<<

The Space Congress® Proceedings 1966 (3rd) The Challenge of Space

Mar 7th, 8:00 AM

Cosmology and Organic Evolution

Minas Ensanian Bell Aerosystems Company - A Textron Company

Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings

Scholarly Commons Citation Ensanian, Minas, " and Organic Evolution" (1966). The Space Congress® Proceedings. 4. https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings/proceedings-1966-3rd/session-2/4

This is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Space Congress® Proceedings by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons. For more , please contact [email protected]. COSMOLOGY AND ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Minas Ensanian Bell Aerosystems Company - A Textron Company Buffalo, New York.

Summary The Physical In keeping with the Einstein of uni­ Expansion fied fields, a general cosmological problem (GCP) is proposed which requires not only a physical The concept of a cyclic universe as envisioned basis for the unification of gravitation and elec- by Tolman,^ Opik^ and others, has considerable tromagnetism but the incorporation as well of the epistemological appeal since not only have we re­ origin and dynamics of the phenomer^pn of organic duced the number of so-called unanalyzables , but evolution-for the case of a living system existing is no longer infinite and only refers to a in Opik's oscillating universe* succession of events. The total duration of a To effect this unification, the assumption cycle (Opik) is of the order of 30,000 million must be made that in its final analysis the uni­ years, and in the compressed state the radius of verse consists of a single entity viz*, a subquan- this primordial mass would be equal to about the turn mechanical "ether" referred to as "cosmic en­ orbit of Mars with the nuclear fluid weighing tropy" and all events in the physical universe about 2$0 million tons per cubic centimeter. At constitute perturbations in the local field of the ryr-faqopt < M.*n& thft rtver^p"0 ^^nsl.tv ^rho) of this fundamental continuum or entity. Using a mtter ir sp^^f is abont, 10-^ crrp n*n^, hypothetical model cell, an attempt is made to derive a biophysical analog of the Einstein rela­ Ether tion E = MC 2 and which under certain boundary con­ ditions reduces to a similar form* One can effect Although the theory refrained from an in­ the solution (GCP) by simply defining the living vestigation of the medium in which the electro­ process as the annihilation of infinitesimal quan­ magnetic event occurred, the Lorentz invariance tities of and Life as the production of was the most important aspect of special rela­ cosmic entropy* Organic evolution therefore is a tivity. In general relativity however, Einstein'1 natural consequence in the effort to increase the made the following comment: "According to the efficiency of the conversion process. general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, there­ General Gosmological Problem fore, an ether exists. In accordance with the general theory of relativity, space without an From one philosophic platform, the (GCP) may ether is inconceivable* For, in such space there be viewed as comprising three quantities viz., would not only be no propagation of light, but Entities (mass, energy, space and time), Processes no possibility of the of scales and (oscillating universe and the origin and course of clocks, and therefore no spatio-temporal distan­ organic evolution) and Fields (gravitational, ces in the physical sense. But this ether must nuclear, magnetic and electric) although the latter not be of as endowed with the properties may be considered under entities and the problem characteristic of ponderable media, as composed defined as the identification of the unifying of particles the of which can be followed; and its mathematical form. The most im­ nor may the concept of motion be applied to it." portant consequence of the proposition is that a correspondence and or parallelism is assumed to Gravitation exist between the so-called cosmological forces of the expanding universe and the origin and dy­ It has been noted by Bohnr that a steel namics of the phenomenon of organic evolution* cable having the diameter of the earth would not This implies that at Time-Zero (Lema^tre's 2 atome be strong enough to hold the earth in its orbit primitif), the forces which would eventually around the sun* Gravitational interactions re­ give rise to the phenomena of organic evolution, main the least understood for the following were present along with those responsible for the * In the hydrogen atom the gravitational present observed expansion. force between the electron and the proton is On the assumption that the unification of 5 x 10*^0 that of. the electrostatic interaction, gravitation and electromagnetism may eventually and therefore on a per particle basis compared proceed via an Einsteinian metric, we are left with other forces it is extremely weak. Gravi­ with the problem of mathematically defining Life. tational fields are unidirectional and experi­ Before proceeding however, to develop the prin­ mentally a qualitative distinction separates ciple hypothesis, it is of interest to review gravitation and electromagnetism, since there certain aspects of the of the physical is no way to so alter the properties of a body universe. (matter) so that it may move through a

95 gravitational field as if the field were not pre­ concentration on the position of chemical equi­ sent. The gravitational field is steady and con­ librium are summarized by the principle of tinuous and does not appear to be associated Le Chatelier^* Klemensiewicz^3j on the basis with the expenditure of energy. Bodies that move of this principle, has made a generalisation in a gravitational field do not reduce the in­ which he refers to as the biological principle tensity of the field. From the point of view of resulting from his analysis of natural and ar­ Mach's" principle, the inertial mass of a par­ tificial stabilization. He concluded that ticle is determined by distant matter, i.e. Le Chatelier's principle could be taken as a acceleration is not relative to empty space. general guide to the behavior of systems in This differs from Einstein's theory where in­ equilibrium not because there is an inherent ertial mass is purely a of the local tendency in the nature of things for stable curvature. However, there may be solutions to systems only to be created, but because unstable Einstein's field equations that are compatible ones, if formed, had little chance for survival. with Mach*3 principle. All of these are a reflection of the well known variational principle so fundamental to theoretical , and a summary has been made by Cox^ with reference to irreversible The purpose of the field theories upon processes. which Einstein spent the last thirty years of It is of interest to note that all so- his life was to effect the synthesis between called theories of non-equilibrium thermodyna­ general relativity and quantum mechanics or put mics refer to states not far removed from in another way by beginning with a field, con­ equilibrium yet have produced important results, struct a satisfactory theory of matter which, that is because of the applicability of linear among other things, would explain the asymmetry laws, and is the of a number of inter­ of electrical charge. To Einstein the of a esting discussions^**16,17 0 continuous field combined with that of material points discontinuous in space appeared incon­ Hypothetical Model Cell sistent. Another factor of great importance that must be mentioned was Heiseriberg's Principle The hypothetical model cell (HMS) refers which led to a renunciation of in the for theoretical convenience to the smallest or atomic domain. In an attempt to bridge the gap simplest of living organisms existing in Opik's between micro and macrophysics, Eddington' dis** oscillating universe. Recently Morowitz^ has covered that certain combinations of the uni­ referred to the pleuropneumonia-like organisms versal constants gave dimensionless numbers, as among the smallest autonomous self^replica-* which indicated that the strength of gravita­ ting entities found and having diameters in the tional interaction is related to both the scale order of 1$00 X, a volume of 1.7 fo10 cm3 of the universe and the strength of strong and a non«aqueous mass of 5 x 10"*^ g or atomic interactions. Jordan^, holding that our 3 x 10° molecular weight units. Taking the of the macroscopic universe resides average molecular weight of the biological raa«* in six constants, also discovered combinations terial as 8 he obtained 3«75 x 10' atoms. however, which equal unity. If future unified Based on biochemical data, Morowitz has cal«* field theories are to retain the plurality, i.e. culated a minimal ijinit with a diameter of both the continuum and the concept of quantiza~ 8I|0 A. Schrodinger , by means of the /n" tion, then it would appear that the field was law has questioned the validity of statis** the manifestation of a more fundamental entity, tical laws within the domain of the living thereby rendering it to a passive role. cell and expects to find new principles in view of the construction of the cell Thermodynami c s different from anything as yet tested in the physical laboratory. Equilibrium is the static and time inva~ riant state of a system where no spontaneous Chemical Information Theory processes take place and all macroscopic quan­ tities remain unchanged and applies to so-called Equation (1) represents an oversimpli­ "closed systems". However, if a system is open fication of a chemical reaction that results to its environment and exchanges mass-energy each year in the United States alone in more under time invariant conditions, we have an than 10 billion dollars worth of damage viz., equilibrium of a second kind, viz., a steady the corrosion of ferrous metals. state. The entropy production or entropy source strength refers to the time derivative of en-* h Fe 3 00 - 2 (1) tropy as developed by Onsager^, De Groot^ and Prigogine^. The observation that equilibrium Let us look in on a young chemist seated is never maintained by a cyclic process.at the at his desk and looking out of his office w±n« molecular level is known as the principle of dow at a wooden fence. The latter is held to­ Microscopic Reversibility. Finally, the effects gether by iron nails which have begun to rust. of variables such as pressure, temperature and "A rather simple phenomenon", he chuckles to

