SOUTHERN SUDAN GUM ACACIA – SUB-SECTOR SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS STUDY
By Muga, M.O. Gachathi, F.N. and Chikamai, B.N
Report On Short Term Consultancy For SNV Netherlands Development Organization July 2009
i TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS...... ii List of Tables ...... iv List of Figures ...... iv List of Plates ...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi LIST OF ACRONYMS (To be updated) ...... vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background to the study ...... 2 1.2 Scope of the work (Terms of reference) ...... 3 1.2.1 Timeframe of the Study ...... 4 1.2.2 Team Composition...... 4 1.2.3 Locations Visited ...... 4 1.2.4 Data collection and analysis process ...... 4 2.0 Limitations of the study ...... 5 3.1 Background information on the selected states ...... 6 3.2 Gum acacia resources in Southern Sudan ...... 11 3.2.1 Gum acacia resources in Southern Sudan ...... 11 3.2.2 Distribution and stocking densities of Gum acacia resources in Upper Nile, Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria States ...... 12 3.2.3 Potential for gum production in Southern Sudan ...... 15 3.3 Current gum production in Southern Sudan ...... 18 3.4 Post harvest handling of gum...... 23 3.5 Use of gum as food security and livelihood support ...... 24 3.6 Marketing of gum acacia ...... 27 3.7 Opportunities available to enhance exploitation and use of gum acacia40 3.7.1 Market potential ...... 40 3.7.2 Formation of partnerships with key local and international organizations working in Southern Sudan ...... 40 3.7.3 Microfinance linkages ...... 42 3.7.4 Linkages with and through NGARA ...... 43 3.7.5 Participatory mapping & monitoring of gum acacia resources ...... 43 3.8 Overview of Relevant Policies ...... 44 3.9 Investment opportunities in the gum sector ...... 52 3.10 Potential development areas in gum sub-sector ...... 53 4.0 OTHER NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS RESOURCES IN SOUTHERN SUDAN.. 56 5.0 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IN DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES OF GUM AND NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPS) ...... 65 6.0 KEY CHALLENGES AND GAPS ...... 67 7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 72 7.1 Conclusions ...... 72 7.2 Key Recommendations ...... 74 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 77 APPENDICES ...... 79 Appendix I: Itinerary for Consultant Team ...... 79 Appendix II: List of People Met during the Study ...... 80
ii Appendix III: Tools used in the study ...... 83 Data Sheet 2: Questionnaire for collection of information from the producers/ collectors on status of production, harvesting, quality control and marketing of Gum acacia ...... 84
iii List of Tables Table 1-1: The counties and payams visited during the study ...... 4 Table 1- 2: Density classification ...... 5 Table 1-3: Community priorities in Northern Bahr El Ghazal ...... 8 Table 3-1: Eastern Equatoria Profile ...... 10 Table 3-2: Ethno-Linguistic Groups of EES...... 10 Table 3-3: Main areas in Upper Nile State (UNS), North Barhl El Gazhal State (NBEGS) and Eastern Equatoria State (EES where Gum acacia resources are found ...... 19 Table 3-4: Tapping and collection seasons of gum in three states in Southern Sudan ...... 21 Table 3-5: Tools used for tapping of A. senegal and collecting gum from A. seyal ...... 21 Table 3-6: Export of Raw Gum acacia (in tonnes) - 1992-2006 ...... 30 Table 3-7: Unit export values in key African countries of Gum acacia, all grades combined, from 2003 to 2007 (US $) ...... 36 Table 3-8: Gross Margins...... 38 Table 3-9: Key potential Partners in Gum acacia sub-sector ...... 41 Table 3-10: Key microfinance companies in Southern Sudan ...... 43 Table 3-11: Capacity of local communities in regard to enhancing exploitation of Gum acacia ...... 54
List of Figures Figure 3-1: Stocking density of A. senegal var. senegal in UNS and EES ...... 14 Figure 3-2: A. seyal var. seyal stocking density in UNS, EES and NBEGS ...... 15 Figure 3-3: Probability map showing gum resources in Southern Sudan ...... 16 Figure 3-4: Gum production in 2006/7 and 2007/8 ...... 23 Figure 3-5a: UNS ...... 25 Figure 3-5b: NBEGS ...... 26 Figure 3-5c: EES ...... 26 Figure 3-6: Consumption of gum acacia by European commission (2003 - 2007), (ITC 2008) ...... 28 Figure 3-7. Export of raw Gum acacia from Africa (1992-2006, ITC 2008)...... 28 Figure 3-8: Export of gum acacia by country (1992-2006), (ITC, 2008) ...... 29 Figure 3-9. Traders buying gum from Renk county ...... 33 Figure 3-10. Marketing Chanels for Gum acacia from UNS ...... 33 Figure 3-11. Marketing channels for Gum acacia from NBEGS ...... 34 Figure 3-12. Marketing channel for Gum acacia from EES ...... 35 Figure 3-13. Changes in export rates in major African countries, all grades combined 2003-2007 (ITC, 2008) ...... 36
iv
List of Plates Plate 3-1: A. senegal var. senegal stand at Jelahak, Renk County...... 12 Plate 3-2. A.seyal var. seyal stand at Malualkon, Aweil East ...... 12 Plate 3-3: Tapping of A . senegal trees in UNS ...... 22 Plate 3-4. Gum acacia storage ...... 23 Plate 4-1: Shea butter tree at Udhum (Aweil West)...... 57 Plate 4-2: Tamarindus indica in Aweil East County ...... 57 Plate 4-3: Zizyphus spina-christi at Malualkon (Aweil East County) ...... 58 Plate 4-4: Balanites aegyptiaca at Aweil East County ...... 59 Plate 4-5: Borassus aethiopum in Aweil East ...... 60 Plate 4-6: Grewia tenax ...... 61 Plate 4-7: Sclerocarya birrea at Aweil North County ...... 61 Plate 4-8: Vitex doniana at Malualkon, Aweil East ...... 62 Plate 4-9: Jatropha curcas in Juba Town ...... 63 Plate 4-10: Ximenia americana at Malualbai ...... 63 Plate 4-11: A hedge of L. inermis in Malakal town, Upper Nile State ...... 64 Plate 5-1: Charcoal from A. seyal in Jelahak, UNS ...... 67 Plate 5-2: Firewood from A. seyal for firing brick making plants in Aweil East . 67
v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The consultants are greatly indebted to all the people who participated in this study without whom the task would not have been accomplished. The consultants are especially grateful to SNV who sponsored the work. We are very grateful to Ms. Beauty Jiji of SNV for her logistical support and useful comments and inputs on the report. We are also highly indebted to Mr. Stanslaus Kayanga of GOSS-MAF, Mr. Peter Soro of SNV, Mr. Jogo Francis Amum (UNS), Mr. Ahou Deng (NBEGS) and Mr. Natalis Owen Okeny (EES) who accompanied us in the field trips. We are very thankful to GOSS Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and SMoA for the support given in organizing for the field visits and FAO for the active role played in coordination of activities and logistics in the states visited. We are also grateful to the following GOSS Ministry officials who offered valuable information to the mission (Mr. Timothy Thinol Onak [Director General GOSS-MAF], Mary Akech Milla [Director for Private sector- GOSS-MOCI], Ayom Mach Jock [Director General- GOSS- MOFEP] and Mr. Abdoun [Director general- MOCRD]). We would also wish to acknowledge the participation of the following agencies, institutions, and organizations: USAID, IRD, and AMURT International, Care International, and Mercy corps, BRAC and Finance Sudan and NGARA. We are also very indebted to the following persons for the valuable technical support given to us: Prof. Fred Owino (Adviser –GOSS-MAF), Dr. Ben Chikamai (NGARA Executive Secretary and Director KEFRI), Eng. Chidume Okoro (NGARA- Chairman), Mrs. Sheila Mbiru (KEFRI/NGARA) and Mrs. Risper Kuria (RCMRD) for their technical inputs. We cannot forget the logistical support offered to the team by SNV staff in Juba (Jesca, Mathias, Mary and Onan). Our work could not have be accomplished without the willingness and positive response from all those interviewed in the study (the state and county officials, the collectors and traders).
vi LIST OF ACRONYMS ACF Action Conte La Faim AIDGUM Association for the Development of Natural Gums AMURT Ananda Marga Universal Relief Team International ANLA Annual Needs and Livelihoods Assessment BOSS Bank of Southern Sudan BRAC Building Resources Across Communities CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission CBO Community Based Organization CES Central Equatoria State CFSAM Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission CoM Council of Ministers CNI Colloides Naturels International CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement EES Eastern Equatoria State FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FOB Freight on board GAC Gum Arabic Company GoSS Government of Southern Sudan GMO Genetically Modified Organisms HPS Hand Picked Selected IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IRD International Relief and Development ITC International Trade Centre KGAPC Khartoum Gum Arabic Processing Company MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry MOCRD Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development MOFEP Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning MT Metric Tones NBEGS Northern Bahr El Ghazal State NGARA Network for Natural Gums and Resins In Africa NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations NPA Norwegian People‟s Aid NTFPS Non timber forest products RCMRD Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development SDG Sudanese Pounds SMoA State Ministry of Agriculture SNV Netherlands Development organization SSRRC South Sudan Relief and Reconstruction Commission SUMI Sudan Microfinance TDA Toposa Development Association UAE United Arab Emirates UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNS Upper Nile State USAID United States of America International Development WES Western Equatoria State
vii WFP World Food Programme WTO World Trade Organisation YARRDS Youth Agency for Relief, Rehabilitation & Development for South Sudan
viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Southern Sudan is endowed with a diversity of natural forest and woodland resources. Among the non timber forest products, Gum acacia is the most important as it has sustained the Sudanese economy for a long time. The gum belt in Southern Sudan runs across from Eastern Equatoria State, Central Equatoria State, North Barhl El Ghazal State, Warrap State, Unity State, Jonglei State to Upper Nile State.
Gum acacia is a seasonal product from the widely-growing A. Senegal and A. seyal. Gum acacia is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries as an emulsifier, stabilizer, texturizer, film former and binder. Gum acacia (gum acacia) has the potential to make significant contributions in alleviating poverty by increasing cash incomes for resource poor agro- pastoral communities living in remote areas in Southern Sudan.
This study aimed at conducting a rapid gum sub sector analysis and role definition of Gum acacia in supporting poverty reduction, household livelihoods and food security in Southern Sudan in preparation for a multi stakeholders‟ workshop. The results of the study are expected to enlighten the workshop participants on the current state of Gum acacia in Southern Sudan, where it‟s found, estimated quantities or potential, where current harvesting is taking place, who the harvesters are, current uses of gum acacia, current markets and marketing organizations, current prices, overview of relevant policies, map other actors in gum and their activities including challenges being encountered or gaps that need discussion during the workshop. Additionally, other important non timber forest products were to to be identified and traditional knowledge in development and conservation strategies of gum and these NTFPs documented.
In order to achieve this, SNV hired a team of two consultants in the framework of NGARA to conduct a situational analysis of the sub-sector assisted by national staff (from GOSS-MAF and SNV). The study focused on three states namely: Upper Nile State (UNS), North Barhl El Ghazal State (NBEGS) and Eastern Equatoria State (EES). The situational analysis was done in a participatory manner so as to get inputs from all actors in the value chain. There were some limitations for the study, key among them being: insecurity, short duration for the wide area covered, few sampling points and a small number of respondents.
Despite the limitations, a number of important findings were obtained and reported. Gum acacia from Southern Sudan is produced by two main species, A. senegal (L.) Willd var. senegal and A. seyal Del var. seyal. A short description and distribution for each species is given in the report. The study estimates the potential annual production of Gum acacia from Southern Sudan at 6,541.2 –15,580.3 MT which translates to an annual export value of US $ 12,428,280 -25, 850,300.
ix
Gum from Acacia senegal trees is obtained through tapping the stem and branches while that from A. seyal is exuded through naturally occurring breaks or fissures in the tree branches and bark. Tapping of A. senegal trees starts as early as mid October to early November. The main gum collection season is December-May. A. senegal trees, 3 years and above with tree diameter ranging from 4-16 cm are tapped. Each tree produces approximately 2.5 kg per season, varying with seasons, sites and trees. The gum produced in Southern Sudan is about 19 % of the total production in Sudan.
There are more than 150,000 resource poor agro-pastoralists involved in tapping and collection of the gum. Men dominate the collection of gum in UNS, women in NBEGS and herders (boys) in EES. The local uses of gum seem limited to chewing by the locals and being added to milk by some herders. Despite the limited use locally, Gum acacia is an important alternative source of livelihood especially during the drier months when no income may be expected from agricultural produce. More than 50 % of the local communities in gum producing areas depend on gum production as an alternative source of livelihood, especially if the producer price is good. It is only in UNS, where the producers are organized in producer cooperative societies with an overall Umbrella Producer Cooperative union at the county level.
The prices of Gum acacia are set by the traders and are currently too low. The collectors used to get SDG 5.6-6.7/kg (US $ 2.6-3.1 /kg )1 of gum hashab in 2005 and earlier but the current prices range from SDG 1.12 -1.34/ kg (US $0.45- 0.54)2 in UNS, SDG 0.5-1/ kg (US $ 0.2-0.4) 3 for gum talha in NBEGS and SDG 1/ kg for gum hashab in EES. The gross income for producer from the sale of gum hashab was about 20.3 % of the export value in 2008/9 and 39.1 % in 2007/8. The gross income for the producer from the sale of gum talha was about 33.3 % of the export value in 2008/9 and 25 % in 2007/8. The unit export values ( Per MT) for Gum acacia from Sudan ranged from US $ 1053 in 2003 to US $ 4595; in 2007 (all grades combined) and was US $ 3400 (Hand picked selected) and US $ 2500 (Grade 1) and US $ 1300 (grade 2) in 2008. Gross margins for Gum hashab (from A. senegal ) and gum talha (from A. seyal)are reported. The profits were 3.4 % for trader and 14.6 % for exporter in 2007/8.
The trade in Gum acacia in Sudan has been monopolized by the Gum acacia Company (GAC) for along time until its collapse in 2009. The marketing channels of Gum acacia in the three states are reported. In UNS most of the gum is sold to the Northerners. The local merchants have been selling this commodity to individual traders from the North or agents of Gum acacia Company (GAC). These agents or GAC then transport the gum to
1 Exchange rate- 1 US $ =SDG 2.2 (in 2005) 2 Exchange rate -1 US $ = SDG 2.5 3 Exchange rate -1 US $ = SDG 2.5
x Port Sudan from where the products are exported out of Sudan. In NBEGS, the traders from the North buy the gum from the local traders and transport it to the north and finally to Port Sudan. Gum acacia from NBEGS (mainly from Aweil East) is bought by South Sudan Gum Company Ltd (SSGCL (a company permitted by GOSS to trade in Gum acacia since 2007). The consignment is transported by river to Juba and by road to Mombasa Port. In EES the only gum marketed was delivered to the buyer (Aridlands Resources Ltd, from Kenya) to Lokichogio and then exported through Mombasa Port.
The international market of Gum acacia, currently remains polarized, with the European Union and the United States of America on the one hand and the principal producing and exporting countries located in Africa, namely Sudan, Chad and Nigeria on the other hand. The current world demand is high and mean supply over 15 years (1992-2006) is about 46,085 MT, VARYING FROM 30,000 TO 65,000 MT. Europe dominates, the global market of Gum acacia, marketing 83 % of the total amount (in tons) and representing close to 89 %.
The main gum producing and exporting countries being Sudan, Chad and Nigeria, accounted for 96 % of Gum acacia exported in 2007. In the last 15 years, Sudan had the highest export accounting for about 63 % of the world exports. However, in 2006, Sudan‟s share in the international market reduced to 35 % while those for Nigeria (32 %) and Chad (27 %) went up sharply. Despite Sudan‟s predominance in the world market, the southern part of the country has not been able to participate fully in the Gum acacia trade due to the lack of awareness by most of the local communities on the importance of the product at the international level and the lack of access to the market. However, there exists an opportunity for aggressive marketing of gum from Southern Sudan. Some of the key current export markets for gum from Southern Sudan include: United States of America, South America, India, Europe, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Japan.
The estimated high potential annual production of Gum acacia from Southern Sudan is an indication of the great potential for investment in trade and value addition in this sub-sector. There is an opportunity for more companies investing in the Gum acacia trade. The investors may need to pay more attention in post harvest handling of Gum acacia to increase its quality. Despite the high potential, the study identifies a number of challenges that require urgent attention.
An overview of some of the relevant policies (international and national) that would enhance Gum acacia production and marketing for increased incomes and food security at household levels leading to improved livelihoods in Southern Sudan was done. The national policies include: Forestry, land, monetary and finance, taxation, investment, infrastructure and trade.
xi A number of other commercially valuable non timber forest products available in Southern Sudan were also identified and described. These include indigenous fruits from Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date), Tamarindus indica, Zizyphus spina-christi, Sclerocarya birrea, Vitellaria paradoxa (shea nut), Vitex doniana, Grewia tenax, and Borassus aethiopum (yellow coconut), medicinal plants, honey and bee products.
The study has also revealed that traditionally-based management system of the gum tree resources and those for the other NTFPS was carried out on a sustainable natural resource conservation basis. The techniques adopted by the local communities included: collection of dead wood and protection of the resource by a council of elders through use of cultural taboos and well laid down informal laws.
A number key challenges and gaps have been identified and reported. These include:
The A. seyal yet to be fully exploited and currently being cut as a source of fuel wood. Gum resources are under threat from fire and occasional invasion by locusts. No security of supply as there are no plantations for gum acacia resources or buffer stock to ensure sustainable supply of the gum and current method of gum tapping not sustainable. Resource inventory data, maps and management plans for the Gum acacia producing tree resources are lacking. Insecurity, inaccessibility, long distance to gum production areas are a challenge in some sites. Most communities in non traditional Gum acacia producing areas with gum acacia tree resources are ignorant of the importance of Gum acacia and lack skills to exploit this resource. There are price fluctuations in the international market. Increased competition from other producers especially from Chad and Nigeria. There are limited markets especially for gum from EES The producer prices are affected by local politics. The gum marketing and trade is monopolized by a few traders. There are no producer cooperative groups except in UNS. High and multiple taxation in Southern Sudan are an impediment to gum trade. Difficulties in exporting gum from Southern Sudan through Port Sudan. Exporting through Mombasa port is very expensive due to high transport costs. There is a general lack of legislated law to govern various institutions. There are policy gaps in Southern Sudan. Most of the current policies are obsolete and irrelevant and require review.
xii There is inadequate human resource capacity in the area of quality and quality control coupled with few and ill equipped Universities or laboratories in Southern Sudan. Southern Sudan is rich in traditional ecological knowledge but this is yet to be properly documented. There is poor data collection and documentation along the Gum acacia value chain leading to un-reliable statistics and information on Gum acacia trade. Extension services are ineffective and not extensive. There is no stakeholders‟ consultative forum.
It is concluded that Gum acacia from A. senegal and A. seyal, indigeneous fruits/nuts/seeds, medicinal plants and honey and bee products are significant among the various natural resources in Southern Sudan. These are renewable resources that could be sustainably exploited for household income, employment generation and still conserve biological diversity and ecosystem functions while increasing overall productivity of the land.
Some short term, medium term and long term recommendations are given. The key ones being:
Short term 1. GOSS-MAF to refine policies on tree products to better suit the producers. 2. Need to identify a suitable brand name that is recognizable internationally and lobby for its registration and adoption through FAO, NGARA and AIPG. 3. State governments should enforce protection and conservation of gum producing tree species. 4. Develop guidelines for sustainable tapping of gum srabic from A. senegal. 5. Promote establishment and strengthening of producer cooperative societies. 6. Promote and support the creation of more micro-finance schemes. 7. Gum acacia value chain analysis 8. Carry out training for all actors along the value chain. 9. Aggressive marketing of Gum acacia and linking the producers to markets 10. GOSS to urgently discuss with the government of national unity on use of Port Sudan.
Medium term 1. GOSS-MAF should hasten the introduction of a new Forest Act. 2. Promote formation of an Umbrella Gum acacia society for the whole of Southern Sudan 3. Carry out a detailed traditional ecological knowledge study on non timber forest products (NTFPs).
xiii 4. Assess the viability of community based value adding practices for NTFPS. 5. Put in place relevant policies and/or legislation to urgently address missing gaps. 6. Support intensive resource inventory and mapping of the Gum acacia producing resources. 7. Map gum acacia quality variation within and among producing states for the two types of gum. 8. Set a transparent and enabling business environment for private investors. 9. Make changes in rules governing marketing and export of Gum acacia to stimulate production and boost producer incomes.
Long term 1. Develop management plans for the Gum acacia resources. 2. Establishment of plantations of A. senegal and A. seyal species. 3. Consider establishing some grinding factories to crush gum into powder
xiv 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview Southern Sudan is a region of Sudan lying south of latitude 10 0 N and extends far south as Kajo-Keji and Nimule on the Uganda border. It has a land area of about 648,051 km2 and is about one fourth of the Republic of Sudan. Southern Sudan comprises 10 states namely: Eastern Equatoria, Central Equatoria, West Equatoria, Northern Bahr El Ghazal, Western Bahr El Ghazal, Warrap, Unity, Jonglei, Lakes and Upper Nile. It is so large yet one of the least developed regions in Africa due to nearly 50 years of civil wars which have destroyed the little infrastructure that existed. The war also had a devastating impact on the lives of Southern Sudanese people.
The government of Southern Sudan (GoSS) was established by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), which was signed in Naivasha, Kenya, in January 2005, after a prolonged period of civil war between the south of Sudan and the northern government in Khartoum. GoSS has made considerable and tangible socio-economic progress in the four years of its existence, although major challenges to sustainable peace and economic development still remain. The unresolved issue of the three conflict areas of Abyei, Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile, the allocation of oil revenues and the coming 2011 referendum constitute major threats to stability and peace. The other challenge is that Southern Sudan, apart from aid, depends on oil revenues; with the decline of oil prices in the international markets the government‟s budget is more exposed. There is need to create a broad based economy through focusing on other sources of revenue such as increased production and marketing of agricultural, livestock and forestry products.
