FAO FORESTRY Forestry PAPER extension 80 methods
by D. Sim and H.A. Hilmi
%t1.P&L 01 ROMr
7r4.
e1r, I I .1la I 1111tCt
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THETHE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 19871987 r
TThehe designationsdesignations empemployedloyed and thethe presentationpresentation ofof materialmaterial inin thisthis pubpublicationlication dodo not no timply imply the the expression expression ofof any opinionopinion whatsoever on thethe partpart ofof thethe FoodFood andand AgAgriculturericulture OrganizationOrganization of thethe United NationsNatiors concerningconcerning thethe legallegal status ofof anyany country,country. territory,territory, citycIty oror area oorr of iitsts authorauthorities,ities. or concerningconcerning thethe delimitationdelimitation of its frontiersfrontiers or boundaries.boundaries.
M,3M-366 IISBNSBN 92-5-102602-592-5-102602-5
All rights reserved. No part ofof thisthis publicationpublication maymay be be reproduced,reproduced ,stored stored inin a a retrieval retrieval system, system, oror ttransmittedransmitted iinn ananyy form or bbyy ananyy meansmeans,, electronic electronic,, mechanical,mechanical, photocphotocopyingopying or otherwise,otherwise , wwithoutitho ut thethe ppriorrior permissionpermission of thethe copyrightcopyright owner.owner. ApplicationsApplications forfor such such permission, permission, withwith aa statement statement of tthehe ppurposeurpose and extentextent of thethe reproduction,reproduction, shouldshpuld bebe addressedaddressed toto thethe Director,Director, PublicationsPublications DDivision,ivision, FFoodood and AgricultureAg riculture Organization ofof thethe UnitedUnited Nations,Nations, ViaVia delledelle TermeTerme didi Caracalla,Caracalla, 0000100100 RomeRome,. Italy.
© FAOFAO 19871987 FOREWORD
This publicationpublication isis the second inin a seriesseries of three dealing withwith forestry extension in itsits current context.context. The initial publication, Forestry Extension Organisation, FAO ForestryForestry PaperPaper 66,66, FAOFAO RomeRome 1986,1986, dealtdealt withwith thethe establishment and organisation ofof forestryforestry extensionextension activities.activities. This volume covers the designdesign andand implementationimplementation ofof forestryforestry extensionextension activitiesactivities inin thethe field. Throughout these publications, extension is regarded in itsits widestwidest sense as any process of integrating indigenous and derived knowledge, attitudes and skillsskills toto determinedetermine what isis needed,needed, howhow itit cancan bebe done,done, whatwhat locallocal co-operation and resources can be mobilised and what additional assistance may bebe necessarynecessary toto overcomeovercome particularparticular obstacles.obstacles. It impliesimplies action by the people to solvesolve locallocal problems,problems, notnot actionaction forfor them,them, thoughthough itit does not precludepreclude assistanceassistance wherewhere locallocal resourcesresources areare inadequateinadequate toto meetmeet otherwise realistic and necessary targets.targets. It places particular emphasis on determining appropriate targets for extension work by thethe peoplepeople themselvesthemselves who must bebe involved inin achievingachieving these,these, and in the identification andand mobilisation ofof locallocal resources.resources.
It was based initially on aa reportreport submittedsubmitted byby Vicente Magno (Forestry(Forestry Extension Methods, V.C.V.C. MagnoMagno Lesotho:Lesotho: GCP/LES/026/SWE-ForestryGCP/LES/026/SWE-Forestry TrainingTraining andand Development, 1982),1982), followingfollowing aa programme of training of staffstaff inin forestryforestry extension methods in Lesotho. This present publication, however, incorporates much new material andand ideasideas developeddeveloped sincesince thatthat timetime andand drawsdraws on recent experienceexperience ofof FAOFAO staffstaff inin thesethese fields.fields. It setssets outout toto provideprovide aa minimum ofof basic theoreticaltheoretical informationinformation of the topic of extension andand suggestions on activitiesactivities which shouldshould bebe adaptedadapted to meetmeet the situation within which aa readerreader isis working.working. It is writtenwritten for persons directly engagedengaged in carrying out extension activities inin thethe field.field. It willwill be followedfollowed by aa publication on ForestryForestry ExtensionExtension CurriculaCurricula which suggestssuggests thethe scopescope andand nature of trainingtraining desirabledesirable forfor staffstaff undertakingundertaking suchsuch activities.activities.
M.A. Flore Director-General Forestry DepartmentDepartment
- iii - CONTENTS
Page
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY EXTENSION ••••••••••••.••••••••••• 11
1.1 Definition of forestry extension in this context •••. 11 1.2 Purpose of forestry extension ...... •••..•••.•.•...•...•••...... 2 1.3 Function of forestry extension •••••••••••••••••••••• 22 1.4 Steps in developing a forestry extension programme •• 3 1.5 Procedures for change ••••.••••.••••••••••••.•••••••• 4 1.6 Need for properly trained staff •••••••••••••••••••••...... 5 1.7 EXtensionExtension research ...... 7 1.8 Factors limiting forestry extension ••••••••••••••••• 7 1.9 Benefits of forestry extension programmes ••••••••••• 8
2. FORESTRY PRACTICES FOR EXTENSION •••••••.•••••••••••.•••••• 10
2.1 Agroforestry systems ...... 10 2.1.1 Distribution of crops by area •••••.•.•••.•• 10 2.1.2 Silvipasture •••••••••••••••••• ; •••••••••••• 12 2.1.3 Strip plantations •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 12 2.1.4 Tree farming ••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••• 13 2.2 Taungya •.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••• 14 2.3 CommunityCommuni ty woodlots ••••.•••••••••••.•••••••.••.••••.• 14 2.4 Management ofof natural vegetationvegetation ...... •••••••••••.••••••• 15 2.5 Erosion control or improvement of water suppliessupplies •••• 16 2.6 Amenity planting •••••••••••••••••••••••••• .•••••••••• 17 2.7 Small scale forestforest basedbased enterprisesenterprises •••••••••••.•.•• 17
3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRYFORESTRY EXTENSIONEXTENSION ••.••••••.•••••••• 18
3.1 The process of forestry extension ••••••.•••••••.•••• 18 3.2 Some basic principles of forestry extension ••.••.••• 20 3.3 The nature of forestry extension ••.•••••.•••••••••.•...... 22 3.4 The spreadspread ofof extensionextension activitiesactivities ••••••.•••.•••.••• 23 3.5 Methods ofof extension .•••••••.••••••••.••.••.•••••••• 24 3.6 Some features and strategy of forestryforestry extensionextension •••. 24
4. PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION ..••••••••.•••••••••••••• 26
4.1 General approach ...... 26 4.2 Extension teachingteaching ...... 2626 4.3 Some features of learning ...... •.•..•.•••....•..•.....• ...... 2727 4.4 Some important principles of learninglearning relevantrelevant toto
extension ..... "0 ~ •••••••• • 0" •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2727 4.5 MotiMotivation vatian forfor changechange 409*0...... 0O00.000000O0 . 3030 4.6 Some characteristics of learninglearning situationssituations •••••••••...... 30 4.7 Two-wayTwo-way flowflow ...... •...•....•...... •...... 3131
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5. CO~ICATIONCOMMUNICATION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 32
5.1 Communication in forestry extension ...... ••••••••••••••••• ..... 32 5.2 The communication process •.••..•.....••....•...... 33 5.2.1 TIleThe communicatorconnnunicator . ..•...... •...... 34 5.2.2 TileThe message •••••••.....••...••••••••..•.••. 35 5.2.3 The channels of communication •••••••••••••• 35 5.2.4 The receiver or the audience •••••••••••••••...... 38 5.35. 3 The adoption processproces s ...... 40 5.4 Motivation of rural peoplepeople •••••••• ,...... 41 5.4.1 Perception and satisfactionsatisfaction ofof needsneeds ••••••• 42 5.4.2 Motivating factorsfactors ...... 43 5.5 The diffusion process ...... 44 5.6 Categories of adopters...... adopters 44 5.6.1 The innovatorsinnovators...... 45 5.6.2 The early adopters ...... 45 5.6.3 The early majority...... majority...... 45 5.6.4 The late majority...... majority ••••• •••• ••• •••••••• 46 5.6.5 The lalate te adopters ...... 46
6. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDSAIDS ...... •.•••.••.•.•...... ••••••••••••.•..••.••...... 48
6.1 Non-proNon-projected jected aids ...... 48 6.1.1 Advantages of non-projected aids •••.••••••• 48 6.1.2 Examples ofof non-projected aidsaids •••••••••••••...... 49 6.2 ProjectedPro jected visual aids •••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••• 53 6.2.1 Classification of projected visual aids •••• 53 6.2.2 Some advantages and disadvantages ofof projectedpro jected aidsaids ••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••• 54 6.2.3 Examples ofof projectedprojected visualvisual aidsaids .••••••••• 54 6.3 Tape recordersrecorders ...... 60 6.4 Video recordersrecorders ...... 61 6.5 Puppets ...... 00000 ...... 00000040000 . 62 6.6 Music andand playsplays ...... 63 6.7 Mobile unitsuni ts ...... 63 6.7.1 Normal facilities of aa mobile unit ••••••••• 63 6.7.2 Purposes ofof mobilemobile unitsunits ••••••••••••••••••• 63 6.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages ofof mobile unitsunits 64 6.8 Display visualsvisuals ...... 65 6.9 Extension literature ...... 67
7. WORKING WITHWITH PEOPLEPEOPLE ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••• ...... 69
7.1 Personal characteristics requiredrequired ••••••••••••••••••• 69 7.2 PllblicPublic speaking ...... 000000000000000000000000 ...... 0 70 7.3 Working withwith locallocal leaders leaders ...... 74 7.3.1 Formal leaders ...... 74 7.3.2 Informal leadersleaders ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000000 74 7.3.3 Training locallocal leadersleaders ...... 75
8. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP EXTENSION METHODS •••••••••••••••••••• 77
8.1 Individual methods ...... 0..001.00 000000000060000000 . 77 8.2 Home visits ...... co ...... oceoeopepoposop0000ao . 78 8.2.1 Some features ofof homehome visits-visits· ••••••••••••••• 78 8.2.2 Checklist for planning aa homehome visitvisit •••••••• 79
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8.3 Office calls and enquiriesenquiries ••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 80 8.4 Personal letters ...... 81 8.4.1 Some features of official lettersletters .....•••••••••• 81
8.5 Telephone calls ...... 82 8.5.1 Some features of telephone calls ••••••••••• 82 8.6 Informal contacts ...... 83 8.7 Group methods ...... 84 8.7.1 Features of group methods ..•...... 84 8.88.8 Group meetings ...... ~ ...... 85 8.8.1 Purposes ofof groupgroup meetingsmeetings ....o...... 85 8.8.2 Types of group meetings •••••••••••••••••••• 85 8.8.3 Checklist and guidelines for improvingimproving thethe effectiveness of meetings •••••••••••••••••• 85 8.9 Training and visit system ...... 88 8.9.1 Organisation of the T&V system ••••••••••••• 88 8.108.10 Demonstrations ...... 89 8.10.1 Result demonstrations .•...... •.•..•.....•.. 89 8.10.2 Method demonstrations ••••••••••••••••••••••• 93 8.11 Field days ...... ,...... 95 8.11.1 Purposes of fieldfield daysdays ••••••••••••••••••••• 95 8.11.2 SomeSome considerations in planning fieldfield days.days 95 8.12 Field trips and tourstours ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 96 8.12.1 Purposes of field trips and tourstours •••••••••• 96 8.12.2 Advantages of field trips and tours •••••••• 96 8.12.3 Guidelines inin arranging fieldfield tripstrips andand tourstours 96 8.12.4 Factors in planning field trips and tourstours •• 97 8.13 Panel discussions ...... 97 8.14 Extension schools ...... 9898 8.15 Farmers' trainingtraining centrescentres ...... 9898
9. MASS EXTENSIONEXTENSION METHODS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 100
9.1 Functions ofof massmass methodsmethods ...... 100 9.1.1 Features of mass media •.•••••••••••••••••••...... 100 9.2 Circular letters ...... 100 9.2.1 Features ofof circularcircular lettersletters ••••••••••••••• 101 9.2.2 Checklist and guidelines forfor using circularcircular letters ...... 101 9.3 Newspaper stories ...... 102 9.3.1 Use of newspaper stories ••••••••••••••••••• 102 9.3.2 Planning newspapernewspaper storiesstories ••••••••••••••.•• 103 9.3.3 Principles of writing newspaper storiesstories •••• 103 9.3.4 Follow-up ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 00000.0"0008e 103 9.4 Posters ...... o ...... 104 9.4.1 Functions ofof postersposters ••••••••••••••••••••••• 104 9.4.2 Design of posters ••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 104 9.4.3 Suggestions forfor posterposter designdesign •••••••••••••• 104
9.4.4 Some considerations on thethe useuse ofof postersposters.. 105 9.5 Wall newspapers ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 105 9.5.1 Some considerations on thethe useuse ofof wallwall newspapers ...... 0000000000000006000000004 . 105 9.6 Pamphlets and leaflets •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 106 9.6.1 Functions ofof pamphletspamphlets andand leafletsleaflets •••••••• 106 9.6.2 Advantages ofof usingusing pamphletspamphlets andand leafletsleaflets. 107 9.6.3 Guidelines forfor producingproducing pamphletspamphlets andand leaflets ...... 107 - vii -- Page
9.7 Fact sheets ...... "0000000000000000000000000OoD000Oo...... 108 9.8 Exhibits andand displaysdisplays ...... 108 9.8.1 Functions of exhibits andand displaysdisplays ...... •••.••••• 108 9.8.2 Guidelines in preparing and using exhibits and displays •••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••• 108 9.8.3 Some other suggestions on exhibits and displays ...... 109 9.8.4 Organising and presenting thethe exhibitexhibit oror display ...... ea0000000O00,29040 ...... 101099 9.9 Radio 00000410a000O0ea0O000poaaooGop0000ppolooaeaaoo...... 110 9.9.1 Purposes of radio programmes ...... •.•.....•.. 110 9.9.2 Features of radio programmes •••••••••••••••...... 110 9.9.3 Guidelines and checklist for recording a radio broadcast ...... 111 9.9.4 Some technical points ...... 112 9.9.5 Some considerations andand suggestionssuggestions .....•••••••• 113 9.10 Television ...... Oaaa0OODOOOOOD000OO* . 113113 9.10.1 Use of TVTV inin extensionextension Oa •••••.••••••••••••••• ...... OaaO00000000 113 9.10.2 Guidelines in preparing TVTV materialmaterial .•....•• 114114