96 himself, and numerous equations flash through and then some mathematicians might say chemistry his . Depending on the individual's back­ has matured because it has now been reduced to ground we could say that he possessed varying geometry. degrees of Chemical Maturity * It would shock In summary, chemical processes are classi­ most theoretical chemists who are not working in cally described by eq. (2) which reads, the electrochemistry that after 30 years of research we still do not know the role of chloride ion in ZA *H = 51 * H ( ? ) the stress-corrosion of steel. The physicist in contrast to the theoretical physical chemist is sum of the reactants is equal to the sum of the fortunate in that his subject is more amenable to products plus the sum of the energy changes, mathematics and he at least can attempt an attack on his so-called "many-body problems", whereas The Minimum Time Problem the chemist even knowing what the physicist knows, must continually proceed by the experi- Let us imagine that a piece of sodium can mental method* As an example, solid state physics be placed in an infinite reservoir of water in is already a science while solid state chemistry the absence of a gravitational field. The is still an art, There is one basic problem in Minimum Time Problem (OTP) then asks the follow­ chemistry and in all science for that matter viz., ing question. From what set of first principles the relation between atomic-molecular structure would we attempt to calculate the minimum abso­ and property, i.e. chemical, physical, mechani­ lute Time required for the disappearance of the cal, biological etc. and it is amazing how little metal £dven a set of environmental conditions? chemical maturity even the greatest chemist has The following data is taken from Ensanian21 and in this respect* Horner and refers to the observed Time (minutes) To add further complexity to eq, (1) we may required for the disappearance of rectangular wish to know the rate at which the process takes blocks of metallic sodium in a large excess of place and so we then enter the field of chemical normal amyl alcohol at 27°C,, and rods of me­ reaction kinetics. Perhaps the chemist can im­ tallic zinc in 37.6 % HCL at 25°C. respectively. prove his lot by attempting to put more information into his equations and then taking advantage of Table I various forms of mathematics, he may perhaps come upon new principles. What we refer to to­ Weight in Grams Required Time day as Chemical Physics is actually a form of physical chemistry from the physical side and 1.5 21 what we need is a physical chemistry from the 2.3 57 chemical side, especially one that con­ 3.2 103 cern non-equilibrium chemical processes. 6.0 218 Some of the parameters that control or in­ 1.9 263 fluence the rate*® of chemical processes are: 16.3 319 the solvent, temperature, pressure, concentra­ tion, state of subdivision and under certain conditions the intensity or flux of electrical, Table II magnetic or gravitational fields. It is of in« terest to note that in very rapid reactions Weight in Grams Required Time such as an explosion, the reaction proceeds al­ most adiabatically, since there is almost no 0.3300 55 heat exchange with the environment. O.U875 6? Returning to the problem of what may be 0,6112 lit called chemical information theory, one is re­ 0.8172 208 minded of a statement by Mach viz,, w lf all the 0.99U3 individual facts - all the individual phenomena, 1.5758 knowledge of which we desire - were immediately 2.0738 9L accessible to us, a science would never have 2.3855 h6 arisen11 , i.e. eq. (1) may be further complicated 2.9Ui2 56 by the introduction of defect structure variables 3.9h6l 6ii such as cation and anion lattice vacancies in 5.1635 5b addition to the fact that the chemical constitu­ 6.9286 51* ents themselves may be non-stoichioraetric. Mach's statement is particularly applicable In this work experiments in which any kind of to the mechanics of the above hypothetical model particle disintegration or fragmentation occurred cell in that it will subsequently be shown that were not considered. one coiild not write an overall chemical equation, In practice., most chemical processes re­ even if such were possible, without introducing present non-equilibrium systems and as such may into the equality the spatial orientations of the be said to be in unidirectional motion. Dimen- individual molecular constituents as a function sionally (tensor) a chemical reaction is a of time within the confines of the system, scalar quantity and cannot couple with a vector

