February 2006 0038-075X/06/17102-152-166 Vol. 171, No. 2 Science Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 0 2006 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.

AN APPLICATION OF THE RUNGE " MODEL" OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT IN 'S UPPER PENINSULA Randall J. Schaetzl1 and Charles Schwenner2

This paper examines some in Michigan's upper peninsula that do not "fit" with the zonal soils of the region. The typical upland soils in this part of the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore (PRNL), when not constrained by bedrock or high tables, are strongly developed Spodosols (Haplorthods). We used the energy model (Runge, 1973) as a conceptual guide to help explain the genesis of nearby soils, whose chemistry and morphology are very different. The energy model presupposes that soils are affected mainly by water available for and production, as conditioned by parent material. In our study area, where water available for leaching is limited (or even negative), as on steep slopes shallow to bedrock with multiple springs and seeps, and where erosional processes are strong, horizonation in the classical sense does not form. Instead, shallow (Saprists) form above bedrock, even on 45% slopes. Oxyaquic Haplorthods developed on flat uplands, on the same bedrock, are strongly horizonated, as most of the water that impacts them is available for leaching and . In another example, soils that have formed above calcareous bedrock maintain such high pH values that their faunal assemblages are rich and diverse, and base cycling is strong, leading to thick 0 + A horizon sequences. These soils (Lithic Udipsamments) resemble and exhibit few marks of podzolization. Conversely, nearby Oxyaquic Haplorthods above acid sandstone bedrock have limited faunal assemb- lages, slow organic matter , and horizonation indicative of strong podzolization. These examples highlight how conceptual models can be used to guide our understanding of soil genesis and distribution. ( 2006;171:152-166)

Key words: Pedogenesis, conceptual models, podzolization, base cycling, bedrock influence.

OILS are extremely complex natural phe- ships, process linkages, and the nuances of pedo- Watson- nomena. Only by using conceptual models genesis (Dijkerman, 1974; Johnson and They take can we better understand and explain the Stegner, 1987; Smeck et al., 1983). complexity of the pedogenic system and distin- the complex and make it simple; they are sim- guish signal from noise. Rather than being plified descriptions of natural systems. precise mathematical formulations that can be History is full of examples by which the pedogenic models has solved, conceptual pedogenic models help application of certain soil genesis. It is put soils information into perspective and influenced perceptions of provide insight into the system interrelation- equally full of examples in which models have been largely ignored. In the latter situation, had these models been used, the way in which the Science Building, Michigan State 'Department of Geography, 314 Natural natural systems were perceived might have been University, East Lansing, M[ 48824-1115. Dr. Randall J. Schaet.l is corresponding author. E-mail;[email protected] very different. 2 USDA-Natural Conservation Service, 201Rublein Street, Marquette, One pedogenic model that has perhaps MI 49855. received less than its due amount of distinction Received Apr1 19, 2005; accepted Aug. 29, 2005. is the "energy model", developed by Ed Runge, 37 3 3 the University of Illinois DO: 10.1097/01.ss.0000187 . 1026.04 a soil scientist then at