Southern Sudan is well endowed with a diversity of natural forest and woodlands. It is estimated that the natural forests and woodlands of Southern Sudan cover a total area of some 191,667 km2 or about 29 % of the land area (Lomuro, 2007). Southern Sudan has a wide range of natural forest types, albeit under varying degrees of degradation, ranging from wood land savanna in the north to the highland montane forests in the south. The savanna woodland extends across and covers most of the states in Southern Sudan. Rainfall varies from 300 mm to over 1500 mm. The savannah woodland is divided into two main zones; the low rainfall savannah (300 mm to 800 mm) and the high rainfall savannah (over 800 mm per annum). The low rainfall savannah has principally heavy dark clay soils in the east, dominated by thorny acacias such as Acacia mellifera, Acacia seyal, and A. senegal and Balanites aegyptiaca. Further south, where the soil tends to be lighter, with frequent rocky fragments, species change to broadleaf such as Combretum hartmannianum, Anogeissus leiocarpus and Terminalia brownii in mixture with Acacias. West of the Nile, the soil changes abruptly although the same species exist. In addition, the following broadleaf species grow in this area: Combretum hartmannianum, C. cordofanum, Terminalia laxiflora, Gauria
1 senegalensis, Dalbergia melanxylon, Adansonia digitata, Tamarindus indica, Albizzia sericocephela, Sclerocarya birrea and Prosopis africana.
The vast quantities of natural resources in these areas are a source of valuable hardwood timber and non timber forest products such as: shea butter, honey and related bee products, bitter aloes, thatching grass, bamboo, high value indigenous fruits (Tamarind, yellow coconut, Balanites aegytiaca (Desert dates) etc) and gum acacia. Among the non timber forest products, gum acacia (hereinafter referred to as gum acacia due to some concerns by the South Sudanese people on the use of gum acacia) is the most important as it has sustained the Sudanese economy for a long time.
Gum acacia is a seasonal product from the widely-growing A. Senegal and A. seyal. Gum acacia is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industry for its unrivalled technological properties: emulsifier for oil in water emulsion, carrier for encapsulation, stabilizer for colloidal systems, texturizer in sugar and polyols medium, film former avoiding fat, water and gas migration and binder for sugar and polyols compressed products. Unlike many other food ingredients that try to replace it, Gum acacia, is natural, GMO free, and non chemically or enzymatically modified, filling completely the strong demand of consumers for natural products and bridging valuable labeling and image to the finished product. International demand for the gum is high. The current world demand is about 100,000 MT against a current supply of about 70,000 MT. The demand is projected to reach 150,000 MT by 2020 (Chikamai and Casadei, 2005).
Virtually all the Gum acacia of commerce comes from Africa, with Sudan accounting for 63 % in 2006 and 32 % in 2006 of the world production followed by Chad and Nigeria (ITC, 2000 and ITC, 2008). About 12 other countries in the Sahel, stretching from Senegal to Mauritania in West Africa to Somalia in the Horn of Africa and southwards to Tanzania are also producers. Despite Sudan‟s predominance in the world market, the southern part of the country has not been able to actively participate in the Gum acacia trade due to the lack of awareness by most of the local communities of the importance of the product at the international level and the limited access to the market.
1.1 Background to the study Gum acacia has the potential to make significant contributions to alleviating poverty in many parts of Southern Sudan. The gum belt in Southern Sudan runs across from Eastern Equatoria, Central Equatoria, North Barhl El Gazhal , Warrap, Unity, Jonglei to Upper Nile States. In Southern Sudan, gum is normally harvested by resource poor agro pastoral communities living in remote areas. The collectors include women and children. For more than twenty years a substantial number of rural communities have been participating in the harvesting and marketing of gum, especially in areas that border Northern Sudan such as the Upper Nile State. Recently, gum harvesting and limited
2 marketing have started in Eastern Equatoria through the support of SNV. As the participating communities are considered among the poorest and most vulnerable in Southern Sudan, it is clear that Gum acacia can increase a significant percentage of their total cash incomes.
It is envisaged that, by bringing together actors in the Gum acacia value chain, a clear strategy can be developed leading to increased gum production and marketing in Southern Sudan, thereby increasing income and benefits to participating individuals and communities, and helping in the building of a strong export market.
As part of the preparations to a multi stakeholders‟ workshop, SNV hired a team of two consultants in the framework of NGARA to conduct a situational analysis or a rapid gum sub sector analysis and role definition of gum acacia in supporting poverty reduction, household livelihoods and food security in Southern Sudan. This study is expected to enlighten the workshop participants on the current state of gum acacia in Southern Sudan, where its found, estimated quantities or potential, where current harvesting is taking place, who the harvesters are, current uses of the gum, current markets and marketing organizations, current prices, map other actors in gum and their activities including challenges being encountered or gaps that need discussion during the workshop. The terms of reference for the consultants were as outlined below:
1.2 Scope of the work (Terms of reference) 1. Scoping: Explore extent and spread of gum acacia by type in identified areas: estimate extent of cover (possible quantities) and carry out limited mapping work. 2. Assess current exploitation and use of gum as food security/livelihood support 3. Assess current marketing organizations, markets and channels and pricing at community level. 4. Assess potential for investment in the gum sector supported by some information from mapping. 5. Opportunities available to enhance exploitation and use: traditional rules and regulations, ownership, local/national/regional market potential 6. Assess capacity of communities with regard to enhancing exploitation (methods used to exploit, processing technologies etc ) 7. Policies that would enhance Gum acacia production and marketing for increased incomes and food security at household levels leading to improved livelihoods. 8. Understand traditional knowledge in development and conservation strategies of gum and other non timber forest products [NTFPs]. 9. Identify other key NTFPs that communities can be able to sustainably harvest for increased incomes and livelihood improvement.
3 1.2.1 Timeframe of the Study The field exercise was carried in 20 days starting 10th to 29th May 2009 including travel days. The itinerary for the assignment is in Appendix I.
1.2.2 Team Composition The consultants were accompanied by the GOSS-MAF Director of Forest Products Industries (Mr. Stanslaus P. Kayanga), SNV representative (Mr. Peter Soro) and a representative of the State forestry directorate in each state (Jogo Francis Amum (UNS), Mr. Ahou Deng (NBEGS) and Natalis Owen Okeny [EES]) as part of the capacity building exercise for the locals.
1.2.3 Locations Visited The study focused on three states namely: Upper Nile State (UNS), North Barhl El Ghazal State (NBEGS) and Eastern Equatoria State (EES). Specific counties were selected in the three states according to prior knowledge of existence of the gum from secondary information and consultations with State Ministry of Agriculture (SMOA).
Table 1-1: The counties and payams visited during the study
State County Payam
Renk Jelahak NBEGS Aweil East Warawar Malualbai Malualkon Wanjok Aweil North Ariath Aweil West Udhum EES Budi Kimatong‟ Ikotos Lobira Budi Kidepo Kapoeta North Riwoto
In order to have a rapid assessment of gum trade and potential at least two counties per state were chosen based on abundance of gum producing Acacia trees, current gum production and marketing activities, security, accessibility and distance from the state headquarters. The counties and payams visited during the study are summarized in Table 1-1.
1.2.4 Data collection and analysis process
Field visits were made to areas where the gum resources were growing in the selected sites. Sample plots of 20 x 20 m were randomly obtained and the GPS points noted. All the tappable trees in the selected quadrant were counted and their mean diameters and heights estimated using three trees representing the smallest, medium and
4 largest sizes. Observations were made on the soil type and the effect of tapping activities on the trees. The data collected was analysed using Microsoft excel to give an indication of the current stocking density of the gum acacia resources. Density classes were assigned based on an optimal stocking density of 625 stems per hectare based on a spacing of 4 x 4 m building on experience of the establishment of Acacia senegal plantations in the Sudan. Based on this criterion, the following density classification (stems/ha) was used: Table 1- 2: Density classification
Stocking density (stems/ha) Classification <500 Low 500-800 Medium > 800 High
The GPS points were used to produce a preliminary map indicating the gum belt and areas in Southern Sudan with a high probability of A. Senegal and A. seyal trees. The situational analysis process was done in a participatory manner so as to get inputs from the communities, other actors and traders involved. Focused group discussions and key informants interviews were conducted. Local chiefs, government staff, gum harvesters, gum marketing association representatives, local gum traders or buyers, and county leaders (Appendix II) were interviewed using tools in Appendix III. Key potential partners in each state were also identified, visited and their potential roles in the gum sub-sector defined. Desk reviews were carried out and the existing secondary data or literature obtained and used in compiling the final report. Recommendations were made based on best practice guidelines and relevant international experience
2.0 Limitations of the study The duration of the study was too short and the area coverage so wide that it was not possible to meet and interview a sizeable number of respondents in the selected sites. It was also not possible to get many traders and collectors as the gum collection season was over and current tapping, collection and trading activities were minimal. There was also language barrier and some information may have been lost or distorted during translations. Due to shortage of time and inaccessibility, all the sampling plots were located close to the main road; areas with both human and livestock interference. The risk of land mines in some sites especially in EES was also an impediment as movement was restricted to the road. The GPS points were also not sufficient enough to allow for effective classification of the two species in order to determine their proportions. It was also difficult to get most of the policy
5 documents except for forestry and investment as most of them were in draft forms and yet to be passed by the legislative assembly. However, within the above limitations useful information was gathered and summarized in the following chapters.
3.0 FINDINGS
3.1 Background information on the selected states a. Upper Nile State (UNS)
Location and Administration Upper Nile State is the northern most State in Southern Sudan, lying between latitude 60 to 120 North and Longitude 320 to 340 East. The state‟s total area is estimated at 199,099 km² (47,404,495 feddan) (Source SMOA/MKL). It borders Ethiopia and Blue Nile to the east, Sennar States to the northeast, White Nile State to the north, Southern Kordofan and Unity states to the west and Jonglei State to the south. Administratively, UNS is divided into 12 Counties, 70 Payams and 289 Bomas. The Counties include Baliet, Fasoda, Longuchok, Luakpiny (Nasir), Maban, Malakal, Manyo, Meiwut, Melut, Panyikango, Renk and Ulang.
Population and socio-economic set up Upper Nile State has a population estimated at 1,200,000 (Source CFSA 2005 and UNS Strategic Plan 2007). This comprises in ranking of the Nuer, Shilluk, Dinka, Maban, Kombo and others (mainly nomadic Arabs, Uduk, Malakia, Hausa and Fulani who originate from West Africa). Most of the state population (more than 80%) are agro-pastoralists, who mainly practice seasonal rain-fed subsistence agriculture around their homestead and keep good numbers of livestock that amounts to around 3 million head (Cattle, sheep, goats and poultry).
The state is considered to be among the top 5 agricultural states in Sudan and the first in south Sudan in regard to crops production particularly sorghum. It has an estimated cultivable area of 36 million feddans out of which only 3-5 % has been annually cultivated (Source SMOA 2008). Most of the state population (more than 80%) are agro-pastoralists, who mainly practice seasonal rain-fed subsistence agriculture around their homestead and keep good numbers of livestock that amounts to around 3 million head (Cattle, sheep, goats and poultry). Fishing is also considered to be an important source of food and income for communities living near rivers, creeks and swamp. The main crops cultivated include: Maize (widely in the eastern counties) and sorghum (mainly in Shilluk Kingdom and northern counties), in addition to sesame, sun flower, ground nuts and cow peas plus gum acacia. Communities living close to growth centres are usually engaged in off-farm activities such as small scale trade and work as casual labourers as an important source of their livelihood. Wild foods (wild greens and fruits) also
6 play a vital role in the livelihood of the rural populations both in good seasons and during food insecurities.
Currently, there are two different production systems one is traditional cultivation and another one is commercial mechanized farming. Most of the farmers in Upper Nile state are traditionally small holders cultivating average 0.67 hectare (1.6 Feddan) per household. The average yield of cereals is also low. It is approximately 1 ton/ha in mechanized schemes and 0.80 to 0.90 ton/ha (2.37 feddan) in traditional areas (source CFSAM 2007).
Although the State economy depends on agro-pastoral and fisheries activities, which collectively account for 80% of income of indigenous population, it is now certain that oil revenues have overtaken this, which is not a good indication.
Climate, soils and vegetation cover The annual rainfall in the state ranges between 300-900 mm increasing in a north-to south gradient. The State experiences six-months of unimodal rainy period, whose onset is a progression from the south in late April covering the whole State by late May. It starts receding in October. By mid-November the rainy season ends. While it is very rare to have rains during the dry season (November to April), it is not uncommon to experience rainfall delays, which often extends the dry season into late May. This often is the cause of food deficits. The annual rainfall in the state ranges between 300-900 mm increasing in a north-to south gradient. The soil in the state is of black cotton type, which covers most of the state area, mainly along the White Nile River banks and in the marshland areas. The land is covered by Savannah trees mostly Acacia species like A. nubica (El laot), A. senegal (El Hashab), A. mellifera (El kitir), A. seyal (El taleh). Other trees include: Tamarindus indica (El aradaeb) and Balanites aegyptica (El higlig).
b. Northern Bahr El Ghazal State (NBEGS) Location and Administration Northern Bahr el Ghazal State has an area of 33,558 km² and is part of the Bahr el Ghazal region. It borders South Darfur to the north, Western Bahr el Ghazal to the west and south, and Warab and Abyei to the east. Aweil is the capital of the state. Northern Bahr el Ghazal, is divided into 5 counties. These are: Aweil central, Aweil West, Aweil North, Aweil East and Aweil South
Because of its proximity to Kordofan and the presence of a railway line through it to Wau, it suffered extensively in the recently ended civil war in southern Sudan. Northern Bahr el Ghazal and adjacent parts of Western Kordofan to the north are among the most politically sensitive regions in Sudan. Missriya Arabs from Kordofan have interacted with Dinka in this region over a long time. While relations during the colonial era were largely peaceful, the recent war saw an upsurge in hostilities. Government backing to the Missriya gave them a decided advantage over local Dinka groups, and raiding by murahileen militias (and other government backed groups,
7 including some Dinka militias) resulted in considerable loss of life, widespread abduction and pillaging of Dinka villages. Many of these raids coincided with the movement of government trains to and from Kordofan to Wau.
Population
The population of Northern Bahr el Ghazal state is about 1,200,000, distributed as follows: 303207 (from Aweil W), 204610 (from Aweil N), 426601 (Aweil E), 241162 (Aweil S) and 24420 (Aweil Centre). It is inhabited mainly by Dinka people, who make their living through subsistence farming and cattle herding.
The Dinka are a group of tribes of south Sudan inhabiting the Bahr el Ghazal region of the Nile basin, Jonglei and parts of Southern Kordufan and Upper Nile Sudan Regions. The priorities for the people in NBEGS are summarized in Table 1-3.
Table 1-3: Community priorities in Northern Bahr El Ghazal
Locations Socio-Economic Groups Poor Middle Better off Udhaba, Kabat, (1) Food (1) Food (1) Cash (Aweil Centre) assistance Assistance/Seeds credit/Education Alok, Nyoc Deng (2) Water (2)Water/Agriculture (2) Road Apany, (3) Seeds/Tools inputs Construction/Water Panngabdit, (3) Education/Seeds (3) Health (Aweil South) & Mabil (Aweil East) Ayuang, (1) Food 1) Drinking Water (1) HayaToic, Chimel assistance/Tools 2) Education/Health Security/Education Makem, Aguat, (2) Drinking 3) Health /Education (2) Education/ (Aweil West) & water/Fishing Drinking water Majakbai (Aweil equipment (3) North) (3) Drinking Education/Agriculture water/Health inputs Ajiep, Amarjal, (1) Food (1) Food Assistance (1) Drinking Rialdit, Marol Assistance (2) Drinking Water/Health Ajuong, Marial (2) shelters / water/Health (2) Drinking Akenjok (Aweil housing (3) Education services water/Education East) (3) Drinking (3) Health/Education Water/Health Warpach, War (1) Food (1) Food Assistance (1) Drinking Water Geng, Mabior Assistance (2)Drinking (2) Health/Food Angui &Marol (2) Water/Shelter/housing Assistance Deng Geng (Aweil Shelter/Drinking (3) Shelter/Seeds (3) security/Education North) Water (3) Fishing Equipment and Drinking Water Source: FAO ANLA report, 2008.
8
It is estimated that 265, 000 people in the state will be in need of 17,776 MT of assorted food assistance in 2009.
Climate and vegetation cover Being at the frontier, the state was perhaps the worst affected by the war with serious vegetation degradation. Agriculture and forest production activities were disrupted with large proportion of the population relying on relief food for survival.
There are two distinct agro-ecological zones (i) ironstone plateau to the south and (ii) alluvial plains in the central and northern parts. Rainfall ranges from 300 mm. to 900 mm annually. The dominant natural vegetation is dry savannah woodlands. Dominant species include Acacia seyal, Acacia mellifera, Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia senegal, Combertum hartimianum, etc.
The bio-climatic conditions are rather limiting for tree growing and plantation development, and there is need greater aforestation efforts to stem spread of desertification. Moreover, livestock overgrazing significantly adds to desertification pressure.
c. Eastern Equatoria State (EES)
Location and Administration
Eastern Equatoria State has an area of 82,542 km². Torit is the capital of the state. The state shares international borders with Uganda in the south, with Kenya in the south-east and with Ethiopia in the north-east. Domestically, it's bordered by Central Equatoria in the west and Jonglei in the north. EES has 8 counties, namely Torit, Magwi, Budi, Ikotos, Lopa/Lafon, Kapoeta North, Kapoeta East and Kapoeta South.
Population
EES currently has an estimated population of 1,2million, from 700,000 in the 2004/5. This is due to repatriation of Southern Sudanese from Uganda and Kenya since 2006 by UNHCR. Population for each county is summarized in Table 3-1.
9 Table 3-1: Eastern Equatoria Profile
Profile Item Kapoeta Kapoeta Kapoeta Budi Ikotos Lafon Torit Magwi East North South Lopa 1. 450,000 344,191 190,000 170,478 90,0000 190,180 132,000 Population 2. Size (ha) 35,854 10,348 21,938 3. Population 7 16 9 Density (persons/ha) Extracted from EES Profile by Dr Simeon S Kanani, May 2006
Eastern Equatoria State has a complex ethnic composition of six main ethno- linguistic groups and twenty sub-ethnic groups (Alesio, 2005), these are summarized in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2: Ethno-Linguistic Groups of EES.
Ethno-Linguistic Group Communities Location Ateker Toposa, Nyangathom and Mainly in Kapoeta counties Jie Lotuho Otuho inc. Horyok, Lopit, In Torit, Ikotos and Juba Lokoya Lango Ketebo, Logir, Imotong, Ikotos County Dongotono, Lokwa, Lorwama Surma Didinga, Buya, and Tennet Budi County Lwo Acholi and Pari Acholis (Magwi) and Pari (Lafon) Sudanic Ma'di Magwi County Source: Kidepo Valley Strategic Plan, 2005
Climate, soils and vegetation cover
According to FAO report, total of 60,000 ha of arable land in EES are under cereal production. EES has three main livelihood zones namely: Hills and mountains, plain and arid zones. Hills and mountains zone is of high potential in EES. It has mixed seasons, two seasons in the highlands and one in the lowlands. In the highlands, the first season is from April to July and the second is from September to December. The zone receives an average of 1000 – 1800 mm per annum. Crops grown in this zone are mostly, maize, Irish potatoes, cassava, sesame, sweet potatoes, fruits such as bananas, and lots of vegetables such as onions and carrots.
Plain Zone are areas immediately below the highlands and western part of EES such as Torit , Ikotos, Magwi and Lopit areas. The plains have one growing season which starts from April to end of July. The western parts have savannah woodland on ironstone laterite soils where vitellaria paradoxa spp. nilotica (shea nut tree) can be found at higher altitudes. The flood regions of the north are with a mixture of palms and broad leaves species including Balanites (desert date). The zone receives an average 750 -1000mm per
10 annum. The zone produces most of the cereals, sesame, groundnuts and pulses with limited livestock number. The farmers in this zone are agro- pastoralists.
Arid Livelihoods Zone lies in the eastern part of the state and covers Greater Kapoeta Counties and the Kimatong, camp 15 areas in Budi and part of eastern Lopa/Lafon. This zone occupies the southern eastern tip of Southern Sudan. Agro-ecologically the eastern part is dominated by grass with acacia mellifera on sandy soils. The pastoral plains have also other species such as Balanites aegyptiaca and Acacia senegal which communities rely on for their food security and possibly cash income.
The zone receives an average of 350 – 750mm of rains per annum. The farmers in this zone practice a nearly pure form of pastoralism and there is exclusive reliance on livestock and livestock trade for food. Women and children to a very small extent grow sorghum, sesame, cowpeas, beans and cucumbers for household consumption. Seasonal migrations (Nov – May) in search of both water and pasture provide opportunities for substantial trade and exchange with neighbouring communities.
3.2 Gum acacia resources in Southern Sudan
3.2.1 Gum acacia resources in Southern Sudan Gum acacia from Southern Sudan is produced by two main species, A. senegal (L.) Willd var. senegal and A. seyal Del var. seyal. Each of the two species is shortly described below.
(a) Acacia senegal (L.) Willd var. senegal Mimosaceae
The Acacia senegal var. senegal locally known as El hashab (Arabic) produces the gum hashab (Plate 3-1). This is a shrub or tree that reaches 2-12 m high. It is generally recognized by its three hooked prickles at the nodes, the two lateral ones pointing upwards or forward in the direction of growth and one central pointing downwards or backwards or else solitary, the two laterals being absent. The bark varies from greenish yellow to grey-brown, branches appearing white washed. Leaves are bipinnate: pinnae 2-6 pairs, leaflets 8-18 pairs per pinna. Flowers are white or cream, in up to 12 cm long spikes. Pods are yellowish brown, 2-19 x 1.2-3.4 cm, rounded or blunt at the tip, papery with distinct lateral veins, dehiscent. The seeds are sub-circular, 8-12 mm in diameter with visible central U-shape.
11
(a) Tree stand (b) Gum Hashab Plate 3-1: A. senegal var. senegal stand at Jelahak, Renk County
(b) Acacia seyal Del. var. seyal Mimosaceae
Acacia seyal var. seyal locally known as El taleh (Arabic) produces the gum talha (Plate 3-2). This is a tree with irregularly flattened, spreading crown that grows to about 10 m in height. It is easily recognized by its smooth or sparsely flaking bark, which is covered with whitish, greenish yellow or orange-red powdery layer. It has white, stout, sharp thorns about 8 cm long, arranged in diverging pairs. Leaves are bipinnate: pinnae 3-8 pairs; leaflets 11-20 pairs per pinna, 3-8 x 0.7-1.5 mm. Flowers are bright yellow, in round heads. Pods are shiny red-brown, curved, 7-20 x 0.5-9 cm, longitudinally veined, slightly constricted between the seeds, splitting open on the tree. Seeds wrinkled, compressed, 7-9 x 4.5 mm.