97 transport process (Curie's Law) unless it is spa-* which can undergo a chemical decomposition, At the present time there is no would as a result of the transport of thermal tially variable• sem­ theoretical basis for an attempted solution of energy via phonon scattering give the the (MTP) since there is no apriori knowledge of blance of world line intersections. as a result of the systems It is of interest here to introduce the the degree of disorder world line, that past history• Likewise, in addition to such con­ idea of the dissociation of a as surface area, geometry can give is, the splitting of a molecule. For example, siderations reaction a func­ rise to various electron-pnorion interactions in­ if in the course of a chemical of acoustical resonance tional group were to leave the central molecule, cluding the phenomenon we would which may have a profound effect on the kinetics then in that interval of space-time can be classed as non- have a line representing the residue as well as and all such phenomenon of origin re­ linear and as such Gibbs function is not strict-* another line from the same point presence or absence of a presenting the departing functional group. ly applicable. Now the with the gravitational field will not only affect the One may terminate the subject motion of the sodium in the wa- following question. Does the transmission of three dimensional subdivision ter reservoir but also such things as heat trans­ genetic information, prior to the fer across the solid/liquid interface. A number of a single cell, constitute a dissociation of zero-gravity effects appear in the literature. (world line) or an action at a distance? most interesting aspect of the (MTP) en­ Returning to the original question concerning The of the world tails a theoretical basis for a calculation of the topological characterization of the sodium particle and this is band of the (KMC) in contrast to the chemical the WORLD LINE would precisely the for considering the (MTP) reaction in the beaker, the comparison of space coordinates into have to be made within a so-called Frank- viz., the introduction condi­ classical chemical information theory as a pre«* Gondon time interval and under these lude to a description of the hypothetical model tions (which essentially entail electronic cell, that is for the purpose of a quasi-thermo- transition ) one would reasonably expect djniamic treatment. a topological in the models. The question, therefore, remains that if Topological Ghemistrj; it were possible to duplicate this topologi­ cal manifold on the molecular level which one On the assumption that there are (n) parti­ may refer to as the dream of physical bio­ the hypothetical model cell, then chemistry, then would this constitute a li~ cles within yes and the world band (Minkowski) of the cell would ving system? The mechanist might say world lines and one would assume the vitalist no and the question could only consist of (n) interest that we had a topological analog of a living be resolved by observation. It is of the question is that if it were to note that regarding obs er vat i on , Komar ^ . system. Now Neumann 1 s ^ possible to effect a four dimensional character** in a discussion of the proof of Von molecules in a beaker undergoing some theorem concerning the outcome of a measuring ization of in which kind of hydrolytic mechanism, would the world process being independent of the way differ in character from one describes the effects of measuring appara­ band of this system etc., that of the (HMC)? tus and the question of hidden variables can answer this question we must mentions the possibility of teleological for-* Before we * treatment examine the problem in more detail viz., what ces in nature. Rashevsky* ^n his individual atoms, on the geometrization of biology, points out does the (n) represent, pro­ electrons or molecules or their combinations? that since the characteristic and basic to plot the world line of an electron perties of life being of a relational charac­ If we were the in a benzene ring (being mindful of Heisenberg's ter rather than of a metric one, it is find a certain cyclic topological between the intersections principle) we would he character that is the electron would appear of world lines that are important, and starting point, provided of examines the problem in terms of Artin's mathe­ to return to its after course that we neglected the spatial orienta­ matical theory of braids and concludes, molecule as a whole during a citing the example of Einstein, that perhaps tions of the may given time interval. This cyclic character some well developed branch of topology would be reflected by all resonating systems carry in it the solution of the geometriza­ and there is some indication that enzyme ca­ tion of biology. talysis may involve some kind of resonance, and subsequently we shall advance the hypo­ Quadrant Mechanical Hypothesis thesis that the living system is the apex in the hierarchy of communal action and resonance. The Principle of Cosmic Entropy If we examine the activated ^state concept of al , we come to the realization that Postulate (I) In its final analysis, the Eyring et and all when we contrast this with the collision theory UNIVERSE consists of a single entity of chemical reactivity that in the latter we are real events reflect its numerous manifestations. an intersection of world lines, al­ For the want of a better name let the eschato- dealing with or entity though the addition of thermal energy to a solid logical field, particle, continuum be known as "COSMIC ENTROPY11 or simply the quantity (X). 98 Postulate Jjri). Every Event (mass or ener­ Catalysts used in the chemical industry can be gy displacement or field perturbation), Sy^t^* regarded as carrying informational entropy en­ or molecular aggregate has a (TIME) associated coded in their structure and which is capable of with it, in a manner analogous to a man's age, manifesting itself in either material or thermo- the age of a building or the Universe• This dynamic form* In fact, there are some catalysts means that the very moment any system becomes that carry so much information that they must be identified, it is given a Time (t) of sealed in plass vials since exposure to air may unity. Eyring's transition state then has a time generate large quantities of heat. Chemists often value of zero, thereby retaining the symmetry of blame poor experimental results on the past his­ all mechanical equations of motion of indivi- tory of their starting materials e.p. the time/ dual particles with respect to Time. temperature factor during preparation or the use of sliphtly different raw materials, thereby in­ fesAu^A^jffljJl ^n a given volume of the troducing trace impurities which often have a pro­ universe the local properties of space are de­ nounced effect. termined by the total number of Events (Z) and The question of whether a crystal contains a depending on the absolute magnitude of (Z) as certain absolute amount of information is a diffi­ a function of Time, there may arise different cult one particularly if we think of information manifestations or planes of activation of quan­ storage in terms of atomistic disorder* For example tity (X) giving evidence to the presence of gra­ some crystals when bent in air are very brittle vitational or electromagnetic fields and mass- and will fracture. These same crystals however, if energy. bent underwater now behave as if they were ductile. The fact that a material is ductile indicates a Representation of Chemical Events by Quadrants certain capacity to dissipate energy in a piven time* in a similar fashion the electrical re­ From an operational standpoint the central sistivity of a thin film semiconducting device theme of the Quadrant Mechanical Hypothesis is may in addition to any temperature dependence be that the dynamical behavior of real (non-equi­ a function of the partial pressure of the gas librium) chemical systems can only be realized with which it is in contact* These examples via algebraic equations containing con­ illustrate the importance or the role of the che­ stants empirically derived by means of (MTP) con­ mical environment* siderations for an (n) dimensional continuum* Quadrant representation is a sort of feed­ These equations would concern relations between back in that observation of non-linear behavior so»*ealled packages of chemical information and will help us construct information equations one may propound a macroscopic Equivalance which in turn will help to understand the storage Principle of Chemical Information viz,, that re­ of information in crystals etc. and eventually action rate information will depend on reactant the non-linear laws. Finally, the above equiva­ information once the non-linear laws are known• lence principle must conform to the second law Thus, for every set of potential reactants in as shown by Brillouin * the system (J), the reaction rate and the set of corresponding products is dependent upon the The Quadrant Universe amount of parameter information available. In summary, a macroscopic chemical system (sodium) The objective of the quadrant mechanical may be described or characterized by an Informa­ hypothesis is the derivation of a quasi~thermo- tion Matrix or package consisting of four ele­ dynamic equation for the hypothetical model cell ments, namely, TIMS, ENERGY, MASS and WORLD existing in a cyclic or oscillating universe and (medium) and each matrix must be associated with which would serve as a biophysical analop of the a set of space coordinates (u,v). In the present Einstein mass/enerpy equation and eventually be hypothesis, the package of information is re­ subject to experimental verification. ferred to as a "QUADRANT" and the new treatment The approach stems from the view of the che­ as the QUADRANT MECHANICAL HYPOTHESIS (QMH). mical kineticist and emphasis ha,s been piven to In the new language equation (2) may be re­ the description of non-reversible chemical events written as shown in eq. (3) thus enabling in (n) dimensional space. One can ar?ue that if we can describe the peodesics of a cornet, why not (3) make a similar attempt for the sodium in an in­ IE + 2. - finite reservoir? There was a tim» when it was reaction dynamics to reflect some of its cosmo- very vseful to speak of the planetary electrons logical character. The equation reads:, The sum or Prout's^ hypothesis and It should not be of the primary quadrants (P) pl^is the sum of the strange to think in terms of so-called cheml cal cosmic entropy (X) within the system is equiva­ peodesics whose behavior would be determine^ by lent to the sum of the final quadrants (F) plus the empirical Laws of quadrant transformations. the sum of the perturbations of the cosmic entro­ The thermodynaTnl c approach with repard to py within the system. model cell considerations would appear a *iec*»<*- The laws of the quadrant mechanical universe sity ? keeping in mind that Carnot's ^e«3e?rr».h on consist then of the algebraic correspondence bet­ heat engines made clear that the operation o* ween the respective quadrants or information ma­ heat devices wag intrinsically irdeoendent of trices . the workinp substance involve^, ir? fact, his 99 thermodynamics needed no picture of the nature fronted witfe a possible decrease in entropy. of matter at all. However, we cannot isolate a Schrodinger^9 has considered this: "Thus a li­ living system since its existence depends on its ving organism continually increases its en­ environment and a may even distort tropy - or, as you may say, produces positive this to make it appear as a reflection of Mach's entropy - and thus tends to approach the dan­ principle* gerous state of maximum entropy, which is death. The quantity (X) is the single unanalysable f It .can only keep aloof from it, i.e. alive, by a finite ouantity, yet in terms of expansion/ continually drawing from its environment nega­ contraction cycles, capable of changing an in- tive entropy." finite number of times without degradation* We now come to the fundamental theme of this At the point of maximum expansion one woxild paper vi?,., that in the process of order creating expect (rho) the mean density of the universe to order (HMC) the nature and the number of Events either vanish or have its minimum value and at are such that stability can only be maintained by Time -Zero fthe beginning of a new cycle) its the annihilation of infinitesimal quantities of maximum value* At the point of maximum expan­ matter and therefore, the living state entails the sion assuming that (rho) vanished, the total conversion of matter into cosmic entropy. number of events in the universe would be a con­ The cjrclic universe presents us with two in­ stant, since all that would remain would be the stabilities viz., at the point of maximum expan­ field of cosmic entropy, however, this would re- sion (rho) is minimized or vanishes and there­ present an unstable situation and must be followed fore the number of events in a given volume seg­ by a contraction* ment of the universe is likewise minimized and The solution of the General Cosmological we have an unstable state. On the other hand, at Problem here proposed and the quantity (X) force Time-Zero the number of events in a similar vol­ the logical implication that there be some re- ume segment is maximized due to the hyperdense lation between the so-called forces or dynamics state which is also unstable, otherwi.se, why the of organic evolution and the quantity (rho)* As expansion? One may therefore refer to the cyclic Coud^rrr^ has pointed o^t* in Lemaitre's hyper- model of the universe as the paradox of instabi­ dense or quasi-point like state, our of lities, nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, this space, time and matter lose their accustomed assumption reduces the number of unanalyzables* appearance when applied to it* Therefore, since Now returning to the hypothetical model cell at Time-Zero the thermodynamics of the cyclic as a volume segment of the universe, one may draw universe predetermines that (rho) eventually be the following conclusions viz,, that, since it re­ minimized* then the appearance of living systems presents a high state of material organisation on cooled celestial bodies must correspond to the and therefore on a relative basis, associated with principle that there is a natural tendency to a large number of events, the conversion of matter annihilate mass and that the mechanics of the li~ into cosmic entropy is the mechanism by means of entails the annihilation of matter. which the system sustains its stability* Einstein As Kompaneyets^ has pointed out. "It is has emphasized that all one ever sees in actual sometimes said that a mass of one gram is capa- • measurements are coincidences of pairs of marks* ble of releasing an energy of 9 x 10 ?0 ergs* As Swarm points out: "These events as we have However $ If the substance consists of atoms the called them are qualitative phenomena which ex­ possibility of generating this energy -is still ist in their own right» When we come to study questions 1 since up to now not a single process the restricted theory of relativity, we shall is known in which the total, quantity of protons find that evgpt£ are fundamental in our thinking, neutror* 1« sharped* This is why the relative much more fimdameptal than positions and times.." ^ ir re^t. mass 1.^ rvic*l*«vr reactions i? al­ The concept of the number of events or pertur­ ways P ssnired in fractions of one percent. The bations of (X) in a given volume segment may of various reactions are also limi­ perhaps eventually serve as the means of diffe­ ted by the conservation of total, charge* In order rentiating not only between the various funda­ to annihilate the who!** mass we would have to mental fields, but perhaps even serve as the first rrei>are "arti -matter11 but thif would require conceptual basis for an understanding of that a like expenditure of magic number 137 9 the fine structure constant. tn not** that if the desirn On the basis of the hypothesis that has of the livinp state were contained in Lwnaltre's here been developed, a World Cycle of the radioactive borrib at Time-Zero, then there would Quadrant Mechanical Universe is as follows: be an Tr.formatior Loss and a pair in entropy with the subsequent ar.Dearar.ee of livinp systeira* ZERO It would thu* appear that the state of affairs The fundamental field of cosmic en­ at Time-Zero would constitute the highest state tropy is all that is in existence of material organisation. Therefore the general except momentarily perhaps for a expansion would result in an increase of en­ small quantity of matter during tropy which would reach a maximum when (rho) which interval it is in a quasi- becomes 7erc. equilibrium state. Tf we a? SUFIP that presently the hypotheti­ cal model cell represents the highest state of material or^ari ration known, then we are con­