10. EXTENSION CAMPAIGNSCAMPAIGNS ...... ••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••GOOOOOOOOO000O000OOOZO000O0ocoso 115
10.1 Reasons for using the campaign approach ...... ••••••••••••• 115 10.2 principlesPrinciples of extension campaignscampaigns ...... •.•.... • .•... 115 10.3 Guidelines for planning extension campaignscampaigns ...... •.•••• • •• 116 10.3.1 Analysis of the current situationsituation ...... •••••••••• 116 10.3.2 Determining objectves ...... •...... •.•. 117 10.3.3 Planning phase ...... •...... •.•. 118 10.3.4 Timing the campaign ...... 119 10.3.5 Preparing thethe materialmaterial ...... 119 10.3.6 Training phase ...... 120 10.3.7 Production phase ...... 120 10.3.8 Implementation phase ••••••••••.••••••••••••...... 00000000,20600000 120 10.4 Monitoring andand evaluationevaluation ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 121
11. EXTENSION PROGRAMMEPROGRAMME MONITORING,MONITORING, EVALUATIONEVALUATION ANDAND FEEDBACK....FEEDBACK •••• 123
11.1 General principlesprinciples ...... 123 11.2 Evaluation of programmeprogramme formulationformulation andand planningplanning ....•••• 125 11.3 Evaluation ofof progrmmeprogrmme implementationimplementation ...... ••••••••••••••• 126 11.4 Post-programme evaluationevaluation ...... 130 11.5 Organisation ofof evaluationevaluation activitiesactivities .....•••••••••••• ...... • •• 134 11.5.1 Programme formulationformulation andand planningplanning ...... ••••••••• 134 11.5.2 Programme implementationimplementation ...,...... ••••••••••••••••••• 134 11.5.3 Post-programme evaluationevaluation ...... •••.•••••••••••••• 135 11.611.6 Feedback ...... •.. 00.4booaa ...... 0000c00000000000 136
12. ORGANISING AA TRAININGTRAINING PROGRAMMEPROGRAMME ...... ,...... •••• • ••••••••.•.••••••••••• ..... 137
12.1 Staff education andand trainingtraining programmesprogrammes ...... ••••••••••••• ..... 137 12.2 Public information and training programmesprogrammes ...... •••• • ••••• 138 12.3 Nature ofof trainingtraining activitiesactivities ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 138 12.4 Selection of training methods ...... •••••••••••••••••• • •••• 140 12.4.1 The lecture method OODO0O0OOO000o00000000poo••••••••••••••.•••••••••• 140 12.4.2 Group discussion methods ••••••••••••••••••• 142
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12.5 Steps in organising aa trainingtraining programmeprogramme •••.•••••••• 144 12.5.112.5.1 Determining training needs .••••••••••••.••• 144 12.5.212.5.2 Determining the objectives of training ••••• 145 12.5.3 Determining the training contentcontent •••.••••••. 145 12.5.4 DevelopingDeveloping a final programme and teaching plan ...... 145 12.5.5 Scheduling training activities •••• • . • •••••• 146 12.5.6 Organising for work...... work ...... 146 12.5.7 Implementing the programme ...... ••••• • •.••••••••• 146 12.5.8 Evaluation and follow-upfollow-up •.•••.•••••••.••••• 146 12.6 Management of a trainingtraining programmeprogramme ••.••••••••••••••• 147 12.6.1 Planning, steering and management committee 147 12.6.2 Accomodation, food and social committee •••• 148148 12.6.312.6.3 Registration, evaluation and information commicommittee t tee ...... 148148 12.6.4 Travel arrangements, transport and tours coIDlIlicommittee ttee ...... 148 12.6.5 Library committee ••••.••••••••.••••••...••• 148 12.6.6 Documentation and proceedings committee •••• 149
12.6.712.6.7 Finance committee •..•.•••••••••...... ••••• .• • •••. 149 12.712.7 Estimating training costs •••••••.•.••••••••••••••••. 149 12.8 -Checklist for organising and conducting a training programme ••••••••••.•.•••••••••••••••••••••...•••••• 151 12.8.1 Purposes of trainingtraining ••• •••••• ••••••• ••••••• 151 12.8.2 Selection of participants ...... ••••• •• .•••••••••• 151 12.8.3 Content of thethe trainingtraining programme ••.••••••• 152 12.8.4 Choice of instructorsinstructors ••••••••••••••.••.•••• 152 12.8.5 Training methodsmethods...... 152 12.8.6 Detailed arrangements ••••••••••••••• • .•••••• 152 12.8.7 Provision for evaluation duringduring andand afterafter training ...... 153 12.8.8 Post-training evaluation ••.•••.•••.•••••••• 153 12.8.9 FeedFeedback back ...... 153
Figure 3.1 Compton's StucturalStuctural unitsunits andand functionalfunctional nlB.trixmatrix ...... 21 5.1 The CommunicationCommunication ProcessProcess .••••••••.•••••••• 33 5.2 Stages in the adoption processprocess 40 5.3 Maslow'sMaslow ' s HierarchyHierarchy ofof needsneeds ••.•.••••••••••• 41 5.4 Distribution of farmers amongst thethe fivefive categories based on the timetime ofof adoptionadoption ••• 43 10.1 Stages in the development ofof extensionextension campaigns ...... 122
- ix - 1.L. INTRODUCTION TO FFORESTRYORESTRY EXTENSION
This is not aa texttext onon forestry.forestry. It assumes, on the partpart ofof thethe reader,reader, some knowledge ofof forestryforestry inin hishis oror herher locallocal areaarea andand describesdescribes aa numbernumber ofof extension methods whichwhich can be applied to bringbring thethe benefitsbenefits ofof appropriateappr opriate forestry practices toto aa widerwider sectionsection ofof thethe community.community. It is not logicallogical toto consider forestryforestry extensionextension apartapart fromfrom thethe generalgeneral patternpattern ofof agriculturalagricultural extension or rural development in an area. AgriculAgriculturalt ural cchangeshanges in developing countries, over thethe pastpast decades,decades, havehave tendedtended to favourf avour largelarge scale mechanised commercial production whichwhich has required less mamanpowernpower and has acceleratedaccelerated the movementmovement of populationpopulation to urban centrescentres oftenoften ill-i 11- prepared to receive them oror offeofferr themthem suitablesuitable employment. This was paralleled byby thethe preoccupationpreoccupation ofof manymany forestryforestry authoritiesauthorities withwith large-scalelarge- scale quick growinggr owing industrialindustrial tree species plantations inin the 1960's1960' s and earlyearly 1970's.
There isis aa growinggrowing recognition,recognition, however,however, of thethe needneed toto givegi ve properproper attention toto thethe remainingremaining ruralrural population,population, whowho areare predominantlypredominantly peasantpeasant farmers, and toto useuse appropriateappropriate skillsskills inin agriculture,agriculture, forestryforestry andand relatedr elated activities to improveimprove theirtheir generalgeneral welfarewelfare andand thethe qualityquality ofof theirtheir lives. l ives . Too often in the pastpast a narrownarrow viewview hashas been taken of this process.pr ocess. Extension has beenbeen regardedregarded asas aa meansmeans ofof passingpassing downdown toto farmersfarmers techniquest echniques which, it was believed,believed, wouldwould bebe beneficialbeneficial to them withoutwithout tatakingking intointo account sufficiently thethe particularparticular socialsocial oror environmentalenvironmental conditionsconditions ofof thethe area. In particular, tootoo often,often, thethe indigenousindigenous skills,skills, socialsocial structurestr ucture andand detailed local knowledgeknowledge of the people havehave been ignoredignored in tryingtryi ng to transfertrans fer new skillsskills oror techniquestechniques toto them.them.
Fortunately, extension isis nownow being regarded as a much wider tasktask of integrating indigenous and new skillsskills oror techniques,techniques, derivedderived fromfrom studys t udy oror research, intointo anim overalloverall frameworkframework ofof discussiondiscussion andand co-operationco-operation betweenbetween the peoplepeople andand thethe extensionextension organiSation.organisation. This concept hashas ledl ed ttoo the dedevelopmentvelopment byby ComptonCompton (Fig.(Fig. 3.1)3. 1) of hishis matrixmatrix ofof relationships betweenbetween indigenous and institutionally organised knowledge systems and farmingfarmi ng systems research, as a basis forfor thethe introductionintroduction ofof effectiveeffective extensionextension intointo an area.area. ThiThiss concept can -equallyequally well bebe appliedapplied toto extensionextension inin forestry which should,should, in anyany case,case , be closelyclosely relatedrelated toto agriculturalagricultural extensionextension activities inin anyany area.area.
1.11. 1 DefinitionDe f inition ofof forestryforestry extensionextension inin thisthis contextcontext
In recentrecent years a number ofof differentdifferent termsterms havehave beenbeen usedused toto describe the basic activities of forestryforestry extension.extension. This diversity of termsterms hashas notnot necessarilynece ssarily clarifiedc larified thethe issues.issues. The important point, howeverhowever,, is notnot thethe particular term used but the acceptance by thosethose concernedconcerned of an attitudeattitude of approachapproach to the matter.matter. Extension shouldshould be regarded as a processprocess of integrating indigenousindigenous and derived knowledge, attitudes and skillsskills to determine whatwhat is needed,needed , howhow iti t cancan bebe done,done, whatwhat locallocal co-operationco-operation andand reresourcess ources can be mobilised and what additionaladditional assistanceassistance is availableavailable and mamayy be necessarynecess ary toto overcome particularparticular obstacles.
In this publication,publication, the termt e rm forestryforestry extensionextension isis usedused tot o covercover anyany situation in whichwhich locallocal people are directlydirectly andand willinglywillingly involvedinvolved inin forforestrye stry activities from which theythey willwill derivederive somesome recognisablerecognisable benefitbenefit withinwithi n a reasonable period of time.time . Where necessarynecessary this maymay inclincludeude actiactivitiesvities by industriesindustries or publicpublic organisationsorganisations other than thethe forestryf orestry
- 1 - authority,authority, to promote forestry by individuals or by groups of people within a limited area.area. It presupposes, however,however, thatthat the participation arisesarises from some perceived needs oror opportunitiesopportunities which thethe peoplepeople havehave recognisedrecognised asas being sufficientlysufficiently important to devote partpart of their time, energy andand resources to accomplish.accomplish. The emphasis is notnot onon the accomplishmentaccomplishment of specific national oror commercialcommercial goalsgoals butbut onon thethe recognitionrecognition byby thethe people ofof the part forestryforestry can playplay inin conjunctionconjunction with otherother ruralrural activitiesactivities inin maintaining thethe environment,environment, tmprovingimproving livingliving standardsstandards and meeting specific needs for forestforest products.products. Where the term "community""community" is used it shouldshould bebe interpreted in its widest possiblepossible sensesense as thethe populationpopulation of a village,village, or an area, or a sectionsection of a population,population, or any group of peoplepeople having some common interest, asas appropriateappropriate toto thethe context.context.
Extension shouldshould not bebe regardedregarded simplysimply asas anan efficientefficient deliverydelivery systemsystem to "get"get thingsthings done"done" but asas aa catalystcatalyst toto promotepromote thethe establishmentestablishment ofof anan indigenous system forfor accomplishing widelywidely acceptedaccepted aimsaims which,which, inin time,time, will also be ableable toto definedefine andand securesecure thethe deliverydelivery ofof anyany externalexternal assistanceassistance required.required .
1.2 Purpose of forestry extension
The main purposepurpose ofof forestryforestry extensionextension isis to help peoplepeople toto examineexamine problems whichwhich areare affecting theirtheir liveslives andand toto consider ifif theythey maymay be solved, or at least alleviated, by usingusing forestry techniquestechniques within thethe range of their skillsskills andand financialfinancial resources.resources. The views ofof thethe peoplepeople should,should, in turn, be relayed to the officals who frame the laws and design the infrastructure of the region so that they maymay promotepromote policies which facilitate the achievement ofof thethe people'speople's objectives.objectives. The emphasis mustmust be on locallocal peoplepeople recognisingrecognising aa needneed andand decidingdeciding toto dodo somethingsomething aboutabout it.it. The contribution of forestry extension is initially to facilitate discussion and definition of suchsuch aa needneed andand toto indicateindicate aa varietyvariety ofof possiblepossible coursescourses of action from which thethe locallocal peoplepeople cancan selectselect thethe oneone mostmost suitedsuited toto theirtheir particular situation.situation. The fundamental aim is not toto provideprovide an organisation to do thingsthings forfor thethe people,people, howeverhowever desirabledesirable thesethese thingsthings may be, butbut toto assist people to do thingsthings forfor themselves,themselves, toto developdevelop aa genuinelygenuinely criticalcri tical view ofof theirtheir ownown situationsituation andand aa realisticrealistic assessmentassessment ofof theirtheir abilityability toto take the necessarynecessary steps to correctcorrect anyany defects.defects. From an initialinitial successsuccess in solving one limited problem, peoplepeople may gogo onon toto tackletackle more complexcomplex problemsproblems and build up thethe experienceexperience andand judgementjudgement necessarynecessary toto improveimprove aa whole range of activities to enhance thethe qualityquality ofof theirtheir lives.lives.
1.31. 3 Function of forestry extensionextension
The function of forestry extension,extension, therefore, is not toto move intointo anan area andand meet,meet, toto somesome extent,extent, whatwhat appearsappears toto thethe extensionextension staffstaff toto bebe aa need, and then hope that the people will adopt and extend thethe activity until the problem isis finallyfinally solved.solved. In such casescases aa tokentoken amountamount ofof involvementinvolvement by thethe locallocal people may be requiredrequired initiallyinitially butbut thethe directiondirection andand drivingdriving force of the activity remains outside the control of thethe peoplepeople and is often of little real interest toto them.them.