(a) Tree stand (b) Gum Talha Plate 3-2. A.seyal var. seyal stand at Malualkon, Aweil East
3.2.2 Distribution and stocking densities of Gum acacia resources in Upper Nile, Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria States
a. Acacia senegal var. senegal Based on a classification by Harrison and Jackson (1958), A. senegal occurs in a number of vegetation types ranging from the semi-deserts and grassland
12 zone in the north of the Sudan to the Terminalia-Sclerocarya-Anogeissus- Prosopis savanna woodland in the south of the country.
In Upper Nile State, A. senegal var. senegal and A. seyal var. seyal are fairly well distributed in five counties, namely: Renk, Maban, Manyo, Melut and Fasoda. A. senegal grows best on clay sandy soils usually associated with Balanites aegyptiaca and also A. seyal var. seyal. According to the Forest Department personnel in Renk, this tree species constitute more than 60% of the total number of trees growing naturally in these areas. These trees had a general height of 5-6 m and diameters ranging from 6-17 cm. There was little or no regeneration, but overgrazing was clearly evident and virtually all trees within the plots were tapped for gum. Average density counts of 1183 stems per hectare for A. senegal var. senegal were recorded in Upper Nile State.
In Eastern Equatoria State A. senegal var. senegal tree is locally known as Todoch and its gum (mutulu). A belt of A. senegal var. senegal extended from Kidepo (Budi County) upto Kimatong‟ (Budi County). The most important areas where A. senegal var. senegal was prevalent and some tapping currently taking place were Kidepo valley, Tagonyi, Kadiriha and Tiwolo. The average density counts for A. senegal var. senegal were recorded as 812 stems per hectare (Figure 3-1).
A. senegal var. senegal were not observed in Northern Bahr El Ghazal state. The study shows that the stocking density of A. senegal is higher in Upper Nile State (1183 stems/ha) than in Eastern Equatoria State (812 stems/ha). The stocking densities obtained for A. senegal in these two states indicate that the density of the wildly growing A .senegal resources are more than the optimal density of 625 stems/ha, based on experience of the establishment of Acacia senegal plantations in the Sudan. This further indicates that some selective thinning could be carried out to promote natural regeneration and increase in tree diameter.
Stocking Density
1183
1200
1000 812
800
Stocking Density 600
400
200
0 UNS EES
13 Figure 3-1: Stocking density of A. senegal var. senegal in UNS and EES
b. Acacia seyal var. seyal In UNS, A. seyal var. seyal were also fairly well distributed in five counties, namely: Renk, Maban, Manyo, Melut and Fasoda. The A. seyal var. seyal occurred in almost pure stands in Melut County in wooded grassland, especially on seasonally flooded or wet flats of black cotton soils and along water courses in the entire Nile basin. An average density count of 1433 stems per hectare was recorded for UNS (Figure 3-2).
In Northern Bahr El Ghazal State (NBEGS), only A. seyal var. seyal resources were available. The A. seyal var. seyal resources were especially abundant in Aweil East County particularly in Bach (around Warawar), Malualkon, Malualbai and Wanjok payams. There were also extensive resources in Aweil North, around Ariath Payam and Aweil West in Udhum Payam. Average density counts of 1156 stems per hectare were recorded from eight sampling plots in Northern Bahr El Ghazal State (Figure 3-2). The A. seyal trees in state had heights of 4-8 m and diameters at breast height (dbh) ranging from 6-17 cm.
In Eastern Equatoria State (EES), both A. seyal var. seya and A. seyal var fistula were observed. Locally A. seyal tree is known as Keroch and its gum also known as mutulu. A. seyal var fistula was particularly abundant around Kiyala mixed with scattered A. seyal var. seyal, A. nilotica, Balanites aegytiaca and Ziziphus sp. A. seyal var. seyal was observed in dense stands around Lobira (Ikotos County). Average density counts of 1188 stems per hectare were recorded for A. seyal var. seyal (Figure 3-2).
The study shows that the stocking density of A. seyal is highest in Upper Nile State (1433 stems/ha), followed by Eastern Equatoria State (1188 stems/ha) and least in Northern Bahr El Ghazal state (1156 stems/ha). The stocking densities obtained for A. seyal in these three states indicate that the A. senegal resources were also more than the optimal density of 625 stems/ha (based on experience of the establishment of Acacia senegal plantations in the Sudan). This further indicates that some selective thinning could be carried out to promote natural regeneration and increase in tree diameter. The thinning could be used for fuel wood for which this species is popular especially in the Upper Nile and Northern Bahr El Ghazal states
14 Stocking density (stemsha-1)
1600 1433
1400 1188 1156 1200
1000
800 Stocking density (stemsha-1)
600
400
200
0 UNS EES NBEGS
Figure 3-2: A. seyal var. seyal stocking density in UNS, EES and NBEGS
3.2.3 Potential for gum production in Southern Sudan The Sudanese gum belt is from latitude 10○ to 14○ extending across Central Sudan, accounting for about one fifth of the country's total area (520,000 km2 ) (Abdala, 2007). It is inhabited by over five million Sudanese people. It is not very clear what proportion of this belt is in Southern Sudan.
A provisional map showing the probability, distribution and densities of gum acacia producing species in Southern Sudan is given in Figure 3-3. This need to be further verified and refined after collection of additional GPS points and field checks to produce a final map. The map indicates that the gum belt in Southern Sudan covers 7 states namely: North Barhl El Gazhal, Warrap, Unity, Jonglei, Upper Nile, Central Equatoria and Eastern Equatoria.
15 Figure 3-3: Probability map showing gum resources in Southern Sudan
From the map, the total area under the belt in Southern Sudan is estimated at 300,740.6 Km2 (30, 074,060 ha4), which is about 46.4 % of the total land area. Due to the limitations in the mapping work alluded to previously, it was not possible to get the exact area of the belt covered by the gum producing resources and we can only make estimations at this stage. It estimated that the potential annual production of gum acacia from Southern Sudan is 6,541.2-15,580.3 MT (See calculation below). Using the 2008 international prices of about US $ 2500 for grade 1 (gum hashab from A. senegal) and US $ 1300 for grade 2 (gum talha from A. seyal); this would translate to an annual export value of $ US 12,428,280 to 25, 850,300 from gum acacia [US $ 8,176,500-11, 784,500 from gum hashab and US $4,251,780.2-14,125,800 from gum talha.
4- the total area under the belt in Southern Sudan
16 Calculation of gum production potential As approximately 29 % of Southern Sudan is covered by natural forest and wood lands (Lomuro, 2007) and assuming this proportion for the gum belt:
Area of gum belt covered by Natural forest and wood lands = (Area of belt x 29 %) = 30, 074,060a x 0.29 = 8,721,477.4 ha Assuming further that a conservative figure of 1 % of the area covered by forests and wood lands consists of the gum acacia producing trees then:
The Area under gum acacia resources= Area under natural forests and wood lands x 1% = (8, 721,477.4 x 0.01) = 87,214.7 ha
Using a correction factor of 75 % to account for the existence of other land uses such as farmlands, settlements or glades then;
Area under the gum acacia resources = 87,214.7 x 0.75=65,411.1 ha
Assuming that A. senegal and A. seyal each occupy 50 % of this area (Pers. Com. Prof. Abdel Nour, former Director of Forestry, FNC and former Manager GAC), then:
Area under each resource = 65,411.1 x 0.5 = 32,705.5 ha a. Yield from A. senegal 1. Using Duke‟s yields (Duke 1993)
Estimated yield of gum (MT/ ha) = (Number of stems/ ha x Crown cover x Yield)/1,000,000.
Estimated yield for A. senegal using mean annual yield (MT/ha) for young and old trees of 1450g/ tree) = (994 x 0.1 x 1450)/ 1,000,000 = 0.1441 MT/ha
Estimated annual gum yield from A. senegal in Southern Sudan (MT)= (Estimated yield (MT/ ha) x area under A .senegal (ha) = 0.1441 x 32,705.5 = 4713.8 MT
2. Using ITC‟s yield for dense stands (100 kg/ha) Estimated annual yield for A. senegal yield = (Area under A. senegal x 100 ) /1000 = (32,705.5 x 100)/1000 = 3270.6 MT b. Yield from A. seyal 1. Using Duke‟s yields (Duke 1993)
17
Estimated yield of gum (MT/ ha) = (Number of stems/ha x Crown cover x Yield)/1,000,000.
Estimated yield for A. seyal using mean annual yield for young and old trees of 1450g/ tree (Duke 1993) = (1133.1 x 0.182 x 1450)/ 1,000,000 = 0.3323 MT/ ha
Estimated annual gum yield from A. seyal in Southern Sudan (MT)= (Estimated yield (MT/ ha) x area under A .senegal (ha) = 0.4124 x 32,705.5 = 10,866.4 MT
2. Using ITC‟s yield for dense stands (100 kg/ha) Estimated annual yield for A. seyal yield = (Area under A. seyal x 100 ) /1000 MT= (32,705.5 x 100)/1000 = 3270.6 MT
Potential annual production of Gum acacia from Southern Sudan:
Yield A. A. seyal Total Estimate senegal Method Duke‟s 4713.8 10,866.40 15,580.20 ITC;s 3270.6 3270.6 6,541.20
3.3 Current gum production in Southern Sudan Gum acacia production in Southern Sudan is from A. senegal and A. seyal and currently mainly concentrated in three states namely: Upper Nile State (UNS), North Barhl El Gazhal State (NBEGS) and Eastern Equatoria State (EES). The key counties in these States where Gum acacia is produced and the gum producing tree resources are reported in Table 3-3. Gum from Acacia senegal trees is mainly obtained through tapping of the tree to develop the gum tear, while that from A. seyal is exuded through naturally occurring breaks or fissures in the tree branches and bark.
18 Table 3-3: Main areas in Upper Nile State (UNS), North Barhl El Gazhal State (NBEGS) and Eastern Equatoria State (EES where Gum acacia resources are found
County Payams Available Current Remarks State Gum acacia source of resources Gum acacia
UNS Renk Jelahak,Shamedi, A. senegal A. senegal Gum Rank, Geiger and A. seyal and A. seyal resources Melut Fariak,Faloij, A. senegal A. senegal constitute Galdora,Farandid, and A. seyal about 60 % Melut, Wanamom of the trees found in this area Maban, Not visited Manyo, Fasoda NBEGS Aweil East Bach and A. seyal A. seyal Malualbai Aweil North Ariath A. seyal A. seyal, A. seiberiana A. seiberiana potential adulterant Aweil West Udhum A. seyal No exploitation EES Lafon A. seyal No exploitation Budi Kimatong‟ A. senegal, A. senegal Only A. A. seyal senegal being exploited Kapoeta Narus East Kapoeta Lomeyan, A. senegal A. senegal No tapping North Mosing‟o, of trees, gum Wokobu exudes naturally
a. Land / tree ownership Land ownership is not clearly defined in Southern Sudan and the land where the trees are wildly growing in all the three states visited is communal land. In Renk, Melut and Aweil East where the gum collection has been going on for at least more than 10 years, the community elders apportions land with the Gum acacia trees resources to each clan, and each clan in turn divides their portion of land to the individual families. There are no existing physical boundaries but each family appears to know quite well their tapping/collection boundaries. In Aweil North, where tapping has been going on for only about 5 years, the collection is not organized and the land is not apportioned and collectors can get gum from anywhere within the state. In
19 Kimatong‟ in EES, though the clans have been apportioned their land, there is no restriction on extraction of gum. Any tree can be tapped by any body provided the tree is not cut down.
b. Collectors The tapping and collection of gum is done by resource poor agro-pastoralists with little or no education. The number of local community members involved in tapping of the gum vary from area to area. In Renk County (UNS) for example, there are about 147,000 people from about 11,000 households who are involved in the tapping of gum. In NBEGS, there are about 100 households in Aweil East County and 30 households in Aweil North who are engaged in this exercise. In EES, there are about 500 households (about 2,500 people) involved in tapping A. senegal in Kimatong‟. The issue of gender also varies from area to area. Communities which are closer to the North (e.g. in Renk County) with a lot of influence from Islamic religion, tend to have men dominating the collection of the gum. The dominance of men in UNS may be mainly due to culture and the fact that during the gum collection season in Renk, the collectors (men) usually camp at the collection points for days until all the gum is collected. Resource endowed women in UNS are reported to hire a group of men to tap for them. In NBEGS both men and women are involved in gum collection, with the majority of the producers being women, who were reported (by Mercy Corps) to be the bread winners in most households in Aweil East. In EES, all people (men, women and youth) are involved with the majority being the herders (boys).
c. Tree size and age Tapping of A. senegal trees starts as early as 3 years, though literature reports 4-18 (Duke, 1983) or 5-25 years (Abdala, 2007). Rapid field observations during this mission indicated that the diameter of the A. senegal trees tapped ranged from 4 -16 cm.
d. Tapping/ Collection seasons Tapping of A. senegal trees for gum production begins from as early as mid October to early November, usually after the long rains when the trees are just starting to shed their leaves. It therefore varies slightly from site to site depending on when the long rainy season ends in a particular site. The main gum collection season is December-May. The timing of the first collection of gum following the tapping and the number of collections per tree seem to vary from area to area (Table 3-4). In Renk, the first collection is done after 2 months, second collection after 15-25 days and the subsequent ones after 10- 15 days up to the last collection. In Melut, the first collection is after one month and the subsequent collections are done after 15 days up to the last collection. Table 3-4 gives a summary of the gum tapping and collection periods and frequency of collections for the areas studied.
20
Table 3-4: Tapping and collection seasons of gum in three states in Southern Sudan
State County Tapping Season Collection Frequency Season (No) of collections per tree UNS Renk Mid October- December-May 5 November Melut November- December-May 3 December NBEGS Aweil East - March-April - Aweil North - January-April - EES Budi December January-April 3 Kapoeta December January-March - North
e. Gum tapping and collection tools Tapping is done mainly using an axe or a knife or a panga but this varies with counties (Table 3-5). At least 25 % of tappers in Renk have Sonke (recommended tool for tapping) while in Melut there is no tapper with Sonke. Though the collectors in some of the sites in UNS have been briefed by the forest department on the short comings of using axes for tapping but they continue to use the same due to resistance to change and inability to afford the recommended alternative tapping tool (Sonke). Sonke costs between SDG 20-25 (US$ 8-10) per piece. The tappers, in Renk County, claim that it is easier to use the axe than the suggested sonke.
Table 3-5: Tools used for tapping of A. senegal and collecting gum from A. seyal
State County Tool UNS Renk Sonke Axe/knife Melut Axe/knife NBEGS Aweil East Chisel (Akorchok) Aweil North Long stick EES Kimatong‟ Panga or axe or hoe
f. Tapping method and its effect on the trees Mature A. senegal trees, 4.5-6 m tall and 5-25 years old, are usually tapped by making incisions in the branches and stripping away the bark to accelerate exudation. In this study, all the trees in the selected sample plots were tapped irrespective of size and age. Tapping was done on the whole tree trunk and
21 on all branches (Plate 3-3 a, b). It was also reported by the forester (Renk County) that there is complete healing of the bark of tapped portions of the tree within one year (Plate 3-3 c). Though there is complete re-growth (healing) of bark by the next gum tapping season for most trees being tapped, the forest department has observed that the current tapping is excessive and may not be sustainable.
(a) (b) (c) Plate 3-3: Tapping of A . senegal trees in UNS
The maximum gum production period of each tree is estimated at about 9 years as compared to the expected production life of about 15-20. It has also been observed by the forest department in Melut County that the current tapping method may also be contributing to the death of about 5-10 % of the tapped trees by the following tapping season.
g. Quantities of gum produced
Each tree produces approximately 2.5 kg per season (Pers. Com, Director Forestry, Melut County). This may vary from site to site, season to season, tree to tree and also with the tree species. Annual yields of gum acacia from young A. senegal trees are reported to range from 188 to 2856 g/tree (avg. 900 g) and from older trees, 379 to 6754 g/tree (average 2000 g) (Duke , 1983). Yield per ha per year ranges between 30 to 40 kg in case of open stands and as much as 100 kg in case of dense stands (ITC, 1983). The production of gum in the three states in 2006/7 and 2007/8 is illustrated in Figure 3-4. The total production in 2006/7 and 2007/8 were about 2245 MT and 6417 MT, respectively. The production in 2006/7 (2245 MT) is about 9.7 % of the total production of Gum acacia from the whole Republic of Sudan in 2006 (23,149 MT). The production in 2007/8 (6417 MT) is about 18.8 % of the highest production in the last ten years (34,162 MT in 2002) and 98.1 % of the estimated minimum potential (Section 3.2.3). Upper Nile state had the highest gum production (2030 MT in 2006/7 and 5811.7 MT in 2007/8) and EES had the least 15 MT in 2006/7 and 5 MT in 2007/8 (5 MT).
22
UNS NBEGS EES Total
7000 6417 5811.7 6000
5000
4000 Production (MT)
3000 2245 2030
2000
600 1000 200 15 5 0 2006/7 2007/8 Year
Figure 3-4: Gum production in 2006/7 and 2007/8
3.4 Post harvest handling of gum a. Gum storage In UNS, it was reported that the gum collected is stored buried in large holes dug on the ground, wrapped in polythene sheets and covered with soil. As gum acacia is sold on weight basis, this method is considered by the collectors as an appropriate and effective way of controlling moisture loss from the gum in order to maintain weight of gum until it is purchased by a trader. In Kimatong‟ the gum collected is taken to a store owned by Calcholo community rehabilitation organization. Plate 3-4 show gum storage in Jelahak (UNS) and at Kimatong‟ (EES).
(a) Store at Jelahak (UNS) (b) Store at Kimatong’
Plate 3-4. Gum acacia storage
23
b. Gum Cleaning and Grading
The producers only clean the gum but there is no grading at the producer level. Grading is done by the exporters. Cleaning of gum at Kimatong‟ was observed as not up to the required standards as there were still some traces of bark on the gum. The producers require further training on this.
c. Packaging Gum acacia being a natural product must be packaged carefully „in a manner that allows aeration‟ so as to facilitate polymerization in the course of its transportation. It should be packed in natural weaved or synthetic fibre bags. In the past, gum acacia was packaged in units of 100 kg but for some years now, 50 kg bags are used. It was reported that most collectors in UNS use jute bags for packaging the gum. However, some few still use polythene bags mainly due to lack of finances and occasionally due to lack of knowledge. In EES, the producers use dry animal skins or coconut leaves to package the gum as they transport this to the central store. At the store, the gum is packaged in 50 kg polythene bags. The store keeper claims that jute bags are not available in Kimatong‟.
3.5 Use of gum as food security and livelihood support a. Current local uses of Gum acacia In Sudan, especially in the North (where gum production has been going on for a long time) Gum acacia is traditionally believed to have the following functional uses:
Raises human immune level especially for pregnant women. Helps digestion as a fiber. Have supernatural powers to drive away evil spirits and witches. Treatment of kidney failures. However, in Southern sudan the local uses seem limited to chewing by the locals (in all the three states), treatment of liver and stomach ailments, gum being added to milk by the herders in EES.
b. Current income from Gum acacia As gum collection takes place once in a year during the dry season when there are limited agricultural activities, the income from the gum collection is used to supplement other incomes. Gum production is therefore an alternative source of livelihood especially during the drier months when no income may be expected from agricultural produce. It is estimated that more than 75 % of the local communities in gum producing areas in UNS (where gum production has been going on for along time) depend on gum production as an alternative source of livelihood, especially if the producer price is good. With some bit of promotion and price incentive, it is estimated
24 that that more than 50 % of the population in areas with gum resources in EES and NBGES could have gum production as an alternative source of livelihood. In a good year, the local communities involved in the collection of gum get some good income from the sale of Gum acacia.
A 60 year old collector from Malualbai in Aweil East county (NBEGS), interviewed during the study, who collects an average of 20 kg of gum a day and works for about 4 days in a week during the two month period of gum collection, indicated that he earns about SDG 1360 from the sale of Gum acacia from A. seyal in the two months. This was the lowest among his four main sources of income (Figure 3-5 b). The higher income from charcoal, which is produced by cutting A. seyal trees, is an indication that the gum producing resources in these areas are threatened. His 38 year old counter part from Renk (UNS), who works 8 hours a day collecting gum for about 4 months, earns about 3000 a year from Gum acacia, which is higher than that of his only other source of income, livestock sales (Figure 3-5 a). A woman from Kimatong‟ with an average age of 38 years, with an average family size of 5, spending about 2-3 hours a day for an average of about 10 days per month and collecting an average of 2.75 kg a day earns SDG 1 /kg PER DAY totaling to about SDG 27.5 per month and SDG 82.5 (per year) from sale of gums. This is lower than all her other sources of income except for Milk (Figure 3-5 c).
3000
2500
2000 Annual 3000 1500 income,SDG 1000
500 800
0 Livestock sales Gum arabic Source of income
Figure 3-5a: UNS
25 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 Annual 20,000 38,400 income, SDG 36,000 15,000
10,000 14,400 5,000 1360 0 Firewood Charcoal Tamarind Gum arabic fruits Source of income
Figure 3-5b: NBEGS
600 600
500
400 360 360
300
200 Total income per year (SDG) year per income Total 120 82.5 100
0 Milk Charcoal Firewood Local beer Gum arabic Source of Income
Figure 3-5c: EES
26 3.6 Marketing of gum acacia Among all the types of gums marketed worldwide, gum acacia is certainly the most well known and the most in demand both at the levels of the producing regions and internationally.
a. Markets
i. International markets
On the international market, gum acacia is subject to various trends and fluctuations. This is the result of several factors: a growing demand, a varying ability for African countries to stabilize supply, variability of quality and price and, finally, the threat posed by the emergence of substitute products in importing countries a factor that may negatively affect the demand for gum acacia. The current world demand is about 100,000 MT against a current supply of about 70,000 MT, with a mean supply over 15 years (1992-2006) of about 46,085 MT (Table 3-6). The demand is projected to reach 150,000 MT by 2020 (Chikamai and Casadei, 2005).