100 EVENT 1 The pure field contracts and matter As a consequence of this phenomena, the so- is created or if a small quantity called FORCES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION are con­ of primordial material were already tinually striving to reorganise a given quan- present, its mass would have in­ tity of living matter in order to increase its creased as the field contracted. efficiency as a Generator. Returning to equation (3)> if we now add EVENT 2 The primordial material now begins the term (X0 ) as shown in eq. (k) we obtain a to subdivide (explosion) and the GENERAL EXPANSION begins. EVENT 3 Living Systems begin to make their generalized Field Enuation for the Model Hell appearance on cooling fragments and which reads: the sum of the primary nuadrants the Process of Organic Evolution be-* plus the sum of the cosmic entropy within the gins • system is equivalent to the sum. of the final quadrants plus the sum of the changes of the EVENT k During its Life Cycle, each living cosmic entropy plus the sum of the cosmic en­ system converts infinitesimally small tropy produced or generated. quantities of matter non-reversibly Equation (ii) therefore, serves as an into cosmic entropy. approximation of the required unifying prin­ ciple for the (OCR) as proposed. Once upon a EVENT While the Universe continues to ex­ time the earth was devoid of life. Slowly the pand, the total mass represented by Ratio of living to non-living matter has in­ living matter is more near­ creased. It is in part the relative abundance ly equal to the combined mass of non~ of these quadrant mechanical entities scattered living matter* throughout the universe that determines its Temporal State. It is of the greatest impor­ EVENT 6 The driving force for the biological tance to note from eouation (I) that these qua- evolutionary process is manifest by si«-chemieal machines are independent of chem­ an inherent tendency of the universe istry and geometry, i.e. we cannot require the towards a state of maximum cosmic en­ mode and Form of all living entities in the tropy (this should not be confused heavens to resemble those on the earth. with Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy) . There is therefore a so-called cosmic An ElementaryDerivation of a Field pressure exerted on all matter through­ Equation for a Hypothetical Model Cell out the universe to continually reor­ ganize. In living systems this quasir The following derivation of a quadrant pressure attempts, via numerous atomic- mechanical field equation for the hypothetical molecular variations, to continually model cell has several advantages. Although it produce a more intricate internal geo­ makes use of the principle of cosmic entropy, metrical design or structure and in it does not require a formal knowledge of the such a direction that the machine will ouadrant algebra of eq. (liK conforms to a have increased in efficiency as a gene­ physical model of the oscillating universe and rator, regardless of whether it's Mass reduces to the Einstein equation for the con­ remained constant. dition (n) equal to unity and is based on four simple assumptions: EVENT 7 The total Mass of the universe has been reduced to an insignificant quantity as (1) The number of disturbances (dj) in the the Universe reaches its point of maxi­ system is exactly equal to the number mum expansion. of gvgnts (s). EVENT 8 The universe has completed another cycle (2) The number of Events can be approxima­ and is now in a state of Time ted by the product of the mass and the quantity (?*-!). TIME ZER02 The fundamental field of cosmic entropy is all that is in existence, except per­ (3) Assume a linear dependence between haps for that last trace of matter which change of Events and change of Energy. would represent the LAST living entity in the universe and would be distinguished (Ii) Assume a linear dependence between for the few moments that it lasted as the change of Energy and change of Cosmic HIGHEST or SUPREME STATE OF MATERIAL Entropy (X). ORGANIZATION. On the basis of the proposed cyclic mechanism we may DEFINE; » LIFE " simply as the PRODUCTION OF COSMIC ENTROPY, a process which results in tha annihilation of infinitesimal Quantities of matter.