Forestry extension, asas appliedapplied inin thisthis context,context , isis toto facilitatefacilitate peoplepeople discussing, makingmaking decisions and taking action on themthem toto meetmeet locallocal needs.needs . There is nothing unusualunusual inin this.this. People in developing countriescountries areare mainly farmers or pastoralists.pastorali sts. They are used toto makingmaking decisionsdecisions inin theirtheir dailydaily lives on what toto grow,grow, wherewhere andand when.when. Nomadic pastoralistspastoralists have usuallyusually developed a precise programme of movements of their animals toto make the best use of the grazing, without any outsideoutside intervention.intervention. The rolerole ofof an extension service inin such cases is toto helphelp peoplepeople toto widenwiden theirtheir knowledgeknowledge and experienceexperience beyondbeyond thethe immediateimmediate rangerange ofof theirtheir cropscrops andand animals,animals , to
-2-- 2 - understand moremore fullyfully howhow trees or forests fit into the patternpattern of theirtheir lives and whetherwhether they are being used, or cared for, as wisely as theythey should be. Where a situationsituation arisesarises inin whichwhich peoplepeople mustmust reversereverse recentrecent trendstrends of depleting forest resources, the role of an extension service is toto identifyidentify areas in which people need specificspecific assistance inin knowledge,knowledge, oror thethe provisionprovision of suchsuch itemsitems asas seeds,seeds, specialspecial tools,tools, equipmentequipment oror fundsfunds toto achieveachieve theirtheir objectiobjectives. ves. They mustmus t thenthen ensureensure thatthat thesethese suppliessupplies areare availableavailable asas required on termsterms fairfair bothboth toto thethe usersusers andand thethe suppliers.suppliers. ThouThoughgh theythey may, on somesome occasions,occasions, dependdepend onon charitablecharitable sourcessources toto meetmeet aa particularparticular needneed their function is not toto dispensedispense charitycharity but toto helphelp peoplepeople organiseorganise toto achieve the thingsthings theythey desiredesire byby theirtheir ownown efforts.efforts.
Situations may occur, however, where thethe livingliving standardsstandards ofof thethe people are soso lowlow oror wherewhere theythey havehave aa completelycompletely negativenegative attitude to trees and forests, possibly brought about by the activities of government staff employed to safeguardsafeguard thethe forests,forests, thatthat differentdifferent approachesapproaches must bebe used.used. Great care mustmust then bebe taken to ensure that whatever inducements are offered, either to enableenable extremelyextremely poorpoor peoplepeople toto participateparticipate inin forestryforestry activities, or to counteract a very negative attitude to forests, the emphasis is placed onon the final benefitsbenefits that can be derivedderived fromfrom thethe activity and not on thethe immediateimmediate benefitsbenefits ofof allowancesallowances oror assistanceassistance inin anyany form being offeredoffered to startstart thethe programme.programe.
1.4 Steps in developingdeveloping aa forestryforestry extensionextension programmeprograme
Too often inin thethe pastpast extensionextension programmesprogrammes inin agricultureagriculture andand relatedrelated fields have concentratedconcentrated onon supplyingsupplying whatwhat outsidersoutsiders thoughtthought locallocal peoplepeople needed, with little or nono consultationconsultation onon howhow thethe peoplepeople themselvesthemselves viewedviewed the matter.matter. People, out of natural politeness, oror in some cases a fear of government authority, might gogo alongalong withwith thethe proposal,proposal, toto aa limitedlimited extent,extent, but without any sincere commitment toto its successsuccess oror beliefbelief thatthat it would be of anyany realreal benefitbenefit toto them.them. It was an activity,activity, ifif notnot entirelyentirely alienalien toto them, at best of little directdirect concernconcern toto them.them. In these circumstances, many promising schemes have failed, often when the personperson who promotedpromoted thethe scheme and was likely to have had good relationsrelations with thethe locallocal people,people, moved fromfrom the area andand waswas replacedreplaced byby someonesomeone withwith aa differentdifferent approachapproach oror withwith newnew ideas on what thethe people needed.needed.
The degree of continuitycontinuity necessarynecessary for success,success, in spitespite ofof changeschanges inin staff, can only be achievedachieved ifif thethe peoplepeople themselvesthemselves identifyidentify andand recogniserecognise aa need as a resultresult ofof carefulcareful discussion.discussion. This phasephase shouldshould not constituteconstitute aa great problem, as inin manymany countriescountries wherewhere forestryforestry extensionextension cancan operateoperate successfully, public discussion of locallocal issuesissues hashas beenbeen aa long-standinglong-standing procedure for establishingestablishing a consensusconsensus onon mattersmatters ofof publicpublic interest.interest. The task, initially,ini.tially, is oneone ofof providingproviding sufficientsufficient accurateaccurate informationinformation toto thethe people in a formform theythey cancan understandunderstand toto enableenable usefuluseful discussiondiscussion toto take place. This should,should, however,however, bebe donedone withoutwi thout appearingappearing toto pushpush thethe peoplepeople towards a particular conclusion.conclusion.
A further steps t ep inin thethe processprocess isis toto guideguide people,people, tactfully,tactfully, toto adoptadopt an objective,objective, and formform ofof work,work, which"'hich areare realisticrealistic inin relationrelation toto thethe resources of time,time, skillskill andand materialsmaterials theythey cancan devotedevote toto it.it. People may sometimes swing violently fromfrom aa statestate ofof indifferenceindifference toto oneone ofof excessiveexcessive enthusiasm if they believebelieve (often withoutwithout justification) that they willwill receive aa great deal ofof assistanceassistance toto achieveachieve theirtheir objectiveobjective andand obtainobtain large benefits fromfrom this.this.
From a generalised objectiveobjective (e.g.(e.g. aa desiredesire forfor anan adequateadequate supplysupply ofof building poles or fuelwaodfuelwJod forfor thethe community),community), aa moremore specificspecific targettarget whichwhich can be achieved within a reasonablereasonable periodperiod ofof timetime mustmust bebe selected.selected. When a
-3-- 3 - target has been selectedselected attention must thenthen bebe centredcentred onon whatWhat thethe community itself can dodo toto achieveachieve it.it.
This commonlycommonly resultsresults inin thethe presentationpresentation ofof aa longlong listlist ofof thingsthings which thethe communitycommunity thinkthink thethe extensionextension organisationorganisation shouldshould fundfund or supply.supply. If the people are toto have a properproper commitmentcommitment toto thethe objective,objective, however,however, theythey should first bebe guidedguided toto considerconsider whatWhat theythey cancan contributecontribute inin labourlabour oror resources toto achieve it.it. At thisthis stagestage aa properproper balancebalance ofof locallocal commitmentcommitment and possiblepossible externalexternal assistanceassistance mustmust bebe secured.secured. Extension staff must be aware of the problems of poor and possiblypossibly undernourished people taking onon a heavy additional work loadload andand thethe possibilitypossibility of a clashclash ofof newnew forestryforestry work withwith theirtheir normalnormal farmingfarming activitiesactivities forfor whichWhich theirtheir resourcesresources maymay bebe barely sufficient.sufficient. Extension staff mustmust alsoalso bebe properlyproperly scepticalsceptical aboutabout offers of assistance from leaders of a community Whowho may well be "volunteering" the servicesservices ofof theirtheir wiveswives oror lessless enthusiasticenthusiastic dependantdependant relatives, without first consulting them.them. Agreement to co-operate mustmust involve the personal commitmentcommitment ofof thethe individual.individual.
In some cases the resources ofof an area may bebe soso limitedlimited thatthat theythey must be supplementedsupplemented byby rewardsrewards inin foodstuffsfoodstuffs oror inin cashcash ifif peoplepeople areare toto be able to undertake anyany additionaladditional work.work. Assistance in the form ofof improvedimproved toolstools or thethe transporttransport ofof materialsmaterials maymay bebe justifiedjustified butbut thethe benefitsbenefits likelylikely to result from theirtheir use mustmust bebe carefullycarefully measuredmeasured againstagainst thethe cost.cost. Their provision may inin factfact bebe counter-productivecounter-productive and lead to thethe collapsecollapse of a programme if the community cannot sustain these supplies from itsits own resources once aa periodperiod ofof aidaid comescomes toto anan end.end.
Defining the naturenature andand correctcorrect levellevel ofof assistanceassistance toto anan extensionextension programme requires as much care as thethe decisiondecision takentaken by thethe peoplepeople onon thethe objectives themselves.themselves. It involves social and legallegal questionsquestions suchsuch asas thethe availability of suitablesuitable land,land, thethe traditionstraditions ofof individualindividual or communal work amongst thethe people,people, their knowledge ofof appropriateappropriate forestryforestry techniquestechniques andand their willingness oror abilityability toto learnlearn them.them.
Whether work is undertaken on an individualindividual oror aa communitycommunity basisbasis itit must bebe clearlyclearly demonstrateddemonstrated andand understoodunderstood howhow thisthis willwill benefitbenefit thosethose whowho take part in it, and the benefits must bebe sufficientlysufficiently attractive to justifyjustify the efforts involved.involved. Where thethe programmeprogramme involvesinvolves communitycommunity action it must be agreedagreed howhow thethe actualactual benefits,benefits, either in goods or inin cash, willwill bebe shared.
1.5 Procedures for changechange
Some doubt has recentlyrecently beenbeen castcast onon thethe beliefbelief thatthat ifif peoplepeople werewere shown how toto dodo somethingsomething usefuluseful theythey wouldwould graduallygradually adoptadopt thethe practice,practice, Le.i.e. aa "trickle"trickle down"down" processprocess wouldwould operate.operate. ThisTIlis systemsystem hashas undoubtedlyundoubtedly conferred some benefitsbenefits on the strata ofof society who werewere sufficientlysufficiently perceptive and financiallyfinancially secure to riskrisk adoptingadopting aa newnew practicepractice butbut thethe spread of the new idea or technique has not always moved as farfar downwards as planned. Those Whowho were most in needneed ofof change,change, andand wouldwould benefitbenefit most from it, often did not have thethe abilityability, oror thethe resourcesresources toto initiateinitiate thethe change.change. The procedure, now being advocated by Compton, is to adopt a "bottom-up"-bottom-up" approach, Le.i.e. to identify the range of indigenous knowledge and current farming systems and, using institutionally organised knowledge systems, to buildbuild onon toto themthem featuresfeatures whichwhich wouldwould makemake themthem moremore productiveproductive or less harmful to the environment. ThisTIlis approach must give proper importance to both thethe socialsocial andand technicaltechnical aspectsaspects ofof anyany system.system. Some earlier extension efforts may havehave placed too greatgreat importance on the provision ofof technicaltechnical informationinformation toto a fewfew peoplepeople andand notnot enoughenough onon thethe --4-4 - social justificationjustification of thethe thethe existingexisting systemsystem andand thethe processprocess ofof spreadspread ofof change through familyfamily oror communitycommunity groups.groups.
The approach to change must also take into account the extent to whichwhich . the targettarget populationpopulation areare individualistsindividualists oror communitycommunity orientated.orientated. In casescases where communitycommunity action is essentialessential toto achieveachieve anan objective,objective, e.g. inin thethe improvement of water suppliessupplies oror erosionerosion control,control, it may bebe necessarynecessary toto concentrate on developingdeveloping communitycommunity spiritspirit andand resources,resources, possiblypossibly inin somesome activity quite distinct fromfrom forestry,forestry, beforebefore thethe technicaltechnical aspectsaspects ofof thethe major tasktask cancan bebe introduced.introduced.
In some societiessocieties toto whichwhich forestryforestry extensionextension maymay bebe introduced,introduced, thethe concept of individualindividual successsuccess oror individualindividual wealthwealth maymay notnot bebe acceptable.acceptable. Persons who achieveachieve aa highhigh standardstandard ofof successsuccess andand personalpersonal wealth may be excluded fromfrom communitycommunity activities,activities, (e.g. excluded from drinking from thethe common cup byby otherother men).men). The approach via "innovators""innovators" oror "early"early adopters"adopters" may not always be appropriate andand aa freshfresh approachapproach basedbased onon actionaction byby aa widerwider section of thethe communitycommunity may bebe necessary.necessary. The importantimportant featurefeature isis thatthat extension staff must make anan efforteffort toto findfind outout howhow locallocal peoplepeople viewview certaincertain situations andand not trytry toto applyapply conceptsconcepts fromfrom differentdifferent culturescultures withoutwithout first giving themthem a critical examination. They mustmust learn to be good listeners and toto understandunderstand thethe cultureculture andand conceptsconcepts ofof thethe locallocal people.people.
Any form of approach must,must, however,however, taketake intointo accountaccount thethe policypolicy ofof thethe local governmentgovernment onon developmentdevelopment matters,matters, particularly whether itit favours individual or collectivecollective action.action. A lineline ofof approachapproach whichwhich isis contrarycontrary toto government policy will notnot bebe acceptableacceptable toto thethe authoritiesauthorities ifif proposedproposed byby the extension service andand maymay be viewedviewed with greatgreat suspicion,suspicion, or eveneven asas subversive, ifif proposedproposed byby aa non-governmentnon-government organisation.organisation. Extension should,should, however, be a two-waytwo-way process and send back informationinformation on thethe viewsviews ofof thethe community to the government so that they can adaptadapt their policies to facilitate the achievement of extensionextension goals thethe peoplepeople havehave themselvesthemselves established.
1.6 Need forfor properlyproperly trainedtrained staffstaff
The staff requiredrequired toto implementimplement aa programmeprogramme ofof forestryforestry extensionextension must differ fromfrom thosethose engagedengaged inin generalgeneral protectionprotection oror productionproduction forestryforestry dutiesduties in both attitude and technicaltechnical knowledge.knowledge. Of these, attitude is perhapsperhaps the most important.important. It should not be tootoo difficultdifficult forfor aa wellwell trainedtrained foresterforester to acquire the technical skills relevant to extension forestry but if he oror she doesdoes notnot havehave aa correctcorrect attitudeattitude to the tasks,t asks, technicaltechnical skillsskills inin themselves will be of littlelittle value.value.
