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Appendix An English Translation of the Third Part of Kant's Natural History and Theory of the Heavens

Stanley L. Jaki

Seton Hall University

Introductory Remarks

In reading about Kant one is almost inevitably exposed to the claim that he was a potentially great scientist, a imbued with the spirit of Newton, a remarkably original cosmologist, and the like.(l) All these claims are ultimately based on Kant's Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels,(2) a cos­ mology which he published in 1755, at the age of thirty-one. 1 The publication on which he staked his academic hopes reached only a few hands as the pub­ lisher went bankrupt and his holdings were impounded and scattered. The first two Parts of the book have been available in English since 1900 in the transla­ tion by W. Hastie, professor of divinity at the University of Glasgow. (3 ) Hastie certainly shared the late nineteenth-century admiration for Kant; with his trans­ lation and especially with his introduction to it, he wanted to give further impe­ tus to the cause of neo- in the English-speaking world. An avowed admirer of Kant's and personality, Hastie chose not to translate the Third Part of Kant's . This was retained when his translation was republished in recent years with new introductions.(4, 5), 2 Thus, while the French have been able to read for almost a hundred years the

1 According to its subtitle the book was "an essay on the constitution and mechanical origin of the whole treated according to Newtonian ." Consisting of 200 small octavo pages, the book was published by Johann Friederich Petersen in Konigsberg and Leipzig. 2 Ley's introduction is considerably shorter than Whitrow's. 387 388 Stanley L. Jaki full text of Kant's cosmology(6), 3 -to say nothing of the Germans, who have it now available in a paperback edition,(7) in addition to many other editions of Kant's collected works-the English-speaking public is still deprived of that TIrird Part. It is, of course, available to anyone who had mastered German to the extent of able to read Kant, whose style appeared even to his eighteenth­ century countrymen a hard nut to break. The tacit excuse for omitting the Third Part is that its topic has, on a cursory look at least, nothing in common with the hierarchical organization of galaxies and with the of the planetary system, the topics of the first two Parts. Clearly, it can be made to appear plausible that planetary denizens cavorting from Mercury to Saturn, as described in the Third Part, form no integral part of scientific cosmology. Indeed, until about a few years ago speculations about in­ telligent on other planets were carefully kept out of respectable scientific published since the early part of the nineteenth century. Now that Mars has been found as desolate as the Moon, and Venus as uninhabitable as a cauldron, curiosity has shifted to planetarians inhabiting other solar systems. In view of recent efforts to establish radio contact with civilizations around some nearby stars and in view of the equipping of the space probe Pioneer X with a hieroglyphic plaque containing about us earthlings,4 there would have been enough extrinsic to give the English-speaking world an accu­ rate and full glimpse of Kant's own speculations on denizens of other planets. Moreover, there would have been some intrinsic reasons as well. These reasons, unlike the foregoing ones, are not rooted in the fleeting fashions of the day. They should rather seem to be of permanent importance to anyone interested in the true history of cosmology and in the correct mental physiognomy of Kant, the philosopher, who, as it is usually claimed, was not only deeply imbued with the spirit of Newtonian science, but might even have become, given better cir­ cumstances, a truly great scientist. The critical sense of a reader, not specialized in physical science and its his­ tory, can easily be disarmed by the glowing introductions to the incomplete English text of Kant's cosmology. By the he begins to read Kant's own discourse, he most likely have no second on fmding that Kant presents himself as a second Newton. By then he was already told in those introductions that Kant, although never a professional student of and , had taught himself through reading books lent to him by Martin Knutzen, a sympathetic and progressive professor at the University of Konigs­ berg. Although Knutzen's tenuous connections with physics had been revealed (though somewhat indirectly) a hundred years ago, (9 ),5 the myth still lingers on that Kant learned enough about Newton and physics from Knutzen, who

3 See pp. 237-255 for the translation of the Third Part. 4 For the diagram, explanation, and justification of that plaque, see Sagan and Drake.(8) sThe fourth and filth chapters of this work deal with Knutzen's philosophical works, the sixth with his theological publications, and the seventh with his scientific writings, of which Erdmann found worth mentioning only one, a little treatise of the famous comet of 1744. Kant's Universal Natural History 389

(and this is what is invariably ignored) did not lecture and write on physics, let alone on Newton's Principia, but on a wide variety of topics relating to Wolffian . In Kant's own evaluation of his cosmology, it offered the defmitive physical part of a topic of which the definitive mathematical part had already been created by Newton. To this he added that to furnish the physics of cosmology was actually the easier task, and that he could without great effort furnish its specific mathematics, if so requested (Ref 3, pp. 36 and 73). An extraordinary boast indeed on the part of one whose writings and school record do not suggest that he had mastered even the elements of differential and integral calculus either in its geometrical or Newtonian form, or in its more recent Eulerian or algebraic formalism. In particular, Kant claimed that his cosmology dispensed with the need of resorting, a la Newton, to the Creator's arm to explain the or­ biting of planets in their almost circular paths around the sun (Ref. 3, p. 72). Let it suffice to remark here that the solution of this problem, closely tied to the distribution of angular momentum in the solar system, is still awaiting, if not the Creator's arm, at least a purely scientific explanation, recent claims about its having been achieved notwithstanding.6 Concerning Kant's inconsistency in recognizing the impossibility of having an absolute center in Euclidean infinite space and then reintroducing that center through the back door, even the non­ specialist reader might recognize something which is hardly the hallmark of a genuinely Newtonian or of a potentially and rigorously critical philosopher. To a careful reader of Kant's cosmology it should be clear that apart from his explanation of the visual appearance of the Milky Way-the first correct one to appear in print7 -each and every step in Kant's explanation of the evolu­ tion of the planetary system is patently a priori and invariably wrong. C. V. L. Charlier, himself an enthusiastic advocate, like Kant, of a hierarchical organiza­ tion of galaxies, but also a first-rate mathematical phYSicist, became a lonely voice when about half a century ago he boldly challenged what he called "the high place" which Kant's cosmology "has obtained in the popular treatises on ," a place which "it not at all deserves." As Charlier explained him­ self in his Hitchcock Lectures at the University of California in April 1924: "I mean that the 'Naturgeschichte des Himmels' is, scientifically, of very small ; that the comparison of it with the planetary of Laplace is highly unjust and misleading; also that it cannot be used as a working hypothe­ sis, which, however, may be the case with the atom-theory of Democritus. As a popular treatise on cosmogony I consider the 'Naturgeschichte' of Kant unsuitable and even dangerous as inviting feeble to vain and fruitless speculations."(12)

6 For a detailed discussion of this point, see Ref. 10. 7 For details, see Ref. II. 8This point has been argued, and with specific reference to Kant's scientific publications postdating the Critique, in the eighth of the fust series of my Gifford Lectures given under the general title, "The Road of Science and the Ways to God," at the University of Edin­ burgh in 1974-75 and 1975-76 (to be published by the University of Chicago Press). 390 Stanley L. Jaki

This devastating judgment will not appear too extreme to those familiar with the age-old connection between a priorism and falsehood. This connection should for any student of Kant's cosmology make its Third Part appear an in­ structive piece indeed. Kant's speculations on planetarians are based on the very same a priori principles on which he based his dicta on the evolution of planets. While the obscurantism of the latter might remain hidden to a nonspecialist, the obscurantism of the former should be strikingly obvious. Once this obscurantism is seen for what it is, it will not sound too harsh to learn that as far as science is concerned, Kant never transcended his precritical stage.8 When his ill-fated book on cosmology was republished half a dozen in the 1790'S,9 admirers of Kant were eager to show that the celebrated spokesman of a critical, or Copernican, tum in philosophy, had even anticipated with the 'eyes of his ' what the famous Herschel saw through his telescopes. Revealingly, Kant did not disavow his a priori about the and specific characteristics of denizens on the inferior as well as on the superior planets.10 His reluctance to do so should cast further light on the Critique of Pure , the basis of Kant's reputation as a critically-minded philosopher, a work in which science was treated somewhat shabbily. The author of the Critique was, however, aware of the fact that the a priori theory of and especially scientific dicta in the Critique had to be applied to the physical sciences to prove its validity. In other words, on the basis of the Critique it was not only possible but simply im­ perative to outline in an a priori fashion the main structure and details of physi­ cal science, and in a defmitive manner at that. This application of the Critique to physics was accomplished by Kant mainlyll in a thousand-sheet long manuscript, which became known, once it had been found and published in the 1880s, as the Opus postumum. It is a work into which Kant scholars, to say nothing of his unreconstructed admirers, can look only with horror. For as E. Adickes, one of its editors and the author of a massive study on Kant, the scientist, concluded half a century ago, the science of the Opus postumum was equivalent to Schelling's Naturphilosophie,uS) an evaluation which would have thrown Kant into a frenzy. Those who had a glimpse of the maddeningly a prioristic and obscurantist discourse of Schelling on science will fmd no difficulty in recognizing the true weight of Adickes' con­ clusion. If the Third Part of Kant's cosmology is read in that broader perspec­ tive, it will not only titillate by its bizarre details and reasoning, but will also instruct as few pieces from the writings of major ever will.