152 VOL. 171 -- No. 2 VAN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 153

(Runge, 1973). Despite its potential as a hybrid locally but not universally, such as inputs of pedogenic model, the energy model has re- eolian dust, sulfate deposition in acid , or ceived little fanfare and has been applied only fire. The factors define the soil-environmental selectively. Although frequently included in theo- system in terms of the controls on pedogenesis retical reviews, for example, Barrett (1999), (Scull et al., 2003; Wilding, 1994). To precisely Dijkerman (1974), Hoosbeek and Bryant define the state of the soil system, as the model (1992), Huggett (1975), Johnson (2000), Phillips attempts to do, we need to address and define at (1989), Smeck et al. (1983), and Yaalon (1975), least five aspects of it-its five state factors. The given its status as a major pedogenic model, its factors were not meant to explain how these use/citation in empirical soils research has been particular conditions influenced soil properties, limited to a very few papers, all of which es- that is, if this was not a process model, only that a sentially mention the model but do not directly given set of environmental conditions would use it in their research design, for example, result in the formation of a particular soil Cremeens and Mokma (1986), Honeycutt et al. property. In the state factor model, climate and (1990), Rockwell and Loughman (1990), and organisms are considered to be "active" factors Singleton and Lavkulich (1987). Only Brye's whereas relief, parent material, and time are (2004) paper expressly uses the model to explain more "passive", that is, they are being "acted soil patterns and development. upon" by active factors and pedogenic pro- Our research in a complex. bedrock- cesses. The parent material factor reflects the controlled in Pictured Rocks National initial state of the system. The functional- Lakeshore (PRNL), in Michigan's (USA) upper factorial model remains the standard against peninsula, uses the Runge model to help under- which all other pedogenic models are still stand the genesis of the soils therein. In applying judged-the main model used to explain soil the model, we not only provide an example of distributions at most scales. its utility but also test its applicability and On the other end, so to speak, of the model robustness outside of the range of conditions in continuum is the process-based model of Roy which it was developed. Our application of the Simonson, developed and presented in his 1959 energy model may actually heighten its appeal paper, and later refined (Simonson, 1978). and open up new avenues for its applicability Unlike the state factor model, which focused within the pedologic and soil geomorphic on factors that affected pedogenesis but said communities. nothing directly about pedogenic processes, Simonson's model was entirely process based. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND He observed that soils all have similarities and differences, and that their differences are due to Runge's energy model uses pieces of two the varying strengths of the same types of preexisting conceptual models: Jenny's (1941) pedogenicprocesses, operating on similar materials. functional-factorial model and Simonson's In the process systems model, pedogenesis is (1959) process systems model. Jenny's model viewed as consisting of two steps: (1) the formulates soil as being a function of five state accumulation of parent material and (2) the factors (Stephens, 1947). State factors resonate differentiation of that parent material into with many soils scholars and mappers, and like horizons; Simonson's model focuses on the many "successful" models, Jenny "sold" it well second step. He felt that soils differed because by writing about it clearly. Each state factor is the processes they shared varied in degree, not meant to define the state and history of the soil kind. The four major kinds, or bundles, of system (Wilding, 1994). They are not forces or processes were designed, by necessity, to be very causes but rather factors-independent variables general to cover the entire range of pedogenic that define the soil system. This functional- processes (Smeck et al., 1983). Although not factorial model is expressed as originally conceived as an equation, the model S = f(cl, o,r,p,t ... ), (1) can be written as where S is the soil or a soil property, cl is the S = f(a, r, t, t2), (2) climate factor, o is the organisms factor, r is the relief factor, p is the parent material factor, t is where S is the soil, a is additions, r is removals the time factor, and the string of dots represents or losses, t, is transfers/translocations, and t, is other, unspecified factors that may be important transformations. Simonson envisioned that losses 154 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERS SOIL SCIENCE and additions are to the soil (pedon) as a whole, near Runge's Illinois home are also exdellent the parent whereas translocatigns occur between horizons base cyclers, and thus the more fertile the within a single pedon. These four sets of pro- material, the better these grasses grow and main- cesses occur simultaneously in all soils; their more bases that can be cycled, thereby processes balance and character govern the nature of the taining a high soil pH and inhibiting soil (Simonson, 1978). like weathering and acidification. These exam- the more humus- The process systems model was not devel- ples illustrate the point thýt and the more oped for, and has not found strong usage in, the rich the pr6file, the less weathered it might be (Schaetzl, interpretation of soil spatial variability; for this isotropic (less developed) parent purliose, the functional-factorial model (Jenny, 1991). Consequently, Runge viewed in unison, as an 1941) is more appropriate. Users of Simonson's material and biota as worlýing tv factor. [Both intensity model have to haye some knowledge of o factor that offset the (t), as in Jenny's (1941) processes to effectively apply it to explain soil factors operate over time spatial variability. model. gravita- Runge's (1973) model merges the strong [Runge's model relies heavily on water and in process formulation of the Simonson model into tional energy that drives infiltrating well as (indirectly) Jenny's factorial framework. Runge emphasized turn causes horizonation, as two priorityfactors fiom Jenny's model, climate on radiant for organic matter to be known as and relief He combined them into a single production. Thus, it has come et al., 1983): intensity factor that he defined as the amount of the energy model (Smeck water available for leaclhig (w), which was gov- S = f(o,w, t), (3) emed by climate and topography, via precip- itation and runon/runoff. Thus, the two factors combine to form a process vector that is roughly where S is the soil, a is organic matter pro- and t is comparable to the potential for water to infil- duction, w is water available for leaching, (Lv and o) trate and percolate through, that is, leach, time. Each of the two intensity factors of capacity factors. through the profile. Runge saw the tv factor as is conditioned by a number by duration and an organizing vector that utilized gravitational For example, iv is conditioned perme- energy to move water through the profile, intensity of rainfall, runoff vs. runon, soil whereas organize the profile, decrease profile entropy ability, and evapotranspirative demand, P), air and form horizons, that is, make it more o is conditioned by (especially available seed anisotropic and horizonated. Water that runs and water availability, , off the surface, that is not available for leaching, sources, and fire. the represents gravitational energy that is lost to the The energy model combines many of process- system. positive attributes of factor-based and Runge also combined parent material and based models; it is simple, easily comprehended, number of organisms (assuming that the o factor was and process oriented. Applicable in a water due to primarily concerne.d with flora) into a single settings where sites with excess more strongly developed intensity factor called organic iiatter productioni (o), runon tend to have best in strongly or lack of mineralization. The rationale for the o and horizonated soils, it works (Runge factor is somewhat indirect and complex. leaching environments (Schaetzl, i990). application to [Because are the main source of soil noted that it is probably limited in like organic matter (SOM), Runge assumed that soils on unconsolidated, permeable deposits of their ability to grow and produce SOM was or till.) For example, on the prairies on governed largely by parent material. For exam- Saskatchewan, Miller et al. (1985) reported snowmelt ple, in infertile parent material, little organic "depression-focused" recharge by in those areas. Sola matter can be produced. Thus, although a that leads to greater leaching where water available number of environmental factors govem the were thicker in these sites, al., 1987). amount of SOM production, Runge felt that for leaching was greatest, (Pennock et water many of them were captured by the parent In areas where a high water table limits is also material factor. Unlike water available for available for leaching, soil development illustrating the efficacy of the leaching (tv), however, the a factor was seen as inhibited, further for example, a renewing or rejuvenating vector. For example, model. These and similar studies, Donald et al. (1993), as SOM coats soil particles via melani- Anderson and [Burt (1978), continue to find that zation, it inhibits weathering. The prairie grasses and Manning et al. (2001), VOL. 171 - No. 2 AN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 155 infiltrating and percolating water are a source of Hamblin, 1958). The Trempeleau Formation is organizational pedogenic energy and in so doing the most resistant bedrock in the region and validate the model. And yet despite its potential forms the caprock for several waterfalls. Thus, applicability in the explanation of soil spatial the local bedrock sequence is one that begins variability, the model is seldom directly utilized with acidic sandstones and develops increasing in empirical, pedogenic research. dominance by calcareous materials upward in The energy model is not without short- the stratigraphic column and southward in the comings (Schaetzl and Anderson, 2004). One region (Fig. 1). Each of the bedrock units dips criticism of the model centers on the o factor. In gently to the south, toward the center of the Runge's Eastern Illinois surroundings, soils are Michigan structural basin (Blewett, 1994). mostly Mollisols in which humic-acid-rich, high The bedrock is mantled by sandy glacial pH organic matter retards weathering and drift (Albert, 1995; Blewett, 1994). In many inhibits horizon differentiation. However, in places near the study area, the drift is less than a forested regions, especially with a con- few meters meter thick on uplands; local top- iferous component, organic matter is acidic and ography is strongly impacted by bedrock. The via the chelating action of filvic acids formed by area was last glaciated by the Marquette advance, their decomposition, horizonation is promoted. a short readvance whose proglacial sediments Even in such , however, the model buried a near Marquette at approximately has utility; Schaetzl (1990) reported on accel- 10,000 radiocarbon years B.P. (Clayton and erated soil development in pits formed by tree Moran, 1982: Lowell et al., 1999). Most - uprooting due to increased there. forms in the study area had probably formed by Pits also have higher organic matter contents but 9300 years B.P. (Blewett, 1994). in the forests of Michigan the acidic SOM acts as The soils in Northern Michigan, by virtue an organizing vector. of their coarse textures, cool snowy climate, and mixed conifdrous deciduous , are influenced by podzolization (Barrett, 2001- STUDY AREA Messenger et al., 1972). Podzolization is espe- Our study was conducted in the bedrock- cially strong in this region (Schaetzl and Isard, controlled uplands of PRNL in Michigan's 1996), leading to the formation of soils with upper peninsula, near Lake Superior (Fig. 1). some variant on O-A-E-Bhs-Bs-BC-C horizo- where thin glacial drift overlies Cambrian bed- nation. Carbonates in the parent material must rock (Haddox and Dott, 1990; Hamblin, 1958, be weathered and leached from the pedogenic 1961; Reed and Daniels, 1987). The lowest rock system before podzolization can proceed-a pre- unit in the study area is the quartz sandstone- condition that occurs rapidly in these strongly dominated Munising Formation, which has two leached, coarse-textured soils. sandstone members: the acid, Chapel Rock and the overlying, more resistant, acid Miner's MATERIALS AND METHODS Castle. The white or buff-colored Chapel Rock sandstone is a well-sorted, medium-grained Sites and Site Selectio Criteria sandstone that attains a thickness of 12-18 m Maps and preliminary fieldwork had indi- (Hamblin, 1958). It is extremely "clean", com- cated that upland soils in the study area are posed almost entirely of quartz, chert, and shallow to calcareous bedrock and have mor- quartzite grains, with only minor amounts of phologies that are not typical of Typic and Entic feldspar (Hamblin, 1958). Silica is the dominant Haplorthods that have formed in deep sandy cementing material. Zircon and tourmaline are drift nearby. Using reconnaissance soil maps, we well represented in the heavy mineral fraction surveyed the landscape to locate the map units (Hamblin, 1958). The Miner's Castle sandstone that might contain soils whose morphology/ is also extremely quartz-rich but is less sorted that genesis seemed atypical for the region. We the Chapel Rock. hypothesized that the morphology of the shal- Overlying these sandstones is the light low-to-bedrock soils maxy be largely due to their brown to white Trempeleau (aka Au Train) bedrock influence. Formation, which consists of interbedded, We sampled nine pedons in the PRNL medium-grained to fine-grained. dolomitic study area; site selection was guided by recon- sandstones and sandy dolomites, with many naissance soil maps provided by the Alger lenses of sandstone (Dorr and Eschmann, 1970; County of the USDA-NRCS (of 156 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERS SOIL SCIENCEC