Briefly, the social skills required consist of the ability to communicate on a numbernumber ofof differentdifferent levels.levels. It is essential ·toto bebe ableable toto communiccommunicateate withwith thethe local peoplepeople inin the concepts,concepts, words and idiaaidiom theythey understandunderstand and have thethe patiencepatience toto allowallow themthem toto discussdiscuss mattersmatters at theirtheir own pace and to formulate ideasideas inin theirtheir ownown words.words. It is equally necessarynecessary to bebe ableable toto communicatecommunicate effectivelyeffectively withwith aa widewide rangerange ofof colleaguescolleagues atat roughly similar levelslevels inin bothboth governmentgovernment andand non-governmentnon-government organisationsorganisations involved in ruralrural development. Ability to communicatecommunicate onon aa higherhigher levellevel withwith scientists and research workers,workers, administrators, and policy oror decisiondecision makers in the government is also important. Such skills will enable extension staffstaff to assistassist thethe membersmembers ofof the communitycommunity toto formulateformulate andand present their proposals toto the authorities inin aa form likelylikely toto securesecure thethe support theythey require.require. While socialsocial skillsskills maymay bebe taught,taught, andand shouldshould inin factfact now be includedincluded in all coursescourses for staffstaff whowho maymay bebe engagedengaged inin forestryforestry extension, they must ultimatelyultimately bebe acquiredacquired byby practice.practice. The procedures,procedures, values and characteristics of differentdifferent groupsgroups ofof people,people, especiallyespecially ifif theythey
-5-- 5 - have developeddeveloped withwith relativelyrelatively littlelittle contactcontact withwith theirtheir neighbours,neighbours, differ so widely thatthat nono formalformal coursecourse is likely to convey all the knowledgeknm The basic skills ooff communication relating to discussion or demonstration cancan be taughttaught withoutwithout tootoo muchmuch troubletrouble butbut the ability toto select the best method and toto apply itit effectivelyeffectively isis somethingsomething thatthat requiresrequires judgement and practice.practice. Willingness to conduct an effectiveeffective discussion withwith ' potential clients and to gaingain aa firmfirm understandingunderstanding ofof theirtheir positionposition beforebefore suggesting possible modifications toto it, isis essential.essential. Successful approaches should be widely publicised aandnd carefully analanalysedysed but there is no guarantee they willwill be equally effective inin another situation.situation. In termsterms of technicaltechnical knowledge,knowledge, the requirementsrequirements of anan extensionextension forester differdiffer inin content,content, scale and standards.standards. A workingworking knowledgeknowledge ofof possible extensionextension forestryforestry practicespractices shouldshould notnot taketake tootoo longlong toto acquire,acquire, asas in most areasareas thesethese areare stillstill limitedlimited inin range,range, but learninglearning shouldshould bebe regarded as a continuouscontinuous process as developments soon overtakeovertake existingexisting knowledge.knowledge . A certaincertain degreedegree of financialfinancial knowledge and skillsskills in planningplanning are requiredrequired toto ensureensure thatthat anyany proposalsproposals consideredconsidered willwill bebe economicallyeconomically viable. A successfulsuccessful extensionextension foresterforester must,must, however,however, be orientatedorientated to "think small" and to appreciate the value of projectsprojects involving perhaps onlyonly a few trees inin particularparticular circumstances.circumstances. It is also necessary to accept that matters such as accuracyaccuracy of spacing,spacing, and thethe standardstandard of maintenancemaintenance maymay differ greatlygreatly fromfrom large-scalelarge-scale forestryforestry operations.operations. Timing of operationsoperations may have toto bebe adjustedadjusted toto fitfit intointo anan existingexisting patternpattern of agriculturalagricultural oror pastoral work.work. Too often a farmer may findfind itit difficultdifficult toto grow enough food to support himselfhimself andand hishis family.family. He may only bebe ableable toto devotedevote minimalmin~mal effort to thethe growinggrowing ofof trees.trees. In many areas such knowledge or concepts of rural life may not yetyet bebe fullyfully understoodunderstood andand theythey willwill havehave toto bebe developeddeveloped by staff as theythey gogo aboutabout theirtheir tasks.tasks. The knowledge that thesethese mattersmatters are . important and should be studied in the field will be an important contribution of training organisationsorganisations initially.initially. In anan idealideal situation,situation, itit wouldwould bebe desirabledesirable thatthat allall membersmembers of a forestry organisationorganisation shouldshould be skilled in forestryforestry extensionextension and movemove between extensionextension andand otherother forestryforestry activitiesactivities asas required.required. In practicepractice this is unlikely toto happen, especiallyespecially withwith existingexisting staffstaff whosewhose attitudesattitudes toto people and forests may already be fixed. The current trend towards specialisation inin forestry studies, esespeciallypecially atat the higher levels,levels, alsoalso makes such flexibilityflexibility lessless likely to occuroccur inin future.future. The optionsoptions of organising forestry extensionextension activitiesactivities withinwithin aa countrycountry oror regionregion,, in different forms, have been dealtdealt withwith inin aa companioncompanion volume.volume. (FAO(FAO ForestryForestry Paper No. 66,66, ForestryForestry ExtensionExtension Organisation,Organisation, FAO,FAO, Rome,Rome, 1986).1986). Whatever option isis adopted co-ordinationco-ordination shouldshould bebe maintainedmaintained betweenbetween thethe variousvarious activities of the forestry organisation as extension forestry mustmust be regarded as partpart ofof thethe overalloverall forestryforestry strategystrategy ofof aa countrycountry andand not asas aa separate activity. In a similarsimilar way, forestry exteextensionnsion mustmust bebe regarded asas part of the overall development strategystrategy forfor ruralrural communities.communities. In some cases, it may playaplay a majormajor role in meeting needs.needs andand increasingincreasing wealth.wealth. In others, it may play a partpart inin improvingimproving agriculturalagricultural oror animalanimal husbandryhusbandry practices.practices. In either case, co-ordination betweenbetween technicaltechnical staffstaff ofof differentdifferent organisationsorganisations concerned with development and with the representativesrepresentatives of local and nationalnational government must be maintained.maintained. All fieldsfields ofof developmentdevelopment inin an areaarea must bebe regarded as part of anan overalloverall planplan toto improveimprove thethe welfarewelfare ofof thethe population.population. --6--6 - This does not implyimply thatthat aa singlesingle multi-purposemUlti-purpose developmentdevelopment organisation is necessarilynecessarily thethe bestbest meansmeans toto implementimplement developmentdevelopment but itit shouldshould emphasiseemphasise that thethe "competition""competition" betweenbetween variousvarious developmentdevelopment organisations,organisations, which may have existedexisted inin thethe past,past, isis notnot anan efficientefficient wayway toto useuse limitedlimited resourcesresources oror secure an overall improvementimprovement inin livingliving conditions.conditions. Suggestions on appropriate training programmes based on thethe contentscontents of this publication will appear inin a separateseparate FAOFAD publication.publication. 1.71.7 Extension researchresearch The effectivenesseffectiveness of any extensionextension programmeprogramme will be improvedimproved by anan appropriate researchresearch programme.programme. Some information such as thethe suitabilitysuitability of species, cultural techniques and growth ratesrates may bebe derivedderived fromfrom researchresearch work being carriedcarried outout forfor otherother purposespurposes withinwithin thethe forestryforestry organisation.organisation. As thethe programmeprogramme develops, extension staff may bebe ableable toto identifyidentify problemsproblems or areas of work requiringrequiring research andand either undertake this work in collaboration with farmers and researchresearch staffstaff inin on-farmon-farm trialstrials oror passpass themthem over for investigation inin suitablesuitable circumstances.circumstances. Research into social matters is, however, most likely to be of immediate value toto anan extensionextension programme.programme. This may not bebe problem-solvingproblem-solving research but the collectioncollection and recordingrecording ofof attitudes,attitudes, familyfamily structures,structures, traditional roles, levels of influenceinfluence and decision-makingdecision-making procedures,procedures, land tenure practices andand workwork patterns.patterns. In time, research staff may be able to testt est the impact of various types of approach or the presentation of information and thethe naturenature ofof incentivesincentives to the public.public. This cancan onlyonly bebe done against the background ofof aa wellwell documenteddocumented patternpattern ofof theirtheir attitudes,attitudes, beliefs and social structure.structure. 1.8 Factors limiting forestry extension ManManyy factorsfactors have, in thethe past,past, limited public interestinterest inin forestryforestry extension asas aa meansmeans ofof achievingachieving community-orientatedcommunity-orientated forestryforestry practicespractices andand will continue to do so until they are either modified or overcome. Initially,Initially, local knowledgeknowledge limitedlimited toto certaincertain commoncommon agriculturalagricultural oror ruralrural practices hashas mademade it difficultdifficult to take advantageadvantage of introducedintroduced forestryforestry species or practicespractices whichwhich couldcould proveprove beneficial.beneficial. Lack ofof materialmaterial andand financial resources and problemsproblems ofof educationeducation andand healthhealth havehave alsoalso provedproved anan obstacle to adopting goodgood forestryforestry practicespractices intointo thethe normalnormal patternpattern ofof life.life. To overcome thesethese problems, educationaleducational supportsupport coveringcovering allall aspectsaspects ofof thesethese problems is required.required. Interest in many aspects ofof forestryforestry extensionextension maymay alsoalso bebe limitedlimited byby the length of timetime betweenbetween efforteffort andand rewardreward inin forestryforestry activities.activities. People who have nono reservesreserves ofof wealthwealth inin anyany formform requirerequire aa promptprompt returnreturn onon anyany efforts expended.expended. It is,is, therefore,therefore, importantimportant to drawdraw theirtheir attentionattention toto fast-growing, multi-purposemulti-purpose species whichwhich will enable them to securesecure a cropcrop of fodderfodder perhaps,perhaps, while waiting forfor aa treetree cropcrop toto mature.mature. Interest Inin longerlonger-term- term cropscrops may developdevelop in duedue course,course, but only whenwhen the peoplepeople concerned havehave reached aa stage whenwhen they are able to invest effort or wealth for a longer period.period. An exception toto thisthis maymay bebe fruitfruit trees,trees, suchsuch asas mango,mango, wherewhere the effort is limitedlimited andand thethe returnreturn fromfrom eveneven oneone successfulsuccessful tree may be sufficientsufficient toto induceinduce peoplepeople toto plant.plant. These may sometimes bebe used as a useful introductionintroduction toto otherother typestypes ofof extensionextension practices.practices. A furtherfurther featurefeature whichwhich maymay discouragediscourage thethe developmentdevelopment ofof long-termlong-term crops is securitysecurity of tenuretenure ofof land.land. If a personperson or aa communitycommunity cannotcannot bebe sure that they will controlcontrol anan areaarea ofof landland longlong enoughenough toto reapreap thethe benefitsbenefits of anyany cropcrop establishedestablished on it, they will useuse itit onlyonly forfor thethe mostmost easilyeasily -7-- 7 - produced short-termshort-term crops.crops. In many cases the only additionaladditional areas of land of any reasonable size available forfor forestry extension are controlledcontrolled by thethe central or local government, oftenoften throughthrough thethe forestryforestry organisation.organisation. Public servants in such organisationsorganisations are understandablyunderstandably reluctantreluctant to give upup control of any areas of land which might in turn reducereduce their authority and importance. Only in exceptionalexceptional cases, notably Nepal,Nepal, have members ofof thet.he community obtained rightsrights toto managemanage substantialsubstantial areasareas of forest land forfor extension programmes withwith adequate security of tenure. In a numbernumber of countries thethe forestry authorities have declined toto acceptaccept thethe inevitableinevitable and recognise that areas of forestforest alreadyalready encroachedencroached andand denudeddenuded ofof treestrees mightmight be better managed by their present occupiers if a form of lease or certificate of occupancy could be given which included requirements to carrycarry out approved forestry extension activities.activities. Bureaucratic procedures in dealing with permits to cut, transporttransport or sell forestforest produceproduce may alsoalso discouragediscourage thethe adoptionadoption ofof forestryforestry extensionextension practices by people who believebelieve thethe lessless theythey havehave toto dodo withwith officialsofficials the better.better . This is a fully understandableunderstandable attitude in areas where such officials openly seekseek toto supplementsupplement theirtheir incomesincomes withwith irregularirregular paymentspayments forfor services performed. Forest produce arising from forestry extension -programmesprogrammes shouldshould bebe regardedregarded asas similarsimilar toto agricultural or animal products and bebe marketedmarketed withwith asas fewfew restrictionsrestrictions asas possible.possible. In particular, the levying of taxes on such produce may either discourage production or distort the market, as people adopt variousvarious tacticstactics toto avoidavoid payment.payment. In areasareas wherewhere productionproduction couldcould bebe raisedraised beyondbeyond immediateimmediate domesticdomestic needs, thethe lacklack ofof suitablesuitable marketingmarketing arrangementsarrangements andand anan acecptableacecptable priceprice structure may bebe disincentivesdisincentives toto increasedincreased production.production. Marketing may bebe controlled by aa powerfulpowerful middle-manmiddle-man organisationorganisation whichwhich deprivesdeprives thethe producersproducers of a properproper share of the benefits. Poorpoor communications and transport facilities or the lacklack of aa satisfactorysatisfactory ruralrural infrastructureinfrastructure areare alsoalso likelylikely to limit production. A reliable supply of planting stock, fertilisers, insecticides, fencingfencing materials or otherother itemsitems required,required, at reasonablereasonable prices or onon acceptableacceptable credicredit t terms mustmust be arranged if these are notnot toto bebe limitinglimiting factorsfactors inin implementing an extension programme.programme. On aa nationalnational scale,scale, sincesince areasareas operatedoperated underunder extensionextension programmesprogrammes may not then appear in official records as forestforest land,land, oror yieldyield anyany directdirect revenue to government, there may bebe aa reluctancereluctance toto devotedevote partpart of a limited forestry budgetbudget to extensionextension whichwhich maymay appear,appear, on paper,paper, to be a non-non productive function.function. In practice, this ignores thethe fact thatthat crops of trees established by extension activities may have considerablyconsiderably lowerlower direct costs than thosethose establishedestablished byby governmentgovernment organisations,organisations, and thatthat lowerlower pricesprices arising from greater supplies of forestforest produce maymay benefitbenefit more peoplepeople thanthan a somewhatsomewhat better balancebalance inin thethe forestforest authority'sauthority's financialfinancial accounts.accounts. The real importanceimportance of aa successfulsuccessful extensionextension programmeprogramme cancan onlyonly bebe appreciatedappreciated by staffstaff ofof aa forestryforestry authorityauthority whowho havehave beenbeen fullyfully informedinformed andand properlyproperly orientated to extension forestry, eveneven thoughthough they are not engagedengaged inin thethe day-to-day work ofof extension.extension. 