9 For a full listing of those editions together with their brief description, see Ref. 13. 10Kant,s critical sense was not strong enough to suspect that general acceptance of the of plenitude (Herschel himself placed people on the Sun!) does not guarantee its soundness. The hollowness of that principle is well portrayed by Lovejoy.(14) 11 Some smaller publications of the post-critical Kant are equally revealing in this respect. Particular mention is deserved by his essay published in 1794 on the Moon's influence on weather, in which a scientific topic is discussed in the thesis-antithesis-synthesis frame­ work of the Critique with an affectation of profundity but with no true scientific merit. Kant's Universal Natural History 391

Text [171 ]

Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens12 Third Part, Which Contains an Essay on Comparing the Inhabitants of the Various Planets on the Basis of the Analogies of

He, who thro' vast immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe, Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What vary'd being peoples ev'ry star, May tell why Heav'n has made us as we are.

Pope

[173] Appendix on the Inhabitants of Planets

I feel strongly that the status of learnedness is degraded when used to give with sophisticated expressions plausibility to flights of fancy with the simul­ taneous claim that entertaining was one's [174] sole purpose; therefore, in the present essay I wish to submit only such propositions that can really contribute to the advancement of knowledge, propositions whose probability is so well founded that one can hardly refuse to admit their validity. It may seem though that in such a project there is no proper limit to un­ bridled imagination and that in judging the characteristics of the inhabitants of far-away worlds one might give free rein to phantasy with greater abandon than would a painter in depicting the plants and animals of undiscovered lands, and that such speculations are incapable of being proved or disproved; nevertheless, one must admit that the distances of the celestial bodies [planets] from the Sun embody specific relationships, which in turn entail a decisive influence on the

12 Unfortunately , there is no facsimile edition of the very rare original. The text in the Theorie-Werkausgabe, Vol. I, Vorkritische Schriften bis 1768(16) contains the original pagination (indicated in the present translation by numerals in square brackets). The title page [171] of the Third Part is adorned with a passage from Pope's An Essay on Man (Epistle I, lines 23-28), which Kant quoted in B. H. Brocke's translation (1740). Other passages quoted from it are lines 31-34 of Epistle II [po 188] and lines, 237-241 of Epistle I [po 196]. The quotation on p. [197] is from Albrecht von Haller's "Uber den Ursprung des Ubels" (1734), Book III, lines 197-198. The. "witty author from The Hague" quoted on p. [176] is still to be identified. He is not the author (Huygens) of the Cosmotheoros. In the same quotation reference is being made to [Bernard de] Fontenelle, author of Entretiens sur la pluralite des mondes (1686), possibly the most influential science popularization of all time. The Philip mentioned on p. [179] is, of course, the father of Alexander the Great. In the concluding phrase Kant seems to allude to the new heaven and earth resulting from the final resurrection of all. 392 Stanley L. Jaki various characteristics of thinking beings located there; their manner of operat­ ing and feeling is bound to the condition of the surrounding material world and depends on the intensity of impressions which nature evokes in them according to the modalities of the relation of their habitat to [the Sun,] the center of at­ traction and heat. I am of the opinion that it is not even necessary to claim that all planets should be inhabited, although it would be well-nigh absurd [175] to deny this in respect to all, or even to most of them. In the richness of nature, where worlds and world-systems are but specks of _dust compared with the whole of creation, there may very well exist barren and uninhabited regions that are not useful in the slightest for the purpose of nature, namely, for contemplation by intelligent beings. To deny this would be tantamount to refusing-with a reference to God's wisdom-to admit that sandy and uninhabited deserts cover large tracts of the Earth's surface and that there are in the ocean abandoned islands where no man can be found. At any rate, a planet is much smaller in respect to the whole of creation than a desert or island in respect to the Earth's surface. It may well be that not all celestial bodies are yet fully developed; hundreds or perhaps thousands of years are needed before a great celestial body obtains a firm structure of its material. Jupiter seems still to be in that phase. The notable changes in its form at different times have long ago made astronomers suspect that it must undergo great convulsions and that its surface is not nearly as undis­ turbed as the case should be with a habitable planet. Should it not have, or should it never have any inhabitant, would this not be still an infmitely smaller waste [176] of nature compared with the immensity of the whole creation? And would it not be a sign of nature's poverty rather than an evidence of her abun­ dance, if she were to display with diligence all her richness at every point of space? But it is more satisfactory to imagine that, although at this time Jupiter is not inhabited, it will be at a time when the period of its development is com­ pleted. Perhaps our earth had been around a thousand or even more years before it found itself in the condition to support men, animals, and plants. It does not disrupt the purposefulness of a planet's existence that it should reach such a stage of perfection in only a few thousand years. In fact, precisely because of this a planet will stay longer in its state of perfection once it has reached it; for there is a basic law in nature: Everything that has a beginning steadily approaches its decline and is all the closer to it, the farther it gets from its starting point. One cannot indeed help agreeing with the satirical portrayal by that witty author from The Hague who after listing the general news from the realm of [the various] sciences knew how to present the humorous side of the about all celestial bodies being [177] necessarily inhabited: "Those creatures," says he, "which live in the forests on the head of a beggar, had long since considered their location as an immense ball, and themselves as the masterpiece of creation, when one of them, endowed by Heaven with a more refined spirit, a small Kanfs UnIversal Natural HIstory 393

Fontenelle of his species, unexpectedly spotted the head of a nobleman. Imme­ diately he called together all the witty heads of his quarters and told them ecstatically: We are not the only living beings in nature; see, here, that new land, there live other lice." Let us judge without . These insects, which both in respect to their manners and insignificance represent most men, can with good reason be used for such a comparison. Since in man's nature is infinitely adapted to his existence, he holds negligible the rest of creation which does not embody a direct reference to his species as the central point of her purpose. Man, standing [178] immensely removed from the uppermost rank of beings, is indeed bold to flatter himself in a similar delusion about the necessity of his own existence. With the same necessity the infinity of nature includes within itself all beings which display her overwhelming richness. From the highest class of thinking beings to the most abject insect, there is nothing indifferent to nature; and nothing can be missing without breaking up the beauty of the whole, which consists in interconnectedness. There everything is determined by universal laws which nature makes operative through the connection of their originally im­ planted forces. Because in her procedure nature displays aptitude and order, no particular purpose should disturb and interrupt her course. In its primordial stage the formation of a planet was but an infinitely small effect of nature's fruitfulness; and it would indeed now be senseless that her well-established laws should be subservient to the particular aims of that atom. If the condition of a celestial body sets obstacles to its being inhabited, then it will not be in­ habited, although in and for itself it would be more beautiful that it should have denizens of its own. The splendor of creation loses nothing thereby: For the in­ finite is among all magnitudes the one which by the subtraction of a fmite part is not diminished. One would imply this by complaining that the space between [179] Jupiter and Mars is unnecessarily empty, and that there are comets with no denizens. In fact, that insect may appear to us as insignificant as possible, still nature is more interested in maintaining its whole species than in supporting a small number of prominent creatures of which an infinite number would remain, even though an entire region or locality would be deprived of them. Because nature is inexhaustible in producing both, one sees both of them in their preser­ vation and decay mercilessly abandoned to general laws. Did the owner of those populated forests on the beggar's head ever make greater devastation among the numbers of that colony than did the son of Philip in the ranks of his fellow citizens when his evil genius made him think that the world existed solely for his sake? At any rate, most planets are certainly inhabited, and those that are not, will be one day. What relationship will then obtain among the different kinds of those inhabitants in relation to their place in the world-edifice to the center, out of which diffuses the heat which keeps all alive? For it is certain that this heat produces specific relationships in the properties of the substances of those celes- 394 Stanley L. Jaki tial bodies in proportion to their distances [from the Sun]. Man, who [180] among all rational beings is the best known to us, although at the same time his inner nature remains for us an unsolved problem, should in this respect serve as the foundation and general reference point. Here we wish to consider him neither in his moral traits, nor in the physical structure of his body: We merely wish to investigate as to what limitations would devolve on his ability to think and on the mobility of his body, which obeys the former, from the properties of with which he is linked and which are proportionate to the distance from the Sun. Whatever the infInite distance between the ability to think and the mo­ tion of matter, between the rational mind and the body, it is still certain that man-who obtains all his notions and representations through the impressions which the universe through the mediation of bodies evokes in his , both in respect of their and of the faculty to connect and compare them, which man calls the ability to think-is wholly dependent on the properties of that matter to which the Creator joined him. Man is so constructed as to receive the impressions and emotions which the [external] world must evoke in him through that body which is the visible part of his being, and the material of which serves not only to impress on the invisible soul that dwells [181] in it the fIrst notions of external objects, but also to re­ call and connect them interiorly, in short, [that body] is indispensable for think­ ing.* In the measure in which his body develops, the faculties of his thinking nature also obtain the corresponding degree of perfection, and they reach a defInite and mature status only when the fIbers of his body-instrument achieve the strength and endurance which is the completion of their development. Those faculties develop in him early enough through which he can satisfy the needs to which he is through his dependence on external things. In some men the development stops at that level. The ability to combine abstract notions and to master the bent of passions through a free application of considerations makes its entry later; in some never in their whole lives; in others it is rather weak: it serves the lower instincts which it rather should dominate and in whose master­ ing consists [182] the excellence of his nature. When we consider the lives of most men, this creature seems to have been created to absorb fluids, as does a plant, and to grow, to propagate his species, and fInally to age and die. He of all creatures least achieves the goal of his existence, because he uses his outstanding faculties for such purposes which other creatures accomplish more reliably and surely with far less excellent faculties. He would hardly become among all the most worthy of attention in the eyes of true wisdom, if the hope of a future life did not inspire him and if a period of complete development were not in store for the faculties enclosed in him.

