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Russia in the Construction of Japan 9S Identity Russia in the Construction o f Japan 9s Identity: Implications for International Relations Alexander Bukh Thesis submitted in requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in International Relations, London School of Economics and Political Science 89000 words UMI Number: U220264 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U220264 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 2S35S2S (7 0 5I Abstract The purpose of this thesis is two folded. One is to explore the discourse on Russia and the role it has played in constructing contemporary Japan’s national identity. The other is to explore the relationship between the identity discourse and Japan’s foreign policy towards post-communist Russia. In this thesis, national identity is conceptualized as a discursive narrative that engages in the construction of the national “self’ vis-a-vis multiple “others.” The thesis focuses on Russia as the “other” in Japan’s identity discourse. Russia has always occupied a special place in Japan’s identity construction, and has never been part of “Asia” or the “West”, which have been the main paradigms in Japan’s identity discourse. The analysis focuses on works of leading Japanese scholars and public figures to examine the contemporary identity discourse, which has emerged in 1970s and continues to dominate the debates on Russia till the present day. The thesis also explores the construction of “Japan” and “Russia” in the writings of one of the most popular Japanese historical fiction writer, Shiba Ryotaro. It argues that the construction of hierarchical difference between Japan and Russia has served two purposes: one was to establish Japan’s belonging to the universal realm of modem civilization, the second was to establish Japan’s superior uniqueness not only vis-a- vis Russia, but also vis-a-vis the West. The last chapter examines the economic, political and military dimensions of the Japanese foreign policy vis-a-vis Russia, since the collapse of the Soviet Union. This chapter examines the discourse of foreign policy along three dimensions: economic, military and the territorial dispute, arguing that identity functions differently in all three cases. Identity does not matter for the economic sphere, where the search for profits overrides concerns related to territory and history. Identity is, however, visible in the security discourse as seen in the lack of long-term trust of Russia’s intentions among the members of the security community. In the context of the territorial dispute, identity shapes and, at the same time, is shaped by the policy related to this dispute. The thesis argues that, the policies Japan has implemented to enhance the return of the disputed islands are located within the same cognitive framework that has created Japan’s cultural and civilizational superiority vis-a-vis Russia. It argues that it is not the security discourse but the conception of the territorial dispute and related polices which engage in creation of boundaries and hierarchical difference between the “self’ and the “other.” Table of Contents INTRODUCTION................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER I: LIMITATIONS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM........................................... 34 CHAPTER II: A LITERATURE REVIEW-JAPAN’S IDENTITY...........................60 CHAPTER III: RUSSIA AS JAPAN’S “OTHER”...............................................80 CHAPTER IV: IDENTITY, HISTORICAL MEMORY AND SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS..................... 99 CHAPTER V: CONSTRUCTING RUSSIA AND JAPAN.................................... 124 CHAPTER VI: THE ORIGINAL FORMS OF JAPAN AND RUSSIA...................157 CHAPTER VII: THE POST-COLD WAR POLICY DISCOURSE..........................180 CONCLUSION................................................................ 213 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................233 Russia in the Construction of Japan’s Identity: Implications for International Relations Introduction 1. IR Theory and Japan’s Identity 3 1.1 Emergence of Constructivism 5 1.2 Japan’s Identity and Constructivism 6 1.3 Defining Identity 7 1.4 Identity and Foreign Policy 8 2. Japan’s Socio-Cultural Identity 12 3 . Russia as Japan ’s Other 13 4. Locales of Identity Construction 17 4.1 Contemporary Debates on Japan’s nationalism 17 4.2 Identifying the Texts I 19 4.3 Identifying the Texts II-Literature and IR 24 5. The End of the Cold War and Japan 27 6. Summary 32 This thesis is a case study in national identity construction. Its main purpose is to inquire into one of the discourses that constitute “national identity” debates in today’s Japan. Most of the empirical work is devoted to examining Japan’s national identity discourse which emerged in debates on Russian national character. The last part of the thesis explores the relationship between the perceptions of Japan’s and Russian national character and the formulation of Japan’s state interests and foreign policy vis-a-vis Russia. The conceptual framework used in this thesis draws on the recent developments in the studies of nationalism and international relations. Furthermore it approaches both national identity and the conception of State’s 1 interests as well as desirable policies as discursive formations, which are produced and reproduced in relations with multiple “others.” This thesis aims to contribute to the understanding of the multi-layered and complex construction of contemporary Japan’s national identity by examining the structure of Japan’s discourse on Russia. So far, the English language and Japanese scholarship on Japan’s relations with Russia has treated the negative perceptions as a historical given, either tracing them to Japan’s “traditional” fear of Russia or approaching it as the direct result of the Soviet behavior in the last days of the war in the Pacific, mainly the occupation of four islands that came to be known as the “Northern Territories” and the internment and forced labor of Japanese POWs (the “Siberian internment.”) This thesis takes a different approach. It explores the construction of Japan’s national superiority vis-a-vis Russia which has emerged in a particular economic and political environment of the late 1970s through early 1990s but has remained the dominant identity discourse on Japan and Russia till the present day. It argues that, while the Soviet conduct and the Cold War rivalry induced the emergence of the discourse, its main target was to rescue Japan from the negative qualities attributed to its national character and to construct her as a “normal nation” that is part of the universal realm of civilization. This was achieved through internalization of the Western discourse of difference and projection on Russia of the negative national characteristics originally attributed to Japan by the Western and domestic debates, and resulted in a construction of hierarchical difference between the superior Japan and the inferior Russia. At the same time, Russian and Japanese “otherness” has been used to create Japan’s uniqueness. Both Japan and Russia are located outside of the West, with Japan occupying a superior place to the West in the realm of difference, and Russia located in the realm of inferiority. In its last chapter, this thesis examines Japan’s foreign policy discourse on Russia in the post-Cold War era. It argues that there are certain commonalities and influences between the cognitive lens of the identity discourse and foreign policy formulation, but they cannot be reduced to one discursive body or to a simple cause- effect relationship. It argues that the cost/benefit calculations and strategic interests in diversifying sources of oil have shaped economic policy vis-a-vis Russia. Hence, 2 it has not been formulated within a cognitive framework constructed by the identity discourse. However, it also argues that the notion of danger from Russia, while highly diluted compared to the Cold War era, still resides in the background of the security discourse. Furthermore, it argues that the conception of the territorial issue and policies aimed at facilitating the return of the four islands captured by the Soviet Union in the last days of the war in the Pacific (Northern Territories), have been shaped by the same cognitive lens that is constructed in the identity discourse. The following section will outline the theoretical background of this thesis and the analytical tools used to examine national identity and foreign policy. The last part of this chapter will outline the implications of the end of the Cold War for Japan’s foreign policy, in general, and her relations with Russia. 1. IR Theory and Japan’s Identity On the whole, post-World War II international relations theory paid little attention to domestic non-material factors such as national identity and culture. Theory became increasingly structuralist, and has drifted toward largely unvarying systemic properties to deduce what were assumed to be uniform national interests. Kenneth Waltz’s seminal
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