101 Vie now consider the model cell. the geometrical properties of space. In a sense the vacuum is to the cosmologist as protoplasm (z) ~ events per second r: (2n-l) m is to the biologist since both are bounded and all effects must be transmitted through them, Z — total number of events though the action of both remains an enigma. Now in chemistry there are numerous exam-* 7, - KsOdtss (z-)t + Z Q - (2n-l)mt -f Z o pies in a restricted sense of an action at a distance e.g. a functional group on one end of W n total energy a long molecular chain may produce events at the other end, however, it proceeds via electron Now if (7) ~ f- (dW/dt) and assuming delocalization^ . Likewise certain polarization linear dependence between change of events phenomenon may also be considered in this manner. and change of energy, then Although the (QMH) and the field equations can only be considered a symbolic formalism, fj (dW/dt)rr Gx (dW/dt) there is nevertheless the implication of events In so-called empty space thus in agreement with X ~ total cosmic entropy Dirac's finding that any point of space-time devoid of charge or matter retains a velocity. Now if dX ~ f (dW) and assuming a This being the case one might conjecture that linear dependence between change of energy gravitational interactions always proceed in and change of cosmic entropy, then the direction or towards a given, volume seg­ ment of the universe containing the greatest dX ~ C ? (dW) and therefore number of events since all events constitute perturbations in the fundamental term (X). HX ~ r^ (z)dt also C^ — c ? ,/Oj However, this raises another fundamental pro­ blem xrlz., why opposite charges attract and then X — G 3 (*)t 4- XQ like particles renel each other? It may be possible to develop a theory of charge based or finally upon certain multiples of a fixed number of events in a given volume segment of the uni­ X ~ c 3 (? verse. It is logical to assume that only one entity exists viz*, the quantity (X) and that When (m)^(t) or (n) are zero, we obtain everything else represents its multifarious manifestations. However, cosmic entropy and the xA — TA Q concept of an event both represent unanalyzables nevertheless, we accept the idea of events in Referring to the constant X0 , it can be a a vacuum or space (being perturbations of X) function of fm) and (n), however, this would and yet if we think about Lemaitre ! s atome be determined by initial conditions. prim.itif in conjunction with the existence of anti-matter, we are forced to the conclusion, A_gtipn_ at a Distance as fantastic as it may seem, that the incor­ a directional character. •^Q poreal EVENT may have Newton 3 once wrote that to surt*ose "that In the next, few decades we may perhaps one body may act upon another at a ^/stance see that the problem of action at a distance through a vacuum, without the mediation of any­ may no longer be confined to the domain of the thing else.*., is to me so preat an absur "ity physicist but be extended into the biocosmos that T believe that no man, who has in philo­ in view of so-called psychical and other phe­ sophical matters a competent faculty for thin­ nomenon, a subject of considerable controversy* king , can ever fa 13 into it. 11 Newton con­ If we examine the field eouation, the very jectured that gravitation might be associated large number of events which takes place during with a variation in density of the ether from a random interval of the organism's life repre­ one place to another, with a body being pushed sents a highly coupled physico-chemical system from a region of hiph density to a region of and it would be difficult to conceive of this low density. type of a quasi-oscillator not giving off some Although Einstein's theory of gravitation type of energy or radiation, especially in view has to be considered a monument to intellectual of the continual annihilation of matter and per­ achievement and he disposed of the "old me­ haps this class of so-called unexplained pheno­ chanical ether11 , he nevertheless presented us menon falls into this spectrum. with a profound conceptual dilemma viz., the geometrical properties of a vacxium or so- Discussion called empty space i.e. one could conceive of points in a space even in the absence of In this paper v» have proposed the hypo­ matter. ^ thesis that the origin of Life is a universal, Einstein's vacuum'was filled with mass- natural phenomenon, independent of chemistry less test particles whose geodesies dpscribed and geometry, an integral factor in cosmologi- cal mechanics, and that the living state

102 is associated with the annihilation of in- emphasis on statistical calculations concerning finitismal quantities of matter. equilibrium systems. The greatest advances in The hypothesis revolves around the con*- reaction kinetics will eventually emerge from cept of cosmic entropy, the ultimate "ether" applications of the mathematical theory of in­ from which the universe is constructed. It is formation to non-equilibrium chemical systems. further suggested that the ultimate laws of the The great work of Onsager, Eyring, De Groot macroscopic world must make themselves evident and Pri^ogine etc. in this century can be con­ in the algebra of information matrices which sidered as among the pillars of theoretical describe chemical events in a (n) dimensional chemistry, however, the very nature of the hy­ space, therefore, it is an attempt at unification pothetical model cell requires the introduction from the viewpoint of the chemical kineticist. of geometry into our chemical equations, and A field equation has been derived on the this can only be done via some type of quadrant basis of a hypothetical model cell, the simplest representation. of living organisms, existing in 6pik*s oscilla­ The concept of an oscillating universe ting universe. eliminates the problem of either a beginning It is of interest to list those factors or an end and precludes the idea of an infinite which form a basis for the (QMH) and to examine universe. 4s expressed by Opik, "an unlimited them in terms of available knowledge* variety of combinations and of prospects of evolution would be possible during ea^h phase 1, The existence of an "ether" referred of the oscillation." Hoyle^, who along with to here as cosmic entropy. Bondi and Gold in 19)4.8 propounded the "steady ?. The Quadrant representation of chemi­ state hypothesis"3? has recently rejected it cal events and their significance. in favor of an oscillating model in view of 3. The oscillating universe hypothesis. extragalactic radio data. lu Life as the production of cosmic en­ With regard to the foundations of gene­ tropy. ral relativity, Einstein has said: "The idea 5. Exobiology. that Mach expressed, that inertia depends 6. Action at a distance phenomenon in the upon the mutual action of bodies, is con­ biocosmos* tained to a first approximation in the eaua- 7. Unified field theories. tions of the theory of relativity....* But 8. Quadrant mechanical field equations. this idea of Mach'3 corresponds only to a finite universe bounded ir> space, and not to There is hardly a serious student of natu­ a quasi-Euclidean infinite universe* ral philosophy who, at one time or another has From the standpoint of epi^temology it not been forced to consider the existence of is more satisfying to have the mechanical pro­ some type of ether either to explain the propa­ perties of space completely determined by gation of gravitational or electromagnetic matter, and this is the case only in a space- effects or interactions between elementary par­ bounded universe." ticles * In the macroscopic world in which we There are two rather striking features live, space without reference to matter is found in the physical nature of things viz., meaningless and since there is evidence, even order (e.g. snow fiqkes^ and cyclic change, if mathematical, that matter can affect space and from the viewpoint of the hypothetical and space can affect matter, 1t is not unrea­ model cell, a cyclic universe would appear a sonable to assume a common origin or basis. necessity, otherwise there would be no dri­ Einstein did not destroy the ether on the con­ ving force to explain its natural origin. trary, he distilled from it an that There should be no conceptual difficulty eventually elevated him to the rank of another in understanding the proposed quasi-thermody­ Newton. namic definition of life, viz., the production At the present time chemical reaction kine­ of cosmic entropy since in the operation of tics, contrary to its fundamental importance, all machines one can say that a certain amount essentially remains an art, due in part to its of matter has been converted into energy. In a inherent complexity as well as the fact that it conventional chemi cal process the only way to has been unable to escape the law of mass action increase the number of atomic-molecular inter­ as well as the equilibrium concept35. To des­ actions or events is via an increase of the cribe macroscopic non-reversible chemical events thermodynamic entropy. In the (HMC) however, in terms of Minkowski's world lines in a multi­ we have an equal or preater number of events dimensional space, would represent a considerable with the entropy held constant if not decreased. advance* If we examine the data in Tables I and The space ape has naturally focused con­ II one can foresee the possibility of calcu­ siderable attention on the Question of life lating the total number of events from a know­ elsewhere ^'39,110^ amj substantial sums of ledge of length and shape of the world line. money are being spent in this area. According Perhaps one might even say that this could be to the (QMH) the probability of finding some the most important challenge in natural philo­ form of life on cooled planetary bodies is sophy. In recent years there has been too much about the same as for the condensation of a warm pas upon a cooled surface.