*It is clear from the principles of psychology that in of the actual arrangement along which the creation made soul and body dependent on one another, the former not only must obtain all about the universe through union with the latter and under its in­ fluence, but that also the exercise of the faculty of thinking depends on the latter's disposi­ tion and borrows from its support the needed ability. Kant's Universal Natural History 395

If one looks for the cause of impediments which keep human nature in such a deep debasement, it will be found in the crudeness of matter into which his spiritual part is lowered, and in the unbending of the fibers, and in the sluggish­ ness and immobility of fluids which should obey its stirrings. The nerves and fluids of his brain mediate to him only gross and unclear concepts, and because he cannot counterbalance in the interior of his thinking activity the impact of sensory impressions with sufficiently powerful , he will be carried away by his passions, confused and overwhelmed by the turmoil of the elements that maintain his bodily machine. The efforts of reason to rise in opposition [183] and to dissipate this confusion with the light of judgement will be like the flashes of sunlight when thick clouds continually obstruct and darken its cheer­ ful brightness. The grossness of the material and of the texture in the make-up of human nature is the cause of that sluggishness which keeps the faculties of the soul in perennial dullness and feebleness. The handling of reflections and of representa­ tions enlightened by reason is a tiresome process in which the soul cannot en­ dure without effort, and out of which the soul would, through the natural in­ clination of the bodily machine, soon fall back into the status of passions, as the sensory impressions determine and rule all its activities. The sluggishness of his thinking, which is a consequence of its dependence on gross and rigid matter, is the source not only of depravity but also of error. Because of the difficulty which is connected with the effort to dissipate the cloud of confused notions and to distingush and separate the universal knowl­ edge obtained through the comparison of ideas from the sensory impressions, one's thinking readily yields to overhasty approval and acquiesces in the posses­ sion of a view which, because of the sluggishness of its nature and because of the resistance of matter, could hardly be given a close look. Because of this dependence, the spiritual faculties disappear together with the vigor of the body: When due to the slackened flow of fluids advanced age [184] produces only thick fluid in the body, when the suppleness of the fibers and the nimbleness decrease in all , then the forces of the spirit, too, stiffen into a similar dullness. The agility of , the clarity of representa­ tion, the vivacity of wit, and the ability to remember lose their strength and grow frigid. Concepts ingrained through offset somewhat the disap­ pearance of these forces, and reason would even more effectively betray its in­ capacity, should not the strength of passions that need its rein also diminish simultaneously and even sooner. It becomes evident from all this, that the forces of the human soul become hemmed in and impeded by the obstacles of a crude matter to which they are most intimately bound; but it is even more noteworthy that this specific condi­ tion of matter has a fundamental relation to the degree of influence by which the Sun in the measure of its distance enlivens them and renders them adapted to the maintenance of animal life. This necessary relation to the fire, which spreads out from the center of the world-system to keep matter in the necessary 396 Stanley L. Jaki excitation, is the basis of an analogy which will be fmnly stated in respect to the different inhabitants of planets; and in virtue of that relationship each and any class of theirs is tied through the necessary structure of its nature to [185] the place which has been assigned to it in the universe. The denizens of the Earth and of Venus cannot exchange their habitats with­ out mutual destruction. The former, whose constitutive substance is adapted to the measure of heat ofhis distance [from the Sun] and is therefore too light and volatile for a greater heat, would in a hotter sphere suffer enormous upheavals and a collapse of his nature, which would arise from the dissipation and evapora­ tion of his fluids and from the violent tension of his elastic fibers; the latter, whose constitutive substance has in its elements a grosser structure and sluggish­ ness, and is in need of a stronger influence of the Sun, would in the cooler re­ gions of the celestial space grow numb and perish in lifelessness. By the same token, there ought to be much lighter and more volatile materials of which the body of Jupiter's inhabitant is composed, so that by the weak excitation which the Sun can produce at that distance, those [bodily] machines might move as powerfully as is the case with those closer to the Sun; and thus I would sum up all this in a general form: The substance, out of which the inhabitants of differ­ ent planets as well as the animals and plants grow there are built, should in general be all the lighter and of finer texture, and the elasticity of the fibers together with the principal disposition of their build should be all the more perfect, the farther they are removed from the Sun. [186] This relationship is so natural and so well grounded that not only the considerations of final purpose-which in should be utilized sparingly and only as secondary reasons-lead to it, but also the proportions of the specific conditions of matter composing the planets (which are established from Newton's calculations as well as from the foundations of cosmogony) con­ firm the same relationship according to which the material composing the celestial bodies is always lighter in those that are more distant than in those which are closer, and this should entail a similar relationship in the creatures that are produced and sustained on them. We have established a comparison among the conditions of the material with which rational creatures on the planets are essentially united; and it may easily be seen also from the introduction to this consideration that these would entail a sequence also in respect of the spiritual faculties of those crea­ tures. For if these spiritual faculties necessarily depend on the substance of the [bodily] machines which they inhabit, then we can conclude with more than probable assurance: That the excellence of thinking beings, the promptness in their reflections, the clarity and strength of their notions that are theirs through external impressions, together with their ability to connect them, finally also the skill [187] in their actual use, in short, the whole range of their perfection, fol­ low one specific rule according to which these become more excellent and per­ fect in proportion to the distance of their habitat from the Sun. Kant's Universal Natural History 397

Since this relationship has a measure of credibility which is not far from demonstrated , we find an open field for pleasant speculations that stem from the comparison of the characteristics of these various [planetary] denizens. Human nature, which on the ladder of beings occupies exactly the middle rung, finds itself between the two extreme limits of perfection, standing equally distant from both endpoints. When the thought of the most elevated classes of rational creatures which inhabit Jupiter or Saturn hurts the pride of human nature and humiliates it through the knowledge of its lowliness, then a look at the lower rungs would bring it satisfaction and peace, for those on the planets Venus and Mercury are lowered far beneath the perfection of human nature. What an outlook worthy of wonderment! From one side we saw thinking creatures compared with whom a man from Greenland or a Hottentot would be a Newton, and on the other side some others who would stare at him as if he were an ape: [1881 Superior beings, when of late they saw A mortal Man unfold all Nature's Law, Admir'd such wisdom in an earthly shape, And shew'd a NEWTON as we shew an Ape. Pope