The international market remains currently polarized with the European Union and the United States of America on the one hand and the principal producing and exporting countries located in Africa, namely Sudan, Chad and Nigeria on the other hand. Europe dominates, the global market of gum acacia, marketing 83 % of the total amount (in tons) and representing close to 89 % of the business affairs between 2003 and 2007 (ITC, 2008). 80 % of gum acacia is consumed by 13 countries (USA, India, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Japan, China, Switzerland, Mexico, Sweden, Ireland and Brazil) three of which are responsible for 70 % of re-exports (France, United Kingdom, and Germany). According to 2006 data, between 2003 and 2007, these 13 countries consumed 80 % of the global gum acacia supply, which is equivalent to 5000 MT annually. Some 23 emerging countries consumed another 17 % (about 200 MT annually) and the remaining 3 % represent some 70 countries whose annual consumption is less than 175 MT. European commission consumed more than one third of available gum, between 2003 and 2007 (Figure 3-6).
27 %
50.0 47.5
45.0
40.0 36.5 36.3 33.1 35.0
30.0
% 25.0 19.7 20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year
Figure 3-6: Consumption of gum acacia by European commission (2003 - 2007), (ITC 2008)
In the last 15 years, the amount of raw gum exported from Africa has increased by about 117 % that is from 30,000 to 65,000 MT as shown in Figure 3-7.
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000 Export Export (MT) 30,000
20,000
10,000
0 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year
Figure 3-7. Export of raw Gum acacia from Africa (1992-2006, ITC 2008).
28 The main gum producing and exporting countries being Sudan, Chad and Nigeria, accounting for 96 % of gum acacia exported in 2007( ITC, 2008). In the last 15 years, Sudan had the highest export of 34,162 MT in 2002, accounting for about 63 % of the world exports. In the same year, Nigeria and Chad accounted for 20% (10,664 MT) and 12 % (6,556MT) of world production, respectively (Figure 3-12). However, in 2006, Sudan‟s share in the international market reduced to 35 % while those for Nigeria (32 %) and Chad (27 %) went up sharply,
As shown in Figure 3-8, Sudan maintained over 50% of the world market while Nigeria had 20%. In ten years (1991-2002), the production of Chad increased from 10% of the global market to 27% becoming the second largest producer in the world. The remaining 5% is divided among 10 African countries. The trend in 2001-2002 shows a sharp reduction in the amounts of gum acacia exported by Chad and Nigeria and an increase in the Sudanese exports. In 2003, there was a sharp reduction in the amount of gum acacia exported globally. In 2003-2005 there was a steady increase in the amounts of gum acacia exported from the three countries. In 2006, there was a drop from 33,078 MT (in 2005) to 23, 149 MT (2006). This is clearly shown in Table 3-6, comparing the export of gum acacia in 1992-2006.
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000 Sudan Chad 20,000 Nigeria
Other African countries Export(MT) 15,000 Asia
10,000
5,000
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year
Figure 3-8: Export of gum acacia by country (1992-2006), (ITC, 2008)
These production figures, however, don‟t correspond to actual gum acacia production. This is because the quantity of gum acacia consumed locally is not included, as well as the quantity not exported, which is occasionally
29 accumulated as stock. Therefore, the quantities recorded are not a reliable measure of the world‟s production ofgum acacia.
Despite Sudan‟s predominance in the world market, the southern part of the country has not been able to participate fully in the gum acacia trade due to the lack of awareness by most of the local communities of the importance of the product at the international level and the lack of access to the market. As the gum from Sudan is known to be of high quality, there exists an opportunity for aggressive marketing of gum from Southern Sudan. Some of the key current export markets for gum from Southern Sudan include: United States of America, South America, India, Europe, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Japan.
Table 3-6: Export of Raw Gum acacia (in tonnes) - 1992-2006 Year SUDAN CHAD NIGERIA AFRICA. others SUB TOTAL-AFRICA ASIA TOTAL 1992 17,061 2,450 8,358 3,073 30,942 726 31,668 1993 13,475 3,701 7,042 2,243 26,461 756 27,217 1994 23,341 4,558 9,822 3,751 41,472 684 42,156 1995 18,143 7,001 9,914 2,821 37,879 814 38,693 1996 17,671 7,365 12,164 3,349 40,549 435 40,984 1997 17,342 8,527 10,199 5,301 41,369 696 42,065 1998 25,053 12,584 8,166 2,296 48,099 384 48,483 1999 19,305 11,312 8,598 3,399 42,614 912 43,526 2000 21,916 11,682 8,239 4,009 45,846 2,251 48,097 2001 26,105 12,881 8,747 2,137 49,870 471 50,341 2002 34,162 10,664 6,556 2,724 54,106 258 54,364 2003 13,217 9,672 50 3,097 26036 835 26,871 2004 27,444 12,044 15,407 2,393 57,288 762 58,050 2005 33,078 14,186 19,313 3,930 70,507 1879 72,386 2006 23,149 17,812 21,231 3,474 65,666 709 66,375 22,031 9,763 10,254 3,200 45,247 838 46,085 Source: International Trade Centre, Geneva, 2008.
ii. Regional markets
Some gum acacia, especially from EES is sold to traders from East Africa (Kenya and Uganda). However, these cases are minimal. Some are also illegally exported to other neighbouring countries such as Ethiopia.
iii. National market
Gum acacia from Southern Sudan is sold mainly to traders in the north. A large portion of these are exported while the remaining are sold in the local market. The local market for gum acacia in the north is built around the local
30 uses of gum acacia mentioned in section 3.5. The traditional beliefs and uses form the basis of an aggressive local market effort by the Ministry of Commerce of Sudan. Consequently gum acacia is consumed locally in Sudan for these functions. Gum acacia is sold in small measures of about 250gm in the local market at an average price of $1 per pack. It is also sold in beautiful commercial packages of about $2 per pack. The volume of local consumption of gum acacia is unknown but it is believed to be substantial. The volume of local consumption in the south is minimal.
b. Marketing structures and channels
Gum acacia does not follow a defined path from the producer to the consumer. This path follows rules laid down by each producer country. For a long time (especially before 2005), the trade in gum acacia in Sudan has been monopolized by the Gum arabic Company (GAC). Unfortunately GAC has collapsed in 2009. GAC had been facilitating the collection and trade in gum acacia in the whole Republic of Sudan before the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005. While the gum market in Sudan was supposed to be controlled by the Gum arabic Company, and traders were supposed to pay royalty on all sales, it had not worked effectively, and was considered to be a mess. Traders that had been marketing gum through GAC often had great difficulty in obtaining payment. Cross-border smuggling has therefore been rife.
Traders usually bought the gum from the producer at an auction and the large traders did the cleaning and sorting prior to them selling it to GAC. If GAC bought gums directly from the producers at an auction, then the company undertook cleaning at its warehouses in regional centres in the gum belt. Cleaning and sorting was done by hand, usually by women, who sorted it out on the ground into piles of whole tears and smaller pieces, separating any excessively dark gum and removing pieces of bark and other foreign matter.
The cleaned and sorted gum acacia purchased by GAC from traders or producers was bagged and transported to its warehouses at Port Sudan as „selected „ and „cleaned‟ gum, distinct from natural gum. On arrival at Port Sudan, every consignment of gum was re-cleaned, sorted and graded in preparation for export. Until 1991, this operation was done manually, since then it has been mechanized through the help of AIDGUM with the financial support from Colloides Naturels International (CNI). It is one of the biggest existing sorting-cleaning-crushing and milling using a system of conveyor belts and sieving and shaking machines. At the end of the conveyor belt, the gum is bagged and weighed ready for export or it is transferred to the kibbling machine for further processing. The outputs of the cleaning and sorting are graded and sold according to five grades namely: Hand Picked Selected (HPS), Cleaned, Siftings, Dust and Red. Thorough controls are carried out
31 before exportation. Export gum is packaged in new 50- kg jute bags. The gum is then placed on palettes before being put into containers for exportation through customs by way of road transport, railway and then seaway. The importer receives the product, he inspects it visually, then he samples it for analysis and it‟s only then he authorizes his bank to pay the exporter at the agreed price, unless it does not meet the specifications. Final processing of gum is carried out at the export destination to produce high quality spray dried products.
After the signing of the CPA in 2005, GOSS mandated the Nile Commercial Bank to support the producers in Southern Sudan financially. The bank was to work in partnership with GOSS-MAF, counties and producer associations. As prices of gum acacia were being fixed without due consideration of production costs, world prices, taxes etc, this bank was therefore unable to promptly facilitate the collectors and traders. This resulted in the dwindling of the production and trade in the gum in the South since 2006. Since then, collectors and local traders were left at the mercy of the Northern traders who could come on adhoc basis. Currently, GOSS has permitted South Sudan Gum Company Ltd. to trade in gum acacia since 2007. This company markets the Gum to United States of America, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and India through Mombasa port in Kenya.
The current situation in each of the three states visited is summarized below:
i. Upper Nile State (UNS) In UNS, a producer is required to get a permit to tap or collect gum from the forest department by paying SDG 2 (US $ 0.8). The peasant farmer taps the trees (in case of A. senegal) and then harvests the hard gum; or collects the nodules of the friable gum by hand in case of A. seyal separating his harvest carefully, according to acacia species in clean bags. Initially, the gum is stored buried in large holes dug on the ground, wrapped in with polythene sheets and covered with soil to prevent moisture loss. The collected gum is cleaned or sorted out by the producer. Once sorting or cleaning of the gum is done, the producers transport the gums (using donkeys, horses and camels) on the market day to the merchants at the village market.
The merchants empties the bags, physically checks the product and a price is agreed upon based on the weight. The gum acacia is once more packaged in new bags with a label indicating species type. The merchant then transports the gum to their stores (own premises or rented) using own or hired transport. The merchant or middleman then transfers these to the exporter, who is an expert in the ways of passage at the customs, export and rules of international commerce. The local merchants have been selling this commodity to individual traders from the North or agents of Gum arabic Company (GAC). These agents or GAC then transport the gum to Port Sudan from where the products are exported out of Sudan. Figure 3-9 shows that
32 GAC obtained about 74.4 % of all the gum produced from Renk County in 2006/7. The traders and exporters pay SDG 6/ kuntar (US $ 0.05/ kg) as forest department levy, SDG 11.2/ Kuntar (US $ 0.1/ kg)to the taxation unit, SDG 7.8/ kuntar (US $ 0.07/kg) to ministry of finance as crop market levy and SDG 6/ kuntar (US $ 0.05/ kg) to the county authority. The market channel is illustrated in Figure 3-10.
80
70
60
50 % 40 74.4 % 30 20 10 12.2 6.7 6.7 0 GAC NCB Small trader Sepan Co Company
Figure 3-9. Traders buying gum from Renk county
Source (Renk, Port Export Melut, Local Khartoum Sudan Destination Manyo, market Maban, & Fasoda)
Figure 3-10. Marketing Chanels for Gum acacia from UNS ii. Northern Bahr El Ghazal State
In NBEGS no permit is issued to the collectors to tap or collect gum from the forest. Once tapping is done, sorting or cleaning of the gum follows immediately before the producers transport the gums (using donkeys, horses and camels) to the village market (an open market) where it is sold to local traders, who are agents for the traders from the North. The traders buy the gum from the collectors at this point and then transport the gum to their stores (own premises or rented) using own or hired transport. The traders from the North buy the gum from the local traders and transport it to the north and finally to Port Sudan, from where the products are exported out of Sudan
33 (Figure 3-11a). The South Sudan Gum Company Ltd (SSGCL) has also been getting gum from NBEGS, mainly from Aweil East. It has employed some collectors who purchase the gum from the harvesters (local community), the gum is transported to a storage facility at Malualkon, Aweil East. Here the gum is subjected to the first cleaning process, basically shifting out the bark and other residues and then packaging it into 50 kg bags and then stored. The gum is then transported to Yei or Nimule via Juba using contracted trucks. At Yei, all the necessary certificates are obtained from GOSS before the consignment is transported by road to Mombasa Port. The marketing channel is illustrated in in Figure 3-11 b.
Source (Aweil E, Local Elobeid or Port Export W & N) market Khartoum Sudan Destination
(a)
Source Yei Export Destination (Aweil Juba or Kampala Nairobi Mombasa East) Nimule Port
(b) Figure 3-11. Marketing channels for Gum acacia from NBEGS
iii. Eastern Equatoria State (EES)
In EES there is also no permit required for the collectors to tap or collect gum from the forest. In EES gum production from A. senegal trees started in 2006 through the initiative of Toposa Development Association (TDA) and support of SNV. TDA mobilized villagers and herders to harvest gum acacia but there was no market. SNV assisted Toposa Development Association (TDA) by conducting a market survey to identify and locate local and international buyers of gum acacia. Aridlands Resources Ltd., a Kenyan based exporter was identified. Due to insecurity that is prevalent in Eastern Equatoria, this company insisted on delivery of the gum to Lokichogio, a town on the Kenyan side of the border. Favourable terms were negotiated with a transporter and in 2006 about 15 tons of gum was exported, yielding a turnover of US $ 19,300. Producers have since been trained by Aridlands Resources Ltd. on sustainable methods of gum harvesting. The producers at Kimatong‟ collect the gum and the gum is bought by a local CBO (Calcholo Community Based Rehabilitation Organisation) which is facilitated by SNV. However, the gum collected in 2007/2008 (about 3 tons), is still in the store as this quantity of gum was low and not cost effective to transport up to
34 Mombasa. Aridlands Resources Ltd. wanted a minimum of 20 tons. The marketing channel for gum from EES is as shown in Figure 3-12.
Source (Kapoeta Lokichogio Mombasa Export North & Port Destination Kimatong’)
Figure 3-12. Marketing channel for Gum acacia from EES
b. Marketing organizations
In UNS, where the trade has been going on for a relatively longer time, the producers are organized in producer cooperative societies with an overall Umbrella producer cooperative union at the county level. These groups are registered with the state ministry of cooperatives. The ministry has model rules and regulations and bye laws which a group can modify to suit their situation as they develop their constitution. The formation of the umbrella organization was mainly to help in facilitating the process of getting financial support from the now defunct, Gum arabic Company to the producers. Producers had previously experienced a lot of delays in this support.
The producers join the umbrella organization on individual basis upon payment of an annual subscription fee that varies from county to county. In Renk County, each member pays SDG 10 (US$ 4) annually while in Melut County in the same State (UNS), the annual fee is pegged on the amount of sales made (20 % of sales). Availability of producer cooperative societies seems to vary with counties in various states. Renk has producer societies at the Payam level while in Melut there are no producer societies at the Payam level. The registered producer societies in Renk county were estimated at about 50 in 2003 but have since declined due to lack of market for the gum (Pers. Com, James Foicino, Director of Forestry, Melut). During this time each producer society had more than 50 members.
However, there are currently no cooperative societies for producers in NBEGS and EES.
c. Pricing
Pricing at community level The prices of gum acacia are currently set by the traders. The current prices for gum acacia are too low. The collectors used to get SDG 5.6-6.7/ kg ( US $ 2.6-3.1/kg) of gum hashab in 2005 and earlier but the current prices range from SDG 1.12 -1.34/ kg ( US $ 0.45-0.54/kg) in UNS. These prices are same or lower than those for relatively lower quality gum from Kenya, which currently sells at about SDG 1.15-1.5/ kg (US $ 0.46-0.6/kg). In NBEGS, the current prices
35 of gum talha at the producer level range from SDG 0.5-1/kg (US$ 0.2-0.4/kg) of gum an indication that the traders are exploiting some collectors in NGEGS. In EES the price per kilogram of gum is SDG 1(US 0.4/ kg). An interview of some of the producers indicated that they would be happier with a price of at least SDG 2/kg (US $ 0.8).
Export values The unit export values of gum acacia in key African countries, all grades combined, from 2003 to 2007 are as shown in Table 3-7. The export value in 2008/9 for hand picked selected grade was about US $ 3400, for grade 1 was US $ 2500 and for grade 2, US $ 1300 (Pers. Com Prof. Abdel Nour-former Managing Director, GAC).
Table 3-7: Unit export values in key African countries of Gum acacia, all grades combined, from 2003 to 2007 (US $) Origin 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Sudan 1053 2252 3610 2724 4595 Chad 947 1236 2318 2276 1634 Nigeria 569 882 1324 995 1472 Source: ITC (Trade Map) based on COMTRADE statistical data)
Figure 3-13 illustrates that the prices of gum acacia are subject to trade policies and strategies established by importing countries. This therefore causes differences between the well established rates and those used by countries when dealing with trade partners.
Sudan Chad Nigeria
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
USD/TON USD/TON 2000
1500
1000
500
0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year
Figure 3-13. Changes in export rates in major African countries, all grades combined 2003-2007 (ITC, 2008) a. Gross margins The gross margins for the producers, traders and exporters for 2007/8 and 2008/9 are reported in Table 3-8. The data for EES for 2007/8 and 2008/9 was
36 incomplete as gum acacia was sold only once in 2006. Information on producer prices and trader prices for gum talha from UNS were also not readily available, as there is little trade on this product currently. The gross margins reported are therefore only for UNS (gum hashab) and NBEGS (gum talha).
Gross margins for Gum hashab (from A. senegal ) The gross incomes for the producers and traders, from the sale of hashab, were higher in 2007/8 than in 2008/9. The gross income for producer was about 20.3 % of the export value in 2008/9 and 39.1 % in 2007/8. Trader gross income in 2007/8 was about 10.7 % of the export value, 87.7 % of the income was spent on marketing costs. The gross profits for the trader, from the sale of hashab, were higher in 2007/8 than 2008/9. Exporter gross income in 2007/8 was about 50 % of the export value, 85.6 % was spent on marketing costs. Exporter gross profits, from the sale of hashab, could have been higher in 2008/9 (SDG 942.2 or US$ 376.9) than 2007/8 (SDG 453.8 or US$181.5) due to lower total marketing costs (66.3 %) resulting from lower producer price and a lower county tax in 2008/9. However, if the gum were sold at this low price (SDG 1111 or US$ 444.4), the estimated gross loss by trader was estimated to be SDG 46.8 (US$ 18.7) or 4.2 %. The prices offered for hashab in 2008/9 were too low for the traders to break even. This could be the reason for reported lack of sale of hashab in 2008/9 in Jelahak (UNS) and Kimatong‟ (EES). A visit to the stores in Jelahak and Kimatong‟ indicated that there have not been any sales in this commodity by the traders in 2008/9. In 2007/8 the gross profits for the trader (SDG 81.8 or US$ 32.7) and exporter (SDG 453.8 or US$ 181.5) from the sale of hashab were only marginal despite the higher export value (SDG 6250 or US$ 2500). This could have been due to a higher producer price and a higher amount of county tax. The profits were 3.4 % for trader and 14.6 % for exporter in 2007/8.
Gross margins for gum talha (from A. seyal) It appears that in 2008/9 it was more profitable to trade in gum talha from NBEGS with a trader gross profit of SDG 380 (US$ 152) per metric ton and an exporter gross profit of SDG 370 (US$ 148). This could explain the sales of gum talha in NBEGS in 2008/9. The gross producer income from the sale of gum talha was higher in 2008/9 (SDG 500 or US$ 200) than in 2007/8 (SDG 250 or US$ 100). The gross income for producer was about 33.3 % of the export value in 2008/9 and 25 % in 2007/8. The gross income for the trader was about 16.7 % of the export value. About 24 % of the gross income was spent on marketing costs in 2008/9. The gross income for the exporter was 50 % of the export value, 44 % of the income was spent on marketing costs in 2008/9. The gross profits from the sale of gum talha were higher in 2008/9 than in 2007/8 for both the exporter and the trader. This was mainly due to the higher export value in 2008/9 (SDG 3000 or US$ 1200) than 2007/8 (SDG 2000 or US$ 800) and the fact that in NBEGS the traders are exempted from county tax. The profits ranged from 5.2 % (in 2007/8) to 38 % (in 2008/9) for trader and 44 % (in 2007/8) to 24.6 % (in 2008/9) for exporter.
37 Table 3-8: Gross Margins
Gum acacia - Producer Gross Margins 2008/9, SDG Species A. senegal A. seyal State UNS NBEGS Production costs Permit 2 - Labour (Food) 500 500 Transport to market - 0 Total production cost 502 500 Selling Price/MT 1111 1000 Gross Income 838 500
Gum acacia - Trader gross margins 2008/9, SDG Species A. senegal A. seyal State UNS NBEGS Buying Price at source/ MT 1111 1000 Selling Price/MT 1333 1500 Gross Income 222 500 Marketing Costs County Fees 133.3 - Forest Department Levy 111.1 60 Transport 24.4 - Storage - 50 Other Costs - 10 Total Costs 268. 8 120 Gross Profit -46.8 380
Gum acacia - Exporter gross margins 2008/9, SDG Species A. senegal A. seyal State UNS NBEGS Buying Price from trader/MT 1333 1500 Export value/MT 4125 3000 Gross Income 2792 1500 Marketing Costs County Fees 600 - Forest Department Levy 111.1 90 Export duty 26.7 30 Transport 1000 1000 Storage 100 - Other Costs 12 10 Total Costs 1849.8 1130 Gross Profit 942.2 370
38
Gum acacia - Producer Gross Margins 2007/8, SDG Species A. senegal A. seyal State UNS NBEGS Production costs Permit 2 Labour (Food) 500 500 Transport to market 0 0 Total production cost 502 500 Selling Price/MT 2444.4 750 Gross Income 1942.2 250
Gum acacia - Trader gross margins 2007/8, SDG Species A. senegal A. seyal State UNS NBEGS 2444.4 627
Buying Price at source/MT Selling Price/MT 3111.1 750 Gross Income 666.7 143 Marketing Costs County Fees 422.2 Forest Department Levy 133.3 60 Transport 24.4 - Storage 0 50 Other Costs 5 5 Total Costs 584.9 105 Gross Profit 81.8 38
Gum acacia-Exporter gross margins 2007/8
Species A. senegal A. seyal State UNS NBEGS Buying Price at source/MT 3111.1 750 Export value/MT 6250 1000 Gross Income 3138.9 250 Marketing Costs County Fees 1400 - Forest Department Levy 111.1 60 Export tax 62.2 20 Transport 1000 - Storage 100 50 Other Costs 12 10 Total Costs 2685.3 140 Gross Profit 453.6 110
39 3.7 Opportunities available to enhance exploitation and use of gum acacia
3.7.1 Market potential The current world demand is higher than the supply and is projected to reach 150,000 MT by 2020 (Chikamai and Casadei, 2005). Despite Sudan‟s predominance in the world market, the southern part of the country has not been able to participate fully in the gum acacia trade due to the lack of awareness by most of the local communities on the importance of the product at the international level and the lack of access to the market. As the gum from Sudan is known to be of high quality, there exists an opportunity for aggressive marketing of gum from Southern Sudan.