103 It would indeed be surprising if some form of equal to its classical value outside matter on­ micro-organisms were not found on the lunar ly, but assumes very large values within funda­ surface. mental particles such as electrons and protons, Although there are a number of examples and concludes his unified field theory by show­ in the biological world that could be inter­ ing the interior of a particle as being a region preted as action at a distance, these general­ in which the geometry of space-time departs ly have some kind of physico-chemical explan­ drastically from Euclidean geometry, and in ation e.g. the ability of an organism to de­ which the gravitational constant has the value tect what would constitute a single foreign ftc/m^, which means that in any closed system molecule and thus cause the organism to act in the value of the gravitational constant is some manner. equal to the product of the angular momentum Likewise, a number of outstanding scientists of the system and the speed of light divided feel that a correspondence may exist between by the square of the mass of the system. physical laws and psychological laws, among them Motz further shows that this leads to a Russell . However, in going beyond this realm closed Einstein universe in which the gravita­ the possibility exists of an unknown spectrum, tional constant can be related to the radius which once a would be amenable to physical and the mass of the universe. analysis, after all, both cosmic radiation and From an operational standpoint, the fun­ extragalatic radio emission were with us for a damental concept in the (QMH) is the EVENT and loner time before they were discovered. if we examine the arbitrary function (2n~l) In view of the order that man observes in and assume that (n) refers to all of the atoms, the world around him, it is both logical and contained in the mass of the earth, it is ob­ natural that some attempt be made at unifica­ vious that we would have a very large number tion. of events and one might assume that this gives During the fi-rst quarter of this century rise to the gravitational field experienced the world of physics became separated into a upon its surface. However, since the quantity discontinuous micro- and a continuous macro­ (X) exists even in the absence of matter i.e» cosm viz., the world of the atom was determined the implication of events taking place in a by 1 ?? constant and that of the expanding vacuum, then any change in the quantity (X) universe by the gravitational constant. resulting in the formation of an elementary 4, freshman physics student, if pressed for particle by any process whatsoever, results a solution, could perhaps on purely political in the concentration of a very large number of grounds suggest a compromise viz., either a EVENTS in a given volume segment of the uni­ discontinuous continuum or a continuous dis­ verse, therefore^ there is a conceptual basis continuity. for the variation of G within and without ele­ There are indications of some relation­ mentary particles. ship between atomic and cosmological constants To continue this reasoning one step fur­ as evidenced by the dimensionless numbers of ther for the benefit of those who may be thin­ Eddington and Jordan. king about so-called anti-gravity devices, the Among other factors Einstein objected to implications are that, regardless of the size the idea inherent in quantum mechanics that the of the device, it must be capable of producing objective physical state of a system depended the same number of events as all the atoms of on the way in which it was observed. On the the earth and as such is almost beyond our other hand physicists such as PauliM^, Bohr and power to imagine. Heisenberg argue that a complete solution of Finally, with regard to the derivation of the open problems of physics by a return to quadrant mechanical field equations based on classical field is impossible. the concept of cosmic entropy, I can only see As Pauli has pointed out, "the atomicity in this a tool which can hasten our understan­ of elentric charge has found its expression in ding of the qua si-thermodynamics of the hypo­ the specific numerical value of the fine struc­ thetical model cell. ture constant and whose theoretical understan­ The present equation, contrary to the fact ding is not yet known11 . . that it appears restricted to the (HMO), con­ Recently Stakvilevichus^, referring to forms to the requirements of the oscillating the well known fact that gravitational forces universe vi?., that when (n, m or t) equal zero, are weak among the fundamental particles, notes the quantity (X) equals (XQ ). In the Einstein that "it is not entirely obvious that the energy equation a gram of mass is equal to 9 x 10^0 of all elementary particles is concentrated with­ ergs and in terms of the present hypothesis one in the limits of their classical radius, and for gram of mass would be equivalent to (1030 cm^). particles with a radius imich less than the It is of interest to note that since one gram classical, the gravitational forces may play molecular weight of any gas at S.T.P. occupies a substantial part. 11 22 .U liters, this volume would be equivalent to Motz \ in a very interesting work en­ the annihilation of an elementary particle weigh­ titled "Gosmoloj?y and the Structure of Elemen­ ing on the order of (10-26 pxams) on the basis tary Particles" accepts the revolutionary idea of (rho). that 0 is not a universal constant but is

104 Conclusion

An attempt has been made to mathematically More recently some work: by the author on define life and the dynamics of the living __state the electromotive force of partially fro? en from the viewpoint of the chemical kLneticist. thermogalvanic ^plls "nder conditions approa­ In the words of Schrodinger taken from his book ching nearly free fall, indicates an initial "What is Life", "a scientist is supposed to have drop in potential resulting from the reduced a complete and thorough knowledge, at first hand, gravity field, hov**ver, the work is only pr<*- of some subjects and, therefore, is usually ex­ li mi nary. pected not to write on any topic of which he is VI. th regard to the physical and biologi­ not a master.,,,. I can see no other escape from cal of the Clock Paradox, Benedikt, this dilemma (lest our true aim be lost forever) states that "Insofar as living beinps cart be than that some of us should venture to embark on conceived of as mechanical systems, their a synthesis of facts and theories, albeit with aging can be expected to be affected by their second-hand and incomplete knowledge of some of motion in a gravitational field* 11 them - and at the risk of making fools of our­ photons are the mas si ess, srin 1 ouanta selves," of the electromagnetic field that transport In view of the fact that the number of tech­ energy and there are those vrho hope to find nical journals exceeds 60 thousand, the role of the rraviton'3 5 a massless, srdn ? quanta the generalist is most difficult but nevertheless which determines the gravitational field, necessary. since some particles are frepd of coulombic However, the salt of any hypothesis, whether forces as the result of the acceleration of we advocate a formal or model approach to the so­ a given body* The origin, evolution and dyna­ lution of physico-chemical problems, must even­ mics of terrestrial Life has b^<^ the subject tually reside in the power of experimental veri­ of numerous studies 5^-59^ especially during fication. the past decade. Living substance is found The most crucial test of the proposed hy­ everywhere and it is capable of withstanding pothesis would stem from a demonstration that great variations in temperature and environ­ the living state violated the first law of mental conditions* thermodynamics and which could only be possible Regarding the 1 role of Life through the invention of a new variety of Jeans"^ wrote "We oar» still only fniess as to energy. the of thivS life which, to all annea- k With regard to the abundance of life, rances, is so rare. Is it the final climax to­ has recently made a review of biologi­ wards whinh the whole creation moves, for which cal material in meteorites and perhaps a bet­ the thousands of millions of years of transfor­ ter understanding will be gained after the mation of matter in uninhabited stars and ne­ Apollo program. In a restricted sense there is bulae, and of waste of radiation in desert a biological analog of the anti-matter concept space, have been only an incredibly extravagant in that optical 1 somers sre of two types which prera ration? Or is it a mere accidental and are mirror images of each other. possibly quite unimportant by-product of natu­ Gazenko and rrurjian^^ have reviewed the ral processes which have some other and mo^e biological role of gravity and refer to the de~ stupendous end in view? Or, to rlanop at a velopment of a new branch of science viz., still more modest line of thought, must we re­ gravitational biology. The importance of this gard it as something of the nature of a dis­ factor cannot be over-emphasized and will un­ ease, which affects matter when it has lest the doubtedly determine the geometry of forms found high temperature with which most of the matter elsewhere (extraterrestrial life). In this vein in the universe would at once destroy life? one cannot help but remember the relativisttc Or", throwing humility aside, shall we venture story that since gravitation as well as velo­ to imgine that it is the only reality, which city both change Time, a man on a mountain top creates instead of being created by the colos­ therefore, lives a little faster than the sal masses of the stars and nebulae and the a3 - people below, however, in real life it is just most inconceivably lonr vistas of astronomical the other way around, time?" Sisakyan et al*1 ' have considered the ef­ Within the living cell geometry (dissyme- fects of srace flight factors on some biolo­ try, molecular conformation, hydrogen bonding, gical objects. Neglecting radiation factors, pel rheology and scale-up) and esonnoe are the question of whether prolonged weightless­ paramount, and with regard to transport pro­ ness or variations in gravitational field cesses the wo^k in quantum biochemistry, mo- strength on the mode and kinetics of chemical lecula 1" biophysics and bioelectrochemistry will processes is therefore of considerable inte­ eventually lead to important findings and per­ rest. haps to apoli cat ions in biorn.r.s. Des Coudres^ and Tolman^ respectively, With regard to the unified field theories near the turn of the century studied the effects of physics which are concerned with the formi­ of gravity and centrifugal force on the electro­ dable problem., their real value is more often motive force of galvanic cells and a theoreti­ in the corcepttial dornair* i,e. a possible fact cal treatment has been given by M*«TV^<*O> which has p^evi m.i«O.v beorv over! nok^d or whifh in turn lead to nev err>eri rnervtc rv»* ide^s*