What advances in knowledge should not be achieved by the insight of those happy beings of the uppermost spheres of the heavens! What beautiful conse­ quences would not this brightness of insights have on their ethical disposition! The insights of , when they achieve the proper degree of perfection and clarity, have much more vivid stirrings than do sensory allurements, and are able to overcome these and hold them underfoot. With what majesty would not God, who depicts Himself in all creatures, portray Himself in these thinking beings, which as an ocean undisturbed by the storms of passions would receive and re­ flect His image! We do not wish to stretch such considerations beyond the limits prescribed to a physical treatise; we merely wish to recall once more the analogy set forth above: That the perfection of the world of increases and prog­ resses in a straightforward gradation according to the measure of their distance from the Sun exactly as does the perfection of the material world in the realm of planets from Mercury to Saturn,or perhaps even beyond [189] (insofar as there are still other planets). Since this rule follows to an extent naturally from the consequences of the physical relation of their habitats to the center of the world, to that extent it will conveniently be admitted; on the other hand, a serious consideration of those magnificent habitats, which are fully adapted from the perfection of those [intelligent] natures in the higher regions [of the heavens] , confirms that rule to such an extent that it can make a claim to being fully convincing. The agility of activities that are connected with the characteristics of a highly elevated nature matches much better the rapidly changing time periods of those spheres than does the slowness of slothful and less perfect creatures. 398 Stanley L. Jaki

The telescopes teach us that the alternation of day and night on Jupiter takes place in ten hours. What would the inhabitant of the Earth do with that period if transported to that planet? Ten hours would hardly suffice for that amount of rest which that crude machine [of man's body] needs for recupera­ tion through sleep. Would not the whole daytime be taken up with the business of awakening, dressing, and preparing food, and how would a creature, whose activities take place with such slowness, not be confused and incapacitated [190] for anything productive, as his five hours of work would be suddenly interrupted by the onset of a night of the same length? However, if Jupiter is inhabited by more perfect beings which combine more elastic forces and a greater agility in execution with a more refined build, then one may believe that those five hours are as much or even more for them than what is offered by the twelve hours of day for the lower class of humans. We know that the need for time is something relative, which can be recognized and understood in no other way than from the magnitude of that which is to be done, including in the com­ parison the speed of execution. Therefore the same time, which for one class of creatures is but a moment, might very well be for another a long period in which a long sequence of changes unfolds through a fast chain of efficiency. Saturn has, according to the probable calculation of its rotation which we presented earlier, an even far shorter division of day and night, and this prompts us to pre­ sume even more excellent traits in the nature of its inhabitants. In the final count all ties together for a confirmation of the foregoing law. In all evidence nature has prodigiously spread out her provisions to the farthest re­ gions of the world. The moons, which compensate for the industrious beings of those happy regions the absence of daylight through an adequate substitute, are in the greatest number [191] present there, and nature seems to have been care­ ful to give all the aid to the effectiveness of those beings, so that at no time would they be deprived of utilizing such a help. In respect to moons Jupiter pos­ sesses an obvious advantage over all other lower planets, and Saturn again over Jupiter; Saturn's outfitting with a beautiful and useful ring that surrounds it makes even more probable the still greater excellence of its conditions; on the contrary, the lower planets, in whose case such a provision would be uselessly wasted and whose class rather closely borders on [the realm of] unreason, do not share in such advantages or only to a very small extent. But one cannot consider (here I anticipate an objection that could foil all the foregoing harmony) the greater distance from the Sun, this source of light and life, as a drawback against which the special features of abodes in the case of the more distant planets would appear a mere compensation, and then that in fact the superior planets had in the world-edifice a less distinguished location and a position which was disadvantageous to the perfection of those abodes, be­ cause they were subject to a weaker influence from the Sun. For we know that the influence of light and heat is determined not through their absolute intensity but through the- ability of the material substance which absorbs them and more Kanfs Universal Natural History 399

or less also resists their impact, [192] and that therefore the very same distance, which for a cruder material can be called a proper climate, would destroy more subtle fluids and would be for them of disastrous intensity; consequently, it takes a more refined substance composed of more mobile elements to tum the distance of Jupiter or of Saturn from the Sun into a felicitous location. Finally, the excellence of beings in these higher celestial regions seems to be tied through a physical connection to a durability which is most proper to it. Decay and death cannot affect those excellent creatures to the extent to which they affect us lower beings. For the very sluggishness of matter and crudeness of substance, which are in the lower echelons the specific principle of debasement, are also the cause of that propensity that leads to decay. When the fluids, which nourish and make grow the animal, or man, incorporate themselves amidst its small fibers and add to its mass, can no longer enlarge those vessels and canals in volume once the growth has been completed, these additional fluids of nourish­ ment constrict-through the mechanical drive which is expended for the nourish­ ment of the animal-the cavities of its vessels, block them, and destroy the struc­ ture of the whole machine through a gradually increasing numbness. It is likely that although decay affects even the most perfect natures, (193] nevertheless the advantage in the refinement of substance, in the elasticity of vessels, and in the and effiCiency of fluids (of which those perfect beings that inhabit the more distant planets are composed) check far longer this frailty which is a consequence of the sluggishness of the cruder matter and secure for those crea­ tures an endurance the length of which is proportional to their perfection, just as the frailty of the lives of men has a direct relation to their unworthiness. I cannot leave these considerations without anticipating a doubt which may naturally arise from the comparison of these ideas with our previous statements. In respect to the abodes in the world-structure, we have recognized in the great number of satellites which illuminate the planets of the most distant spheres, in the speed of their rotations, and in the composition of their substances which resist the influence of the Sun, the wisdom of God that disposed so fittingly everything for their inhabitants. But how would now man reconcile with the doctrine of purposiveness a mechanistic philosophy that what the Highest Wis­ dom itself planned is entrusted to raw matter and that the course of Providence was to be implemented by a nature left to herself? Is the former not rather an understanding that the orderly disposition of the world-structure could not have developed through the general laws of the latter? [194] One will qUickly dissipate this doubt if one only recalls what in a simi­ lar connection was set forth in a previous section. Should not the mechanism of all natural processes have a fundamental propensity toward such consequences that fittingly correspond to the plans of the Highest Reason in the whole realm of interconnections? How could those processes have erroneous trends and an uncontrolled dissipation in their origin when all their properties, from which these consequences follow, have been determined by the eternal idea of the 400 Stanley L. Jaki

Divine Intellect in which all things must necessarily be related to one another and fit together? If man reflects properly, how can one justify that kind of thinking in which nature is considered a rebellious subject who only through some harness that sets limits to her free movements can be kept in the tracks of order and of common harmony, unless one thinks that nature is her own suffi­ cient principle whose properties know no cause, and whom God strives, as well as this can be done, to force into the plans of His ? The better man learns to know nature, the better will he realize that the general properties of things are not alien to and separate from one another. One will be sufficiently convinced that things have essential affinities through which they are in harmony and support one another in achieving more perfect [195] dispositions, namely, the mutual influence of elements for the beauty of the material and even for the advantage of the spiritual world, and that in general the single natures of things in the realm of eternal already form, so to speak, within themselves a sys­ tem in which one is related to the other; one will also forthwith recognize that those affmities are proper to the things through the common unity of origin out of which they together obtained their essential properties. And now to apply this familiar consideration to the present purpose. These general laws of , which in the world-system assigned to the superior planets a distant place from the center of attraction and inertia, have placed them in a regular relation to the influence of heat which also emanates from the very central point according to a similar law. And it is precisely these regularities that make the development of celestial bodies in these faraway regions more unimpeded and the generation of motions depending on those bodies much faster, in short, the whole system better established, so that fmally the spiritual entities will have a necessary dependence on matter to which they are tied in person; therefore it is no wonder that [196] the perfection of nature is imple­ mented from both sides in a single connection of causes and from the same foundations. This harmony, on closer reflection, is not something sudden and unexpected, and because the latter [spiritual] entities through a similar principle are embedded into the general disposition of material nature, the spiritual realm will be more perfect in the faraway spheres due to the same reasons by which the material world is more perfect there. Thus in the whole span of nature all is tied together into an uninterrupted gradation through the eternal harmony which makes all members related to one another. The perfections of God have clearly revealed themselves on our levels and are not less majestic in the lower classes than in the higher:

Vast chain of being! which from God began, Natures aethereal, human, angel, man, Beast, bird, fish, insect! what no eye can see, No glass can reach! from InImite to thee, From thee to Nothing! Pope Kant's Universal Natural History 401

We have set forth the foregoing considerations by remaining faithful to the directives of physical relationships, which would keep those considerations on the path of rational credibility. Should we permit ourselves one more escapade from these [197] tracks into the field of phantasy? Who shows us the limits where the well-founded probability ends and arbitrary fiction begins? Who is so bold as to dare an answer to the question whether sin would exercise its dominion also on the other bodies of the world-edifice, or virtue alone has her regime set up there?