1.9 Benefits of forestry extensionextension programmes The primary benefitbenefit ofof anan extensionextension programmeprogramme isis thatthat itit meetsmeets aa needneed which people have defineddefined forfor themselvesthemselves andand havehave consideredconsidered sufficientlysufficiently important toto devotedevote theirtheir timetime andand resourcesresources toto satisfy.satisfy. In doing so,so, thethe people may, in many cases, have learned to co-operate andand to plan ahead toto achieve theirtheir objective, skillsskills whichwhich cancan usefully bebe appliedapplied toto improve many other aspects ofof theirtheir lives.lives. - 8 - In material termsterms thethe needneed maymay havehave beenbeen for:for: - fuelfuel for cooking; - polespoles or small timbertimber forfor housebuilding; - fodder for animals; - fruitfruit for domestic consumptionconsumption oror sale;sale; - shade or shelter forfor peoplepeople oror animals;animals; - employment fromfrom thethe manufacturemanufacture ofof handicrafts;handicrafts; - cash from the salesale of surplussurplus produce.produce. HanyMany of the benefitsbenefits may bebe difficultdifficult toto measuremeasure andand value.value. The ready availability ofof fuelwoodfueh,ood and materialsmaterials forfor househouse constructionconstruction may leadlead inin somesome instances to improved health and toto increased time for cultivationcultivation of foodfood crops. This may bebe reflectedreflected inin higherhigher agriculturalagricultural outputoutput ratherrather thanthan in returnsreturns ofof forestforest products.products. Similarly, the establishment of fodder oror shadeshade trees for livestock may lead to higher values of animal products before any measurablemeasurable benefitbenefit fromfrom forestforest productsproducts arises.arises . If thesethese situations,situations, howhowever,ever, help people to understand the inter-relation of forestry and agriculture, thisthis may leadlead to a moremore favourablefavourable overalloverall viewview ofof forestryforestry extension activities inin future.future. HANDICRAFTS POLES && TIMBERTIMBER Forestry extension programmes can bringbring ~::~~ a wide range ofof benefitsbenefitsl r to many rural peoplepeople FRUIT FODDER FUELWOOD Forestry extensionextension programmesprogrammes cancan bringbring aa widewide rangerange ofof benefitsbenefits to many rural peoplepeople - 9 - 2. FORESTRYFORESTRY PRACTICESPRACTICES FORFOR EXTENSIONEXTENSION This publication doesdoes not:not attempt to deal with the silvicultural aspects of extensionextension forestryforestry which differdiffer widelywidely fromfrom placeplace toto place.place. It describes briefly some ofof thethe systemssystems to whichwhich extensionextension practicespractices can bebe applied, suggests circumstancesctrcumstances inin whichwhich they may be used andand thethe benefitsbenefitB which may be obtainedobtained fromfrom theirtheir adoptionadoption byby individualsindividuals oror byby thethe community.community. 2.1 Agroforestry systemsystemss Agroforestry is a collective term for all land-use systems and practices in which woody perennialsperennials are purposelypurposely grown on thethe samesame landland management unit as crops and/orand/or animals.animals. This can bebe eithereither inin somesome formform ofof spatial arrangement oror in aa time sequence.sequence. To qualifyqualify asas agroforestryagroforestry aa landland-use- use system or practice must permitpermit significantsignificant economic and ecologicalecological interaction between thethe woody"oody andand non-woodynon-woody components.components. Within this broad definition,definition, a widewide varietyvariety of bothboth traditionaltraditional and relatively new systemssystems oror practicespractices cancan bebe classedclassed asas agroforestry.agroEorestry. Some important features of agroforestryagroforestry systemssystems appropriateappropriate forfor useuse inin forestryforestry extensextension:lon programmes are: - whenever possible theythey shouldshould bebe carriedcarried outout onon aa person'sperson's ownown land, or on land heldheld underunder aa securesecure title;title; - alternatively theythey maymay bebe onon poorlypoorly stockedstocked publicpublic forestforest landland leased to an individual or to a community group for a reasonable period ofof time;time; - they should aim toto createcreate aa systemsystem underunder whichwhich forestryforestry and agricultural or animal production can continuecontinue permanently;permanently; where ppossibleossible there should bebe a beneficial interaction between trees, animals or agricultural crops and the environment suchsuch as providingproviding sheltershelter oror fixingfixing nitrogennitrogen inin the soil;soil; the persons taking part in the programme shoshoulduld do so willingly and shouldshould bebe quitequite clearclear howhow theythey willwill benefitbenefit fromfrom it; - the benefits should be relatedrelated toto thethe particularparticular needsneeds of thethe people or toto earningearning opportunitiesopportunities whichwhich theythey considerconsider toto bebe important; and, - the rewardsrewards should bebe enoughenough toto compensatecompensate themthem forfor anyany extraextra work involvedinvolved andand forfor anyany possiblepossible reductionreduction inin agriculturalagr.icultural or livestocklivestock crops.crops. 2.1.1 Distribution of cropscrops byby area Some patternspatterns for thethe distributiondistribution ofof trees ini n agroforestryagroforestry systemssystems are: - in one or more rowsrows roundround thethe edgesedges ofof fieldsfields oror landholdings;landholdings; - in alternate rows with foodfood crops;crops; - in alternate strips of twotwo oror moremore rowsro"s withwith stripsstrips ofof foodfood crops oror grazing land,land, preferablypreferably followingfollowing thethe contours;contours; - as scattered trees amongstamongst foodfood crops,crops, oror shelteringsheltering tetheredtethered livestock or poultry; - in vegetable gardens,gardens, roundround buildingsbuildings oror homesteads;homesteads; and, in scattered small groupsgroups ofof treestrees oftenoften inin areasareas difficultdifficult toto cultivate forfor food.food. The cultivationcultivation ofof trees round thethe edgesedges ofof fieldsfields andand landholdingslandholdings requires some degree of agreement with the adjoining landholderslandholders to forestall - 1010 -- complaints thatthat thethe treestrees areare affectingaffecting productionproduction inin thethe adjoiningadjoining fields.fields . The last threethree alternativesalternatives havehave somesome similaritysimilarity toto thethe formform ofof agriculturalagricultural practicesprac.tices usedused for many years,years, particularly in Africa,Africa, wherewhere farmingfarming waswas based on clearing partpart ofof thethe forestforest cropcrop andand plantingplanting foodfood cropscrops followedfollowed byby a longlong periodperiod ofof forestforest fallow.fallow. Under this system, it was commoncommon for largelarge trees to standstand overover thethe food cropscrops forfor severalseveral ofof the shortshort periodsperiods ofof cultivation andand thethe interveningintervening fallowfallow periods.pe riods. Trees grown round boundaboundariesries oror in one or more rowsrows betweenbetween cropscrops can normally produceproduce fuelwood, poles, small sawn timber or possibly fodderfodder depending on the species selected and the form of management adopted by thethe owner. They can,can, inin time,time, bebe managedmanaged toto givegive aa reasonablyreasonably consistentconsistent returnreturn in material or incomeincome toto thethe owner.mroer. Scattered trees amongst food crops, in vegetablevegetable gardensgardens or roundround buildings maymay oftenoften bebe fruitfrui t oror generalgeneral purposepurpose trees,trees, somesome ofof whichwhich maymay yield fodderfodder inin thethe drydry season.season. Branches may be loppedlopped fromfrom timetime toto timetime forfor fuel but thethe isolatedisolated locationlocation of thethe treestrees usuallyusually results inin a stemstem formform unsuitable forfor polespoles oror smallsmall sawsaw logs.logs. In some cases, e.g. mango, thethe yieldyield from the fruitfrui t maymay bebe ofof considerableconsiderable cashcash valuevalue butbut theirtheir valuevalue inin otherother respects during theirtheir productiveproductive period may be forfor shadeshade only.only. When theirtheir effective fruiting life endsends thethe treestrees maymay yieldyield aa considerableconsiderable amountamount ofof fuelwood and at least one sawsaw loglog butbut thisthis occursoccurs onlyonly atat longlong intervalsintervals andand must bebe consideredconsidered moremore asas aa bonusbonus thanthan aa regularregular elementelement inin production.production. The benefits of suchsuch treestrees inin termsterms ofof sheltershelter forfor tetheredtethered animalsanimals oror forfor the occupants of buildings is hard to quantify, but is never-the-lessnever-the-Iess recognised byby local people "howho carrycarry outout manymany domesticdomestic activitiesactivities inin thethe shade of suchs uch trees.trees. TrTreesees grotJUgrown in small groups in areas difficult to cultivate for foodcrops mamayy be most suitablesuitable forfor fodderfodder oror forfor loppinglopping forfor fuelwood.fuelwood. The sites may bebe usedused forfor growinggrowing timbertimber species,species, whilewhile providingproviding somesome sheltershelter for animals,animals, butbut it isis usuallyusually difficultdifficult to demonstrate to peasants thethe benefits of plantingplanting treestrees fromfrom whichwhich theythey areare unlikelyunlikely toto seesee somesome major benefit during theirtheir lifetime.lifetime. AgroforesAgroforestrytry provides opportunitiesopportunities forfor peoplepeople toto meetmeet locallocal needsneeds for both foodfood cropscrops andand forestforest productsproducts - 11 - 2.1.2 SilvipastSilvipasture,ure This involves the growthgrmvth and protectionprotection of suitablesuitable trees either in isolation or as smallsmall groups onon landland primarilyprimarily devoteddevoted toto grazing.grazing. The treestrees serve a number of functionsfunctions sucbsuch as:as: - providing shade forfor thethe animals;animals; promoting the growth ofof grassgrass underunder certaincertain treetree speciesspecies (e.g.(e.g. Acacia) in the dry season;season; - providing fodder forfor animals oror fruitsfruits forfor people;people ; - sstabilisingtabilising soil and moisture conditions;conditions; - proteprotecting.cting riverbanksriverbanks fromfrom erosion;erosion; and, .- providing fuelwood oror timbertimber whenwhen treestrees areare duedue forfor replacing.replacing. Since grazing lands are normallynormally heldheld on a community basis,basis, this requires a broad degree ofof acceptanceacceptance byby thethe communitycommunity thatthat thethe preservationpreservation and planting of treestrees onon suchsuch areasareas areare necessary.necessary. Protection ofof thethe trees,trees, which is vital to theirtheir survival, is difficult to achieve unless there is a high degree of commicommitmenttment amongst the community that they should be preserved. It alsoalso requiresrequires a clear agreement on thethe utilisationutilisation ofof the benefits both during growth and when treestrees havehave servedserved theirtheir purposepurpose and have to be replaced.replaced. It may, inin somesome cases,cases, requirerequire legallegal powerspowers toto ensureensure that the interests ofof thethe communitycommunity areare notnot damageddamaged byby aa minorityminority ofof thethe people.people. The broad general benefits of shade, protection of the soil andand promotipromotionon of thethe growthgrowth ofof grassgrass areare hardhard toto quantify.quantify. Any more immediateimmediate benefits such as the collection ofof fruitfruit oror occasionaloccasional loppinglopping forfor fodderfodder oror fuelewood are limited and requirerequire carefulcareful controlcontrol toto avoidavoid over-utilisation. Trees on pastureland have aa vitalvital rolerole toto playplay inin goodgood animalanimal husbandryhusbandry 2.1.3 Strip plantations In some countries,countries) one ofof thethe fewfew readilyreadily availableavailable resourcesresources ofof landland for plantingplanting are stripsstrips ofof unusedunused landland alongalong roads,roads, railways, rivers andand canals. Road, railwayrailway andand canalcanal embankmentsembankments areare normallynormally underunder thethe controlcontrol of thethe appropriateappropriate authorities.authorities. They are usually somewhatsomewha t reluctantreluctant toto givegive up theirtheir rightsrights inin thesethese areas,areas, and wherewhere theythey do,do, they normallynormally imposeimpose strict controls on the type of work whichwhich can be undertakenundertaken for both - 1212- - technical andand safetysafety reasons.reasons. This applies particularlyparticularly toto railwayr ailway lines.lines. \ The custom in the past has usuallyusually been toto concentrateconcentrate onon largelarge crowned shade, timber or fruit speciesspecies which, once established, required the minimumminimum of attention. Such trees, hm,ever,however, yield few immediate benefits to those who plant them.them. If strips are properly managed byby thethe locallocal community,community, withwith thethe co-operation and technical assistance of extension staff, there is nono reason why theythey shouldshould ·notnot bebe usedused forfor shortershorter termterm cropscrops producingproducing fodder,fodder, smallsmall poles, fuelwood,fuelwood J oror fruits.frui ts. Unless therethere areare somesome earlyearly benefitsbe nefits fromf rom suchsuch crops, even thosethose who"ho participateparticipate inin plantingplanting maymay bebe reluctantreluctant toto protectprotect thethe trees adequately andand unlessunless thisthis isis donedone thethe resultsresults areare generallygenerally veryvery poor.poor. Trees planted along railway linesl ines are a valuable additionaddition toto thethe forest resources of an areaarea 2.1.2.1.4 4 Tree farmingfarm.ing In some areas specific demands for forest produce or treetree fruitsfruits may justify aa farmerfarmer growing trees as aa commercialcommercial cropcrop onon partpart ofof hishis land.land. This is normally an individualindividual decisiondecision andand dependsdepends onon thethe availabilityavailability andand - 13l3 - suitability of land forfor suchsuch aa cropcrop andand aa cashcash returnreturrl comparablecomparable withwith what can be obtained from agricultural crops in thethe area.area. The choice of speciesspecies and management systemsystem dependsdepends onon locallocal requirementsr e quirements but,but, otherother thanthan forfor fruitf ruit production, the mostmost profitableprofitable outputoutput is likely to be buildingbuilding poles or fuelwood in areas wherewhere therethere isis aa considerableconsiderable shortageshortage ofof these items.items. This is most likelylikely toto bebe anan individualindividual ratherrather thanthan aa communalcommunal activity and the question of thethe timingtiming ofof thethe yieldyield isis ofof thethe greatestgr.eatest importance.importance. As the systemsystem inevitablyinevitably causescauses somesome reductreduction ion in agricultural output aa farmerfarmer must expect an early return from the trees to compensate himhim for the initial reduction in incomeincome suffered.suffered. In theory,theory, there is no reasonreason whywhy timbertimbe r. species could not be grown under this system, but thisthis couldcould onlyonly bebe donedone byby people who are sufficientlysufficiently rich inin bothboth landland andand otherother assets to investinvest in these crops. Space under the trees maymay be used to somesome extentextent forfor foodfood cropscrops oror forfor rearing tethered animals oror poultrypoultry andand inin thisthis respectrespect itit cancan bebe classedclassed asas an agroforestryagroforestry system butbut thethe emphasis isis onon the trtreeee crop andand any other production isis subsidiary.subsidiary. 