3.7.2 Formation of partnerships with key local and international organizations working in Southern Sudan The state Ministry of Agriculture (SMOA) has offices only in a few counties in each state leading to poor linkages between the state and counties. In some areas, the officers charged with these responsibilities do not have the ability to effectively and efficiently discharge their duties due to lack of relevant training. Some of the Payams are also in remote areas that are inaccessible due to poor roads, floods and also without mobile phone network coverage making communication very difficult. These pose a challenge to effective and extensive extension services. This therefore requires partnerships with NGOs/ CBOs working in areas targeted for various interventions. Some models of these kinds of partnerships exist in some states especially in the food security and livelihood sub-sector and could be applied in the gum sub sector.
There are many organizations, NGOs (local and International) and CBOs in Southern Sudan who have potential of being key partners in the gum acacia sub sector. Most of these are currently working in the food security and livelihood (FS&L) sub-sector in partnership with FAO, WFP and SMOA. Table 3-9 maps the key organizations as per their areas of coverage, current activities, and potential role in the gum acacia sub sector, obtained after discussions with them.
40 Table 3-9: Key potential Partners in Gum acacia sub-sector
Name of State Area of Areas of Potential role in Gum acacia sub Organization coverage interventions sector [County(s)] (Activities) FAO UNS All the 12 Emergency Local and international counties in Fisheries advocacy Upper Nile Livestock Support mapping of gum state Agroforestry resources Mapping (GIS) Mobilization of resources NBEGS Capacity Coordination of implementing building for forest partners guards
USAID US Agriculture Value chain analysis WS Livelihoods Support to producer groups NBEGS (Aweil E, Democracy and Capacity building Aweil W governance Local and international and Aweil Education advocacy N) Water and Sanitation IRD UNS Malakal Agriculture Local and international Bailliet Livestock advocacy Ulang Infrastructure Mobilization of resources Nasir Distribution of Capacity building radios Linking producers to markets Small medium Information and knowledge Enterprise sharing development Capacity building Consortium UNS Renk Livelihoods – Including Gum acacia as an (Mercy NBEGS Aweil East (Cash for work activity in economic recovery and Corps) and Voucher development programe system) Agriculture Capacity building for Civil societies CARE UNS Malakal Capacity Capacity building on Village International Baliet development savings and loans but programmes Maiut through four must emanate from Payam local partners development committees (Fasoda Youth Forum, YARRDSS, WERD, CHORM) Peace building Water and Sanitation Livelihood component
41 NPA UNS Bailliet Support to Local and international Lunguchuk agriculture and advocacy Maiut forestry Maban development Have interest in promoting gum Nasir acacia related activities EES Calcholo EES Budi Conflict Facilitation of producers to collect Community (Kimatong‟) resolution, gum acacia Rehabiltaion Repair of roads Organization Renovation of school Water harvesting Gum acacia collection
3.7.3 Microfinance linkages Microfinance is a new concept in Southern Sudan. GOSS has taken steps to support and promote micro-finance in Southern Sudan. The Central Bank (Bank of Southern Sudan) in partnership with the private sector is in the process of transforming the microfinance sector. There is therefore an opportunity for the creation of more micro-finance schemes in the gum acacia producing states in order to help the producers and traders acquire loans and other resources for increased exploitation of gum acacia. Currently, there are about four key microfinance companies that could be approached in this regard, namely: Sudan Micro-Finance Institution (SUMI), Building Resources Across Communities (BRAC), Finance Sudan Co. Ltd., and AMURT International. Their current area of coverage and potential roles are reported in Table 3-10.
42
Table 3-10: Key microfinance companies in Southern Sudan
Name of Area of Areas of interventions Potential role in Gum company coverage acacia sub sector SUMI CES Loans Value chain financing Fund transfer services Business development Business development services services
BRAC UNS, EES, Microfinance Capacity building on CES, WES, Education microfinance Lakes, Health Encourage savings Jonglei Agriculture and Value chain financing livestock Income generation for vulnerable group development Finance The whole Micro finance for IDPs Capacity building on Sudan of Sudan microfinance
Value chain financing
Linkage to quality assurance AMURT NBEGS ( Humanitarian Aid and Capacity building on International Aweil East, development microfinance South, Agriculture Value chain financing North and Food security Linkages with markets Centre) School garden program Microfinance
3.7.4 Linkages with and through NGARA The Network for Natural Gums and Resins in Africa (NGARA) has a membership of 15 countries from the gums and resins producing belt of Africa. Though Sudan is one of the members of NGARA, Southern Sudan has a potential to be a member of NGARA. Through NGARA, the producers / producers‟ groups in Southern Sudan can be linked with producers in other countries and exchange visits organized to enhance information and knowledge sharing for improving product quality. NGARA can also facilitate market linkages. The network can also assist in the promotion of best practices in the whole value chain (sustainable production and quality control). NGARA has training manuals and curriculum on Gum acacia and can play a key role in coordinating and implementing capacity building activities along the value chain, among other activities. More details on NGARA can be obtained from its web site: www. ngara.org.
3.7.5 Participatory mapping & monitoring of gum acacia resources Currently information on tree species in Southern Sudan and their distribution and uses is very scanty. It is crucial that intensive resource inventory and mapping of the gum acacia producing tree resources in Southern Sudan be carried out in
43 order to establish the current gum production and future potential. The activity of resource mapping can be spearheaded by the experts from the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD), based in Nairobi, or any other reputable mapping agency, backstopped by NGARA and local relevant government departments. Through this activity, a detailed map showing the location, distribution and densities of the resources can be produced. From the map, a more reliable estimate of the potential for gum acacia production in Southern Sudan can be produced.
3.8 Overview of Relevant Policies Following the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in January 2005, the government of Southern Sudan (GOSS) embarked on formulating comprehensive development strategies and plans for speedy recovery and rapid socio-economic development. Discussions with relevant government departments and personnel indicated that most of the policies have been prepared but are yet to be approved or implemented. Some of the national policies that are relevant to the sub-sector include: Forestry, land, monetary and finance, taxation, investment, infrastructure and trade policies. A short overview of these policies including international policies was done and recommendations on how they can be used to enhance gum acacia production and marketing for increased incomes and food security at household levels leading to improved livelihoods made.
i. International policies and regulations affecting - marketing of gum acacia Gum acacia is an important article of trade that dates back to the 17th century B.C and is governed by a number of international policies and regulations. Some of which are outlined below: a. The specifications for gum acacia The age long world demand and the multiple industrial application of gum acacia in the food, confectionary, beverage, pharmacy, medicine, dairy, dietary, chemical, lithography, and environment has established gum acacia as a commodity of valuable international importance. The specifications for gum acacia are governed by Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) of the United Nations. This is a United Nations Agency which defines global standards for food additives and contaminants. In addition to the standards body of member countries, gum acacia comes under the regulatory authority of CAC. For the purpose of International Trade, Gum acacia is still regarded as a food additive and has the following specifications:
Identification: e414 Custom tariff no: 1301.20.00.0 Admissible daily intake (ADI): not specified (FAO/WHO/JECFA 1982) Optical rotation: negative for A. senegal & positive for A. seyal
In 1996 Codex adopted a new definition for gum acacia as „the dried exudates from the trunk and branches of Acacia senegal or Acacia seyal of the family leguminosae‟. This definition completely changed the international market fundamentals of the gum acacia business. By this definition, A. seyal which was
44 excluded from the original definition became officially recognized as gum acacia in world trade.
b. World Trade Organisation (WTO) requirements WTO is also a specialised arm of the United Nations dealing on World Trade. It has no specific policy on Gum acacia Trade but WTO agreement requires that member countries base their technical regulations/standards on international standards as they relate to Product Standards, Packaging Standards and Process Standards. WTO works very closely with the International Trade Centre (ITC) on World Trade Statistics. Because, trade statistics are key in allocating resources by advanced nations and international donor agencies as well as in planning and managing the gum sector, it is important that gum acacia trade figures from Southern Sudan be properly captured by ITC.
c. Regular trade certifications required for international trade in gum acacia At least four types of certifications are required in gum acacia trade, namely: Phyto-sanitary certificate: The World Trade Organisation requires that countries comply with international standards of sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) measures. The increasing world outbreak of food borne diseases mostly in the advanced countries has made the compliance of SPS measures mandatory. Certificate of origin: Certificate of origin is part of the regular export certification required for international trade. This has become more important now to assist in the isolation of disease, genetic and quality issues arising from export trade Traceability: Diseases, genetic, ethical, quality etc issues has brought to limelight the need to identify origins of export commodities up to the farm. Quality certificate: Quality certification obtained from reputable laboratories form part of international export documentation for gum acacia
d. Product, packaging and process quality compliance To be able to sell in the international market, the importing international countries, require that the producing countries carry out comprehensive measures to ensure quality control all through the value chain. The following are measures are necessary: Product quality: From seed/nursery development through planting, tending, tapping, harvesting, transportation, storage and cleaning, producers are required to adopt quality assurance measures. Packaging standards: To conform with international packaging standards namely: Jute bags and Polypropylene bags for raw gum acacia and other forms of approved packaging for processed gums. Process standards: To comply with all regulatory standards e.g. the GMP, GAP, and traceability standards. Also quality management standards are to be adhered to including ISO 9001 and ISO 22000. Sanitary and phytosanitary measures: To be adhered to all through the value chain
45 e. Requirements by government regulatory authorities in gum acacia importing countries: The government regulatory authorities in gum acacia importing countries require that producing countries: Enforce food regulatory laws e.g. factory inspection for hygiene and safety Encourage companies to undertake and display quality management systems (QMS) like the ISO 9001 Set up all necessary quality standard organisations to ensure compliance with food laws and regulations relating to Food and Food Ingredients.
ii. National policies a. Forest Policy
In 2007, GOSS-MAF prepared a forest policy that was approved by both the CoM and the Legislative Assembly of the Government of Southern Sudan. MAF has recently drafted a new forest policy paper for discussion with stakeholders and for GOSS approval and adoption. This document elaborates strategic approaches and implementation plans towards sustainable management of forest resources for the next decade and beyond. The new policy will then be translated into action through forestry strategic plan or national forest programme (nfp).
The GOSS-MAF fully recognizes that developments in agriculture and forest sectors have great potential to improve livelihoods of the poor rural populations. In the policy framework, GOSS-MAF recognizes the great contribution which forests wealth can make in the country‟s socio-economic development, environmental conservation, livelihood support, sustainable agriculture production, and mitigation of Climate change.
The policy aims at ensuring sufficient and sustained forest resource base and flow of forest goods and services to support livelihoods and socio-economic development for the present and future generations. Among other guiding principles, the policy is to be consistent with CPA provisions, the interim constitution and GOSS development vision 2011. However, the policy recognizes that it is necessary that GOSS introduces a new Forest Act and subsidiary Legislation to among other things; regulate the implementation of this policy. The current forest policy together with the Forest and Environment Act of 2003 promote and ensure integrated approaches to protection, conservation, environmentally friendly sound management, and use of forest resources. This approach endeavours to ensure that forest resources are clearly identified in the national agenda and that forest resources are sustainably managed.
The policy has set out new directions for forestry development in the country, some of which are relevant to gum acacia sub sector. These include:
Commitment to forest/biodiversity conservation
The policy underpins forest reservation and protection of valuable threatened tree species such as ebony and mahogany will be maintained to ensure conservation
46 of forest biodiversity for present and future generations. Thus, more unique forest will be reserved and effectively conserved throughout the country. Community participation in forest management and protection The policy calls for greater engagement and benefit by communities in the management and protection of Central Forest Reserves, Provincial Forest Reserves, County and Payam forests in their neighborhood. Thus, local communities will become integral partners in the management of forests for their enhanced socio-economic benefit. Private sector participation The policy calls for greater private sector participation, in well structured partnerships with public sector institutions and local communities. For example, the policy calls for promotion and support of private sector-public sector-community partnerships for tree growing and plantation development. It calls for formulation and implementation of new guidelines for forest concessions which strengthen such partnerships. Promotion of forest products trade and marketing The policy calls for more concerted promotion and support for community groups and individuals to form associations so as to realize increased benefits from tree farming and extraction of non-wood forest products such as gums, rubber, medicinal herbs, etc.
There are glaring gaps in the policy that require to be filled in order to enhance gum acacia production and marketing for increased incomes and food security at household levels leading to improved livelihoods. Some of these include:
1. A new Forest Act (within the context of the New Laws of Southern Sudan) is required to, among other things, strengthen and regulate the implementation of this new policy. 2. The MAF directorate of Forestry should establish, implement and regularly review policies on sales, of gum acacia exported from Southern Sudan to ensure transparency, fair benefit sharing along the value chain in consultation with the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Commerce, Trade and Supply; and relevant State Government Authorities. However, the pricing policy should be driven by free market forces. 3. Policy is not explicit on production, harvesting, processing and marketing of gum acacia. A set of guidelines and a code of practice informed by science on sustainable tapping of gum from the trees should be put in place. 4. Policies should be put in place to support and promote capacity building for all actors in the value chain (collection, tapping, sorting, cleaning, processing, quality control and end use marketing). 5. Effective management and efficient utilization of forest resources require application of modern science and technology. There should be policies to support relevant research and development initiatives in this sub sector. Some of the key areas include: gum quality variation, development of management plans, resource inventory and mapping. 6. Policies to ensure that appropriate germplasm is available for replanting should also be put in place.
47 7. There are no policies on carbon trade. Once the management of the trees is properly embraced by the local communities, and a criteria for awarding carbon credits for Savanna woodlands is developed there will be need for policies to promote carbon trade for integration with gum production for maximum benefits to the local communities. 8. Policies on establishment of plantations of A. senegal and A. seyal species are lacking. 9. There are no policies that support the development of national quality control systems for gum acacia from production (primary quality control) to the end product (product certification). Policies on certification of gum acacia are also lacking and it is not possible to map the chain of custody of the commodity. 10. Policies on extension services need to be reviewed to make them effective and extensive. 11. There is a general need to develop policies on non timber forest products.
b. Land policy
Land policy in southern Sudan is yet to be approved. Currently land ownership in Southern Sudan is controversial and calls for fresh common understanding between GOSS, State government and Local governments. The Southern Sudan Land Commission held a three-day conference in Juba in August 2007 to devise policies that would guide land use and distribution in southern Sudan. Both the Governments of National Unity and Southern Sudan are also committed to guaranteeing people‟s right to land as stipulated in the CPA. The land policy document focuses on urban and customary land management, issues related to land rights for IDP's, returnees, demobilized soldiers and women's right to own land. The land policy is to device means of resolving land disputes among communities in south Sudan. The land policy is very important for the development of south Sudan.
Urgent attention is especially required on the issue of land tenure. Until the policy on land ownership is properly addressed, its immediate implications on ownership and responsibilities of forests in Southern Sudan and development in the forestry industry including gum acacia sub sector could be adversely affected. Land ownership puts uncertainty on forest ownership and hence a serious limitation to any investment in forestry development e.g. establishment of plantations for gum trees. It is also a key factor in fueling forest destruction. Land reforms are therefore critical to forest sector development strategies and plans but have critical cross- sectoral development implications.
c. Monetary and finance policies The monetary and finance policy is reviewed every year by the Central Bank of Southern Sudan. The policies aim at achieving the macro-economic objectives for the year, realizing a real growth rate in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a given percentage and maintaining the inflation rate in a set range, through targeting a nominal growth rate in money supply as an intermediate target, along with maintaining stability and flexibility of the exchange rate.
48 To achieve the objectives of the monetary policy, the Central Bank of Sudan is expected to manage liquidity in a balanced manner such that it meets the requirements of the economic activity without creating inflationary pressures by focusing on the indirect instruments of monetary policy of the dual banking system.
Highlights of the policy include:
1. Liquidity Management 2. Use of Resources 3. Sectors and activities barred from financing by the bank operations in Sudan 4. General regulations and guidelines for operating in Sudan 5. Currency management 6. Microfinance policies
Among the policies, the microfinance policy is very important for the gum acacia sub-sector. Microfinance development facility by the bank of Southern Sudan (BoSS) was launched in 2007 in Juba and has a grant that can be given out as capital for micro-finance. There is an initiative by GOSS through the central bank (Bank of Southern Sudan) in partnership with the private sector to transform the microfinance sector that requires speeding up. Microfinance is a new concept in Southern Sudan and urgently requires policies and a regulatory framework for its improvement and promotion. A policy unit has been set up and a consultant hired. Once in place, the policy framework will help promote and support the creation of more micro-finance schemes in the gum acacia producing states in order to help the producers and traders acquire loans and other resources. However, capacity building on savings and utilization of loans should be supported to ensure that the loans are utilized for the intended purposes
d. Taxation policy The taxation law for Southern sudan has been enacted and awaiting approval by the National assembly. There is some deadlock as the states are proposing a decentralized revenue authority while GOSS is proposing a centralized taxation system manned by a national revenue authority. Taxation policies need to be reviewed in order to reduce the high and multiple taxation in Southern Sudan. Tax collection at the state and GOSS levels should be harmonized. The multiple and high taxes currently being charged are an impediment to gum trade and export leading to exploitation of the producers by setting lower prices to cushion the traders from high taxes that are based on the selling price of the commodity.
Cross-border trade between South Sudan and the East African partner states is booming on the back of strong demand from a stable South Sudan. However, the current revenue collection practices at the international and inter-state borders in Southern Sudan are harming trade between the attractive market and the East Africa. According a report by Conciliation Resources (a Non Government Organization which provides data for local organisations pursuing peace-building and conflict resolution initiatives), there seems to be an exploitative tax collection administration in the country which is resulting into unwarranted higher prices of
49 goods, hunger, closure of businesses, and bitterness. The revenue or taxes in Southern Sudan is collected by a large number of groups and agents on behalf of various authorities on the ground, at both border points and interstate boundaries. "Some of these appear to be quasi officials in nature and it is not always clear under whose authority they are operating or how charges and levies are actually determined." Policies on cross border trade therefore need to be reviewed especially in the light of gum acacia being exported from Southern Sudan through Mombasa port.
e. Investment policy
The South Sudan Legislative Assembly, passed the investment promotion Act 2009 on 18th March 2009 and was assented to and signed into law by the president on 6th April 2009. The provisions of this act applies to all investments in Southern Sudan, however, it has provisions for enactment of special legislation for specialized sectors of the economy such as gum acacia. The Act provides for the establishment of an investment authority with the mandate of promoting and facilitating all investments in Southern Sudan. It is also charged with receiving and processing of applications for investment certificates. This has already been put in place. The authority is being governed by a board of 10 directors, 6 of whom are ministers. One of ministers being that for Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry that is mandated to coordinate gum acacia sub sector.
The authority can issue investment certificate(s) to either a national or a foreigner, provided that the proposed investment is lawful, environmentally friendly and beneficial to the people of Southern Sudan. In considering grant of an investment certificate, the authority shall take into account the investment priority areas provided for in the first schedule of the Act. Some of the priority areas that are relevant to the gum acacia sub sector include: research on mapping of natural resources for economic use, forestry (aforestation, reforestation, and processing industries), physical infrastructure (such as roads, warehouses), and financial institutions (such as microfinance). Considerations shall be made to projects favourable for priority areas such as: direct investment in the least developed areas of Southern Sudan, import substitution and export promotion, integrated rural development, employment creation for citizens, promotion of scientific and technological advancement, joint venture partnerships enterprises, re-investment of at least 20 % of after tax profits in Southern Sudan.
The holder of the investment certificate shall be entitled to a number of incentives and benefits. Some of the relevant ones include:
Tax exemptions and concessions e.g. on machinery and equipment, capital and net profits for a period determined by the authority and by which an investor has realized sufficient return on investment. Fiscal incentives-rates have been put in place for capital allowances (ranging from 20-100 % depending on type), deductible annual allowances (ranging from20-40 % depending on type), and other annual depreciation allowances (ranging from 8-20 % depending on type).
50 Access to land for investment-GOSS and local authorities shall provide land in any of the priority areas. However, there are some conditions; the relevant one being that a foreign investor who wishes in plantation forestry, and depending on periods of harvest, shall not exceed 60 years subject to renewal of mutual consent by the parties.
However, there are some challenges in investing in Southern Sudan that require to be addressed through relevant policies. Some of these include among others: insecurity, high and multiple taxation, poor road network leading high transport costs and lack of port of exit for exports.
f. Infrastructure policies There is need for enactment of laws and development of policies to support infrastructure development. This will improve roads and reduce the current high costs of transporting gum acacia.
g. Trade Policy For Sudan as an oil exporting country, trade policy takes a much more important role than in many non-oil exporting countries for three main reasons. First, due to the appreciation of the currency, the foreign exchange loses its importance as an instrument of trade and industrial policy. In fact, unlike cases where trade liberalization is partially offset by compensatory devaluation, in the case of Sudan one needs to resort to other policy instruments, including trade policy, to compensate for the appreciation of the local currency. Secondly, main agricultural export and import products of Sudan are subject to a high degree of subsidization by main developed country exporters, notably the USA and EU with, their negative influence on international prices of these products. Thirdly, the country is at early stages of industrialization and trade policy in general should help development of its industrial capacity in the long-run, based on the principle of dynamic comparative advantage. Therefore, the process of trade policy of the country, including its trade liberalization, should be envisaged in this context. In other words, to succeed, trade policy in general, including trade liberalization, should be based on a clear long-term strategy. Both industrial support and liberalization should be selective and flexible accompanied with capacity building for provision of a host of other supplementary measures necessary for industrialization and growth. Otherwise, the experience of trade liberalization in other developing countries, particularly low income ones, shows that pre-matured and across-the-board trade liberalization could lead to locking the country in production and exports of primary commodities and at best some assembly operations and simple labour intensive industries (Shafaeddin 2006.a).
Some effort is being made by the Government authorities to formulate trade policy of the country while the country is preparing for the accession to WTO. Nevertheless, Sudan is facing two main challenges in organization and design of trade policy making. First it needs to design and formulate a long-term trade strategy integrated into development strategy. Second, it needs to remedy fragmentation in policy making in order to: overcome the lack of coordination among policy makers involved; avoided inconsistencies between trade policy other government policies; take appropriate supplementary policies and
51 measures necessary for industrialization and development. To begin with, the country needs a consistent long-term trade policy integrated into development strategy. Currently this is lacking. Tariffs are set by the High Custom Committee with the participation of the representatives of the Ministries of Trade, Industry and Agriculture.