The stars are perhaps abodes of glorious souls, As vice rules here, there virtue is the lord. von Haller Does not a certain middle position between wisdom and unreason belong to the unfortunate faculty of being able to sin? Who knows, are not the inhabitants of those faraway celestial bodies too noble and wise to debase themselves to that stupidity which is inherent in sin, but that those who inhabit the lower planets are not linked too fast with matter and endowed with all too weak spiritual faculties to be obligated to carry the responsibility of their actions before the judgment seat of ? In such a way, only the Earth and perhaps Mars (so that we would not be deprived of the miserable comfort of not having companions in misery) would alone be in the dangerous middle road, where temptations of sensible stirrings against the domination of the spirit would possess a strong potential for seduction. And yet, the spirit cannot deny that it has the faculty by which it [198] is in a position to put up resistance to them provided its sluggishness does not take pleasure in being carried away by them; [but] where the dangerous middle point is between weakness and ability, there precisely those advantages, which put him above the lower classes, place him at a height from which he may sink again infmitely deeper below them. In fact, both planets, the Earth and Mars, are the middle members of the planetary system, and not without probability an intermediate physical as well as moral constitu­ tion between the two extremes may be assumed about their inhabitants; how­ ever, I will readily leave these considerations to those who feel they can muster more assurance in the face of undemonstrable considerations and more readiness in providing answer.

Conclusion

It is not really known to us what actually man is today, however self­ awareness and reason might instruct us on this point; how much more may we err as to what man is destined to become! Still the human soul's thirst for knowledge reaches out eagerly after these topics so distant from her and strives to find some light in such a dark field. Shall the immortal soul during the whole infmity of her future life, which 402 Stanley L. Jaki

the grave itself (199] does not interrupt but merely transforms, remain tied forever to this point of space, to our Earth? Shall she never share in a closer contemplation of the other wonders of creation? Who knows, if it is not her destiny that she should once know at a close range those faraway celestial bodies of the world-edifice and also the excellence of their establishments which excite so much her curiosity from a distance? Perhaps there are in the process of evolv­ ing further members of the system of planets, so that after the completed course of time, which is prescribed to our sojourn here, there may be new habitats ready for us in other heavens. Who knows, whether the moons do not orbit around Jupiter to shine fmally on us? It is permitted, it is pleasing to entertain oneself with such speculations; but nobody shall base the hope of future life on such uncertain pictures of the force of imagination. After frailty had exacted its due from human nature, the immor­ tal soul will with a rapid swing raise herself above all that is fmite and place her existence with respect to whole nature in a new relationship which derives from a closer connection with the Highest Being. From there on, this more elevated human nature, which has the source of happiness in itself, will not let herself dissipate amidst external objects and search for repose in them. The whole ag­ gregate of creatures, which has a necessary harmony for the pleasure of the Highest [200] Origin, needs the same harmony also for its own pleasure which it will not reach except in the never-ending happiness. In fact, when man has filled his soul with such considerations and with the foregoing ones, then the spectacle of a starry heaven in a clear night gives a kind of pleasure which only noble souls can absorb. In the universal quiet of nature and in the tranquillity of mind there speaks the hidden insight of the immortal soul in unspeakable tongue and offers undeveloped concepts that can be grasped but not described. If there are among the thinking creatures of this planet lowly beings who, unmindful of the stirrings through which such a great vision can at­ tract them, are in the position of fastening themselves to the servitude of vanity, then how unfortunate that planet is to have been able to generate such miserable creatures! On the other hand, how fortunate is that same planet, since a road is open for it under the most desirable conditions to reach a happiness and nobility which are infmitely far above those advantages which nature's most exceptional dispositions can achieve on all celestial bodies. End

REFERENCES 1. A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (Macmillan, New York, 1926), p. 199; K. Popper, On the State of Science and of Metaphysics, Ratio 1,97 (1957); F. S. C. Northrop, Natural Science and the of Kant, in The Heritage of Kant, ed. by G. T. Whitney and D. F. Bowers (Princeton University Press, 1939), p. 42. Kant's Universal Natural History 403

2. E. Kant, Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (Johann Friederich Petersen, Konigsberg and Leipzig, 1755). 3. Kant's Cosmogony as in his Essay on the Retardation of the Rotation of the Earth and his Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, with introduction, appendices, and a portrait of Thomas Wright of Durham, ed. and transl. by W. Hastie (James Maclehose and Sons, Glasgow, 1900). 4. Kant's Cosmogony [etc.I, with a new introduction by G. J. Whitrow (Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York, 1970). 5. Kant's Cosmogony, with an introduction by W. Ley (Greenwood Publishing Corpora­ tion, New York, 1968). 6. C. Wolf, Les hypotheses cosmogoniques. Examen des theories scientifiques modernes sur l'origine des mondes, suivi de la traduction de la Theorie du Ciel de Kant (Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1886). 7. E. Kant, Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie das Himmels, ed. with a postscript by F. Krafft (Kindler, Munich, 1971). 8. Carl Sagan and Frank Drake, A Message from the Earth, Science 175, 881-84 (1972). 9. B. Erdmann, Martin Knutzen und seine Zeit: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Wolfischen Schule und insbesondere zur Entwicklungsgeschichte Kants (Verlag von Leopold Voss, Leipzig, 1876; reprinted by H. A. Gerstenberg, Hildesheim, 1973). 10. S. L. Jaki, Planets and Planetarians: A History of Theories on the Origin of Planetary Systems (!)cottish Academic Press, Edinburgh, 1977), Chapter VI, The Angular Barrier. 11. S. L. Jaki, The Milky Way: An Elusive Road for Science (Science History Publications, New York, 1972). 12. C. V. L. Charlier, On the Structure of the Universe, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 37,63 (1925). 13. Immanuel Kants Werke (E. Cassirer's edition), Vorkritische Schriften, Band I, ed. by A. Buchenau (Bruno Cassirer, Berlin, 1912), pp. 524-525. 14. A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1936). 15. E. Adickes, Kant als Naturforscher (W. de Gruyter, Berlin, 1925), Vol. II, p. 204. 16. E. Kant, Theorie-Werkausgabe, Vol. I, Vorkritische Schriften bis 1768 (Suhrkamp Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1960), pp. 218-396. Index of Proper Names

Abd-al-rahman al Sufi, 39 Athanasius,373 Bronginart, Alexander, 258 Abell, 142 Augustine, 309, 316,344, Bruno, Giordano, 243 Abraham, 357 376, 385 Buckland, 278 Abu Ma'shar, 314, 315, , 215, 241, 242 Buffon, 167, 168, 169, 318,319,329 255,259,277 Adam, 1., 314, 329 Bacon, Roger, 160, 243, Bullialdus, 228 Adams, 61 319,329,331 Burbidge, G., 146 Adickes, E., 390 Baker, John, 375 Burhoe, Ralph, 353 Aelian,310 Bakewell, Robert, 259 Aetius,310 Balkowski, 54 Callippus, 310 Albumasar, 318, 323, 324 Bardesanes,321 Calvisius, Seth, 329, 331 Aldebaran, 228 Barnes, 236 Campusano,48 al-Ghazzali, 242 Barrow, Isaac, 165 Camus, 362, 363 al-Khwarizrni, 317 Basil, 311,384 Canek,240 al-Kindi, 319 Beckmann, 47 Casmann, Otto, 301 Allaeus, Franciscus, 329 Bede,316,328 Cassini, J. D., 54, 221, 223 Alphonso X of Castile, 3, Belinsky, 90 Censorinus, 309, 313 317 Bell, 29 Chamaraux, 54 Ambartsumyan,54 Bentley, Richard, 224 Chamberlin, 193 Ambrose, 384 Berger, Peter, 362 Charles I, 330 Ames, 142 Berosus, 313 Charles II, 213 Anaxagoras, 310 Bethe, 147, 171 Charles VI, 214 Anaximander, 160 Bjorken,147 Charlier, C. V. L., 389 Anglicus, Bartholomaeus, Blangui, L., 244 Charon, Jean, 238 322 Boethius,216 Chemin, 138 Anselm, 216 Bohm,29 Cicero, 304 Apollinarius,384 Boltzmann, 245 Clausius, 245 Aquinas, Thomas, 2, 7, 93, Bonaventure, 377 Copernicus, 12, 241, 213,216,356,371,377 Bondi, 200,201,203, 243,295,304 Archimedes, 241 236, 283 Cordier, Louis, 278 Arian,216 Bonnor,197, 198, 199 Cromwell, 213 Aristarchus, 12,313 Bottinelli, 54 Cuvier,258 , 93, 160, 164, Bouche-Leclerq, 321, 326 Cyprian, 328 215,241,243,283, Boue, Ami, 273 Cyril of Alexandria, 310 335,338 Bouillaud, 39 Arp,H., 54,141,146,156 Boyle, Robert, 162 Ashenden,John, 317, 318, Bradley, 222 d' Abano, Petro, 324 320,322,328,329 Brahe, Tycho, 4,309, d' Alembert, 284,286 Aslachi, Cumadus, 293 194,294,296 Daneau, Lambert, 301 Aslaksen, Kort, 293, 294 Brans, 175,208 Daniel of Morley, 319 405 406 I ndex of Proper Names