Fig. 1. Study area map on a USGS topographic map base (USGS Grand Portal Point Quadrangle, 1:25,000, 1983). Local topography and the locations of the pedons that are the focus of this research are indicated. K, Kalkaska; S, Shingleton; A, Au Train; T, Trout Bay. Sites identified with lowercase letters represent sites that were excavated and sampled but not discussed in detail herein.

which Schwenner is the survey leader). All sites Our initial pedon-a control pedon of are located on or near a high bedrock pla- sorts-was chosen for study because it is typical teau surrounded by a low valley, carved by of soils forming in deep, acid --a sandy, glacial meltwater, known locally as the Chapel mixed, frigid, Typic Haplorthod. This soil, the Channel (Fig. 1). Topography here is mainly Michigan state soil (Kalkaska ), is widespread due to the resistance of the Trempeleau For- in the area, where bedrock (parent material) mation, which underlies the bedrock upland, control and wetness are not overriding pedogenic and incision into the softer sandstones below by factors and where the parent material is sandy. At glacial meltwater (Blewett, 1994). this site (Fig. 1) the drift is so thick as to negate continually seeps out of the Munising Forma- any influence of the underlying bedrock. tion sandstones where they are exposed on the Three additional pedons were then sampled sides of the meltwater channels. on the bedrock upland, where it is mantled by VOL. 171 - No. 2 AN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 157 thin (generally <3 m thick) drift over the sandy way from that of Shingleton soils. Both series dolomite of the Trempeleau Formation (Fig. 1). are strongly influenced by the nature of the These pedons are were sampled within a map bedrock below the thin drift cover. For both, unit of Shingleton sand, 0-2% slopes: sandy, the state factors are similar except for parent mixed, frigid Lithic Haplorthods. Shingleton material- Au Train soils have formed above acid soils do not display the typical A-E-Bs-C sandstone bedrock whereas the Shingleton Spodosol horizonation; instead they have thick, pedons overlie calcareous bedrock. From the dark A horizons. Some pedons within Shingle- perspective of the energy model, therefore, the o ton map units have been sampled by NRCS factors (as regards base cycling characteristics) for personnel and classify as Hapludolls. Most also these two series are almost antipodal. lack an E horizon, perhaps due to intense earth- The last two sampled pedons on the flanks worm bioturbation. High pH values (6.0-7.5) of the Chapel Channel are on a steep (generally within the sola attest to the presence of shallow, >30%), southeast-facing slope that is almost calcareous bedrock of the Trempeleau Forma- continually wet from water seeping out of the tion. These pedons were sampled because they Miner's Castle sandstone (Fig. 1). The wet but provide a test of how the o factor of the energy steep slopes of the Chapel Channel contained model might impact pedogenesis, particularly lithic Histosols over a thin, sandy mantle on acid regarding base status of the parent material and sandstone bedrock. The soils here are mapped. base cycling. within a Trout Bay (euic, frigid Lithic Haplo- Five additional pedons were sampled on and saprists) map unit. Steep slopes are certainly not near the flanks of the Chapel Channel, which is the "normal" environment of formation for shallow to sandstone. Three pedons are on the organic soils. Although these soils classify within far northern edge of the study area, in a channel a poorly drained series, they nonetheless have cut by meltwater into the acid Miner's Castle little "water available for leaching" because of sandstone (Fig. 1). on the flat "tread- portion of the shallow bedrock and the continued additions a strath within the Chapel Channel. of water at the base of the solum (seeping from They are mapped in the moderately well- above). Thus, the Trout Bay soils were viewed drained Au Train series (sandy, mixed, frigid, as an example of the alternative pedogenic shallow Oxyaquic Haplorthods). Within the pathway-if the it, factor in the energy model context of this study, Au Train soils are viewed were to be drastically impacted, or essentially as having taken an alternative pedogenic path- negated (Fig. 2).

KALKASKA • ' Typic Haplorthod Typical 'zonal* soil of the region MOM4

o (Oranic matter (OM) production) w (Water available for leaching)

HIGH HIGH LOW HIGH lyneslonoinfluenco sanclstone-nlae'ce minimal perolaion maximal percolation base cytrig rapid base cycI g slow wetness ndained wetness maintained OIAndnaerakz=aimnapid Ol sI.eZ" msslo sandstone Influence sae.dstofe Influence SHINGLETON I AUTRAIN TROUT SAY AU TRAIN LithIctdipsammentor Hooval OxyquicHapIcdW Lbhic 1-1p!•osapfist IOxyaquIc Haplorthodl