Another shortcoming of the trade policy mechanism of Sudan is that it is too fragmented. Many players are involved with little coordination. Moreover, as a result of the lack of coordination, there are often contradictions between trade policy and other Government policies including fiscal measures. While trade liberalization, i.e. reduction in import duties, put competitive pressure on domestic products and reduces bias against exports, a host of other charges and taxes put cost pressure on production and offsets the anti-export bias of tariff reductions. In some cases taxes and charges account for more than 20 per cent of cost of production. For example, taxes imposed on Gum acacia constitute more than 45 % of the buying price. Apart from increases in production cost, the contradictory measures taken by various players lead to unpredictability and uncertainty of investors.
The design and structure of trade policy should, therefore, serve in achieving the long-term objective of an advanced economy. In an ideal situation, free of external pressure and obligations imposed by WTO, the structure of tariffs should be flexible, mixed, dynamic and predictable accompanied with long-term industrial strategies on selective basis.
3.9 Investment opportunities in the gum sector The opportunity available for investment in the gum acacia sub-sector is in the trade (export) and value addition. The estimated potential annual production of gum acacia from Southern Sudan of 6,541.2 –15,580.3 MT which translates to a minimum annual income of about $ US 12,428,280 is an indication of the great potential for investment in trade and value addition (to enhance quality) in this sub-sector.
In terms of value addition, the most basic processing that can be done in the developing counties is the crushing of the gum into powder. However, it is a great challenge to have companies involved in this value addition to establish themselves in the global market. For example, the ten companies in Northern Sudan who have been authorized by the government to transform the export sub- sector are still searching for a strong hold. The grinding factory Khartoum Gum Arabic Processing Company (KGAPC) established over 15 years ago in Sudan did not yield the expected results until it was purchased by GAC. As both GAC and KGAPC are managed by the government, they have not operated efficiently. So in the short term, it may not be prudent to suggest investment in grinding of the gum in Southern Sudan. However, due to the envisaged increase in production of gum acacia, there is great potential for investment in trade in gum in Southern Sudan. The gum producing resources are abundant and there is also complete erosion of buffer stock in Sudan. Further, gum acacia from Sudan has a high market potential due to its intrinsic high quality.
52
As the gum acacia Company (GAC) which has monopolized the trade in Gum acacia for many years has now collapsed and currently there is only one company (South Sudan Gum Company Ltd) that has been permitted by GOSS to trade in gum acacia since 2006, there is potential for more companies in the gum acacia trade. The investors may need to pay more attention in post harvest handling of gum acacia to increase its quality. Despite the high potential, there are a number of challenges that the current and potential investors in the gum acacia trade are faced with that require urgent attention (see section 6.0)
3.10 Potential development areas in gum sub-sector There are many potential areas for development in the gum sub-sector in Southern Sudan. The main ones include but not limited to the following: 1. Capacity building along the value chain on appropriate methods for production, post harvest handling, storage and marketing of Gum acacia. The capacity of local communities in regard to enhancing exploitation was analysed and reported in Table 3-11. 2. Promotion of establishment of producer societies in areas where these do not exist and strengthen existing ones to empower the producers to bargain for better prices and bring markets closer to them. 3. Support construction of storage facilities at producer level where cleaning, sorting, proper packaging and labeling can be done and supervised to ensure high quality products. 4. Promote and support the creation of more micro-finance schemes in the Gum acacia producing states and link the producer associations with the microfinance service providers for short term loans and other resources. 5. Enforcement of protection and conservation of gum producing tree species particularly A. seyal var. seyal which are currently under severe threat due to its high preference for charcoal and firewood 6. Development of guidelines for sustainable tapping of Gum acacia from A. Senegal 7. Map Gum acacia quality variation within and among producing states for the two types of gum. 8. Conducting participatory resource inventory aimed at providing updated estimates of the stocking density, size-class structure, location and distribution in order to determine abundance and potential supply. This should also include ecological (associated vegetation, wildlife and general environment), human conditions and other factors for later comparisons and assessment of the impact of harvests and management as well as social-economic and cultural effects. 9. Establishment of seed orchards for improvement and sustainable management. 10. Domestication of the gum producing resources to supplement wild sources through nursery establishment (quality seeds), cultivation or enrichment planting for steady and reliable production to meet market demands and facilitate easier collection and improved harvesting techniques.
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Table 3-11: Capacity of local communities in regard to enhancing exploitation of Gum acacia
Area Current situation Desired Obstacles Recommendatio situation ns Production The producers Sustainable Lack of Need for (Tree can identify production application of training and Management gum of Gum appropriate knowledge , Tapping, producing acacia tools sharing and Collection) species Some exchange The local adulteration of visits to communities gum from A. improve on have capacity seyal var. seyal skills to tap and with other gums Linkages with collect Gum e.g. A. microfinance acacia sieberiana Service The Financial providers communities constraints have capacity Inadequate to control training on destruction of production tree resources techniques they consider Low prices valuable e.g. Lack of clear A. senegal land tenure through systems traditional law Forest fires and system locusts Post harvest The producers High quality Lack of Training on handling (collectors) cleaned awareness on post harvest (Storage, have capacity and sorted end user handling Cleaning, to carry out gum requirements Construction Sorting, minimal produced of stores in Grading) cleaning or and No storage selected sites sorting of Gum temporarily facilities acacia before stored in selling to the suitable traders. stores at the village level as traders are awaited
54 Marketing There are a More local The prices of Review few local traders gum acacia policy on traders with Improved are currently prices limited market set by the Promotion of capacity to access traders and private absorb all the All may not sector Gum acacia producers reflect the investment in produced organized production the sub- Producers in into active costs sector most states cooperativ Monopoly of Improve operate e societies trade by few market individually that especially access by except in some actively from the North linking counties in UNS bargain for Few marketing producers to where they are best prices channels markets organized in High transport GOSS to groups costs review Lack of High and relevant storage multiple taxes polices facilities at the Financial Linkages with Village level constraints microfinance Service providers
55 4.0 OTHER NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS RESOURCES IN SOUTHERN SUDAN Apart from Gum acacia, there are several other non timber forest products (NTFPS) in Southern Sudan that can be exploited sustainably by local communities for increased incomes and livelihood improvement. The key NTFPS in the three states studied are described below. a. Vitellaria paradoxa Gaetn F. Sapoptaceae
Synonym: Butyrospermum paradoxum (Gaertn. f.) Hepper
Common name: Shea butter tree
Vitellaria paradoxa (shea butter) locally known as Kawa (Moru), Kumuro (Bari), Waa (Acholi), Rak (Dinka) and Lulu (Arabic) is a tree up to 20 m high with stout bole and much-branched spreading crown, lower branches drooping almost to the ground (Plat 4-1). Bark is dark grey to almost black, deeply fissured and splitting into rectangular corky scales, exuding copious white latex when cut. Shoots are short and with annular leaf-base scars. Young shoots and flower buds reddish- brown. Leaves clustered towards the top of the branchlets, petioles long, one-third to half length of leaf-blade, leaf-blade oblong to ovate-oblong, 10-25 cm long, 4.5-14 cm wide, rounded at apex, lateral nerves parallel, 20-30 each side. Flowers are cream, fragrant, borne in dense clusters at the extreme tips of the branchlets, pedicels up to 3 cm long. Fruit is ellipsoid, 6.5 x 4.5 cm, greenish, containing a sweet pulp surrounding the shinny dark brown seed, about 5 x 3 cm with large white scar running down one side.
Large quantities of „shea nuts‟ of commerce are exported from West Africa to Europe. They contain a kind of oil used for soap and candle-making, as a butter- substitute and as a constituent of the filling substance of chocolate creams.
Nuts-containing oil
Cooking oil Tree and Bark fruits
56 Plate 4-1: Shea butter tree at Udhum (Aweil West)
The oil is also burnt as an illuminant. It is also used as a base for certain medicines. Shea butter is becoming commercially more valuable with the development of more extensive applications in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry.
Shea butter tree is of considerable importance in Southern Sudan as a source of edible cooking oil or vegetable butter or body cream extracted from the nuts. This oil is sold at SDG 5 (US$ 2) per 500 ml bottle. The by-products of the oil processing are used locally for termite control. Other uses include building and fuel wood. Shea butter tree was observed to occur on deep loamy soils in high rainfall areas in Northern Bahr El Ghazal (Aweil West) and in savanna woodlands in Eastern Equatoria (Torit, Panyikwara, Agoro, Omeo and Moli). It was generally protected and preserved even in fields cleared for cultivation. Fruiting season is March – June. b. Tamarindus Indica L. Caesalpinaceae
Common and trade name: Tamarind
Tamarindus indica locally known as Ardep (Arabic), Cueiy (Dinka), Titi (Moru) and Pettaa (Bari), is evergreen tree to 24 m high with extensive dense crown (Figure 4- 2). Bark is rough, grey-brown, flaking. Leaves are compound (pinnate), on hairy stalk to 15 cm long, leaflets 10-18 pairs, oblong, 1.2-3.2 x 0.3-1.1 cm, round at the tip and base, veins raised. Flower buds are reddish, petals gold with red veins. Fruits rusty-brown, straight or curved, cylindrical but often irregularly constricted, 6- 14 x 2-3 cm, cracking when mature to show sticky brown pulp around 1-10 dark- brown angular seeds joined by tough fibres running through the sticky pulp.
(b) Fruits
(a) Tamarind tree
Plate 4-2: Tamarindus indica in Aweil East County
The very hard durable wood is used for various constructional purposes. It is also an excellent shade tree. The Tamarind is among the most locally traded fruits. The
57 fruit pulp is eaten raw. The pulp is dissolved in water and the resulting solution used to prepare sour porridge or added to stews as a flavouring for various foods and as a cooling, mildly laxative drink; the seeds are also edible and the young leaves are chewed. In many parts of the world, Tamarid fruits are used in curries, chutneys, sauces and jam.
Tamarind occurs throughout Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria States in wooded grassland savanna, riverine on well-drained sandy soils and also on heavy clay soils near termite mounds. It is very common in Aweil East, Aweil North and Aweil West counties. Fruits are used to make a refreshing drink sold in markets in 500 ml bottles at SDG 1-2 (US$ 0.4-0.8 ) per bottle. There are a number of cottage industries making this refreshing drink in Juba. Fruiting season is August – March. c. Zizyphus spina-christi (L) Desf. Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus spina-christi locally known as Nabak (Arab), Lingo (Moru) and Lang (Dinka) is a tree up to 10 m high with rough grey to brownish bark. Branchlets are zigzag, whitish to pale yellowish, with paired thorns, one straight and directed forward and up to 8 mm long, the other shorter and curved. Leaves are smooth, slightly hairy on midrib, clearly 3-veined from base, ovate to elliptic, 1.5-8.5 x 0.8-5 cm, finely toothed along the margin. Flowers are yellowish green and in many flowered cymes. Fruits are round, about 1 cm across, yellow to reddish brown when ripe (Plate 4-3).
Z. spina-christi occurs by river banks and streams, valleys and water depressions on silty soils. It was found in the three states, very dominant especially in Renk. Ripe fruits are found in large quantities in the local markets. They are sold at SDG 2 (US $ 0.8) per kg. Fruiting season is March – August.
(a) Branch with fruits (b) Ripe fruits
Plate 4-3: Zizyphus spina-christi at Malualkon (Aweil East County) d. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanitaceae
Balanites aegyptiaca locally known as Lalop (Arabic), Thou (Dinka) and Lugwat (Bari) is an evergreen tree to about 7 m tall with rounded crown with arching
58 branches (Plate 4-4). Bark is dark, cracked. Thorns are up to 8 cm long, soft at first and then woody. Leaves are in pairs, grayish green and ovate. Flowers are yellow green, in small clusters. Fruit oblong, up to 5 cm, both ends round, yellowish when ripe, with yellow brown sticky flesh. Seed (stone) hard, pointed at both ends, splitting with time.
Balanites aegyptiaca was found in all the three states: Upper Nile, Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria occurring in grass savanna on dark cracking heavy clays usually in association with A. seyal var. seyal.
(b) Seeds
(a) Tree
Plate 4-4: Balanites aegyptiaca at Aweil East County
The fruits are edible and are said to be medicinal. The leaves, young shoots and crushed fruits are eaten as vegetable, particularly important during drought when much green vegetation is shed but Balanites aegyptiaca tree remain green. The brownish pulp surrounding the seed is edible. It produces edible cooking oil from the seeds. The oil is sold in 300 ml bottles at SDG 5 (US $ 2) per bottle. The inner seed (after removing the hard cover) is mixed with maize in place of beans and cooked to make a local dish. Fruiting season is December – July. e. Borassus aethiopum (Mart) Palmaceae
Common name: Yellow Coconut
Borassus aethiopum locally known as Agep (Dinka), Itu (Moru), and Wawok (Bari) is a tall unbranched palm to about 25 m high with a smooth, grey trunk with a bulge above the middle. Leaves are large, fan-shaped, to about 3 m x 4 m, deeply divided into leaflets. Male and female flowers are on different trees, males producing branched spikes to 2 m carrying the pollen. Fruits round or slightly egg- shaped, surrounded by an enlarged calyx, about 12 cm across, orange-yellow when ripe, containing 3 seeds surrounded by a fibrous edible pulp (Plate 4-5). The fruits are edible and are commonly sold in markets. They are sold at SDG 1 (US$ 0.4) per fruit. Young seedlings are edible. It provides termite resistant wood for
59 construction and furniture. Other uses include thatch, making mats and baskets and dye.
Borassus aethiopum was found in all the three States: Upper Nile, Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria occurring on silty soils near valleys and by river banks. Fruiting season is April – May.
(b) Fruits
(a) A stand of yellow coconut tree
Plate 4-5: Borassus aethiopum in Aweil East f. Grewia tenax Tiliaceae
Grewia tenax, locally known as Apor-mony-oit (Dinka) and Gacleb (Arabic) is a multi-stemmed deciduous shrub to about 4 m high with whitish grey stems dotted with white lenticels. It has orange-red fruits, each divided into 1-4 but attached to each other (Plate 4-6). Grewia tenax is very common in the three States: Upper Nile, Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria, on sandy or clay soils in the grass savanna. Fruits are commonly sold in the markets especially in Warawar (Aweil East County). The fruits are edible, commonly used to prepare a refreshing drink sold in most eating-places.
Error!
(b) Fruit and juice (a) Fruits
60 Plate 4-6: Grewia tenax
The fruit costs SDG 5 (US $ 2)/ kg. Two kilo grams of the fruits are used to prepare about 15 litres of the refreshing drink, which is sold in the local markets at SDG 4 (US $ 1.6) per litre or SDG 2 (US $ 0.8) per cup. Fruits are found around December and June. g. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. Anacardiaceae
Sclerocarya birrea locally known as Gomel (Dinka), Mionga (Moru) and Lobiridi (Bari) is a deciduous medium-sized tree growing up to about 15 m high, usually with a rather dense rounded crown (Plate 4-7). Bark is grey, then black, thick with irregular cracks and raised scales, inner bark is pink red. Leaves are compound, borne at tips of branches that end bluntly, leaflets 7-21, oval to 10 cm, margins entire or undulate, tip pointed or blunt. Flowers are monoecious, males pale green in 7-22 long spikes, hanging down and often with insects; females green-pink to reddish, solitary. Fruits are oval or nearly globose, 3-4 cm across, light green with cream spots, falling while still green, turning yellow on ripening, with a single large hard nut containing 2-3 seeds inside.
(a) Tree (b) Fruits
Plate 4-7: Sclerocarya birrea at Aweil North County
Sclerocarya birrea occurs throughout the three States, very common indeed, in wooded savanna grasslands associated with Lannea and Combretum spp. It is particularly common around Malakal in Upper Nile, Torit in Eastern Equatoria and Aweil in Northern Bahr El Ghazal. The ripe fruits are edible, very rich in vitamin C. Pulp can be processed to produce a variety of commercial products e.g. wine, jelly and jam. The kernel is edible and produces edible oil. The fruiting season is usually March – April. h. Vitex doniana (sweet) Verbenaceae
Vitex doniana, loclly known a Kuuyuok (Dinka) is a semi-deciduous tree to 14 m tall with a round crown (Plate 4-8). It has compound digitate leaves, usually 5 – foliolate. Fruits are oblong, about 3 cm long, green at first and with white dots, later black when ripe, seed a single hard stone, enclosed by a starchy black pulp. The tree is common in most States and occurs near rivers and sream beds in
61 savanna grasslands. The sweet tasting fruits are very popular with the local communities and are sold in markets when in season. They are said to be “eaten as food” particularly in times of famine. They are sold at SDG 2 (US$ 0.8) per kg. They are very common particularly in Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria. The fruiting season is around October - December.
(a) Tree (b) Fruits
Plate 4-8: Vitex doniana at Malualkon, Aweil East
i. Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae
Common names: physic nut, purging nut
Jatropha curcus is an introduced species widely grown in the tropics as living fences because it is easily propagated by cuttings and not browsed by cattle. The seeds contain 30-35% oil mostly used for candle and soap making. The oil can also be used as a substitute for diesel oil in engines. It has also medicinal properties as purgatives. In recent years, special interest has been shown in the cultivation of physic nut in a number of countries. Examples from Mali show that villages that plant 15 km of J. curcas hedges can harvest about 12 tons of seed per season, which may generate cash income of US$ 1800 when the oil is extracted and the products sold.
Jatropha curcus is a shrub of upto 2 m in height (Plate 4-9). Bark smooth, greenish yellow-brown, peeling in papery scales. Stems rather fleshy with much latex. Leaves with 3-5 shallow lobes, 7-14 x 7-14 cm, stalk up to 16 cm, 5-9-nerved from base. Flowers yellow-green, on branched heads. Fruit 3-angled ovoid capsule 2.5- 4 cm long, black when ripe, containing 3 mottled seeds. Jatropha curcus is common in Southern Sudan, planted as live fence, boundary marking and ornamental. It is very common in towns and villages. The fruiting season is around April – June.
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Fruits containing seeds Plate 4-9: Jatropha curcas in Juba Town j. Ximenia Americana Olacaceae
Ximenia Americana though not commercially exploited is among the important indigenous fruits in Southern Sudan (Plate 4-10). It is particularly popular with herdsmen, women and children. It is a spreading spiny shrub usually about 4 meters high with grayish brown bark and purplish branches. Fruits are oval to 3 cm, shiny yellow-orange or pink red on ripening. It is very widely distributed within the three States: Upper Nile, Northern Bahr El Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria, on sandy or clay soils in the grass savanna. The fruiting season is April – June.
Ripe fruits Plate 4-10: Ximenia americana at Malualbai k. Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae
Lawsonia inermis is a popular shrub, the source of a fast brown or orange-red dye obtained from the leaves and young shoots. The dye is widely used to dye the hands and feet of women, and hair, beard, nails, eyebrows, etc. The shrub is commonly planted as hedge plants in many towns and villages in Southern Sudan (Plate 4-11).
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Plate 4-11: A hedge of L. inermis in Malakal town, Upper Nile State l. Medicinal plants It is common knowledge that about 80% of the world‟s population, mostly from developing countries depends on traditional medicine for primary health care. This is more realistic in Africa‟s drylands where modern medical facilities are scarce and Southern Sudan is no exceptional. Unlike pharmaceutical drugs, herbal medicines can be grown or harvested from the wild, and are easily prepared at home. In addition, they could serve to increase the level of community participation in conservation of biodiversity. The plant use in medicine is common, very popular and held with a lot of esteem by most communities in Southern Sudan. They put into use quite a large number of species ranging from annual herbs, climbers, shrubs and trees. The parts used vary from one species to another. For trees and shrubs, the parts commonly used are the bark and roots. For herbs, it is usually the whole plant. A large number of medicinal plants are used to treat both human and their livestock. Common and well-known medicinal plants observed in Southern Sudan include: Aloe spp., Hagenia abyssinica, Albizia anthelmintica, Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Fagara chalybea), Z gilletii, Maytenus senegalensis, Prunus africana (pygeum africanum) and Rhamnus prinoides. m. Honey and Bee products Honey is an old and well-established produce of commerce. In Southern Sudan, the industry could be worth billions of shillings considering the expanse of the region and the diversity of the plant species flowering profusely at different times of the year. Honey from the drylands is generally free of chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides and would fetch good prices in the world market. The local prices ranged from SDG 4 (US $ 1.6)/ litre in Kimatong‟ (EES) to SDG 10 (US $ 4)/ litre in UNS and NBEGS. Honey is abundant in most of these areas. An excellent resource for bees in Southern Sudan is the various Acacia spp. and particularly, Acacia mellifera, which flowers profusely producing excellent-quality honey (mellifera = producing honey). The shrub is very common throughout Southern Sudan in the clay plains, forming almost pure stands or in association with A. laeta, A. senegal, A. nubica and A. seyal. There are also various Aloe spp. that would produce nectar for special honey.
64 5.0 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IN DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES OF GUM AND NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPS) Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings including humans with one another and with their environment. Further, TEK is an attribute of societies with historical continuity in resource use practices and these are non-industrial or less technologically advanced societies, many of them indigenous (Ruddle and Johannes 1989; Freeman and Carbyn 1988).
Traditional ecological knowledge represents the position of local communities in terms of its land use (Brokensha et al, 1980). Since local conditions vary and different communities have different utilizations patterns and levels of dependence on natural resources, traditional ecological knowledge may also vary from place to place and community to community (Laxman et.al, 2004).
People in Southern Sudan depend upon natural resources to support their livelihoods (Cox, 1987). The long-term sustainable use of these resources, such as soils, pasture and more importantly the gum producing tree rsources and the high value indigenous fruit trees , depend on local people‟s knowledge, management and ability to maintain and utilize them (Johannes,1989; Berkes, 1989).
What local people know about their surrounding, and how they categorize this knowledge, has an impact on what they do to their environment (Moran, 1979). In Southern Sudan the A. senegal, A . seyal and some important indigenous fruit trees are managed under traditional land use systems. However, traditional ecological knowledge relating to the management of these trees is not well documented. This study, within its limitations, attempted to carry out a a rapid analysis of the traditonal ecological knowledge associated with management of A. senegal, A. seyal and other indigenous trees that produce useful NTFPS.
The study revealed that traditionally-based management system of the A. senegal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica, Zizyphus spina-chriti, Sclerocarya birrea, Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Grewia tenax, Ximenia americana and Borassus aethiopum tree resources was carried out on a sustainable natural resource conservation basis. The techniques adopted by the local communities included: collection of dead wood and protection of the resource by a council of elders through use of cultural taboos and well laid down informal laws.