Darwin, Charles, 169, Eliade, Mircea, 357 Gregory, David, 220, 275,277 Ellis, 87, 88, 204 222,223,226 Darwin, George, 170 Engels, F., 244, 245 Gregory, James, 221 da Vinci, Leonardo, 161 Epicurus,308 Gregory of Nyssa, 384 de, Beaumont, Leonce Epigenes of Byzantium, Gresw!'lll, Richard, 330 Elie, 266,268, 269, 313 Grosseteste, Robert, 270,271,273,274,275 Euclid, 241 216,335,329 de Boulainvilliers, Henri, Euctemon, 310 327 Eudoxus, 241, 331 Habermas, 37 de Broglie, 148 Euler, 167 Hagedorn, 52 de Bruges, Jean, 323 Eusebius,316 Haggerty, 143 de Chardin, Pierre Everett, 32 Hales, William, 308, 314 Teilhard, 354, 359, 362 Exeligmos,314 Halley, 225, 228 de Dondi, Giovanni, 162 Hardy, 370 De Ente, 216 Harrison, 53 De La Beche, Henry, 273 Faber, Johannes Hartwick, 143 Rodolphus,329 de la Porree, Gilbert, 216 Hastie, W., 387 Faraday, 61 Demarque, 47 Hawking, 61, 87, 88, 204 Ferguson, James, 219, Democritus, 313 Hayashi, 46 222 Derham, William, 220 Heckmann, 184, 198, 206 Fermi, 191 Descartes, 138,220, Hefner, P. J., 96 Field, 109 243,295 Hegel, 244, 338 Finkelstein, 30 de Sitter, 172,182, Heidmann, J., 44, 48, Fitzralph, Richard, 216 195,236 54,80,84,142,146 Fitzsimon, Henry, 308 De Tempore, 212, 215 Heisenberg, 33 Flamsteed, John, 221, 223 de Ursua, Martin, 240 Helmholtz, 170, 245, 246 Ford, W. K., 44 de Vaucouleurs, 43, 44, Forman, Simon, 322, 324 Heraclitus, 160,216 142,146 Fourier, Joseph, 262, 264, Hermes Trismegistus, 243 de Witt, 32 265,266,271,276 Herschel, William, Dicke, 174, 175, Fowler, 51 219,254,284,290 207,208,237 Fresnel, 289 Hesiod,366 Diderot, 168 Freud, 343, 352 Hilbert, 189 Dingle, Herbert, 236 Friedmann, A., 131, 172, Hinshelwood,370 Diodorus, 313 180, 195,204,235 Hipparchus,314 Dionysius Exiguus, 310 Hippolytus,328 Dirac, 16, 18, 123, Hooke, 168, 169,221, 175,207 Galileo, 4, 163, 165, 223,229 Dobzhansky,373 241,243,295 Houle, 201 Drell,147 Gamow, 6,47,104,133, Hoyle, 6,51,123,195, Duflot,54 138, 185, 186, 188, 236 Duhem, Pierre, 93 189,190,191,193, Hubble, 39,101, 109, 195,200 131,142,146,172, Eastmond, 142 Gayomart,321 188,283 Eccles, 373 Geikie, Archibald, 169 Humason, 196 Eddington, 194, 195, Geminus,313 Hus,212 196,236 Gilbert, 163 Husserl,33 Edward III, 161 Giraud-Soulavie,169 Hutton, James, 169, 259 Eggen, 47 Godel,173 Huygens, 163, 164, Ehlers, J., 76, 80 Gold, T., 201, 236 220,222,223 Einstein, 5, 29, 33, Gott, 109, 110 171,172,180,184, Gouguenheim, 54 Iben,47 199,235,343 Graham, 32 Isidore, 316 Index of Proper Names 407

Jaakkola, T., 142 Lynden-Bell, 47 Ostriker, Jeremiah P., James, William, 344 Lyttleton, R. A., 202 233,234 Jauch, 29, 30 Ovid, 316, 366 Jeans, 191, 193, 236 Mach, 342 Ozernoi,138 Jesus, 371 Macrobius,313 Ozsvath, 173 John of Damascus, 216 Magnus, Albertus, 216 Jones, C. W., 328 Marcion, 360 Paine, Thomas, 308 Jordan, P., 123, 126 Marx, 352 Palchos, 313 Josephus, Flavius, 308, Maslama al-Majriti, 317 Palecz, Stephan, 214 317 Max, Nelson, 90 Paracelsus, 296 Maximus, 385 Pariisky,46 Kalloghlian, 54 Maxwell, Clerk, 60,193, , 160 Kant, 138,167,168, 245 Partridge, 47 170,387 Mayall, 196 Pascal, 344 Karoji, 142, 143 McVittie, 236 Pauli, Wolfgang, 61 Keill, John, 220, 226, Mehlberg, H., 337 Peacocke, 76 228 Mercator, Nicholas, 228 Peat, D. W., 76 Kelsen,338 Messier, 31, 39 Peebles, P. J. E., 47 Kelvin, Lord, 170,245 Meton,310 Pelagius,216 Kennedy, 320 Millikan, 236 Pelikan, Jaroslav, 355 Kepler, 4, 138, 162, 194, Milne, E. A., 172,175, Pena,Johannes, 298, 301, 241,243,294,295, 201 304 325 Minkowski, 24 Penrose, 61,87,204 Khackikian, 54 Misner, 138 Penzias, 67, 84, 133,174 Knutzen, Martin, 388 Moles, 147 Petavius, Dionysius, 329,330 Kuiper, G. P., 193 Monod, Jacques, 362, Petiau,148 Kynder, Philipp, 331 366,367,370 Petrus de Wrbka, Bacc. Kyrios,384 Montesquieu, 168 Arcium,214 Moses, 357 Philo Judaeus, 308 Lagrange, 287 Moulton, 193 Philolaus, 310, 312 Laplace, 138, 167, 169, Mozart, 371 Piccolomini, Francesco, 324 254,255,283 Mumford, Lewis, 161, Pico della Mirandola, Lees, A., 18 163 322,324 Leibniz, 164 Murchison, Roderick, Pingree, 315 Lelievre, 54 274 Piron,29,30 Lemaitre, George, 6, 7, Plas;et, Frans;ois, 336 172,185,195,204,236 P~to, 160,241,312,314 Le , 285 Neckham, Alexander, Plinius, 299 Leverrier, 61 322 Plutarchus, 299 Lewis, C. S., 215 Nestorius, 384 Pochoda,175 Lifshitz, 134 Newton, 4, 164, 166, Podolsky, 29 Locke, 165, 171 222,388,331 Polanyi, Michael, 369, 370 Long, Charles, 355 Nicoll, 142 Power, Henry, 326 Longomontanus, Nieto, 48 Ptolemy, 241 Christianus Severini, Nietzsche, 244, 245 Pythagoras, 241 293,325,327 Nottale, L., 142, 143 Lucretius, 308 Ramee, Pierre, 294 Luther, 354 Oinopides of Chios, 310, Ramsey, I. T., 373,374 Lydyat, Thomas, 330 312 Rankine, 245 Lyell, Charles, 254, 259, Oresme, Nicole, 162,243, Ray, John, 168 260,270,271,272, 322,324 Rees,136 273,279 Origen,384 Reeves, 110 408 Index of Proper Names