Fig. 2. The theoretical placement of each of the soils examined in this study, that is, how their development can be examined within the construct of the energy model. 158 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERS SOIL SCIENCE Podzolization/Leaching index = Field and Laboratory iVMethods [(Si + Ti + Zr)/(Al + Fe)] X 100 (5) At each site, a pit was opened by hand, to bedrock or the C horizon, whichever was Both of these indices are new to this study deeper, and the soil profile described according and have not been used in previous research. to standard procedures (Soil Survey Division Podzolization is expressed chemically as Staff, 1993). Samples of about 1 kg were taken grain coatings in the B horizon, and lack of from the profile face, for each genetic horizon, them in the E horizon. Therefore, we wanted to and air-dried. Where possible, we also sampled know the amounts of the various types of Fe and the bedrock. Coarse fragments (>2-mm diame- Al compounds that exist as grain coatings ter) were removed by sieving and discarded. Soil (McKeague, 1967; McKeague and Day, 1966; pH (2:1 soil/water on mineral samples, 8:1 on Parfitt and Childs, 1988). All mineral horizon organic samples) was measured with a model samples were subjected to three extractants: #IQ150 handheld pH meter (Dual pH Tech- sodium citrate-dithionite (CD), acidified ammo- nology, IQ Scientific Instruments); we report nium-oxalate (AAO), and sodium pyrophos- only the mean of two replicate pH analyses. phate (PP) (Ross and Wang, 1993). CD Particle size analysis was performed by pipette primarily extracts "free" Fe and Al, denoted by (Soil Survey Laboratory Staff, 1996). Organic Fed and Aid, from pedogenic oxide matter content was determined by loss on (Jackson et al., 1986). AAO extracts "active" Fe ignition (8 h at 430 'C) (Davies, 1974). Ele- and Al (Fe0 and Alo) from noncrystalline mental composition of the fine earth fraction was hydrous oxides. "Active" refers to oxides that determined by X-ray fluorescence. Samples were are small in size and have a high surface area and first ground to size. Three grams of this finely degree of reactivity. PP extracts Fe and Al (Fep ground powder was then diluted by adding 9.0 g and Alp) from organically bound complexes and, of lithium tetraborate (Li21B40 7) and 0.5 g of to a lesser degree, noncrystalline hydrous oxides. ammonium (NH4NO 3) as an oxidizer. The supernatants were analyzed for Fe and Al This mixture was then melted in a platinum cru- on a Thermo Jarrell Ash 61E inductively cible at 1000 'C of oxidizing flame for >20 min coupled plasma spectrometer (U.S. Environ- while being stilted on an orbital mixing stage. mental Protection Agency, 1986). The melt was poured into platinum molds to make glass disks, which were analyzed with an RESULTS AND DISCUSSION X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. XtRF major The Kalkaska "control" pedon typifies the (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P, element well-developed, upland Spodosols of the Great Sr, and Zr) analyses were reduced by a Rb, Lakes region (Franzmeier and 'Whiteside, 1963; data reduction method, fundamental parameter Schaetzl 2002), having formed in deep, coarse- whereas XRF trace element data were calcu- textured, freely draining parent materials. The lated using standard linear regression techniques. Kalkaska pedon exhibits typical O-A-E-Bhs-Bs- Using the elemental data as surrogates for Bsm-BC-C horizonation and "sets the stand- a soil weathering index was devel- mineralogy, ard" for podzolization-leaching values for this the assumption that, with time oped based on suite of soils (Table 1, Fig. 3B). The energy increased weathering, elements derived and model's utility comes to the fore when one from resistant, immobile minerals such as zircon attempts to explain the formation of the three and anatase, i-utile, and tourmaline (Ti) (Zr) other pedons, all of which are within 4 km of the increase in abundance, relative to elements Kalkaska soil but which differ markedly in derived mainly from weatherable minerals, morphology and pedo-chemistry. which are assumed to be pedogenically mobile (Rube, 1956; Santos et al., 1986). The weath- Water Availablefor Leadhing ering index was calculated by At the Trout Bay site, our sampled pedon classified within that series, as a Lithic Haplo- Weathering Index = [(Ti + Zr)/(Ca +- Mg + saprist. This soil illustrates how horizonation is K+-Mn -Na+P)] x 100 (4) impeded when percolation is restricted or minimized (Tables 1 and 2). From a theoretical In addition, an index designed to reflect the perspective, Trout Bay soils, which have formed degree to which soils have been podzolized on the steep side slopes of the Chapel Channel and/or leached was calculated as (Fig. 1), are nearly constantly wet but have VOL. 171 - No. 2 VAN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 159

TABLE I Physical and morphological data for the four most representative soils studied" Fragments Consistence Ho-Depth Munsell color 2-m Sand Silt Texture Structure (ioist, Depth diameter (grade, size, unless (cm) (moist) (estimated CA) C/) (A) class* shape)1 otherwise volume %) inidicated)§ Kalkaska (site K on Fig. 1): An excessively drained Typic Haplorthod formed in deep sandy drift Oi 0-3 - 0 ...... A 3-7 10YR 3/1 0 93.3 4.1 2.6 S w fgr "vfr E 7-52 5YR 5/2 0 97.6 0.6 1.9 S structureless "vfr Bhs 52-65 5YR 3/2 0 96.9 0.8 2.3 S w f sbk ft. and 5YR 2.3/1 Bs 65-104 5YR 3/3 98.3 0.1 1.6 w m&c sbk fr/fi and 10YR 4/6 Bsm 104-154 5YR 4/6 0 98.4 0.5 1.1 S massive fi/fr and 7.3YR 4/6 BC 154-193 7.5YR 5/4 0 98.6 0.0 1.4 S structureless vfr Cl 193-221 10YR 5/4 0 99.1 0.8 0.1 S structureless "vfr C2 221+ loYR 4/4 0 98.2 0.0 1.8 CS structureless "vfr

Au Train (site J on Fig. 1): A moderately well-drained Oxyaquic Haplorthod formed in sandstone residuum over sandstone bedrock Oi 0-3 0 Oa 3-15 2.SYR 2.5/0 0 - - - wm gr vfr E 15-45 7.5YR 7/0 5 96.4 0.8 2.8 CS structureless f Bhsl 45-58 5YR 2.5/2 5 95.1 2.1 2.8 CS w fsbk Bhs2 58-73 2.5YR 2.5/2 5 93.7 2.4 3.9 CS w f sbk fr R 73+ 7.SYR 5/8 94.4 2.8 2.8 CS - indurated sandstone

Shingleton variant (site S on Fig. 1): A well-drained Lithic Udipsamment formed in coarse-loamy materials over calcareous bedrock Oi 0-2 - 0 ...... Oa 2-12 N 2/0 0 - -. w vf gr v fr A 12-18 lOYR 2/1 2 86.5 10.8 2.7 CS w f&-m sbk v fr BA 18-21 7.5YR 3/4 5 85.8 10.2 4.0 LCS w fsbk v fr Bs 21-35 5YR 3/4 5 89.6 7.0 3.3 CS w fsbk v fr 2R 35+ - - - - indurated limestone