2.92.2 Taungya Though taungyataungya has been in useuse forfor overover 100100 yearsyears andand isis sometimessometime" considered an agroforestry systemsystem itit isis not strictlystrictly soso inin thethe sense-insense in whichwhic11 this termterm isis usedused inin thisthis publication.publication. It isi s a very effective way of rraisingaising tree crops with thethe simultaneoussimultaneous production of food over a periodperiod ofof 2 to 3 years, but thethe landland doesdoes notnot normallynormally belongbelong toto thethe personspersons growinggrowing thethe foodfood and' the trees are thethe propertyproperty of thethe authority controllingcontrolling thethe land.land. It differs from true agroforestry systemssystems inin that it does notnot aimaim toto produce a permanentpermanent systemsystem ofof agriculturalagricultural andand forestforest crops.crops . . The croppingcropping area moves fromfrom yearyear toto yearyear andand eventuallyeventually reachesreaches aa distancedistance wherewhere the farmers mustmust either give up, as theythey have tootoo far to travel to the area, or move theirtheir homes.homes. The reward to the farmersfarmers isis limitedlimited toto thethe foodfood cropscrops they grow.grow. They have, normally,normally, no rightsrights to,to, oror interestinterest in,in, thethe trees apart from thethe fewfew yearsyears duringduring whichwhich theythey areare tendingtending theirtheir foodfood crops.crops. While this has, in manymany countries,countries, proved a very effectiveeffective methodmethod of regenerating poorly stocked forest at veryvery lowlow cost,cost, it doesdoes notnot normallynormally establish the very closeclose linkslinks betweenbetween thethe farmersfarmers and treestrees impliedimplied in agroforestry systems.systems. IfIf it were adaptedadapted toto growinggrowing shortshort termterm treetree crops,crops, e.g. 20 yearsyears rotation, and somesome fertiliserfertiliser treatmenttreatment were introducedintroduced in thethe agriculturalagricultural phase, it might be possible for aa groupgroup ofof farmersfarmers toto operateoperate onon aa permanentpermanent basis. This could be used forfor thethe productionproduction ofof largelarge polespoles oror smallsmall sawlogssawlogs with perhapsperhaps anan intermediateintermediate yieldyield ofof smallsmall poles,poles, fuelwoodfuelwood oror fodder.fodder. It would be necessarynecessary toto establishestablish somesome particularparticular relationshiprelationship betweenbetween thethe owners ofof the land, presumably thethe forestforest authority,authority, andand thethe farmersfarmers to ensure that the farmers felt fully involved in the operation and received a proper reward for theirtheir efforts.efforts. This has provedproved veryvery successfulsuccessful inin raisingraising crops of Eucalyptus spp. inin somesome countries.countries. On thethe otherother hand,hand, farmersfarmers themselvesthemselves couldcould adaptadapt thethe taungyataungya systemsystem to estabishing community woodlots forfor theirtheir ownown benefitbenefit ifif suitablesuitable landland werewere available. 2.3 Community woodlots These are usuallyusually intendedintended to meet the general requirements of a community for fuelwood, poles,poles, lightlight constructionconstruction timbertimber oror similarsimilar products,products, where thesethese needsneeds cannotcannot bebe metmet byby individualindividual agroforestryagroforestry efforts.efforts. They - 14 - may also help toto meet thethe needsneeds of peoplepeople inin thethe areaarea whowho dodo notnot havehave landland available for planting trees. They face two major constraints,constraints, namelynamely suisuitable table areasareas of land for planting and the willingness of the community to form anan organisationorganisation to plan andand carry out the necessarynecessary workwork andand the distribution ofof benefits.benefits. They can bebe organisedorganised byby establishedestablished groups such as developmentdevelopment committees,committees, schools,schools, religiousreligious organisationsorganisations or byby "ad"ad hoc"hoc" groups formed onon thethe initiativeinitiative ofof forestryforestry extensionextension staff.staff. During the establishment period it may be possible to useuse thethe taungyataungya method as suggestedsuggested above,above, asas thisthis replacesreplaces thethe tendingtending requiredrequired inin thethe earlyearly years with thethe cultivationcultivation ofof foodfood andand providesprovides somesome earlyearly benefitsbenefits fromfrom thethe land. Definite arrangementsarrangements must,must, however, be mademade for anyany culturalcultural oror maintenance activities required later in the life of the crop and for protection against bothboth illegalillegal cuttingcutting andand fire.fire. The establishmentestablishment of woodlotswoodlots willwill almostalmost certainlycertainly affectaffect a largelarge number of peoplepeople whowho maymay havehave previouslypreviously usedused thethe landland onon aa seasonalseasonal oror casual basis and their interests mustmust be taken into account in planning the work. If they feel excluded they are unlikely to co-operate in the protection of the area, no matter how importantimportant othersothers feelfeel aboutabout thisthis andand problems of trespasstrespass may make aa schemescheme almostalmost unworkable.unworkable. Administrative problemsproblems maymay arise inin thatthat some of the membersmembers whowho initiate a scheme may no longer be alive or ableable toto participateparticipate actively as it reaches maturity andand decisionsdecisions onon theirtheir properproper shareshare ofof thethe rewardsrewards may give rise toto controversy.controversy. Community woodlots meet somesome needsneeds whichwhich cannotcannot bebe metmet byby agroforestryagroforestry 2.42. 4 Management of natural vegetation In some areasareas communitycommunity action,action, assistedassisted byby extensionextension programmes,programmes, maymay be promotedpromoted toto managemanage areasareas ofof naturalnatural vegetation,vegetation, eithereither heldheld inin commoncommon ownership or on state or privateprivate landslands subjectsubject toto trespass.trespass. This, however,however, is unlikely toto gaingai n muchmuch supportsupport amongstamongs t locallocal peoplepeople untiluntil somesome signssigns of deterioration are apparent.apparent. Management normallynormally involves,involves, initially, a holding operation aimed at avoiding anyany actionaction whichwhich mightmight resultresult inin furtherfurther deterioration ofof thethe vegetation. The fact thatthat an area of natural vegetation - 15 -- is inin urgenturgent needneed ofof managementmanagement usuallyusually suggestssuggests aa humanhuman ratherrather thanthan a technical forestry or agriculturalagricultural problem.problem. It is necessary to establishestablish byby careful discussion withwith the locallocal peoplepeople thethe mainmain reasonsreasons and causes of damage to the area and explore means ofof overcoming these.these. If it is a problem of trespasstrespass and illegalillegal fellingfelling thethe demanddemand forfor fuelwoodfuelwood andand timbertimber must be met fromfrom somesome alternativealternative source.source. The demand will notnot simplysimply diminishdiminish ifif people decide toto manage thethe areaarea onon whichwhich itit isis nownow concentrated.concentrated. In thethe last resort it maymay be necessary, initially, toto convertconvert partpart ofof the area toto more intensive productionproduction toto relieverelieve thethe pressurepressure onon thethe remainderremainder andand laterlater to establishestablish other resourcesresources elsewhereelsewhere to meetmeet increasingincreasing demandsdemands forfor thethe future. If the situation is oneone ofof trespasstrespass oror overgrazingovergrazing byby domesticdomestic animalsanimals the problemproblem maymay bebe moremore intractable.intractable. Animal husbandryhusbandry practicespractices areare so deeply rooted in thethe cultureculture andand traditionstraditions ofof manymany peoplespeoples thatthat theythey prove very difficultdifficult to modify. There are oftenoften veryvery sound reasons for the original practices though the situationsituation in which theythey areare beingbeing maintainedmaintained has changed, (e.g. the human andand animal population may havehave increased greatly). The practice of grazing domestic animalsanimals within a limited area and growing fodder for them for a substantial partpart ofof thethe year raisesraises a number of problems not least of which is the availability ofof suitable land for permanent pasture and forfor growinggrowing fodder.fodder. Hygiene and disease problems may arise when animalsanimals areare keptkept permanentlypermanently in aa limitedlimited areaarea andand veterinaryveterinary services may be lackinglacking oror undulyunduly expensive.expensive. Any solutionsolution toto thethe problemproblem maymay have to be found in longlong andand patientpatient discussiondiscussion andand co-operationco- operation betweenbetween thethe people, animal husbandry, agricultural and forestryforestry extension staff.staff. Management of natural vegetation implies more than a policy of exclusion or complete protection as has often been thethe casecase inin thethe past.past. It normally requires some positive steps to maintain or improveimprove thethe existingexisting vegetation. This again may requirerequire carefulcareful discussiondiscussion and explanationexplanation with local people who maymay findfind itit hardhard toto understandunderstand whywhy certaincertain operationsoperations areare necessary while other more traditionaltraditional activities mustmust cease.cease. Material yield from such areas may be limitedlimited initiallyinitially and a timetime spanspan of 2020 toto 3030 yearsyears may bebe requiredrequired untiluntil itit againagain contributescontributes significantlysignificantly toto locallocal needs.needs. Problems maymay arise, however, in establishingestablishing locallocal commitmentcommitment to manage, by different processes, an area which for aa longlong periodperiod hashas beenbeen regardedregarded as a common resource andand managedmanaged underunder traditionaltraditional practices.practices. The adaptationadaptation ofof the skills of traditional managementmanagement toto changedchanged needsneeds maymay alsoalso taketake aa lengthylengthy period. 2.5 Erosion control or improvementimprovement ofof water suppliessupplies This usually requires communitycommunity action and oftenoften involvesinvolves the landland of several individual members of thethe community, as well asas areasareas ofof commoncommon land.land. It requires a strong commitment by thethe people concernedconcerned toto carrycarry outout thethe work and toto accept any changeschanges inin useuse ofof thethe landland involved.involved. It can normallynormally bebe applied only wherewhere thethe communitycommunity areare inin generalgeneral sufficientlysufficiently prosperousprosperous toto undertake work which maymay havehave nono immediateimmediate benefits,benefits, oror wherewhere aa governmentgovernment oror voluntary organisation cancan compensatecompensate thosethose takingtaking part,part, toto somesome extent,extent, forfor their efforts oror co-operation.co-operation. This is a situationsituation where anan aidaid schemescheme suchsuch as Food forfor Work cancan bridgebridge thethe gapgap betweenbetween efforteffort andand deferreddeferred benefits.benefits. The benefits are unlikely to be reflected in terms of forest production, unless treestrees areare growngrown alongalong contourcontour bunds,bunds, on filterfilter stripsstrips along streams or scatteredscattered throughoutthroughout thethe agriculturalagricultural crops.crops. In this casecase fruit or generalgeneral purposepurpose treestrees whichwhich cancan bebe expectedexpected toto growgrow activelyactively forfor many yearsyears areare mostmost likelylikely toto proveprove suitable.sui table. In general,general, this workwork isis likely to be undertaken in conjunction with an agricultural extension programme and may provideprovide aa usefuluseful pointpoint ofof contactcontact andand co-operationco-operation betweenbetween - 16 -- forestry and agriculturalagricultural extensionextension activities.activities. 2.6 Amenity planting Amenity plantingplanting eithereither ofof ornamentalornamental oror fruitfruit treestrees which,which, however,however, almost always have some residual value asas timber or fuel,fuel, can be encouragedencouraged by forestryforestry extensionextension programmes.programmes. This work cancan bebe undertakenundertaken eithereither by individuals round their homesteads or by community groups near public buildings or inin parks,parks, roundround schoolsschools oror religiousreligious institutions,institutions, markets oror wherever spacespace isis available.available. This often involves thethe moremore urbanisedurbanised sectionssections of the communitycommuni ty oror schoolschool children andand does not normally lead tot o any immediate gain other thanthan beautificationbeautification of thethe areaarea oror thethe provisionprovision ofof shade. In termsterms of time taken by extensionextension staffstaff andand numbersnumbers of trees established it may notnot seem veryvery productive.productive. It, however, promotes a community spirit amongst the population whichwhich may lead themthem to tackletackle other development projects in thethe area.area. It may alsoalso createcreate anan interestinterest in,in, andand respect for trees,trees, which may serveserve toto limitlimit damagedamage oror destructiondestruction ofof treestrees inin the area in futurefuture years.years. 2.7 Small scale-forest based enterprises Small scale forest-based enterprises,enterprises, e.g.e.g. thethe productionproduction ofof charcoal,charcoal, the collection of medicinal plantsplants oror wildwild fruits,fruits, thethe collectioncollection of honey, the supply of material for local handicrafts such as cane or raphia,raphia, maymay be promoted on anan individualindividual oror communitycommunity basisbasis byby extensionextension processes.processes. In many cases the resourceresource alreadyalready exists.exists. The need is forfor anan efficientefficient harvesting,harvesting, marketing or transport system toto bringbring thethe materialsmaterials toto potentialpotential buyersbuyers atat reasonable cost and in good condition. If the processprocess succeeds, some guidance oror agreementagreement may bebe necessarynecessary toto avoidavoid over-exploitationover-exploitation of thethe resource within a limited area.area. Some financial arrangements maymay bebe necessarynecessary to ensure thatthat partpart ofof thethe proceedsproceeds areare usedused eithereither toto developdevelop thethe resourceresource or to improve the harvesting or transport systems. Wherever possible existing systems such as locallocal co-operativesco-operatives shouldsh'ould bebe usedused toto establishestablish the channels of tradetrade oror communicationcommunication relyingrelying mainlymainly onon indigenousindigenous skillsskills andand procedures. Charcoal production is a suitablesuitable small scale forestforest enterprise provided the resources are not over utilised - 1717 -- 3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY EXTENSION The justificationjustification for promotingpromoting a forestryforestry extension programme inin anan area may be a particularparticular forestry-relatedforestry-related problemproblem oror aa generalgeneral lacklack ofof ruralrural development. Many reasonsreasons maymay bebe advancedadvanced forfor thethe lacklack ofof suchsuch development.development. These include:include: - the lack of adequate political commitment and power; - the lack of an appropriate market infrastructure and transporttransport system; - insufficient mobilisation and use of locallocal resources;resources; - the lacklack of applicationapplication ofof existingexisting technicaltechnical knowledge;knowledge; - the lack of financialfinancial resources;resources; - the lacklack of locallocal organisingorganising ability;ability; - overpopulation ofof thethe area;area; - the lack of educational facilities; - poor standardsstandards ofof health;health; and, - the lack of physicalphysical skillskill andand thethe abilityability toto overcomeovercome locallocal obstacles. In many casescases thisthis maymay bebe consideredconsidered aa tootoo superficialsuperficial assessmentassessment ofof the situation.situation. It does not, for example, attempt to dealdeal withwith culturalcultural oror religious factors which, in somesome cases,cases, maymay bebe asas importantimportant asas economiceconomic oror technical factors.factors. Forestry extensionextension techniquestechniques cannotcannot claimclaim toto deal with all thesethese obstaclesobstacles toto developmentdevelopment butbut theythey cancan promotepromote anan interestinterest inin thethe close examination of locallocal problemsproblems andand aa spiritspirit ofof self-relianceself-reliance inin tacklingtackling them. 3.1 The process of forestry extension Forestry extension should be viewed as thethe wholewhole processprocess byby whichwhich thethe public, non-government organisations (NGO's) and appropriate government authorities combine their skills and resourcesresources to achieveachieve certaincertain forestryforestry development objectives intendedintended toto assistassist peoplepeople toto bringbring aboutabout improvementsimprovements in their economic and socialsocial conditions.conditions. In its initial stages, forestryforestry extensionextension involvesinvolves threethree majormajor areasareas ofof activity, namely:namely: - the organisation andand sharingsharing ofof knowledgeknowledge andand skills;skills; - public information programmesprogrammes onon forestryforestry matters,matters, andand,, - informal forestryforestry educationeducation onon practicespractices toto assistassist peoplepeople toto achieve particular objectives.objectives. The organisationorganisation andand sharingsharing ofof knowledgeknowledge andand skills,skills, basedbased initiallyinitially on a studystudy ofof indigenousindigenous information,information, mustmust be by methods acceptableacceptable to the people involved.involved. The termterm "sharing""sharing" inin place of thethe moremore customarycustomary termterm "transfer" implies that any skillskill adoptedadopted inin extensionextension programmesprogrammes shouldshould bebe firmly basedbased onon the existingexisting knowledge andand skills ofof the people andand bebe aa development they can readily accept and incorporateincorporate into their normalnormal pattern of work. The publicpublic informationinformation phasephase aimsaims toto spread a knowledgeknowledge of forestryforestry matters to thethe generalgeneral public,public, or toto aa sectionsection ofof it suchsuch as thosethose in a particular region oror district, or experiencingexperiencing specificspecific forestry-related problems. The information must bebe inin aa formform whichwhich thethe peoplepeople cancan understandunderstand and accept, and should be communicatedcommunicated toto themthem byby allall thethe means availableavailable and appropriate to theirtheir circumstances.circumstances. The purpose is toto make thethe peoplepeople aware of the importance of forestry in their particular situation and the contribution it can make to theirtheir welfarewelfare oror toto thethe environment.environment. It shouldshould - 18 - also highlight possiblepossible futurefuture developmentsdevelopments inin which theythey may be able to play a part.part. Work done inin thisthis fieldfield inin NepalNepal inin recentrecent yearsyears isis anan importantimportant example of how publicpublic information can lay a sound basis for forestry development both by local extension-supported programmes and by direct government action. ' .' ~ . . / ;:. ,\ • .r ,-J'_ " .:1140011010 04,WMINMOO WOMAIWOOM .