In UNS, the A. senegal trees are protected because they are seen as valuable resources and the local community make a conscious effort to limit the manner of their exploitation through laid down local laws. Thus, A. senegal trees that produce Gum acacia are not to be cut. No plants or parts of the plants may be cut when they are still alive. Only dry fallen dead wood is collected for fuelwood. No herding sticks or tent poles are cut from A. senegal trees. Clearly, these restrictions are instituted in order to ensure survival of the trees in these areas. In UNS Balanites
65 aegyptiaca is associated with rainfall and is never to be cut down. In EES, cutting of Balanites aegyptiaca attracts a heavy penalty of a bull to the elders or a drum of local brew or in default one is cursed. Only a dead Balanites aegyptiaca can be cut to provide fuelwood. It is reputed to have the best fuelwood but generally, tree species preferred for firewood and charcoal are those with dense and heavy wood that produce a lot of heat, good charcoal and keep fire burning slowly for a long time.
Only dry palm trees are cut. There are also taboos related to the cutting of the other high value indigeneous fruit trees. However, the case is different for A. seyal which is cut for production of charcoal and fuelwood in UNS and NBEGS. Charcoal production is more lucrative than gum acacia collection from A. seyal. In NBEGS the trees are cut for sale as firewood for firing the brick production plants and baking bread. These practices are destructive and threaten future gum acacia production from Southern Sudan.
There is need for an indepth study on the traditional ecological knowledge on these valuable resources to ensure that sustainable management practices and use of the tree resources and their products. Such knowledge is necessary for effective communication with local people and allows research and extension activities to appropriately target constraints experienced locally. Aditionally, the use of traditional ecological knowledge may benefit development agencies in providing more realistic evaluations of the role of these trees in the management of the environment and production systems. Thus, involvement of the local people‟s knowledge in the planning process improves the chance of success in bringing about rural development (Warren et al. 1993).
66 6.0 KEY CHALLENGES AND GAPS The study has identified key challenges and gaps that need to be addressed. These include and not limited to the following:
Resource management The A. seyal resource in Southern Sudan appears abundant and is yet to be fully exploited for increased production of gum talha. In some counties like Melut in UNS, only gum from A. senegal is collected and traded while A. seyal trees are cut and used in the more lucrative charcoal production (Plate 5-1). Fuel wood has a greater demand than gum talha, probably due to the lower prices offered for gum talha as compared to gum hashab. In NBEGS where gum is produced mainly from A. seyal, these trees are threatened due to excessive felling for sale as fuel wood for firing bricks and baking bread (Plate 5-2). A. seyal is considered one of the best firewoods (Duke, 1983).
Plate 5-1: Charcoal from A. seyal in Jelahak, UNS
Plate 5-2: Firewood from A. seyal for firing brick making plants in Aweil East
Severe drought, locust and quiller bird invasions are also reported as key factors that affect production of gum from Sudan (Muller and Okoro, 2004). Traditionally, populations set fires in forests and woodlands for renewed grass growth for livestock, for hunting, and for land cleaning in shifting cultivation practice. The frequent forest fires, if not properly checked, have the potential of destroying large quantities of the valuable gum producing Gum acacia tree resources. This is accelerated by absence of fire lines to protect the trees as the local communities lack skills in putting up these.
67 Occasional invasion by a heavy swam of locusts causes defoliation and destruction of up to 75 % of the trees. Security of supply is a major concern of end-users of Gum acacia. Currently there are no plantations for gum acacia resources or buffer stock to ensure sustainable supply of the gum. If high production levels can be maintained, and if the market does not acquire the extra gum immediately, the possibility of creating buffer stocks to safeguard against years of low production is necessary. Resource inventory data and maps of the Gum acacia producing tree resources are not available and are necessary for the establishment of the current production and future potential. Management plans that clearly define the roles of the key stakeholders (e.g. local community (producers) and the government) in gum resources management are lacking.
Gum production Insecurity is a threat in some areas with potential to produce gum acacia particularly Eastern Equatoria State and towards the North. Long distance to some tapping sites coupled with lack of transport due to inaccessibility to some of the sites may be prohibitive to most tappers. The current method of gum tapping may not be sustainable as it may result into the death of most of the tapped trees. Most communities in non traditional gum acacia producing areas with gum acacia tree resources are ignorant of the importance of Gum acacia and lack skills to exploit this resource.
Gum marketing The proposed change of the brand name, being fronted by the Southern Sudaneese people, from gum acacia to gum africa is likely to cause confusions in the marketing of the commodity. The international market prices of gum acacia are no longer in the hands of the producer countries but the companies that import the commodity, who control the price to their advantage. Since 2001 when GAC sold most of the buffer stock in Sudan to a „giant processing company‟, this company has become a super giant controlling the market price of gum acacia. There are price fluctuations in the international market due to competition from synthetics being produced in importing countries and the current global economic recession. The number of gum acacia producing countries has also increased lately resulting in a lot of competition for the same markets. The key competitors are Chad and Nigeria. There are limited markets especially for gum from EES The producer prices are affected by local politics as most of the gum producing areas are the ones that are a headache to the central government. The gum marketing and trade is monopolized by a few traders, mainly from the North, who exploit the producers. All the states except UNS do not have producer cooperative groups leading to poor bargaining on producer prices.
68 High and multiple taxation in Southern Sudan are an impediment to gum trade as it results in low profit margins. Some counties charge as high as 45 % of the cost price of gum acacia. Exporting gum from Southern Sudan through the conventional exit, Port Sudan, is extremely difficult due to hustles on the way, vandalism, multiple taxes, strong opposition from the Northern traders and bureaucracies in obtaining a license from Khartoum. The change in marketing channel of gum acacia due to changes in the port of exit from Port Sudan to Mombasa port and poor road infrastructure in the Southern Sudan have resulted in very high transport costs. This together unregulated taxes result in high cost of doing business in Southern Sudan. The commodity has to be transported to Juba by river at about US $ 250 and then transported to Mombasa by road at a similar cost, besides the overhead costs. If the commodity were exported through Port Sudan, there would be a saving of about US $ 400 on transport costs alone. There is also a high turn around time for the traders as it takes about 2 months for the commodity to be transported to Mombasa, where the trader is paid based on freight on board (fob).
Policies and legislations There is a general lack of legislated law to govern various institutions e.g. Taxation law. This makes it difficult to persecute those who have committed crime against these institutions. In most cases, such issues are tried administratively. There are also lots of policy gaps in Southern Sudan. Most of the current policies are obsolete and irrelevant and require review. A number of new policies have been drafted but are yet to be approved/ enacted for implementation. Some of the relevant policies that require urgent attention include: Land, revenue, pricing, infrastructure, microfinance, investment, taxation, trade and information and knowledge sharing policies. There are also no policies and standards on quality control for gum acacia in Southern Sudan. There are no policies on carbon trade as there are no criteria as yet for awarding carbon credits for Savanna woodlands. Policies on certification of Gum acacia are lacking Policies on acquisition of appropriate germplasm and establishment of plantations of A. senegal and A. seyal species lacking. Following the signing of the comprehensive peace agreement (CPA) in 2005, some policies of GOSS did not favour the trade in gums especially in UNS and NBEGS. The trade on gum with the northerners was discouraged and there was also no incentive for the producers in form of financial support as was in the case previously through the Gum Arabic Company. The Nile Commercial Bank which was commissioned by GOSS to provide financial support to the producers also collapsed.
Research and development Effective management and efficient utilization of forest resources require application of modern science and technology. However, there is inadequate human resource capacity in the area of quality and quality
69 control coupled with few and ill equipped Universities or laboratories in Southern Sudan. There is lack of knowledge on whether gum acacia produced from the two soil types - the sandy soil and clay soil - have different intrinsic qualities and chemistry. Southern Sudan is rich in traditional ecological knowledge on NTFPs but this is yet to be properly documented.
Information and knowledge sharing There is poor data collection and documentation along the gum acacia value chain leading to un-reliable statistics and information on gum acacia trade. There is limited information and knowledge sharing along the value chain Extension services are ineffective and not extensive. Lack of awareness by most local community members on the importance of gum acacia There is no fora that brings together members from the key stakeholders, including collectors (local communities), traders, government and non- governmental organizations, exporters and importers who have a common interest to improve the production and quality of these resources for domestic and export markets.
Others Inadequate safe drinking water in most of the counties and lack of water points at the tapping sites resulting in tappers suffering from thirst. Lack of proper drainage system and inadequate and improper toilet facilities. Poor or lack of mobile phone network coverage in some of the sites Inadequate involvement of the local communities in key decision making sessions in order for them to have opportunities to lobby for their rights and articulate their development needs. Despite on-going roads constructions, there is still poor road network and some roads are still inaccessible during the rainy season. This leads to cut off in food supply resulting in conflicts and insecurity. Flood-this is a cyclic phenomena in most of the states. It destroys crops, properties and displaces thousands of people. Huge influx of returnees has led to competition for food and few available basic facilities and services e.g. water supply, education, health facilities and security. There are insufficient funds for development, payment of salaries and operating expenditures in most states especially in NBEGS (some counties do not have forest officers). Grants received from GoSS are insufficient and far below threshold of liquidity needed for service delivery and security financial obligation. It‟s still difficult to collect local revenues due to lack of collector's capacity and poor taxation system. Excessive workforce in some states is a liability to the government and has crippled development and service delivery efforts. Most of this manpower is
70 unproductive and poses political instability in the communities to resist retrenchment. There are high uncertainties and risks in investing in Southern Sudan due to the unpredictable security situation Limited private business investment leads to a huge gap in service delivery and economy growth
71
7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Gum acacia from A. senegal and A. seyal, indigeneous fruits/nuts/seeds, medicinal plants and honey and bee products are significant among the various natural resources in Southern Sudan These are renewable resources that could be sustainably exploited for household income, employment generation and still conserve biological diversity and ecosystem functions while increasing overall productivity of the land. The following specific conclusions and recommendations can be drawn from the study.
7.1 Conclusions
1. There are numerous resources of A. senegal var. senegal and A. seyal var. seyal in the states studied (UNS, NBEGS, EES). These resources have a potential annual production of Gum acacia estimated at 6,541.2 –15,580.3 MT with an annual export value of US $ 12,428,280 -25, 850,300. However, A. senegal may be under threat due to over tapping in UNS while A. seyal is threatened by cutting for fuel wood (charcoal and firewood) in UNS and NBEGS. Fires and occasional invasion by locusts are also serious threats. 2. More than 150,000 resource poor farmers with little or no education are currently involved in gum tapping and collection. Gum acacia is therefore a vital current and future source of income to several vulnerable households in Southern Sudan. However, the current low prices (SDG 0.5-1.34/ kg or US $ 0.2-0.54/ kg) at the community level are a disincentive for increased production of this important commodity. The future of marketing of gum for equitable benefit sharing a long the value chain is through well organized cooperative unions to assist the producers in accessing microfinance services and bargaining for best prices for Gum acacia. 3. There is only one company that is currently permitted by GOSS to trade in gum acacia in Southern Sudan. Due to the high market potential for the gum acacia from Southern Sudan because of its high intrinsic quality and the abundance of the gum tree resources, there exists a great potential for investment in trade in gum acacia sub-sector in Southern Sudan. There is therefore need for aggressive marketing of gum from Southern Sudan by more than one company. However, there are a number of challenges for investing in the sub sector that require urgent attention through enactment of investment laws and development of relevant policies. 4. There exists a lot of opportunities for formation of networks and partnerships with various international and local organizations working in food security and livelihood sub-sector in Southern Sudan (e.g. FAO, USAID, IRD, MERCY CORPS, etc), microfinance sub-sector (e.g. AMURT, SUMI, Finance Sudan and BRAC) and regional programmes (e.g NGARA and RCMRD) to support the development of the sub-sector for enhanced exploitation and use of Gum acacia. 5. There is generally low capacity for exploitation of gum acacia for most actors along the value chain. Some of the key areas that require capacity building include: protection of gum acacia resources, appropriate methods for sustainable tapping of the gum, post harvest handling of the gum
72 (cleaning and sorting), establishment and strengthening of producer groups, marketing of gum, micro-finance, savings and utilization of loans, strengthening capacity of government staff for effective, efficient and extensive extension services. 6. The current forestry policy has set out new directions for forestry development in the country for the next decade and beyond, some of which are relevant to gum acacia sub sector. However, there are a number of gaps that require to be filled in to enhance gum acacia production and marketing for increased incomes and food security at household levels leading to improved livelihoods. Some of the policy issues and/ or legislation that require urgent attention include: enactment of a new Forest Act, land tenure, pricing, taxation, documentation, microfinance, infrastructure development, trade, national quality control systems, and information dissemination and knowledge sharing. 7. Indigenous fruits from Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date), Tamarindus indica, Zizyphus spina-christi, Sclerocarya birrea, Vitellaria paradoxa (shea nut), Vitex doniana, Grewia tenax and Borassus aethiopum (yellow coconut), medicinal plants, honey and bee products are the other key non timber forest products that the communities can be able to sustainably exploit for increased incomes and livelihood improvement in the three states studied. 8. There exists valuable traditional ecological knowledge on the development and conservation of gum acacia producing tree resources and indigenous high value fruit trees in Southern Sudan. This knowledge is key in the development of sustainable management practices and use of the tree resources and their products. It is also important for effective communication with local people and directs research and extension activities to appropriately target constraints experienced locally.
73 7.2 Key Recommendations
Resource production and management Short term 1. State governments should enforce protection and conservation of gum producing tree species particularly A. seyal var. seyal which are currently under severe threat due to its high preference for charcoal and firewood. 2. The State governments should support forest workers to train local communities in these areas on establishment of fireguards. 3. GOSS-MAF should develop guidelines for sustainable tapping of gum acacia from A. senegal. Medium term 1. GOSS-MAF in collaboration with relevant development partners, NGARA and Regional centre for mapping of resources for development should carry out an intensive resource inventory and mapping of the gum acacia producing resources in order to establish the future potential. Long term 1. GOSS-MAF should establish plantations of A. senegal and A. seyal species using germplasm from superior mother trees to ensure sustainability of gum production. 2. GOSS-MAF should develop management plans for the gum acacia resources that clearly define the roles of the key stakeholders. 3. Once the management of the trees is properly embraced by the local communities, and a criteria for awarding carbon credits for Savanna woodlands developed then carbon trade can be promoted for integration with gum production for maximum benefits to the local communities.
Marketing Short-term 1. GOSS-MAF should identify a suitable brand name (other than gum africa) that is recognizable internationally e.g. gum acacia and lobby for its recognition through FAO, NGARA and AIPG. 2. GOSS-MoCRD should support and promote establishment of producer cooperative societies in areas where these do not exist and strengthen existing ones to empower the producers and enable them to fetch higher prices at auction kets or to negotiate direct contracts with processors/exporters.. 3. GOSS-MAF to take advantage of the forthcoming stakeholder‟s workshop to refine policies on tree products to better suit the producers. 4. Carry out a detailed gum acacia value chain analysis 5. GOSS should explore provision of innovative financial services to the sub-sector – including encouraging (and probably subsidizing) micro
74 finance institutions to do business with the gum entrepreneurs. The creation of more micro-finance schemes in the Gum acacia producing states and linkages with producer societies should be promoted and supported. 6. GOSS-MAF in collaboration with relevant development partners such as SNV should facilitate aggressive marketing of gum acacia and linking the producers to markets. 7. GOSS needs to urgently discuss with the government of national unity on the use of Port Sudan as an export port in the framework of the comprehensive peace agreement signed in 2005. The lower transport costs and infrastructure for value addition at the Port should be taken advantage of.
Medium term 1. GOSS-MAF should promote formation of an Umbrella gum acacia society for the whole of Southern Sudan to bring together all the key stakeholders in the sub-sector (government, private sector and communities) with the main role of ensuring quality control and fair trade and benefit sharing along the value chain. 2. GOSS to collaborate with ITC to establish database and database management infrastructure for gum acacia and ensure that the gum acacia exports of Southern Sudan are reflected in the World Trade template.
Long term 1. Considerations should be made by GOSS in consultation with relevant international companies to establish some grinding factories in strategic locations, on a pilot basis, to crush the gum into powder and support these companies to establish themselves in the global market. A feasibility study should be initiated to establish the cost of this kind of investment and the idea promoted by GOSS.
Capacity building Medium term 1. GOSS-MAF in collaboration with NGARA should carry out training for producers, traders and extension agencies on appropriate methods for production, post harvest handling, storage and marketing of gum acacia. 2. Producer societies in collaboration with GOSS-MAF should partner with relevant development organizations to support construction of storage facilities at producer level where cleaning, sorting, proper packaging and labeling can be done and supervised by the producer societies to ensure high quality products.
75 Policy Medium term 1. GOSS-MAF should hasten the introduction of a new Forest Act (within the context of the New Laws of Southern Sudan) to, among other things, strengthen and regulate the implementation of the new forest policy. 2. GOSS should put in place relevant policies and/or legislation to urgently address, land tenure issues, pricing, taxation, documentation, microfinance, infrastructure development, national quality control systems, information dissemination and knowledge sharing. 3. GOSS should set up a transparent and enabling business environment for private investors. 4. GOSS should make changes in rules governing marketing and export of gum acacia aim at (a) achieving higher producer prices to stimulate production and boost producer incomes; (b) increasing the level of domestic value-added through processing. The following actions are envisaged as a package of integrated measures to achieve a more efficient gum acacia production, and marketing system with benefits to most stakeholders in the sector: Provide a transparent business environment, i.e. removal of barriers to entry by granting gum processing and export licenses based on transparent requirements applying to all investors, avoid policy decisions that would reintroduce restrictions on the processors‟ ability to operate. Support research into global market opportunities, understand changing structure on the demand side, monitoring breakthroughs in substitute development, Bring taxation on gum at the same level as other agricultural commodities and enforce legislation against illegal taxation. 5. GOSS to be registered with international organizations dealing with food regulatory and standards issues e.g. CAC, WTO, ITC etc 6. GOSS should consider being represented in CODEX without delay
Research and development Medium term 1. GOSS-MAF in collaboration with NGARA and relevant development partners should map gum acacia quality variation within and among producing states for the two types of gum. Studies on the quality of gum acacia and its variation with species, variation of gum from the same species with age of the source tree, edaphic factors and environmental conditions (e.g. heat and storage) needs to be supported. 2. GOSS-MAF in collaboration with relevant partners should undertake a detailed traditional ecological knowledge study on non timber forest products with potential for commercial exploitation at local level. 3. Carry out an assessment of the viability for establishment of community based value adding practices for non timber forest products.
76 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdala, 2007. Gum acacia Belt Potential in the Livelihood improvement of Central Sudan Drylands. Forests National Corporation
Barrow, E.G.C. 1996. The Drylands of Africa: Local participation in tree management. Initiative Publishers, Nairobi, Kenya.
Berkes, R, ed. 1989. Common Property Resources: Ecology and Community-Based Sustainable Development. London, Belhaven Press.
Brokensha, D., D. Warren, and O. Werner, eds.1980. Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development. Washington, DC, University Press of America.
Chikamai, B.N and Odera, J. A. (Eds.). 2002. Commercial Plant Gums and Gum Resins in Kenya. Sources of Alternative Livelihood and Economic Development in the Drylands of Kenya. Executive Printers. Nairobi-Kenya.
Coppen, J.J.W, (1984): Gum acacia – its preparation and industrial uses. Overseas Development Administration and Tropical Development Research Institute, London. Cox, B., ed. 1987. Native Peoples: Native Lands. Ottawa, Carleton University Press. Duke, J. A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished El Amin, H.M 1990. Trees and Shrubs of the Sudan. Ithaca Press Exeter, Richmond, London Gaafar, A. M. (2005). FAO 1993. International trade in non-wood forests: An overview. F.O: Mis/93/11. Freeman, M.M.R. and L.N. Carbyn, eds. 1988. Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management in Northern Regions. Edmonton, University of Alberta. Harrison and Jackson. (1958). Ecological Classification of the Vegetation of the Sudan
ITC. 1983. The Gum acacia market and the development of production. International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva and the United Nations Sudano-Sahelaian Office.
ITC, 2008. Gum acacia news service (Mns). Quarterly edition. International Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO(ITC).
Johannes, R.E., ed. 1989. Traditional Ecological Knowledge: A Collection of Essays. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, IUCN.
77 Laxman, J. et. al. 2004. Local ecological knowledge in natural resource management. World Agro-forestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia.
Moran, E.F. 1979. Human Adaptability. An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. North Scituate, Duxbury Press.
Muller and Okoro. 2004. Production and marketing of Gum acacia. NGARA Publication Series 2.
NAS (1980): Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Obua, J., Agea J.G., Namirembe, S., Egadu., S.P., Mucunguzi, P. 2006. The potential of Acacia Senegal for Dryland agroforestry and Gum acacia production in Uganda.
Ruddle, K. and R.E. Johannes, eds. 1989. Traditional Marine Resource Management in the Pacific Basin: An Anthology. Jakarta, Unesco/RPSTSEA.
SNV, 2007. East and Southern Africa Region Annual Report 2006.
Warren, D.M., D. Brokensha, and L.J. Slikkerveer, eds. 1993. Indigenous Knowledge Systems. The Cultural Dimension of Development. London, Kegan Paul International.