Trout Bay (site T on Fig. 1): A very poorly drained Lithic Haplosaprist formed in organic materials over sandstone bedrock Oa 0-16 N 2/0 0 - - - - m vfgr sl stcky (wet) A 16-30 N 2/0 0 88.3 7.3 4.4 CS w m&c sbk sl stcky (wet) 2Cr 30-33 - 0 94.2 2.6 3.3 CS structureless v fr 2R 33+ - 0 89.2 7.6 3.1 CS indurated indurated sandstone 'Although we sampled nine pedons (Fig. 1), they fall into four categories: a control pedon (Kalkaska), pedons on acid sandstone bedrock (Au Train), pedons on calcareous bedrock (Shingleton), and pedons on steep slopes (Trout Bay). With the exception of Kalkaska, we sampled at least two pedons in each category, but for brevity only one example of each is provided here. *S, sand; CS, coarse sand; LCS, loamy coarse sand. Textures according to the Soil Survey Division Staff (1993). 6Structure: Grade (w, weak; m, moderate); Size (vf, very fine; f, fine; m, medium; c, coarse); Shape (gr, granular; sbk, subangular blocky). Consistence: 1, loose; v fr, very friable; fr, friable; 6, firm; sl sticky, slightly sticky. SOIL. SCIENCE 160 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERS minimal vertical percolation. Instead, intra- has lowered the pH in the Au Train soil to the soil pedon flows parallel to the surface or 4.1-4.8 range, whereas in the Trout Bay The rises up from below, exiting the soil at its sur- most horizons are near neutrality (Table 2). face, as seeps. The energy model predicts that Au Train soil has the most pronounced eluvial- soils with little water available for leaching will illuvial sequum of all the soils in the region; its be minimally developed, and that is the case bright white (7.5YR 7/0) E horizon has been here (Fig. 2); Trout Bay soils are essentially nearly completely eluviated of silt, clay, iron, accumulations of organic matter, in various and aluminum, whereas the dark brown and in stages of decay, above bedrock. And with the places nearly cemented B horizon (which rests exception of the bedrock below the Shingleton on shallow saprolite) retains large concentrations pedon, the Trout Bay soil also has low weath- of the same illuvial materials. The Au Train ering indices (Fig. 3A), again indicating minimal pedon has, by far, the highest podzolization/ development (or erosion of weathered sediment leaching index of all four soils in this study as it accumulates). An additional factor that helps (Fig. 3B). The boundary between the IBhs and does exist), to explain the morphology of the Trout Bay R horizons is gradual (some saprolite pedon is the steep slope, which accentuates reflecting the ongoing bedrock weathering erosion and keeps the pedon's mineral horizons processes that thicken the profile; these processes has a minimally developed and thin. are nearly absent in Trout Bay soil, which these Starkly in contrast to the Trout Bay pedon is very thin saprolitic horizon. In summary, the Au Train (Tables 1 and 2), which is two soils illustrate the importance of percolating to the essentially a "flat upland version" of Trout Bay water, that is, water available for leaching, by in that it has formed above sandstone, is acidic soil system. This distinction is captured nicely and deeply leached, and exhibits strongly con- the energy model as the tv factor. The Au Train site we trasting horizonation. Organic Matter Production (aand Base Cycling) sampled is mapped as an Oxyaquic Haplorthod and also classified as such (Table 1). Long-term In many soils in dry environments, organic development and leaching of cations (downward matter decomposition is inhibited by base as well as laterally, above the bedrock contact) cations, particularly Ca (Duchaufour, 1976;

Weathering Index Podzolization - Leaching Index

Fig. 3. Depth plots for the four most representative soils studied, related to indices reflecting weathering and podzolization/leaching processes. The indices used here have been developed solely for this study. In both cases, higher values indicate more weathering and/or leaching. (A) The weathering index [(Ti + Zr) / (Ca + Mg + K + Mn + Na + P) I x 100. (B) The podzolization/leaching index [(Si + Ti + Zr) / (Al + Fe) ] x 100. VOL. 171 - No. 2 AN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 161

TABLE 2 Chemical data for the four most representative soils studied Iron and aluninum contents t Horizon Depth (cm) pH (1:1 water) Organic C (%, based (% from extracts'. on loss on ignition) Fe, Feo Fed Alp A.o Aid Kalkaska O i 0 - 3 4 .3 5 2 1.2 - . . . .. A 3-7 4.34 5.5 0.03 0.M4 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 E 7-52 5.03 0.1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 Bhs 52-65 4.55 0.6 0.18 0.28 11.29 0.12 0.12 0.09 Bs 65-104 4.98 0.3 0.08 0.17 0.19 0.08 0.09 0.09 Bsm 104-154 6.00 0.2 0.05 0.110 0.13 0.08 0.10 0.09 BC 154-193 6.89 0.1 0.04 0.07 (O.06 0.05 0.07 (1.06 CI 193-221 6.80 0.1 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.014 0.04 0.05 C2 221+ 6.94 0.2 0.04 0.18 (1.25 0.07 0.15 0.13 Au Train O i 0 - 3 4 .6 6 3 2 .0 - . . ... O a 3 - 15 3 .7 4 19 .6 - . . . .. E 15-45 4.80 0.1 1om0.00 1.00 0.00 0.110 0,00 0.00 Bhsl 45-58 4.15 1.0 01.26 (1.201 01.25 0.11 0.06 0.09 Bhs2 58-73 4.27 D.) W41 03.51 1.50 0.12 11.11 0.12 R 73+ 4.67 (1.8 0.13 o1.22 0.31 10.24 0.33 1.)31 Shingleton O i 0 -2 6 .23 2 7 .9 - . . . .. Oa 2-12 6.03 26.2 ...... A 12-18 6.95 1.6 o.07 11.38 0.34 0.06 0.14 0.12 BA 18-21 7.29 0.7 (0.23 0.42 01.58 0.13 01.12 0.12 Bs 21-35 7.09 0.6 0.22 0.45 0.35 t). 12 0.16 0.11 2R 35+ 8.75 - 0.01 0.24 o(.15 0.00 0.01 0.01 Trout Bay Oa (1-16 6.701 15.8 ------A 16-30 6.85 4.8 0.28 0.35 0.36 0.21 0.24 0.20 2Cr 30-33 6.9t) 11.4 ((.17 0.24 0.37 0.014 0.05 0.04 2 2R 33+ - - nd nd nd nd nd nd +See text for exceptions. 'No data; bedrock sample was not taken.