Reiz,142 S~renson of Lomborg, Victorius of Aquitaine, Rheticus, Georg Joachim, Christian, 293 312 326 Spencer, Herbert, 278 Vigier, Jean-Pierre, 147 Richard of Wallingford, Spinard,54 von Harnack, Adolf, 360 161 Spinoza,335,340,343 von Neumann, 29 Robbins, F. E., 328 Steno,168 von Platenstein, 214 Robertson, 196 Strauchius, Aegidus, 327, von Weizsacker, 13 8, 171, Robson, 47 329 192, 193 Rocensis, Johannes, 322 Swedenborg, 138 Roger of Hereford, 312 Syncellus, Georgius, Rood, 47 312,313,315 Wagoner, 51 Rosen, 29 Synesius, 319 Walter of Odington, 317, Rothmann, Christopher, 318 296, 298 Tammann, 43, 44, 45, 47, Ward, James, 278 Rubin, V. c., 44, 142, 142, 143, 146 Weiss, 147 143, 146 Tayasal,240 Wertz, 143 Rudwick, Martin, 271 Tempier, Etienne, 322 Weyl, Hermann, 66 Ruffini, Remo, 362 Temple, William, 373 Wheeler, John, 32,53, Russell, Bertrand, 335, Tennyson, 366 351,364 343,366 Terhillian, 384 Whewell, 278 Rutherford, 61,170 Thabit ibn Qurra, 323 Whiston, William, 220, Thales,241 223,226,228 Sacrobosco, 322 Theophilus of Antioch, White, Lynn, 161 Sandage, 43, 44,45, 47, 309,355 Whitehead, 350 142,143,146,175, Theotonicus de Prusia, Whitrow, 183, 197 196 Michael, 214 Wigner, 32, 33 Scaliger, Joseph Justus, Thomson, William, 170, William of Auvergne, 312,329 245,276 322 Schelling, 244 Thorndike, Lynn, 323 Wilson, Robert W., Schle~ermacher, 376 Thorpe, 370 102,133,174 Schopenhauer,340 Tillich, 335 Wright, Thomas, 219, Schrodinger, 184,342 Tolman, R. C., 131, 146 227 Schiicking, 173 Tomita, 46 Wyclyf, 211, 214 Schwarzschild, 62, 175 Torricelli, 165 Sciama,204 Tully, 44 Seeliger, 181 Turkevich, 191 Yahweh, 383 Segal, 142 Turrel, Pierre, 322 Yates, Frances A., 243 Sersic,44 Young, 289 Shakespeare, 371 Ussher, James, 168,213, Yourgrau,207 Shapley, 142 307,329 Simplicius, 313 Sisyphus, 363 van den Bergh, 44, 142, Zabarella, Giacomo, 301 Smith, Robert, 219, 222 146 Zanchius, Hieronymus, Smith, William, 258 van der Leeuw, G., 358 301 , 371 Van Flandern, 175 Zbynek of Prague, 212 Subject Index

absolute acceleration, 25 astroarchaeology, 330 absolute conservation laws, 199 astrology, 296 absolute motion, 25 astronomer, 59 absolute rest, 25 astronomy, 254 action principle, 19 positional, 296 actualism, 272,273,274 asymmetry, 71 actualist principle, 269 Athens, 310 ad hoc assumptions, 9 atmosphere, 299, 302 , 47 atomic hydrogen, 41 aggregation process, 190 atomic time, 175 Alexandrian rule, 311 analogia en tis, 362 Babylonian astronomical observations, 313 Andromeda galaxy, 65,103 Babylonian system, 315 Andromeda nebula, 39,188 background radiation, 46,82 animate universe, 300 baryon number, 133 animate world bodies, 300 beginning of the world, 181 , 367 , 6,7, 12,27,65, 102,368 anisotropy, 43,133,156 big squeeze, 185, 187, 189, 192 anni jardari, 321 biological evolution, 367 anni maiores, 321 biology, 4, 96 anni maximi, 321 blackbody radiation, 7,41,101,104,111, anni medii, 321 153,174 anni minores, 321 black holes, 8, 11,26,32,41 anomalous (ARs), 141 Bohr's quantum model, 60, 63 anthropomorphism, 247 Bose gas, 125 antihyperons,52 boson, 147 antiintellectual, 11 Boyle's law, 368 antinucleons, 52 , 239 antiprotons, 67 Brans-Dicke modification, 208 Apollo missions, 61 Bremsstrahlung, 136 Arabs, 241 Bridgewater treatises, 278 Arago,288 Arcturus, 228 Callippic cycle, 310 Argonautic expedition, 332 caloric theory, 257 Arianism, 373 Cartesian theory, 285 Aries, 316, 317 causal dynamics, 271 Aristarchus' cycle, 313 , 25, 338 Aristotelian philosophy, 2, 241 causal structure, 337

409 410 Subject Index celestial , 287 creation (cont'd) central heat, 265 biblical idea, 116 Cepheids, 44 continuous, 12 Chalcedonian formulation, 360 from nothing myth, 2, 355, 357 chance,365,366,368,369 myths, 99 chaos, 365, 366 particle, 116 Christ, 72 of world, 323 , 358 Creator, 59, 60, 72, 115, 117,126,127, classical , 29 247,248,300,394 classical , 115 as potter, 94 classical physics, 31 crust, 269 coded information, 31 crustal elevation, 268 cognitive structures, 36 curvature tensor, 41 "cold" radiation, 8 curved Newtonian spacetime, 83 collective gravitational potential, 123 curved space, 41 color-magnitude diagrams, 47 cyclic , 241 comet of 1577, 294 companion of Sirius, 195 day of Brahma, 1, 315 Compton wavelength, 53 de Broglie matter wave, 126 conjunctions, 319 de Broglie phase-correlation principle, 147 grand,309 decimal system, 240 great, 318, 319 density in the Universe, 7, 8, 46 conservation of energy law, 114, 118, 199 density parameter, 46 conservation of local energy, 118, 123, 124 , 290, 337, 340 constructive geological dynamics, 274 deuterated hydrocyanic acid, 110 context, measuring, 30 deuterium, 67,105,110 cooling processes, 110 Deuteronomy, 344 Copenhagen interpretation, 29, 30, 31 deuterons, 105 Copernican astronomy, 98 diameters of giant H 11 regions, 44 Copernican system, 4, 60 diminishing density, 199 Copernicus satellite, 110 Dirac matrices, 148 Cornwall, mines, 265 Dirac's cosmological principle, 207 cosmic age, 128 directional interpretation cosmic gravitation, 195 earth history, 259 cosmic history, 127 geological history, 272 cosmic materiality, 128 directional synthesis, 274, 276, 277, 279 cosmic observers, 34 directional theory, 271 cosmic order, 336 disorder, 341 cosmic rays, 41,203 moral,339 cosmic repulsion, 195 natural, 339 cosmic time, 173 neurosis, 339 cosmological constant, 41,184,187 personal,339 cosmological horizon, 53 social,339 cosmological principle, 119, 131, 181, 196 distant repulsion, 19 weak, 134, 136 divine creation, 7 cosmological term, 19 divine intellect, 400 cosmology, 59,179 dodecahedron, 48 revival of, 283 Doppler effect, 113, 188,206 Coulomb's law, 113 Doppler-Fizeau law, 54 Council of Constance, 212 Doppler shift, 106 creation, 2,311,316,318,321,325,327, Drogheda,213 328,329,330,371,373,378,384 dualism,127,356 Subject Index 411 dynamic system, 293 fire, 395 dynamic theory, 272 "flat" space, 11, 25 flat spacetime geometry, 76 earth,396 flood,316 history, 259, 268 fluid, isotropic, 41 earth-moon system, 170 four-dimensional world, 5 Easter, 311 free Maxwell equations, 17 Eddingtonian view of nature, 337 , 288 Egypt, 2 Friedmann cosmological models, 83 Egyptian years, 326 Friedmann-Gamow ideas, 90 eigenstates, 34 Friedmann-Robertson-Walkermodels, 88 eighth sphere, 316,326 fossil record, 276,279 Einstein-de Sitter model, 42,136,196 fossiliferous strata, 262 Einstein universe, 26 fossils, 168, 169, 258 elan vital, 370 fundamental theory, 196 electrical model, 202 fusion, 148 electrical repulsion, 202 electromagnetic field, 15 galactic rotation, 132 electromagnetic origin, 18 galaxies, 7, 202, 203 electrons, 16, 52 clusters, 101 electron-positron pairs, 105 groups, 44 elementary particles, origin, 71 nuclei of, 70 elements, origin, 13 2 Sc,44 emergence, 369 Gamma Draconis, 221 empirical geology, 266 Gedankenexperimente, 197 empirical information, 97 general theory of relativity, 6, 23, 29, 60, empirical studies, 265 64,83,91 Encyclopedie, 286 genes, 368 energy, 118 genesis, 373 transformations, 117 geochronology, 277 entelechy, 370 geological causality, 262 entropy, 198,245 geological revolu tions, 259, 261 Epicureans, 241 geological stratum, 169 epicycle, 3, 9 geological time, 276 epistemological body, 35 geology, 253, 254 , 164 geometrical , 98 eternal , 343 geometrodynamics, 96 eternal recurrence, 238 geometry, 2 ether, 95 Euclidean, 79 Euclidean geometry, 241 Minkowskian, 79 , 30, 76 spacetime, 25, 76 evolution, 131 geomorphology, 277 evolutionary universe, 159, 166 geothermal gradient, 265, 266 exclusion principle, 16 glaciation, 259 expanding universe, 6,182,183 globular clusters, 47 model,141 age determination, 48 expansum, 297, 298, 299 Gnosticism, 359, 360 extrapolative distance, 201, 208 God,2, 7, 11,34, 72, 76,93,94,96,97, 117,162,166,168,212,225,226,237, , 62, 285 244,278,286,297,319,335,342,343, finite mean density, 184 358,365,366,367,368,371,372,373, finite quantum electrodynamics, 17 374,375-380,383,385,399,400 412 Subject Index