78 APPENDICES
Appendix I: Itinerary for Consultant Team
Day Activity Place Who 10/05/09 Travel to Juba Juba 2 consultants 11/05/09 Meeting with stakeholders Juba , MAF Offices Consultants, SNV, MAF and FAO 12/05/09 Travel to Upper Nile Malakal Consultants and 1 MAF staff 13 – 15 Meetings and field visits Upper Nile 2 Consultants, 1 /05/09 MAF and 1 SMOAF, 1SNV plus 1 local FAO 15/05/09 Travel Back to Juba Juba 2 Consultants, I MAF and SNV 18/05/09 Travel to NBGS Aweil Consultants and 1 MAF staff 19 -21/ Meetings and field work NBGS 2 Consultants, 1 05/09 MAF and 1 SMOA , 1 SNV plus 1 local FAO 22/05/09 Travel Back to Juba Juba 2 Consultants, I MAF and SNV 23/05/09 Travel to Torit – Meetings Torit 2 Consultant, SNV, MAF and 1 SMOA 24 – 26 Travel to Kimatong and Kapoeta 2 Consultant, SNV, /05/09 Kapoeta North MAF and 1 SMOA 27/ 05/09 Travel Back to Juba Juba 2 Consultant, SNV, MAF 28/05/09 Draft Report Production Juba 2 Consultants and MAF 29/05/09 Presentation of key findings Juba Consultants, SNV, MAF and FAO 29/05/09 Travel Back to Nairobi Nairobi Consultants 30/05- Finalization of report Nairobi Consultants 2/06/09 03 -07 Mapping Nairobi Consultants /06/09
79 Appendix II: List of People Met during the Study
Name Position Organization State Tel. Contact Email address 1 Keak Gatkek Kikuei Director General UNS-MAF UNS 910316299 2 Yohanes Mayik Akie UNS-MAF UNS 911207461 3 Jogo Francis Amum UNS-MAF UNS 122153077 4 Papiti Mojwok Ayul UNS-MAF UNS 913212795 5 Joseph Okoth Director Forestry UNS-MAF UNS 6 Samwel Jonawok D. Director Forestry UNS-MAF UNS
7 David Otieno Area Emergency FAO NBEGS and 256-477145374 [email protected] Obong'o Coordinator WBEGS 249-919660197 [email protected] 8 Sworo Yopesi Agricultural Field FAO NBEGS and 256-477146334 [email protected] Officer WBEGS 249-126609328 sworo.yahoo.co.uk 9 Pranav Kumar Manu Deputy Director AMURT NBEGS 0-477192804 [email protected] International [email protected] 10 James Wani USAID NBEGS 0-477187551 [email protected] 11 Viola Akuma Mercy Corps NBEGS [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] 12 Santino Kon Gum Collection Ariath Payam NBEGS coordinatator 13 Geng Maywen Gum Collector Malualbai Payam NBEGS 14 Hagwill Deng Gum collector Melut Payam UNS 15 Gow Mayik Local trader Jelahak Payam UNS 16 Adam Rahamtala Local trader Warawar Centre NBEGS 121756142 17 Beng Chol Local trader Melut Payam UNS 18 Deng Awad Gum collector Jelahak Payam UNS 19 Ayek Agir Chair Melut Gum UNS producer union
80 20 Thon Loul Kor Official Melut Gum Producers union 21 Thon Mokehd Ajek Official Melut Gum Producers union 22 Aoiny Jel Deing Official Melut Gum Producers union 23 Abdubagi Hassin Official Melut Gum Producers union 24 James Foicino Director of Forestry MAF-Melut County UNS 0-911169438 25 Thon Aguor 0-924292969 26 Awnour Onwar Team Leader FAO UNS 0-121245815 Onwaradeng Adeng @yahoo.com 27 Changiwok Mayink Deputy Director MAF-Renk County UNS 0-910545074 28 Ayiek Akawy Ayie Chair Renk Gum UNS 0-0910130284 Producers Union 00-126043380
29 Dr. Yitbarek Nigatu Program Manager IRD UNS 249-919653706 [email protected] 256-477196151 [email protected] 30 Timothy Thinol Onak Director General MAF-GOSS CES 256-477128926 [email protected] 249-129328496 249-912626749 31 Prof. Fred Owino Consultant MAF-GOSS UNS 256-477244565 249-955008069 32 Jacob Operations officer Finance Sudan CES 0-927844854 254-722793333 33 Ayom Mach Jock Director General GOSS-MOFEP CES 0-477109598 0-911812465 34 Mary Akech Milla Director For Private GOSS-MOCI CES 0-477164717 [email protected] sector 35 Area Manager BRAC CES 256-477151484 0-129487105 36 Dr. Mach Martin South Sudan Gum CES 249-126-45-370 Majier Co. Ltd. 256-477-189-074
81 37 Director General GOSS-MOC CES 38 Rech Malong' Asst. Commissioner Aweil North County NBEGS
39 Mathias Hussein Acting Director NBEGS-MAF NBEGS General 40 Gabriel Mali Director Forestry NBEGS-MAF NBEGS 41 Forester NBEGS-MAF NBEGS 42. Natalis Owen Okeny Coordinator, Forest Forest Dept. EES 0-918928751 Activities Greater Kapoeta and Budi Counties 43. Angelo O. Coordinator, Forest Forest Dept. Magwi, EES 0-477154918 Langalanga Activities Lafon, Ikwoto and 0-919790599 Torit 44. Jack Silvs Tobias Acting, Director SMOAL FE & RD EES 0-917836261 General 249-917836261 45. Ladi Philip D. Director, Sawmills SMOAL FE & RD EES 0-477-101328 46. Michael Vorgol Member CBO EES Locule 47. Andrew Ebenyo Member CBO Lopua 48. Celeste Lokai Local Chief Kimatong‟ EES 49. Rodente Lobolu Member CBO EES 50. Lucy Peter Collector EES 51. Rose Nakiyo Collector EES 52. Naler Kilang‟ola Collector EES 53. Maria Lukwe Collector EES
82 Appendix III: Tools used in the study
Data sheet 1: Inventory of Gum acacia and gum resins resources in southern sudan
Sample plot No: ------GPS readings N------E------Alt:------
State:………….………….…..County:………..…………………Payam:………………….Boma……………..… Village:------Tree species assessed:……………………………………………….. Local names………………………………….………….. No. of mature trees: ………………………………No. of juvenile trees ……………………Soil type………………………..……. Extent of resource:………From………………………………………………………….To……………………………………………..…..... Collection entres:1………………….……………….2…………………………………………3…………………….…………………. Data Collected by: …………………………………………………...……………………………………Date……………………………….
83 Data Sheet 2: Questionnaire for collection of information from the producers/ collectors on status of production, harvesting, quality control and marketing of Gum acacia 1. Demographic information Name of head of household ……………………………………………………………… Name of Respondent…………………………… Age…………………Boma………………………..Payam………………….……… …………….. County…………………………………………State………………………… Marital status………………..Highest level of Education ……………………………….. Sex………………………Family size…………………GPS ……………………. 2. Family income What is your main economic activity/Occupation? ……………………………………… What is your approximate family monthly cash income? ------Source Amount/ Year Livestock sales Milk sales Hides and skins Gum africa Other NTFPS Charcoal Firewood Others
3. Gum tree resources and their management
84 a) Which species of Acacia produce gum in your locality? ______Acacia Senegal ( ) Acacia seyal ( ) Others (specify) ------b) Are the trees planted or they are growing in the wild?______c) Who owns the trees?______d) Which organizations/Departments are involved in the management of Acacia in this area? ………………………..…………………………………………….. e) What Management practices are performed on Acacia trees 1. Pruning [ ] 2. Coppicing [ ] 3. Thinning [ ] 4. Pollarding [ ] 5. Natural/Wild [ ] 6. Others (specify) [ ]
f) How do you encourage natural regeneration of Acacia trees in this area? Temporary homesteads [ ] Movement of livestock [ ] Local by laws [ ] Collecting dead wood materials [ ] Others (specify) [ ] 4. Gum collection, tapping and quality a) When did you start collecting gums?______
85 b) What was the reason for you getting involved in the gum collection?------c) How many family members are involved in gum collection? Full time………….……………………Part-time………………………………….. d) What is the average quantity of gum you have collected annually since you started? ------e) Which was your best collection year and why?______f) Which periods of the year do you tap and/or collect the gum? (Specify)….……… g) Why this period? Explain ………………………………………………………… h) Does gum yield fluctuate through the year? If yes why?……………………………………………………………………………… i) Which specific areas/sites produce high quality gum? 1. Rocky/Hill areas [ ] 2. Plain areas [ ] 3. Others (specify) [ ] j) How many hours do you work in a day while collecting gum? … k) What is the average quantity of gum that you collect/ harvest per day in kg?------l) What is the average quantity of gum that you collect/ harvest per week in kg------m) How many days in a week do you collect gum?------
86 n) How do you collect gum? 1.Tapping [ ] / 2.Natural exudates [ ] o) If you tap, what criteria do you use to select trees for gum tapping? 1. Age [ ] 2. Size [ ] 3. Number of branches [ ] 4. Height [ ] 5. Others (specify) [ ] p) Which tools do you use in tapping the gum? And why? Tool Reason 1. 2. 3. 4. k) How is the collection organized? 1. Groups [ ] / 2. Individual [ ] l) Which other gums and resins are harvested in this area? …………………………..
m) Do you face any difficulties while collecting gums? 1. Yes [ ] 2. [ ] if Yes, what the main challenges------
( n) What do you do when you collect gum- before selling: 1) Grading (2) drying ?------3) other ( explain)------
5. The importance of Acacia resources a) Which other products do you get from gum producing Acacia trees? How are these products used?
87 Product Domestic use Commercial use 1. Fodder 2. Poles/posts 3. Firewood/fuel wood 4. Medicine 5. Fibres 6. Others (specify)
6. Marketing of gum a) Who determines the price for the gum? (Tick as appropriate)- 1. Myself [ ] 2. Traders [ ] 3. Market forces [ ] 4. Others [ ](specify----) b) How do you get information on buyers and the prices? c) What is the price of gum in this area in SP?…………………………………….... d) How is Gum acacia used in this area apart from selling it to earn income?------e) Where do you sell your gum africa?………………………………………………. f) Are there any community based marketing agents? 7. Culture, traditions and gender issues a) How do you perceive these Acacia trees?………………………………… b) Whose responsibility is to collect gum? And why? Collector Tick Reason 1. Men 2. Women 3. Children 4. Others (specify)
88 c) Who is more knowledgeable about Acacia trees in the community? 1. Men [ ] / 2.Women [ ] d) What roles do women play in promoting sustainable gum production? 1. Management [ ] 2. Collection [ ] 3. Tapping [ ] 4. Marketing [ ] e) What roles do men play in promoting sustainable gum production? 1. Management [ ] 2. Collection [ ] 3. Tapping [ ] 4. Marketing [ ] f) What function do girls play in promoting sustainable gum production? 1. Management [ ] 2. Collection [ ] 3. Tapping [ ] 4. Marketing [ ] g) What function do boys play in promoting sustainable gum production? 1. Management [ ] 2. Collection [ ] 3. Tapping [ ] 4. Marketing [ ] h) What problems do women face when collecting Gum acacia?………………………………………………………………………… …..
89 i) How do women address these problems?……………………………………………………………………… 8. Other Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPS) Which of the following NTFPS can be harvested from your locality? Mark level of availability.
90 Data sheet 3: Gum - Secondary Stakeholder Information (SSI)
Name of Data Collector:______Date: ______Code No: SSI/
1. GENERAL INFORMATION OF THE AREA
State ______
County______
Payam ______Boma ______
2. NAME OF STAKEHOLDER
______
3. TYPE OF ACTIVITY
______
______
______
CONTACT ADDRESS
Postal Address______
Town ______Country / Cell Phone ______Telephone ______
4. CURRENT ROLE IN GUM AFRICA SUB-SECTOR
_I)______
II)______
III)______
91
5. FUTURE ROLE IN GUM AFRICA SUBSECTOR ______6. EXPERIENCE IN GUMS AFRICA SUB SECTOR
______Years
7. TARGET GROUP ______
8. AREA OF COVERAGE ______-______
9. NO. OF BENEFICIARIES
______
10. OTHER PARTNERS WORKING IN GUM AFRICA SUBSECTOR ______
11. AREA OF COVERAGE ______
12. CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED
92 ______
______
RECOMMENDATIONS:
______
9. WHAT IS YOUR ASSESMENT OF THE POTENTIAL OF INVESTMENT IN GUM AFRICA
______
______
______
______
______
______10. ARE THERE ANY MICRO-FINANCE COMPANIES IN YOUR STATE THAT ARE SUPPORT GUM AFRICA TRADE OF HAVE POTENTIAL FOR DOING THE SAME? ______
11. ANY OTHER RELEVANT INFORMATION ______
93 Data sheet 4: Survey of Gum acacia traders/agents Southern Sudan
Objective: This questionnaire aims at collecting information on the commercialisation of Gum acacia from trader and other chain agents.
Investigator name: Date : Market: Payam : County: State:
I. Respondent’s identity
1. Name ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Gender 0. M [ ] 1. F [ ]
3. Age ……………………years
4. Ethnie …………………………………………….………………………………………………………
5. Period of 0. Native [ ] 1. Migrator [ ] establishme If migrator, what is the place of origin ?...... nt in the Type of immigration Purpose of immigration region 10. Permanent 11. Seasonal 12. Other temporary move temporaire 999.Other type
6. Education 0. No formal education [ ] 4.Has completed the A‟ level [ ] 1. Some years of primary school [ ] 2. Has completed the primary school [ ] 5. Has a bachelor degree [ ] 3. Has completed the O‟level [ ] 999. Other…………………………….. [ ]
7. In addition If yes : to trading, 1. Agriculture [ ] 4. Non-paid job………………………. [ ] do you have another 2. Pastoralism [ ] 5. Under pension scheme [ ] economic 3. Paid job [ ] 999. Other source of [ ] activity? income…………….
0. Yes 1. No 8. Social/religio 0. [ ] 2. Rural community member [ ] us status communauté rurale 1. Village chief [ ] 999. Other…………………………….. [ ]
9. For how 0. General trade:………..………………….years many years 1. Trade in raw gum:……………………….years have been 2. Trade in powdered gum :……………….years doing the trade ? 0. Yes 1. No If yes, how many are there ? 10. Are there Number your 0. General trade relative/frien 1. Trade in raw gum ds also 2. Trade in powdered gum
involved in trade?
94 II. Characteristics of gum trade
11. At what level in the chain do 0. Village trader [ ] you characterise your 1. Mobile trader [ ] business ? 2. Middleman of another trader [ ] 3. Large trader [ ] 4. Exporter [ ]
12. Do you own this business? If no, what is your relationship with the business owner?
0. Yes 1. No 0. Relative [ ] 1. Employee [ ]
999. Other………….. [ ]
What is the main economic activity of the business owner? 0. Trader [ ] 1. Company [ ] 2. Transporter [ ] 999. Other………….. [ ]
If the business owner is another person, what is : His age:……………years Age of involvement in the gum sector…………years
13. What was your motivation to …………………………………………………………………………………. become a trader?
14. In how many markets do you ……………markets operate?
15. If you use middlemen/agents, ……………… how many are they?
16. Where do you operate from?
17. What is the distance from the collection point to your operation base?
18. Where is you r business Village:…………………………………………………………… . headquarters? Location:__ District : ……………………………………………………………
III. Buying and selling gum
19. What is the amount of your purchases and sales of gum in the last harvesting season?* 2007-2008 2008-2009 Purchases Sales Purchases Sales Quantity Total cost Quantity Total revenue Quantity Total cost Quantity Total revenue Raw gum
95 Powdered gum *Unit of quantity measurement: …………………………….
20. Could you please indicate the origin of your gum purchases in the current season? Origin of purchases Quantity of gum Market : Location : District : Distance to business headquarters Kms Min Raw Powdered
21. Could you please indicate the destination of your gum sales in the current season? Sales destination Quantity of gum
Market : Location : District : Distance to business headquarters Kms Min Raw Powdered
22. In relation to gum transactions, who is % purchases % sales your main trading partner? Raw Powdered Raw Powdered
0. Consumers
1. Other traders
2. Association/cooperative
3. Company…………….
999. Other………….….
23. Would you indicated the average prices Raw gum Powdered gum at purchase and sales (in SDG) in the last 2 harvesting seasons Purchase Sale Purchase Sale Dec 2007- May 2008
Dec 2008- May 2009
24. What are the choice factors with regard Purchase Sale to the place of buying and selling gum? (Rank the 3 main factors) 0. Distance 1. Price 2. Market size 3. Quality 3. Government regulations 999. Other…………..
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25. Have you ever considered expanding If yes, your business in relation to gum trading? . What kind of epansion are you planning ?
Purchase Sale 0. Yes 1. No 0. Increasing the volume of transaction within the same market 1. Expanding towards other markets in the same district 2. Expanding towards other markets in other district(s) 999. Other………………
01. Why are you planning such expansion...... 212. Where are you planning to orient such expansion?......
02. What are the obstacles to expansion ? ……………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….
If not, why do you not plan to expand ? Purchase Sale 0. The market is sufficient 1. No funds 2. No profits 3. Governement regulations 999. Other………………………….
IV. Expenses related to gum trading
26. Do you use some transport means? 0. Yes 1. No
If yes, would you please clarify the following : Type Ownership Distance coverd Duration Transport costs Owned Rented Origin Destination Distance hour day (kms/min) s s 0. Transporters 1. Donkey cart 2.Bicycle 3. Motocycle 4. Car 5. Truck 999. Other…..
27. If the transport means are rented, how are 0. Fixed : …………………………………………………………………… the costs determined? 1. Variable :……………………………………………………………….
28. Are there constraints in transport ? If yes, such constraints concern : 0. Access to funds [ ] 0. Yes 1. No 1. High road fees [ ] 2. Delays in supplies [ ] 999. Other…………………………………. [ ]
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29. Do you hold stocks of gum? 0. Yes 1. No
If yes, 1. What is the purpose of holding these stocks and what are the constraints thereby related ?
Place Purpose : Constraints : 1. To be shipped/sent 1. Accessibility 2. Hoarding for higher prices 2. Small capacity/imsufficient 3. Maintain quality space 4. For packaging 3. Loss of quality 5. Builiding up larger supplies 4. Loss of quanity 999. Other……………….. 5. Thefts 999. Other…………………………. 0. At my home 1. Village market 2. Local or regional 3. Business headquaters 4. Exports warehouses 999. Other…………
2. With regard to stock, could you please specify the following:
Type Owneship of storehouse Duration Quantity Storage costs (d) Owned Rented Current Capacity 0. At my home 1. Village market 2. Local or regional 3. Business headquaters 4. Exports warehouses 999. Other…………
30. Do you grade your gum ? 0. Yes 1. No
How do you grade your gum ? Number Costs Constraints 0. Labour 1. Machinery 999. Other…………
31. What are the total expenses associated with the following item in the current season? Expenses 0. Permanent labour 1. Seasonal labour 2. Transport* 3. Storage* 4. Taxes** 5. Other road fees 6. Communication (telephone, internet,…) 999. Other ……………………………
98 * Labour excluded
**Taxes-
32. What is the value of assets you own ? Type List of all assets per Number of assets Acquisition Value at Mode of acquisition * type per type year acquisition 0. Immovables
1. Transport means
3. Machinery
4. Other equipment
5. Livestock………………..
6. Land (ha)
999. Other……………
* 1. Own funds 2. Credit 3. Inherintance
V. Financing and business profitability
33. How do you finance your business? 0. Own funds [ ] 3. Credit from financial institution [ ] 1. Credit from relatives or neighbours [ ] 999. Other………………………………………. [ ] 2. Credit from other traders [ ]
34. If you have used some credit, could please specify : Source of credit Period of Amount Value of credit (if Duration (d) Amount Value of acquisition in kind) reimbursed reimbursed items
35. Have you offered credit in money or in kind in relation to gum trading ? If yes, would you please clarify : Credit beneficiary Period of Amount Value of credit (if Duration (d) Amount Value of offering in kind) recovered recover items
99 36. How do you classify your profitability?
1. Very bad 2. Bad 3. Average 4. Good
Period Qualification
Before 2000
2007-2008
2008-2009
In the next 10 years
Reasons : 1 2 3
0. Competition
1. Costs
2. Financing
3. Volume
4. Productivity
5. Regulations
7. Prices
999. Other………………………….
VI. Relations with other partners in the gum sector
37. What are the factors for the choice of trading Factor 1 2 3 partner? 0. Producer a) Better price b) Proximity/distance 1. Other trader c) Financing d) Quality 2. Association/cooperative e) Trust 3. Company f) Other…………….. 999. Other…………………..
38. Trust criteria 0. Family relations [ ] 3. Satisfying previous [ ] 1. Neighbourhood [ ] transactions 2. Ethnic relations [ ] 999. Other………………. [ ]
39. Do you know of any micro-credit companies in your state? ______40. Do you have other remarks/suggestions to improve the production and marketing of Gum acacia? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………Thank you
100 Appendix IV: Others Table A4 -1. The counties and payams visited during the study
State County Payam GPS readings Altitude N E (m). UNS Melut Faloij 100 27.731 0320 32.921 393 Renk Jelahak 110 02.842 0320 42.414 203 NBEGS Aweil East Warawar 09 008.618 0270 36.766 411 Malualbai 09 002.643 0270 47.375 410 Malualkon 090 01.818 0270 38.167 415 Wanjok 090 00.440 0270 34.462 462 Aweil North Ariath 090 06.272 0270 13.756 428 Aweil West Udhum 080 53.154 027 015.114 427 EES Budi Kimatong‟ 08 37.862 033 16.463 639 Ikotos Lobira 04 25.010 033 02. 528 684 Budi Kidepo 040 27.022 0320 12.685 682 Kapoeta Riwoto 040 52.809 033030.172 605 North
Table A4 -2. Useful towns/Bomas for reference Town/Boma GPS Readings Altitude Remarks m. N E Juba 04 51.515 031 35.916 450 Capital Southern Sudan Malakal 09 32.833 031 38.892 390 H/quarters Upper Nile St. Faloij 10 25.561 032 34.391 390 H/quarters Melut County Jelahak 11 02.863 032 42.048 380 Gum hashab Centre
101 Wau 07 43.457 027 58.124 468 H/quarters WB El Ghazal Aweil 08 45.544 027 23.420 418 H/quarters NB El Ghazal Warawar 09 08.618 027 36.766 411 H/quarter Aweil E. County Wanjok 09 00.440 027 34.462 420 Gum talhal Centre Malualkon 09 01.660 027 38.061 409 Gum talha Centre Malualbai 09 03.457 027 45.528 408 Gum talha Centre Mayenulem 09 02.999 027 17.952 425 Gum talha Centre Ariath 09 06.272 027 13.756 428 Gum talha Centre Udhum 08 53.154 027 15.114 427 Shea nut Centre Torit 04 24.452 032 34.350 633 H/quarters, EES, Shea nut Centre Kidepo 04 27.022 033 12.685 682 Start of A.senegal belt Lobira 04 25.410 033 02. 585 660 A. seyal zone Kimatong‟ 04 41.145 033 15.910 645 Gum Hashab Centre Kapoeta 04 44.082 033 36. 233 682 SNV Southern Sudan, Headquarters
Table A 4-3. Comparison of income from Gum acacia with other sources of income for sample collectors Collector State Source of Total No of Average income income months income per year, per month, SDG SDG A NBEGS Firewood 38,400 12 3200 Charcoal 36,000 12 3000 Tamarindus 14,400 12 1200 indica fruits Gum 1360 2 680
102 acacia Sub-total 90,160 8080 B UNS Livestock 800 2 400 sales Gum 3000 4 750 acacia Sub-total 3800 1150 C EES Livestock 3000 6 500 Milk 120 12 10 Charcoal 600 12 50 Firewood 360 12 30 Local beer 360 12 30 Gum 82.5 12 27.5 acacia Sub-total 647.5
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