Zech et al., 19901). Most agree that clay-humus rock, whereas within Au Train map units (on complexes, which form readily in soils of grass- sandstone) soils are impoverished of infauna. , are the primary reason for the slow Runge viewed "organic matter production" decomposition of organic matter in these soils. (the o factor) as being intimately tied to base However, in the humid soil environments such cycling (Runge, 1973). To that, we would add as exist in PRNL, forest-derived organic matter the processes associated with mineralization; we is normally acidic and the addition of a few bases view all of these as being part of the o factor. to the soil system actually facilitates decomposi- Certainly, in the Shingleton and Au Train soils, tion. This observation is supported by a compar- these processes are all closely linked. The ison of the Au Train and Shingleton soils (Fig. 2). shallow limestone below the base-poor drift in Au Train soils, on acid sandstone that provides the Shingleton pedon favors deep rooting, and almost no base cations to the soil system, have release of base cations from the weathering thick 0 horizons and lack a distinct A horizon limestone also facilitates organic matter miner- (Table 1). Starkly in contrast is the Shingleton alization and decomposition; in sum, cycling of pedon, which has a thick 0 + A horizon bases is rapid and ongoing, largely due to rapid sequence and a humus-rich B horizon (Table 2); organic matter turnover. Plants on Au Train it classified as a Lithic Udipsamment. Many soils have little reason, except for anchorage, to pedons within the Shingleton map unit classify root deeply. Most of the in this system as Mollisols. Worms and other soil macrofauna are locked up in the thick 0 horizon due to the are abundant in this area, above limestone bed- acidic, infertile conditions (Table 2) that limit 162 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERS SOIL SCIENCE organic matter decomposition: base cycling is ratio values for the Shingleton soil may indicate minimal (Fig. 2). that, especially in the lowermost horizon, sub- stantial amounts of iron exist in amorphous Podzolization forms, that is, not bound in chelate complexes. Other ITM-related indexes tend to suggest that The Kalkaska pedon epitomizes the podzo- chelate-driven podzolization in the Shingleton lization process; it is the classic upland Spodosol soils is no stronger than, or perhaps less in the region and is the base against which all important than, podzohzation driven by ITM soils are compared. Podzoliza- other podzolized (Fig. 4). In conjunction with this trend, in the tion is also strongly expressed in the Au Train Shingleton pedon, ammonium oxalate extracted pedon (Fig. 313), although it is "compressed" much larger amounts of Fe and Al than it did in to the shallow bedrock. Both soils have due the other soils (Table 2, Fig. 4). The reason for eluvial-illuvial couplets (Table 1). The strong this is unclear, although it may reflect the index captures the podzolization-leaching different nature of the organic acids in the exhibiting high values essence of podzolization, base-rich Shingleton soil, compared to the more soils; Shingleton and Trout Bay in these two acidic environments of the other soils, where only minimally podzolized, have soils, which are fulvic acids may be more abundant. Low much lower values (Fig. 313). podzolization-leaching index values for the podzolizadon has long been Traditionally, Shingleton pedon (Fig. 313), coupled with its driven by organic acids, which seen as being Mollic-like morphology, indicate that podzoli- chelate complexes with Fe and Al cations form zation is not particularly active in this soil, and these normally insoluble cations and render the high ITM-related values in Fig. 4 suggest them to be translocated from soluble, allowing that this process, weak though it may be, could eluvial to illuvial zones (Buurman and van be at least partially driven by ITM. Lastly, we Reeuwijk, 1984; DeConinck, 1980). When note that the high ITM "spike" in the lower are readily trans- chelated, Fe++ and Al+++ profile of Shingleton may not necessarily indi- in percolating water. The presence of located cate ITM because (1) the data are from the is generally indicated by chelated metal rating uppermost bedrock layer, and not a , amounts of pyrophosphate-extractable Fe high and (2) the high value for this ratio is an and Al (Table 2). arithmetic artifact caused when a very small podzolization pathway An alternative number is in the denominator. inorganic sols of Fe and Al. It has been involves When viewed in their totality, the dad in that Al and Fe can exist in Spodosols as shown Fig. 4 suggest the presence of ITM, or at least amorphous, inorganic compounds such as imo- substantial amounts of "active" Fe and Al golite and allophane (Anderson et al., 1982, compounds, in the Au Train soil and perhaps Gustafsson et al., 1995). Lundstr6m et al. (2000) in the lower part of the Shingleton pedon (Fig. 4). called this general group of compounds imogolite- In both cases, these compounds seem to be type materials (ITM). When Al is translocated as accumulating above the soil-bedrock interface a positively charged hydroxy-aluminum-silicate within the uppermost bedrock. Accumula- complex, ITM can precipitate in the B horizon and tion of ITM and chelated metals at the bedrock due to the higher pH values there. Inorganic, uncommon in lithic Spodosols amorphous Al is sometimes assumed to be an interface is not cleariy is indicator of the presence of poorly crystalline (Schaetzl, 1992). The Au Train pedon podzohzation in the tradi- aluminosilicates like ITM (Jersak et al., 1995). undergoing strong (Fig. 313), as indi- Higher amounts of inorganically vs. organically tional "chelate-driven" sense (Table 2). bound metals in the soil tend to suggest the cated by high values of Fep and Alp presence of ITM. To that end, ratios and differ- This finding is supported by the Au Train Bhs ences that have proven to be of some use in horizon that has, in at least three of the four detecting ITM in soils include (Al, - Alp)/Alp, depth plots in Fig. 4, negative -values for the (Al. - Alp), and (Fe, - Fep) (Fig. 4). ITM indicators. Comparable data for the Kal- Finally, another index of the relative crys- kaska pedon also hover near or slightly above tallinity of Fe oxides in soils undergoing zero, indicating near equal amounts of amor- podzolization is the iron activity ratio: Feo/Fep phous Fe and Al compounds, when compared (McKeague and Day, 1966; Fig. 4D). For the to organically bound Fe and Al (Fig. 4, Table 2). "control" Kalkaska pedon, and for most of the Together, these data suggest that podzo1ization soils, this ratio is less than three. Higher activity in the acid, sandy Spodosols of this region is VOL. 171 - No. 2 AN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 163