105 r-resky refer** to his interesting rarer PEFKPKNCES AND NOTES a possible toward the ultimate attain­ ment of complete pener^li ration." Physicists havp b^en mainly ronc^rneH with 1, Opik, E.J., "The Time Scale of our Universe" things that can be measured anH the emphasis as Smithsonian Report (1955), Pub. No. li?35, Einstein put it has not been on the understan­ Wash., B.C. ding of a phenomenon but on a physical proof of The Oscillating Universe, Mentor (I960), it. Physical proof is naturally desirable but New York. it should not necessarily be the most important "> s \. element. 2. Lemaitre, Abbe G.E., "L'hypothese de Tn all probability, since unified fields l f atome primitif " , Actes Soc. Helv. Sci. deal with the more subtle aspects of natural Nat., Fribourp ( 191*5)* phenomenon, thev will not be as amenable to ex- po-ri mental verification as other more selective 3» Tolman, F.C., Relativity, Thermodynamics physical theories. Chemistry and physics both and Cosmology, Clarendon (I93li)» need a few from time to time, pro- press depends on it. h. Einstein, A., Essays in Science, Wisdom Tt is difficult to terminate a discussion Library (I93b) New York, p-111. of this nature without a comment on the role of causality, Weyl * provides an excellent summary. ^. Bohm, D., Causality and Chance in Modern To Schrodirger^"' quantum indeterminacy had no Physics, D. Van Nostrand, (1957), New York. biolorically relevant role that, even if the worVrlnps of the (HMC) were not completely de- 6. Mach, E., Mechanik, Chap. IT, No. 6; termini stic, they were at any rate statistic©-* "Die Geschichte und die Wurfcel des Satzes deterministic* von der Erhaltunp der Arbeit 11 (190L): Causality ^ has alwavs been a difficult A. Einstein, Ann. Phys., Lp7,., 55, 2^1 ouestion, and in a metaphysical sense is some­ (1918). what associated with the so-called quasi-nrin- ciple of asymptotic J^ rajoygs which roav be 7. Eddington, A.S., The Philosophy of Phy­ opera tiveHCrTbiolorv limitations^ and ir wave sical Science, Cambridge (1939) • mechanics in the form of environmental induced i">erturhation imposed ur>on the wave state since 8. Jordan, P., Schwerkraft und Weltall, 2nd its complete isqlation is i mpossi tTe^ ed., Braunschweig (1955): See in Ref. (29) Fddi nrton "^ , one of the rraat of this century reali?ed issue when he wrote , "A rather serious consequence of drop- 9. Onsager, L., Naturforskerm^de Kobenhavn, pinp causality in the. external world is that it IjhO-l (1929), with S. Machlup, Phys. Rev., leaves us with no clear distinction between the 91, 1505-15 (1953). Natural and the Supernatural* 11 The concept of a topological, relativistic 10. De Groot, S.R., Thermodynamics of Irre­ or informational chemistry as proposed in this versible Processes, North-Holland, (1959), paper will not in it« experimental aspects be Amsterdam. concerned or governed by any uncertainties since we a^e observing the world lines of macroscopic 11. Pripogine, I., Introduction to Thermody­ chemical bodies under non-eouilibrirwi conditions. namics of Irreversible Processes, Thomas, In the absence of experimental data it is (1955), Springfield, Illinois. difficult to comment on the potential value of observations of this kind, and to what extent and 12. Le Chatelier, A., Ann. Mines, 13, 200 direction the results car? be extrapolated, more (1888). important, however, the possibility exists that some day we may find a so-called law of chemical 13 • Klemensiewicz, Z., Ark. Fys., 1, 293-30U geodesic* that may be somewhat similar to the (19h9). law .of _Jfenstant_ Heat Summaticn by Hess"". The challenge does not concern the experi- 111. Cox, R.T., Rev. Mod. Phys., 22, 238-^8 mental aspects but resides in the incorporation (1950). of the new data into the new chemical alpebra. Tn "The Chemical Conception of tj}e Ether", one 1^. Montroll, E.W. and Shnler, K.E., "The of the last paper? of Mendeleyev"?, is written: Application of the Theory of Stochastic ! 'Tf the Newtonian theory of gravity revealed the Processes to Chemical Kinetics" in vol. I, existence of forces actinp at infinitely preat Advances in Chemical Physics, I. Prigogine, distance**, the chemistry of I-avoisier, Dalton, Ed., Interscience (1958), New York. Avopadro and Gerhardt, on the other hand, dis­ closed the existence of forces of immense power 16. Fowler, R.H., and Ouggenheim, E.A., Sta­ actinp at infinitely small distances, and trans­ tistical Thermodynamics, Carnbridge, (1938) mitted into all other forms of energy, mechanical and nhvsical.. * u