$44000APIHNO Nepal has recentlyrecently providedprovided aa goodgood exampleexample ofof thethe effectiveeffective useuse ofof public information campaignscampaigns inin forestryforestry extension.extension. Informal education shouldshould covercover anyany stepssteps necessarynecessary toto makemake knowledgeknowledge and skills in forestry techniques available to wider audiences, using appropriate mmethodse thods suchsuch asas posters,posters, publications,publications, demonstrationsdemonstrations oror shortshort training courses onon relevantrelevant forestryforestry topics.topics. It may also involveinvolve specificspecific campaigns to educateeducate somesome membersmembers ofof thethe publicpublic onon particularparticular aspectsaspects ofof forestry, such as agroforestry oror thethe establishmentestablishment ofof communitycommunity plantations.plantations . The preparation and conductconduct ofof forestryforestry extensionextension programmesprogrammes mustmust bebe based on an initial understanding ofof presentpresent practices,practices, thethe reasonsreasons forfor theirtheir development and continued use, andand thethe extentextent toto whichwhich theythey cancan continuecontinue toto be used or developed toto achieveachieve furtherfurther objectives.objectives. Such a programme usually involves training in communication and instructional techniques and in recommended forestryforestry practices ofof demonstratorsdemonstrators selectedselected fromfrom thethe extensionextension organisation or NGO's and from the local community, who have a basic understanding of existing practicespractices and a commitment toto developdevelop them to meet particular goals.goals. The process also involvesinvolves thethe preparationpreparation andand distributiondistribution of suitable information and educational materials for motivating and educating all thosethose likelylikely toto benefitbenefit fromfrom thethe improvedimproved practices.practices. - 1919 -- 3.2 Some basic principlesprinciples of forestryf orestry extension A forestryfores try extensionextensi on programmeprogr amme shouldshould observeobserve thethe followingfollowing principles:principles: - the welfare ofof thet he people,people, particularlyparticularly thethe poorpoor or or landlesslandless members of the community,community, iiss aann essential objectiveobjective of a democratic society;society; - the trees and forests of a country hold potential benefits for all the people;people; - the achievement of nationalnational objectivesobjectives inin forestryforestry andand ruralrural development in many countries dependsdepends toto aa largelarge extentextent onon thethe supportsupport of the people and theirtheir willingnesswillingness toto actact together,together, where necessary,necessary, toto achieveachieve thesethese objectives;objectives; - if the people areare fullyfully andand accuratelyaccurately informedinformed theythey willwill usually accept,accept, and will support and respect, reasonable programmes and lawslaws toto preservepreserve andand developdevelop forestforest resources;resources; - people who are aware of thethe importanceimportance of forestfores t resources to the development of their country will, as far as their circumstances and understandingunderstanding allow,allow, try to useuse andand enjoyenjoy these resources carefully and not toto deprivedeprive othersothers ofof theirtheir benefits; and, - both official andand voluntaryvoluntary actionaction programmesprogrammes directeddirected towardstowards the conservationconservation and developmentdevelopment of forestforest resourcesresources havehave aa greater chance of successsuccess whenwhen theythey areare co-ordinatedco-ordinated atat allall levels and directly related toto thethe needsneeds ofof thethe people.people. This, in somesome respects,respects, may bebe anan idealisticidealistic viewview ofof publicpublic attitudesattitudes towards forestryforestry andand tend to overlook the views of thosethose whosewhose dailydaily liveslives are aa strugglestruggle forfor survivalsurvival andand whowho havehave hadhad unfortunateunfortunate andand discouragingdiscouraging experiences with forestryforestry administrationsadministrations in the past. It represents a situation, however, towards which allall who are genuinely interested in national developmentdevelopment shouldshould work.work. Activities toto promotepromote forestryforestry extensionextension inin aa countrycountry shouldshould bebe basedbased on a desire to promote bothboth efficiency andand fairness, while seeking to maintain ecologicalecological stabilitystability inin thethe area.area. Efficiency implies achieving thethe maximum value oror productivity,productivity, in itsits broadest sense,sense, of the forest resources of anan areaarea withoutwithout endangeringendangering thethe environmentenvironment oror thethe economy.economy. Fairness implies sharing the benefitsbenefits ofof resourcesresources createdcreated amongstamongst thethe communitycommunity whowho are responsibleresponsible forfor theirtheir production.production. This, in somesome cases,cases, maymay involveinvolve persons who have notnot takentaken anan activeactive partpart inin theirtheir productionproduction butbut whosewhose rights to cultivation, gathering,gathering, grazinggrazing oror huntinghunting havehave beenbeen limitedlimited byby thethe forestry activities. To achieveachieve thesethese goalsgoals ofof efficiencyefficiency andand fairness,fairness , forestryforestry extensionextension must workwork throughthrough twotwo importantimportant channels,channels , namelynamely educativeeducative andand distributive.distributive. In its educativeeducative function,function, forestry extension must, in collaborationcollaboration with other interested agencies, adopt thethe rolerole ofof anan informalinformal educationaleducational processprocess aimed at establishing, in thethe people, attitudes generallygenerally favourablefavourable to development. It must also trytry toto sustainsustain interestinterest andand involvementinvolvement inin thethe most efficientefficient useuse ofof landland and,and, wherewhere applicable,applicable, thethe maximummaximum productionproduction of useful materials fromfrom it.it. In its distributivedistributive role,role, forestryforestry extensionextension isis concerned primarilyprimarily withwith the spread and adoption ofof forestry techniquestechniques which, in conjunctionconjunction withwith locallocal practicespractices andand culture, can improveimprove the socio-economic well-being of thethe ruralrural people.people. In this way, it can become anan important factor in social change and development. Through a greater understanding of the needs and aspirationsaspirations ofof thethe people,people, andand byby helpinghelping toto establish a more,more highlyhighly developeddeveloped andand participatoryparticipatory locallocal socialsocial structure,structure, forestry extensionextension can helphelp to achieve fairness in distribution ofof the benefits of development inin general.general. - 2020- - All thosethose engagedengaged inin forestryforestry extensionextension shouldshould setset themselvesthemselves goalsgoals which shouldshould covercover thethe followingfollowing points:points: - the achievement ofof the wise use of bothboth existingexisting andand futurefuture forestforest resources; - the establishment and maintenance of wide public understanding of the importanceimportance andand valuevalue ofof forestforest resources;resources; - the establishment by thethe publicpublic ofof respectrespect for,for, andand supportsupport of, forestry laws, rules and regulations concerningconcerning thethe proper development and useuse ofof forestforest resources;resources; and, - the demonstration ofof thethe need for, and promotionpromotion of publicpublic involvement in, research into social factors affecting development and forestry extension techniques and other factorsfactors that promote the conservation and development of natural resources. A forestry extensionextension organisationorganisation mustmust thereforetherefore serveserve asas anan importantimportant channel for communicationcommunication and sharing of knowledgeknowledge and skillsskills between the community andand professionalprofessional foresters.foresters. It should serve asas a two-waytwo-way linklink between forestryforestry researchresearch stationsstations andand administrations,administrations, who are thethe sourcessources and organisersorganisers of much new forestryforestry technology,technology, and the communitycommunity who, by their active participation,participation, cancan contributecontribute toto thethe realismrealism andand effectivenesseffectiveness of researchresearch programmes.programmes. The importanceimportance of thethe two-waytwo-way flowflow ofof informationinformation cannot be over-emphasised. The institutions and administrations will themselves benefit greatly fromfrom thethe indigenousindigenous knowledge,knowledge, experience andand views of thethe public,public, whilewhile seekingseeking solutionssolutions whichwhich adaptadapt newnew knowledgeknowledge andand skills to established ways ofof life. This has beenbeen expressedexpressed mostmost effectivelyeffectively by ComptonCompton inin hishis StructuralStructural Units and FunctionalFunctional Matrix.Matrix. Though devised initially for anan agriculturalagricultural situation itit applies equally wellwell to forestry as these activities whould,whould, inin most cases,cases, bebe complementarycomplementary inin ruralrural developmentdevelopment activities.activities. Research Extension Farmer 2 R. IOKS • - Feed-in FSRFSR2 I •I Feed-back E. Feed-back ~ Extension• Feed-downFeed--down - -I- I •I l F. FSR1FSR Feed-up -- IKS• IOKS - InstitutionallInstitutionallyy organisedorganised knowledgeknowledge systems.systems. IKS - Indigenous knowledge systems.systems. FSR -Farming systemssystems research.research. Figure 3.1 Compton's Structural units and functionalfunctional matrix - 2121 -- 3.3 The nature ofof forestryforestry extension Forestry extension serves as an informal self-development process because it does notnot dependdepend onon formalformal teachingteaching oror coursescourses ofof study.study. Because of this,this, it may proveprove moremore acceptableacceptable toto certaincertain people,people, forfor exampleexample olderolder men or women who may have hadhad nono contactcontact withwith formalformal education,education, butbut whowho havehave acquired considerable knowledge and skills by an informal transfertransfer from their parents or familyfamily members.members. It may also satisfy the needs ofof thethe youngyoung whowho may have beenbeen disappointeddisappointed byby somesome yearsyears ofof academicacademic educationeducation whichwhich hashas leftleft them unprepared for the life they have toto leadlead afterafter theythey havehave leftleft school.school. To thesethese peoplepeople itit maymay presentpresent educationeducation inin an entirelyent i rely new light;light; as aa process of sharing,sharing, adapting,adapting, adoptingadopting and usingusing newnew knowledgeknowledge andand skillsskills with thethe assistanceassistance ofof a co-worker, rather than under thethe guidanceguidance ofof a teacher. Forestry extension neither has, nornor wantswants toto have,have, anyany powerpower toto coercecoerce or direct people toto dodo things,things, howeverhowever importantimportant oror valuable theythey may seem toto be toto anan outsider.outsider. It dependsdepends entirelyentirely onon discussion,discussion, demonstrationdemonstration andand trial to bring knowledge toto peoplepeople andand helphelp themthem integrateintegrate what may be useful in it into theirtheir indigenousindigenous ruralrural systems.systems. It enables people toto buildbuild up inin time an ability toto discriminatediscriminate betweenbetween usefuluseful suggestionssuggestions andand othersothers andand toto continue and extend thethe process of learning into otherother areas of theirtheir lives. Forestry extensionextension staffstaff should,should, wheneverwhenever possible,possible, regardregard themselvesthemselves both as full-time learnerslearners andand guides.guides. They will, however, findfind itit difficultdifficult to co-operate fullyfully withwith thethe public,public, toto motivatemotivate andand guideguide themthem atat oneone timetime if, atat another,another, theythey havehave responsibilitiesresponsibilities forfor enforcingenforcing forestryforestry lawslaws andand regulations. Because of shortages of staff, it may not always be possible to achieve this clear divisiondivision ofof responsibilitiesresponsibilities butbut itit isis anan aimaim whichwhich shouldshould always be kept inin viewview andand accomplishedaccomplished asas soonsoon asas staffstaff areare available.available. An extension serviceservice existsexists toto serveserve thethe wholewhole communitycommunity andand notnot simplysimply a privilegedprivileged few.few. In fact, its greatest valuevalue shouldshould bebe toto thethe poorestpoorest and least able members of thethe community,community, who maymay initiallyinitially havehave greatgreat problemsproblems in time,time, energyenergy oror availableavailable land,land, in takingtaking advantageadvantage ofof whatwhat it has toto offer. This often imposesimposes difficult decisionsdecisions onon extensionextension staff,staff, whether toto concentrate on the more able and often more affluentaffluent membersmembers ofof thethe communitycommunity who maymay adoptadopt extensionextension practicespractices readily,readily, in orderorder toto achieveachieve somesome earlyearly measurable results, or onon thosethose whowho needneed helphelp mostmost butbut whowho havehave particularparticular problems in adopting new practices.practices. Forestry extension servesserves the whole community - 2222 -- People can andand dodo normallynormally makemake wisewise decisionsdecisions onon solvingsolving theirtheir ownown problems if theythey areare givengiven fullfull informationinformation aboutabout them,them, andand somesome relevantrelevant advice onon possiblepossible solutions.solutions. Extension proceduresprocedures shouldshould thereforetherefore makemake available information, help people findfind aa solutionsolution toto theirtheir problems,problems, andand encourage them to makemake decisionsdecisions andand to actact on themthem.. People have moremore confidence in decisions they have made forfor themselvesthemselves thanthan thosethose thatthat havehave been presented toto them.them. Forestry extensionextension is only oneone of manymany factorsfactors (social, technical, economic and political) which tendtend toto produceproduce changechange inin aa ruralrural society.society. It is mainly concernedconcerned withwith newnew ideasideas oror techniquestechniques toto improveimprove locallocal forestryforestry programmes suchsuch asas agroforestry,agroforestry, silvipasture,silvipasture, small-scalesmall-scale forestforest enterprisesenterprises or communitycommunity participationparticipation inin thethe managementmanagement ofof naturalnatural vegetation.vegetation. Other organisations maymay aim toto produceproduce changechange inin otherother aspectsaspects of lifelife suchsuch asas agriculture oror animalanimal husbandry.husbandry. In certain cases,cases, advice given toto peoplepeople from these different sourcessources maymay bebe conflicting.confl icting. It is essential, therefore,therefore, for the various organisationsor ganisations concernedconcerned inin extensionextension oror ruralrural developmentdevelopment toto co-ordinate their programmes and thethe adviceadvice theythey givegive toto thethe public.public. Unless thithiss is done, people will bebe confusedconfused andand willwill loselose faithfaith inin alla ll suchsuch advice.advice. 