(Alo -Alp) I Alp Alo - Alp -0.02 0.02 0.06

50

F100 A•I0

150

200

Fig. 4. Depth plots, each intended to indicate the likelihood of "active" podzolization-linked materials, and/or ITM (imogolite-type materials), in the four soils studied. Higher values indicate a greater likelihood of ITM or Fe and Al compounds associated with "active" podzolization. Symbols: Al. and Feo, ammonium oxalate-extractable Al and Fe, respectively; Alp and Fep, sodium pyrophosphate-extractable Al and Fe, respectively. governed primarily by organic chelate com- minimal amounts of organic matter mineraliza- plexes rather than by ITM (Buurman and van tion, has by far the highest weathering indices Reeuwijk, 1984), but that weaker podzolization (Fig. 3A). Conversely, Trout Bay and Shingle- in base-rich and organic-rich soils may involve a ton soils are much less weathered due to a com- measurable component of ITM. bination of less water available for leaching and more biocycling, both of which lead to higher 1'1eathering pH values in the sola of these soils (Table 2, Using elemental composition as surrogates Fig. 3A). for mineral weathering, our data suggest that weathering is most intense in soils that have SUMMARY minimal organic matter production (biocycling) AND CONCLUSIONS and maximal water available for leaching, as Runge's energy model (Runge, 1973) is suggested by the energy model (Fig. 3A). The considered to be one of the major conceptual- Au Train soil, with abundant percolation and theoretical models in (Johnson and 164 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERS SOIL SCIENCE

Watson-Stegner, 1987; Smeck et al., 1983). And Buurman, P., and L. P. van Reeuwijk. 1984. Proto- and the process of formation: A has found limited direct application in soil imogolite yet, it critical note. J. Soil Sci. 35:447-452. or soil genesis research and is Clayton, L., and S. R. Moran. 1982. Chronology of rarely used in mapping. In our study, we Late Wisconsinan glaciation of middle North highlight the utility of the energy model by America. Quat. Sci. Rev. 1:55-82. using it to help explain the differences in soils Cremeens, D. L., and D. L. Mokma. 1986. Argillic that have developed in close proximity, but horizon expression and classification in the soils of which display widely different morphologies two Michigan hydrosequences. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. and pedo-chemistry. In each case, the varying J. 50:1002-1007. of pathways of pedogenesis that these soils have Davies, B. E. 1974. Loss-on-ignition as an estimate Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. taken can be primarily traced back to water . Soil 38:150-151. available for leaching or organic matter produc- DeConinck, F. 1980. Major mechanisms in formation of which are fundamental precepts of tion, both of spodic horizons. Geoderma. 24:101-128. the energy model. (Erosion also plays a role in Dijkerman, J. C. 1974. Pedology as a science: The the genesis of these soils, especially the Trout role of data, models and theories in the study of Bay soil.) The model may be more relevant and natural soil systems. Geoderma. 11:73-93. applicable in a wider context if the o factor Donald, R. G., D. W. Anderson, and J. W. B. included more dearly the processes of biocy- Stewart. 1993. The distribution of selected soil cling and organic matter mineralization. properties in relation to landscape morphology in forested Gray Luvisol soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 73:165-172. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dorr, J. A.Jr., and D. F. Eschman. 1970. of The authors thank the National Park Serv- Michigan. University of Michigan Press, Ann and personnel at PRNL (especially Lora Arbor, pp. 476. Loope and Bill Commins) for their support of Duchaufour, P. 1976. Dynamics of organic matter in regions: It's action on pedo- this project. Walt Loope and Joe Hupy assisted soils of temperate genesis. Geoderma. 15:31-40. with the fieldwork, and much of the lab work Franzmeier, D. P., and E. P. Whiteside. 1963. A Aschoff. Parts of the this was done by Heather chronosequence of in Northern Michi- project were supported by a grant made to RS gan: II. Physical and chemical properties. Mich. by the NSF-Geography and Regional Science State Univ. Agr. Exp. St. Quart. Bull. 46:21-36. Division. Gustafsson, J. P., P. Bhattacharya, D. C. Bain, A. R. Fraser, and W. J. McHardy. 1995. Podzolisation REFERENCES mechanisms and the synthesis of imogolite in Albert, D.A. 1995. Regional landscape of Northern Scandinavia. Geoderma. 66:167-184. Michigan, Minnesota, and Wiscomin; A working Haddox, C. A., and R. H. Dott. 1990. Cambrian J. Sedi- map and classification. USDA For. Serv. Gen shoreline deposits in Northern Michigan. Tech. Rept. NC-178. 250 pp. ment. Petrol. 60:697-716. Anderson, M. G., and T. P. Burt. 1978. The role of Hamblin, W. K. 1958. The Cambrian sandstones of topography in controlling through flow genera- Northern Michigan. PhD dissertation, State of tion. Earth Surf. Processes. 3:331-334. Michigan, Department of Conservation, Geo- Anderson, H. A., M. L. Berrow, V. C. Farmer, A. logical Survey Division Publ. 51, pp. 146. Hepburn, J. D. Russell, and A. D. Walker. 1982. Hamblin, W. K. 1961. Paleogeographic evolution of A reassessment of podzol formation processes. the Lake Superior region from Late Keweenawan J. Soil Sci. 33:125-136. to Late Cambrian time. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. Barrett, L. R. 1999. Particulars in context: Maintain- 72:1-18. ing a balance in soil geography. Ann. Assoc. Am. Honeycutt, C. W., R. D. Heil, and C. V. Cole. Geogr. 89:707-713. 1990. Climatic and topographic relations of three Barrett, L. R. 2001. A strand plain soil development Great Plains soils: I. . Soil Sci. sequence in Northern Michigan, USA. Catena. Soc. Am. J. 54:469-475. 44:163-186. Hoosbeek, M. RK, and R. B. Bryant. 1992. Towards Blewett, W. L. 1994. Late Wisconsin history of the quantitative modeling of pedogenesis- Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore and vicin- A review. Geoderma. 55:183-210. ity. Pictured Rocks Report. 94-01, Huggett, R.J. 1975. Soil landscape systems: A model p. 8. of soil genesis. Geoderma. 13:1-22. 1986. Brye, K. R. 2004. Pedogenic interpretation of a loess- Jackson, M. L., C. H. Lim, and L. W. Zelazny. covered, Pleistocene-glaciated toposequence using Oxides, hydroxides, and aluminosilicates. Inz: and the energy model. Soil Sci. 169:282-294. Methods of soil analysis: Part 1. Physical VOL. 171 - No. 2 AN APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY MODEL IN MICHIGAN 165