106 17. Garfinkle, M., Observations on Affinity 31. The quantity (2^-1) describes the and Kinetic Behavior of some Chemical maximum number of combinations of the Reactions, NASA TN D-2875, (1965)* quantity (n) in a given Time interval. 18. Morowitz, H.J., "Requirements of a Mini­ 32. Newton, I., Philosonhiae Natural is Prin- mum Free Living Replicating System", in cipia Mathematica, (1687), London* Life Sciences and Space Research III, Fifth International Space Science .Sym­ 33* Petrow, A.S., Einstein-Raume, Mathema­ posium, Florence 12-16, May (196UJ, tische Lehrbucher uncl Monographic, North-Holland, Amsterdam, p-lii9« Herausgegeben von der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften ?u Berlin, Institut 19. Schrbdinger, E., What is Life?, Cambridge fur Mathematik. 11, Abteilung Mathema­ tische Monographien, Band XVI. A.kademie- Verlag, (196)4 ), Berlin. 20. Benson, S.W., The Foundations of Chemical Kinetics, McGraw-Hill, (I960), New York. 3)4* Wheland, G.W., Resonance in Organic Chemistry, Wiley, (1955), New York. 21. Ensanian, M., and Horner, M.H. University of Washington, unpublished research. 35* The law of mass action or C.M.. Gnldberg and P. Waape's law of chemical equilib­ 22. Glasstone, S., Laidler, K.J., and Eyring, H., rium published in 1863, recognized that The Theory of Rate Processes, McGraw-Hill, chemical equilibrium is dynamic and not (I9lil), New York; see also Quantum Chemistry, static and is concentration dependent in Eyring, H., Walter, J« and Kimball, G.E., addition to being specific under a given Wiley, (19lili), New York, p-299. set of conditions. However, the concept, of concentration dependence had been no­ 23. Komar, A., "Indeterminate Character of the ted by Claude Louis de Rerthollet in 1801 Reduction of the Wave Packet in Quantum in his famous book: Essai de statique Theory", Phys. Rev., 126, 365 (1962). chimique. It should be noted that a catalyst changes the rate of a reaction, 2lu von Neumann, J., Mathematische GrundXagen not the position of final equilibrium. der Quantenmechanik, Springer, (1932), In view of his classical work in 18£0, Berlin. L. Wilhelmy may be called the "father" of chemical kinetics. In essence to 25. Rashevsky, N., Mathematical Biophysics- study chemical reaction? nnder so-called Physic o-Mathematical Foundations of Bio­ equilibrium conditions represents in logy, 3rd'ed«-j, vol. II, Dover, (I960), effect a "trade-off11 , information-wise. New York, p4;17. 36* Hoyle, F., Galaxies, Nuclei, and Quasars, 26. Swann, W.F.G«, Space, Time, Relativity Harper and Row, (1965), New York: and Cosmology, RADC-TR-62-2, F-B1859, "Recent Peveloments in Cosmology11 , Nature, AD 281 922, (1962), p-12. The Franklin 208, 5006, (1965), p-011. Institute, Philadelphia. 37. Pondi, H., Cosmology, Cambridge, (1952): 27. Brillouin, L., Science and Information F. Hoyle, The Nature of the Universe, Theorv, Academic Press, (1956), New York, Harper, (1951^, New York: see also a dis­ p-152". cussion on particle-antiparticle con­ jugation symmetry of interest in 28. Prout, W., (1815 ): Twelve Years after "Speculations or " , by M. Dalton suggested his six point atomic Goldhaber, Science, 12b, 32lJ«, (1956), theory, Prout, another great mind, pro­ p-218 and more recently in "Matter Crea­ posed that the weights of all atoms were tion by Gravitational Waves", by M.C.Brock, simple multiples of the weight of the hy­ Nature, 207, 5001, (1965). p-1079. drogen atom and that hydrogen was thus the fundamental material out of which all 38. PonnamperuniRj, C., "The Search for Extra­ other elements were constructed. terrestrial Life", The Science Teacher, 32, 7 (1965), Wash., D.C. 29. Couderc, P., L'Exnansion de l ! Univers, (1950): English translation by J.B. 39» Newlon, C., 1001 Questions Answered about Sidgwick, Macmillan, (1952), New York. Space, Dodd, Mead, Chapter XI, "The Search for Life in Space ", (1962), New ^ork, 30. Kompaneyets, A.S., Theoretical Physics, B-226. Dover (1962), New York.

107 hO. Mamikumar, 0., and Bri^s, M.H., E 5h, Oparin, A.I., Life Its Nature, Origin Current Aspects of Exobiology, Symposium, and Development, Academic Press, (1961), Feb. (1963), Pasadena, Per^amon, (1965), New York. Mew York. #>, Waterman, T,H., and Morowitz, H.J., Eds., Theoretical and Mathematical Biology, 1:1. Pussell, B., The Analysis of Matter, Dover, Gross, Oonsltg. Ed/, Physics Blaisdell, P.R. 09?'!)* New York, Se«* also Atomic (1965), New York. and Human Knowledge, Wiley, New TorV, a discussion along (1 N.^., Gazenko, O.G. and Antipov, in I 1 !?,, Sisa'kyan., (196)4), pp-22li-23U: L•Evolution ¥.?,, ibid, p-185. Moleculaire Et L'Origins de la Vie, by Ciel et Terre, vol, 81, der Physik u, Ghemie, J. Duchesne, lii'8» Des Coudres, Th., Ann... Jan.-Feb*, (1965): Life in Other Solar 1,9, 2lli (1892); 57, 232 (1896). Worlds, by F.T. Ordway, III, Dutton, (1965), New York. If?* Trlmn, R»C«, Proc. An* icad. Arts Sci., Soc., 33, fc6, 109, (191O); J. An. C»iem. 60. Jeans, J., The Universe. Around Us, 121, (1911). Cambridge, Uth edn., (19WO, London. of Electro­ 50, MacT'ranies,, D,A«, The Principles 61. Gresky, A.T., "A Simple Unified Field chemistry;, Fei/rihalitl, (1935), New York, Hypothesis", J. Franklin Ther- Equation and p-17li; see also- F.D. Rossini^ Chemical Feb. (I960). The question is lew fork,, p*4tll|..' Institute, mod^T?.amics, Wiley, (19$0} f raised if? causality cannot play a sig­ role in the affairs of submi- This work nificant ?1« Ensanian, M., (to be published}; particles as well as in the cell made in the croscopic involved thermogalvanic systems of classical mechanics. form of straight tubes in contrast to U- in J* tubes used in other vork reported H., Philosophy of Mathematics and 6 (1965)* 62. Weyl, Electrochem. Soc., 112, Natural Science, Princeton, (19U9), Clock Paradox in 52, Beredikt, E.T., "The The Next Development in Advances in Astro- 63. Whyte, L.L., Vertical Free Fall", Man, Mentor, (1950). nautical Sciences, op. cit. 6)1. Oseen, C.W,, Neuere Methoden und Ergeb- 53• DeWitt, C, 5 Ed., Relativity Groups and (1927), (I96lj). nisse in der Hydrodynarnik, r, Gordon and Breach, Leipzig.

108 65. Eddin^ton, A.S., The Nature of the Physical World, Macroillan, (1928): New Pathways in Science \ Fundamental Theory, Cambridge, (19)46): see nu­ merous other books. 66. Hess, G.H., (l8UO): It was observed by A.L. Lavoisier and P,S. de Laplace in 1?30 that the quantity of heat re­ quired to decompose a compound into its elements is equal to the heat evolved when that compound is formed from its elements* As was pointed out by J. Thomsen in l8$3 , the law of Hess is a direct consequence of the law of conservation of energy. 6?. Mendeleyev, D»T«, The Chemical Con­ ception of the Ether, (I90h) f Longman f s, Green & Co.

109