedia at:https:// aari.nw.ru/projects/ECIMO/ [Accessed 4Feb. 2015]. aari.nw.ru, [Online]. (2015).ArcticandAntarctic Research Available Institute at:http://www. aisori.meteo.ru/ClimateR [Accessed 24Nov. 2015]. aisori.meteo.ru, (2015).Specialized for arrays climate research [Online]. Available at:http:// Russian). MSU,Bay. pp. Moscow: 136-142(in Geographical problems ofthestudyNorth. I.R.(1977).PermafrostZhigarev L.A.andPlakht rocks andperennial-cooled ofthe Vankina 115-124 (inRussian). stratum. Problemsthe subaquatic cryogenic of cryolithology, vol. IV. MSU, pp. Moscow: I.R.(1974).FeaturesZhigarev L.A.andPlakht ofthestructure, andformation distribution of MSU, 318p.Zhigarev cryolithozone. Moscow: L.A.(1997).Oceanic (inRussian). oftheArcticshelf.Cryolithozone Yakutsk: Permafrost SBRAS.pp. Institute 4-17.(inRussian). ofthedevelopment oftheArcticbasincryolithozone. Zhigarev L.A.(1981).Regularities Publishing HouseoftheAcademy oftheUSSR,710p. ofSciences (inRussian). Zenkovich V.P. (1962).Fundamentals oftheseacoastdevelopment. Moscow: ofthetheory 151p. (inRussian). hydrates ofnaturalgasinthebowels Leningrad: oftheArcticOcean. PGOSevmorgeology, Soloviev V.A., Ginsburg G.D., Telepnev E.V. andMikhalyuk Yu.N. and (1987).Cryogeothermy ENVIRONMENT, st , 2017 SUSTAINABILITY Accepted onMarch 1 01 (11)2018 st , 2018 Anatoly V. Gavrilov, ElenaI.Pizhankova 90 publicationsandnumerous reports. zone seas. oftheLaptev andEastSiberian Sheisauthorofabout andSouthern Northern Yakutia, Pechora Lowland, thecoastal processes.and periglacial The main area of her research are andtheremote sensing ofpermafrost geocryology historical University. Herscientificinterests are issuesof regional and waters oftheFaculty Lomonosov ofGeology State Moscow environment andunderground andtherelationship ofsurface ofthegeological Sciences, Researcher Senior attheLaboratory Elena I.Pizhankova, Ph.D. inGeological-Mineralogical monographs. mapoftheUSSRscale1:2500000andnine Geocryological Anatoly V. is the author of more than 150 works, including the of the North Transbaikalia, theshelfofArcticseas. Gavrilov ofRussia,South mountain structuresoftheNortheast Yakutia, Areasof cryosphere. of hisresearch are thecoastal lowlands and geocryology,historical paleogeography andaerospace research University. scientificinterests His are issuesof regional and waters of theFaculty Lomonosov ofGeology State Moscow environment andunderground andtherelationship ofsurface Sciences, ofthegeological Leading Researcher attheLaboratory Anatoly V.Gavrilov, D.Sc. inGeological -Mineralogical D ynamics of permafrost in

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37 GEOGRAPHY