God ( 'd) homogeneity, 125 cosmology requires, 72 paradox, 82 Incarnate, 386 homogeneous world model, 173 gradualism, 273, 274, 275 horizons, 25 gravitation, 15, 127, 167, 175, 180, hot Big-Bang model, 67 286,287 hot nuclear gas, 190 gravitational attraction, 101, 119 Hubble age, 102 gravitational constant, varying, 176, 207 Hubble constant, 20,43,68,88,109, gravitational energy, 119, 120 142, 153, 156 gravitational field, 24, 122 Hubble's law, 6, 8, 9, 39,113,141,151, gravitational instability, 13 7 181,205 great chain of being, 217 human artifacts, 34 Great Year, 246, 309, 312, 313, 330 human nature, 395 Arab, 241 Hussites,212 Chinese, 238 Huttonians,256 Hindu, 238 Hveen,294 Maya, 240 hydrogen, 67 Greece, 2 hyperbolic space, closed, 42 Greek cosmology, 159 hyperons, 52 Greeks, 240 hypersphere, 6 grey body radiation, 7 hypothesis, 62 hadron era, 52, 69 hadron models, 148 German, 244 hadronic boiling point, 52 19th century, 356 HD 217312, 141 igneous forces, 262 heat-death, 246 igneous reservoir, 264 heavens, 296 impulsion, 285 aerial, 301 ionized hydrogen, 41 sidereal, 301,302, 303 ionized hydrogen plasma, 81 eternal, 301 incandescent core, 266 hebdomadal cycle, 327 incandescent origin, 269 Hebraic tradition, 372 incomplete manifolds, 27 Hegelian view of nature, 337 Indian flood-date, 317 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 126 inertial frames of reference, 24 hejira, 324 infinite oscillation, 89 helium, 7, 51, 67 information processors, 32 era of formation, 81 inhomogeneities, 70 hen-and-egg problem, 70 initial singularity, 88 hermeneutical , 35 instrument, 37 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 194 intergalactic matter, 70 hierarchical universe, 153 intergalactic space, 109 highest reason, 399 in terstellar deuterium, 111 highest wisdom, 399 isolated system, 118 Hilbert space, 33 isotropic microwave radiation, 7, 71 Hindu, 239 isotropic x and 'Y radiations, 8 historical studies, 271 isotropy, 8, 103, 106, 141 historical theory, 256, 260 Israelites, 383 history of expansion, 53 Itza, Maya tribe, 240 history of science, 31 holography, 83 Jesuits, 214 Holy Trinity, 385 , 358 Subject Index 413 judicial astrology, 317 , 358 Julian calendar, 311 mass, 18, 118 Julian cycle, 312 mass defect, 119,120,122 Jupiter, 392, 396, 397 mass energies, 119 justice, 160, 338 mass sadism, 340 mass spectrum, 52 K-mesons, 52 massive photon, 147 Kaliyuga,239 Massoretic text, 308 kalpa, 1, 315 material world, 392 Kant-Laplace hypothesis, 193 materiality, 118 Kasner-type model, 135 mathematical formalisms, 34 Kepler's model, 60 mathematical model, 60 kinematic logic, 30 matter, 67,118,202 kinematic method, 165 density, 107, 132 kinematics, 44, 294 as extended singularities of fields, 20 field, 15 Lagrangian density, 17 Maupertuis' principle, 286 Laplace, 278 Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics, 85 law(s), 164,286,368,383 Maxwell's equations, 99 constant action density, 127, 128 Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, 5, local energy conservation, 126 60 models, 66 Maya, 239 thermal diminution, 264 Mazdean cosmogony, 321 time dependence, 117 measuring instrument, 31 life force, 370 mechanics life science, 59 matrix, 63 light, 220 wave, 63 ray, 76 medieval cycle, 314 limited horizon, 82 men, 72 local coupling, 15 Mercury, 397 local hidden-variable theory, 29 metagalaxy (Universe), 9 local supergalaxy, 142 meteors, 302 Lollards, 212, 218 me tonic cycle, 310, 312 Lorentz contraction, 80 metric tensor, 41 Lorentz transformations, 24 Michelson-Morley experiment, 5 luminosity microcosm, 127, 159,325 classes, 44 microwave background radiation, 102, 108 diameter relation, 44 Milky Way, 227, 389 Minkowski formula, 80 Mach's principle, 384 Minkowski spacetime, 95 macrocosm, 127, 159,325 Minkowski universe, 25 magnetic monopoles, 61 minus infinity, 184 Mahayana Buddhism, 356 miracles, 27 Mahayflga, 315 model, 61 main sequence, 194 abstraction, 62 man, 35, 393, 394, 366,370 molecular hydrogen, 41 Manicheism, 360 , 242 manifold, 26, 28 monotonic universe, 183 compact, 26 Montanism, 360 Markarian galaxies, 54 music, 2 normal, 55 Mutakallimun,241 compact, 55 Mutazalites, 242 414 Subject Index mysterious universe, 236 physical theory, 30, 37, 60 mystery, 97, 98 physics, 37, 96, 97, 254 myth, 12,348,349,350 length, 53 mythical theories, 98 Planck's quantum of action, 113 mythologies, 1 point particle, 18 point singularity, 17, 18 , 165, 286 positional numbering, 240 natural selection, 293 positrons, 52 nature, 375, 378, 386 post-anti-Newtonian approximation, 135 nebula, 189 potential energies, 119 nebular hypothesis, 167,254,255,256, prediction, 61 262,264,274,276,277,279 pressure, 41 negative entropy, 184 pre-theoretic logic, 30 neo-Kantianism,387 primary thermal phenomena, 263 , 243, 356 primeval atom, 185 neutrinos, 41 primitive heat, 264 neutrons, 118 Principia (Newton), 164, 165, 222, 224, neutron stars, 32 229 new star of 1572, 296 Principia (Swedenborg), 167 Newtonian gravitational theory, 85 principle of equivalence, 24, 28 Newtonian mechanics, 60, 99 principle of plentitude, 248 Newtonian theory, 284 principles of relativity, 27 Newtonian universe, 159 probability, 288 NGC 7603, 141 progress, 62 Nicene Creed, 372 prophets, 1 Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, 354 protogalactic cloud, 47 Niels Bohr, 31 protogalaxies, 192 no-go theorems, 27 protons, 118 non-Doppler redshifts, 54 pseudoscalar photon, 147 nUcleogenesis, 13 7 ,S nucleons, 52, 118 Ptolemaic system, 2, 9, 11,60 null lines, 24 Pythagor