mineralogical methods. A. KMute (ed.). SSSA Book Phillips, J. D. 1989. An evaluation of the state factor Series No. 9(1). SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI, pp. model of soil ecosystems. Ecol. Model. 45:165-177. 101-150. Reed, R. C., and J. D. Daniels. 1987. Bedrock Jenny, H. 1941. Factors of soil formation. McGraw- geology of Northern Michigan. State of Michigan, Hill, New York, p. 281. Department of Natural Resources, Geological Jersak, J., R. Amundson, and G. Brimhall Jr. 1995. A Survey Division Map. 1:500,000. mass balance analysis of podzolization: Examples Rockwell, T., and C. Loughman. 1990. Late Quater- from the Northeastern United States. Geoderma. nary rate of slip along the San Jacinto fault zone 66:15-42. near Anza, Southern California. J. Geophys. Res. Johnson, D. L. 2000. Soils and soil-geomorphology 95:8593--8605. theories and models: The Macquarie connection. Ross, G. J., and C. Wang. 1993. Extractable Al, Fe, Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 90:775-782. Mn, and Si. In: Soil sampling and methods of Johnson, D. L., and D. Watson-Stegner. 1987. Evolu- analysis. M. R. Carter (ed.). Canadian Society of tion model ofpedogenesis. Soil Sci. 143:349-366. Soil Science, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 239-246. Lowell, T. V., G. J. Larson, J. D. Hughes, and G. H. Rube, R. V. 1956. Geomorphic surfaces and the Denton. 1999. Age verification of the Lake nature of soils. Soil Sci. 82:441-445 Gribben forest bed and the Younger Dryas Runge, E. C. A. 1973. Soil development sequences Advance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Can. J. and energy models. Soil Sci. 115:183-193. Earth Sci. 36:383-393. Santos, M. C. D., R. J. St. Arnaud, and D. W. Lundstr6m, U. S., N. van Breemen, D. C. Bain, P. A. Anderson. 1986. Quantitative evaluation of pedo- W. van Hees, R. Giesler, J. P. Gustafsson, H. genic changes in Boralfs (Gray Luvisols) of East Ilvesniemi, E. Karltun, P.-A. Melkerud, M. Central Saskatchewan, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. Olsson, G. Riise, 0. Wahlberg, A. Bergelin, K. 50:1013-1019. Bishop, R. Finlay, A. G.Jongmans. T. Magnusson, Schaetzl, R. J. 1990. Effects of treethrow micro- H. Mannerkoski, A. Nordgren, L. Nyberg, M. topography on the characteristics and genesis of Starr, and L. T. Strand. 2000. Advances in under- Spodosols, Michigan, USA. Catena. 17:111-126. standing the podzohization process resulting from Schaetzl, R. J. 1991. Factors affecting the for- a multidisciplinary study of three coniferous mation of dark, thick epipedons beneath forest forest soils in the Nordic Countries. Geoderma. vegetation, Michigan, USA. J. Soil Sci. 42: 94:335-353. 501-512. Manning, G., L. G. Fuller, R. G. Eilers, and I. Schaetzl. R.J. 1992. Beta spodic horizons in podzolic Florinsky. 2001. Topographic influence on the soils (Lithic Haplorthods and Haplohumods). variability of soil properties within an undulating Pedologie. 42:271-287. Manitoba landscape. Can. J. Soil Sci. 81:439-447. Schaerzl, R. J. 2002. A Spodosol-Entiso transition in McKeague, J. A. 1967. An evaluation of 0.1 M northern Michigan: climate or vegetation? Soil pyrophosphate and pyrophosphate-dithionite in Sci. Soc. Am.J. 66:1272-1284. comparison with oxalate as extractants of the Schaetzl, R. J., and S. A. Isard. 1996. Regional-scale accumulation products in podzols and some other relationships between climate and strength of soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 47:95-99. podzolization in the Great Lakes region, North McKeague, J. A., and J. H. Day. 1966. Dithionite- America. Catena. 28:47-69. and oxalate-extractable Fe and Al as aids in Schaetzl, R. J., and S. N. Anderson. 2005. Soils: differentiating various classes of soils. Can. J. Soil Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge Univer- Sci. 46:13-22. sity Press, Cambridge. Messenger, A. S., E. P. Whiteside, and A. R. Wolcott. Scull, P, J. Franklin, 0. A. Chadwick, and D. 1972. Climate, time, and organisms in relation to McArthur. 2003. Predictive soil mapping: A Podzol development in Michigan sands: I. Site review. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 27:171-197. descriptions and microbiological observations. Soil Simonson, R. W. 1959. Outline of a generalized Sci. Soc. Am, Proc. 36:633-638. theory of soil genesis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. Miller, J. J., D. F. Acton, and R.J. St. Amaud. 1985. 23:152-156. The effect of groundwater on soil formation in a Simonson, R. W. 1978. A multiple-process model morainal landscape in Saskatchewan. Can. J. Soil of soil genesis. In: Quaternary soils. W. C. Sci. 65:293-307. Mahaney (ed.). Geo Abstracts, Norwich, England. Parfitt, R. L., and C. W. Childs. 1988. Estimation of pp. 1-25. forms of Fe and Al: A review, and analysis of Singleton, G. A., and L. M. Lavkulich. 1987. A soil contrasting soils by dissolution and Moessbauer chronosequence on beach sands, Vancouver methods. Aust. J. Soil Res. 26:121-144. Island, British Columbia. Can. J. Soil Sci. 67: Pennock, D. J., B. J. Zebarth, and E. DeJong. 1987. 795-810. Landform classification and soil distribution in Smeck, N. E., E. C. A. Runge, and E. E. hummocky terrain, Saskatchewan, Canada. Geo- MacKintosh. 1983. Dynamics and genetic model- derma. 40:297-315. ling of soil systems. In: Pedogenesis and Soil 166 SCHAETZL AND SCHWENNERP SOIL SCIENCE

formation: Taxonomy. L. P. Wilding, et al. (eds.). Elsevier, Wilding, L. P. 1994. Factors of soil soil New York, pp. 51-81. Contributions to pedology. bn: Factors of retrospective. Soil Soil Survey Division Staff. 1993. Soil survey manual. formation: A fiftieth anniversary USDA Handbook No. 18. US Government Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 33:15-30. Conceptual models in pedo- Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 437. Yaalon, D. H. 1975. functions be solved? Stephens, C. G. 1947. Functional synthesis in pedo- genesis. Can soil-forming genesis. Trans. Royal Soc. S. Aust. 71:168-181. Geoderma: 14:189-205. R. Hempfling, L. Haumaier, H.-R. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Zech, W., 1990. Humification in Method 6010. Inductively coupled plasma atomic Schulten, and K. Haider. IR emission spectrometry. Test methods for eval- subalpine Rendzinas: Chemical analyses, pyrolysis-field uating solid waste: Volume IA, 3rd ed., PA/SW- and 13NMR spectroscopy and Geoderma. 47: 846. National Technical Information Service. ionization mass spectrometry. Springfield, VA. 123-138. COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: An application of the runge “energy model” of soil development in Michigan’s upper peninsula SOURCE: Soil Sci 171 no2 F 2006 WN: 0603200619007

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://www.buymicro.com/rf/dih/williams_and_wilkins.htm

Copyright 1982-2006 The H.W. Wilson Company. All rights reserved.