3.4 The spread of extension activities Forestry extensionextension organisationsorganisations should,should, asas soonsoon asas practicable,practicable, workwork towards using locallocal people to spread information within their own communities, even thoughthough theythey maymay notnot bebe asas technicallytechnically proficientproficient oror asas wellwell equipped for thethe tasktask asas professionalprofessional extensionextension staff.staff. Their standing,standing, andand the respect in which theythey are heldheld byby theirtheir communities,communities, may bebe aa greatgreat advantage toto themthem inin spreadingspreading informationinformation andand ideas.ideas. Local leaders play a vital role inin thethe spreadspread ofof extension activities -23- 23 -- In the same wayway aa forestryforestry extensionextension organisationorganisation shouldshould nevernever neglectneglect the opportunityopportunity toto integrate sound forestry principlesprinciples into anyany relatedrelated extension programmes, such as agriculture, animal husbandry or social development, soso that staff in thesethese fieldsfields cancan reinforcereinforce theirtheir effortsefforts by presenting a more comprehensive rangerange ofof informationinformation toto thethe people.people. In turn, forestry extension staffstaff shouldshould take thethe agricultural,agricultural, animal husbandry,husbandry, hhealthealth and social needs of any area intointo accountaccount inin anyany forestryforestry activitiesactivities or suggestions theythey may offer toto thethe people.people. 3.5 Methods ofof extensionextension In general, thesethese fallfall intointo threethree mainmain categories.categories. They are mentioned here very briefly andand are discussed inin detail inin Sections 88 and 9 of thisthis publication. Individual contacts A mostmost effectiveeffective wayway ofof bringingbringing aboutabout changechange isis throughthrough individualindividual contact inin the home or thethe work placeplace ofof people,people, oror inin somesome casescases throughthrough informal contacts in markets or public places. This raises problems, however, in selectingselecting suitablesui table personspersons forfor suchsuch contacts,contacts, inin thethe limitedlimited number of people who can be contacted within a given period and the possibility thatthat this may givegive rise to feelings of neglect or even ofof jealousy amongst some members ofof thethe communitycommunity whowho cannotcannot bebe includedincluded inin thethe programme. Group contacts This method isis designeddesigned toto assistassist specificspecific groups,groups, suchsuch asas farmers,farmers, producers or users of forest produce, women's or youthyouth groups. It is becoming increasingly important as anan extensionextension procedure.procedure. Not only maymay information bebe presented, or techniques demonstrateddemonstrated to several people,people, usually withwith a common interest, at oneone time,time, butbut discussiondiscussion cancan taketake place,place, comments or suggestionssuggestions can bebe offeredoffered byby thethe groupgroup andand questionsquestions fromfrom bothboth sides can be asked and answered. This situation makes learning easier and maymay stimulate group members toto taketake jointjoint actionaction onon aa problem.problem. Mass contacts In this case contactcontact isis moremore tenuous.tenuous. It is achievedachieved mainly throughthrough the various means of mass communicationcommunication suchsuch asas printedprinted matter,matter, broadcastsbroadcasts oror audio-visual presentations. The lack of direct contact makes itit difficultdifficult toto assess if the messagemessage hashas beenbeen properlyproperly receivedreceived and understoodunderstood by thethe audience and more difficult to modify to suit any particular groups of people or areas of the country.country . 3.6 Some features and strategy of forestry extension When, after properproper investigationinvestigation andand joint consultation between anan extension organisation and the people, a decision has been taken to promote a forestry extension campaign in an area, the determination of certain important features andand anan overalloverall strategystrategy forfor thethe campaigncampaign isis essential.essential. For successful implementation,implementation, anan extensionextension programmeprogramme requires:requires: goals, - some clearlyclearly defined benefitsbenefits oror resultsresults aa particularparticular group wish toto achieve;achieve; target groups - groups of peoplepeople selectedselected asas thethe mostmost likelylikely to achieve particular goals which they themselves have discussed and approved, oror peoplepeople most inin needneed ofof thethe benefitsbenefits - 2424- - thesethese would bring; - message - thethe informationinformation or skills which, inin conjunctionconjunction with locallocal practicespractices andand culture,culture, would help thethe target groups achieve their goals; - methodsmethods - thethe means byby whichwhich indigenousindigenous andand derivedderived knowledgeknowledge or skillsskills cancan bebe combinedcombined andand presentedpresented to thethe peoplepeople to assistassist them to achieve their goals; and, - organisationorganisation - the structure set up byby locallocal peoplepeople onon theirtheir ownown or inin collaborationcollaboration withwith anan extensionextension organisationorganisation to achieve their goalsgoals and toto attractattract the . assistance in personnel, material or cash that is required for their purpose. All thesethese factorsfactors areare interrelated.interrelated. It is normally not possiblepossible toto change one factor without affecting oneone or more ofof thethe otherother factorsfactors inin aa programme. On thethe otherother hand,hand, if all factorsfactors areare properlyproperly consideredconsidered andand established initially, theythey tendtend toto reinforce eacheach otherother inin operation.operation. A basicbasic strategy,strategy, therefore, to devisedevise andand implement an extensionextension programme may be summarised as: a thorough analysis ofof thethe existingexisting situation;situation; a detailed discussion with the client group;group; - the formulation of realisticrealistic goals; - the determination of means and methods; decisions on who will dodo what, where, whenwhen andand how;how; -a programme forfor thetbe executionexecution ofof decisions;decisions; a system of monitoring, evaluation and feedback forfor the programme; and, - a systemsystem ofof incorporatingincorporating thethe lessons learnedlearned into future action.action. Forestry extension helpshelps toto makemake peoplepeople awareaware ofof thethe importanceimportance of forestry inin theirtheir particular circumstancescircumstances -- 2525 -- 4. PRINCIPLES OFOF EXTENSION EDUCATIONEDUCATION 4.1 General approachapproach Though forestryforestry extension has been defined as an informalinformal process of education, the term informal must not be equated with unplanned or unsystematic. Staff engaged on forestry extension activities will, undoubtedly, benefit from a knowledge of somesome basicbasic principlesprinciples of educationeducation both while they,they, themselves,themselves, areare acquiringacquiring skillsskills inin extensionextension workwork andand laterlater when theythey areare helpinghelping thethe publicpublic toto acquireacquire skillsskills necessarynecessary toto achieveachieve particular objectives.objectives. An importantimportant requirementrequirement ofof extensionextension work,work, however,however, is toto bebe ableable toto adaptadapt thethe basicbasic principlesprinciples ofof instructioninstruction andand learninglearning toto the informal situationsituation ofof thethe homesteadhomestead oror field.field. 4.2 Extension teachingteaching The termterm "teaching""teaching" may notnot bebe favouredfavoured byby somesome inin thisthis context,context, butbut itit is used here forfor lacklack ofof aa betterbetter term,term, forfor thethe processprocess ofof "helping"helping peoplepeople toto help themselves".themselves". It is over-optimisticover-optimistic to believe that no assistanceassistance or intervention in the process of learning is required in thethe context ofof extension activitiesactivities withwith maturemature persons.persons. Effective teaching may, at least,least, speed up the processprocess of acquiring knowledge and skills: at best it maymay bringbring such knowledge and skillsskills to peoplepeople who wouldwould missmiss outout onon thesethese entirely.entirely. The informationinformation comingcoming from manymany researchresearch organisationsorganisations is published inin aa form, and expressedexpressed inin terms,terms, whichwhich areare largelylargely incomprehensibleincomprehensible to many rruralural people. A basicbasic skill required in teaching is to interpret andand demonstrate this information inin a formform ordinaryordinary peoplepeople cancan understandunderstand and adapt to their ownown situation,situation, ifif theythey seesee anyany relevancerelevance inin it.it. Some ofof thethe techniquestechniques ofof extensionextension cancan bebe demonstrateddemonstrated in a classclass situation toto extensionextension staffstaff butbut thesethese skillsskills cancan onlyonly bebe developeddeveloped andand fullyfully acquired by practicepractice andand applicationapplication inin appropriateappropriate circumstances.circumstances. Skill in transferring thisthis informationinformation springssprings initiallyinitially fromfrom anan attitudeattitude andand personalpersonal commitment toto thethe task.task. Some features ofof thisthis are:are: the instructor should have aa genuinegenuine willingnesswillingness toto undertakeundertake this task and toto acquire thethe skillsskills necessary toto carrycarry itit out;out; - he or sheshe must work fromfrom thethe standpointstandpoint ofof thethe learnerslearners andand provideprovide what they wish or need to know, not what the instructor thinksthinks he knowsknows andand oughtought toto provide;provide; - they must not under-rate thethe desiredesire andand abilitiesabilities ofof peoplepeople toto learn thingsthings theythey believe willwill bebe usefuluseful toto them;them; and, - theythe y mustmust have a thoroughthorough knowledgeknowledge ofof whatwhat theythey areare tryingtrying toto convey to the people and of appropriate techniques for transferring it in the particularparti cular circumstances.circumstances. It is difficult toto define what makes aa goodgood teacher or extensionextension worker.worker. In some casescases itit may be aa willingnesswillingness toto "unlearn" some of thethe very formal practicespractices of teaching,teaching, common in the past, in developingdeveloping countries.countries. It alsoalso requiresrequires flexibility to adapt the processes to a particular groupgroup of people or situationsituation at the time. This shouldshould serveserve toto emphasiseemphasise thethe carecare which mustmust be exercised in allocating staff members toto extensionextension duties.duties. It is not essential that they should all be volunteers, as people can grow in skill and liking forfor this work,work, but anyone who does notnot showshow anan underlyingunderlying aptitudeaptitude for it should be withdrawn at anan earlyearly stage.stage. - 26 - 4.3 Some features of learning It is no partpart ofof anan extensionextension programmeprogramme toto provideprovide eithereither informationinformation or skillsskills as an endend inin themselves.themselves. They must serveserve a clearclear purpose,purpose, thatthat ofof filling the gap between what aa personperson would likelike toto bebe ableable toto dodo andand whatwhat hehe can do at thatthat moment.moment. To acquireacquire knowledge oror skillsskills effectivelyeffectively aa personperson must: - be aware thatthat informationinformation existsexists andand isis importantimportant toto himself;himself; - see some reason for acquiring and applying it in hishis normalnormal activities; - be willing toto make anan efforteffort toto dodo so;so; and, - get something ofof valuevalue asas aa resultresult ofof hishis efforts.efforts. In the forestry extensionextension context,context, this will occuroccur ifif therethere havehave beenbeen proper discussions on extension objectives andand the peoplepeople havehave identifiedidentified clearly what they would likelike toto do,do, andand thethe stepssteps theythey mustmust take,take, toto achieve this, e.g. if their desire toto growgrow treestrees inin theirtheir farmsfarms isis frustratedfrustrated byby thethe lack of suitable planting stockstock theythey maymay developdevelop aa strongstrong desiredesire toto learnlearn howhow to set about growing suitablesuitable treestrees forfor themselves.themselves. 4.4 Some important principlesprinciples ofof learninglearning relevantrelevant toto extensionextension It is useful therefore forfor anyoneanyone engagedengaged inin extensionextension activitiesactivities toto bebe acquainted with somesome importantimportant principlesprinciples ofof learninglearning whichwhich areare applicableapplicable toto a wide range of circumstances.circumstances. Perceived purpose A personperson whowho hashas a free choicechoice willwill learnlearn effectivelyeffectively onlyonly ifif hehe understands why he shouldshould acquireacquire particularparticular knowledgeknowledge or skills. The value must bebe relatedrelated to him,him, or hishis particularparticular circumstances.circumstances. peoplePeople are notnot likely toto reachreach thisthis stagestage spontaneously.spontaneously. A forestryforestry extensionextension workerworker maymay have toto drawdraw thisthis outout ofof peoplepeople byby introducingintroducing topicstopics forfor discussiondiscussion andand inviting themthem toto seesee certaincertain techniquestechniques inin operation,operation, toto establishestablish inin themthem anan understanding ofof thethe benefitsbenefits ofof certaincertain operationsoperations andand aa wishwish toto knowknow howhow toto implement them.them. Appropriate practice In the circumstances in whichwhich forestryforestry extensionextension is likely to be necessary, it is very doubtfuldoubtful if aa personperson willwill acquireacquire a newnew skillskill oror technique onon his ownown accountaccount oror withwith littlelittle effort.effort. If it involvesinvolves anyany manipulative or physicalphysical skills, it may involveinvolve "unlearning""unlearning" aa previousprevious procedureprocedure and adopting a new oneone againstagainst vigorousvigorous resistanceresistance ofof thethe mind andand muscles. This is a key feature in any extension activity involving individual skills.skills. The demonstration andand trialtrial stagesstages presentpresent fewfew problems.problems. The personalpersonal persistence toto applyapply thethe newnew techniquetechnique untiluntil itit provesproves asas easyeasy and efficientefficient asas aa previousprevious methodmethod isis sometimessometimes lacking.lacking. To secure that, the person trying to acquireacquire the skill must be fully convinced that the skill is necessary to achieve hishis objectivesobjectives andand thatthat the resultingresulting benefitsbenefits will justify the efforts involved.involved. He must thenthen continuecontinue thethe newnew practicepractice tilltill hehe overcomes the mental and physicalphysical obstaclesobstacles toto it. At this stagestage itit is possible that a learner may proposepropose modifications toto aa suggestedsuggested practicepractice and he andand hishis instructorinstructor shouldshould examineexamine thesethese suggestionssuggestions criticallycritically and,and, wherewhere they are justified,justified, adopt anan amendedamended methodmethod bestbest suitedsuited toto thethe circumstances.circumstances. In the less tangible skills of co-operation in the managementmanagement of vegetation or forestforest areas,areas, practice based onon discussion,discussion, compromisecompromise andand formulation of a common solution to an agreedagreed task,task, isis equallyequally importantimportant andand - 27 - likely to involve justjust as much personal commitment. Considerable practicepractice andand patiencepatience may bebe requiredrequired toto master a new techniquetechnique e.g. preparing cuttingscuttings Knowledge ofof resultsresults This is relevant,relevant, mostmost often,often, to learning material of aa theoreticaltheoretical nature. In many practical situations in forestry extension,extension, thethe knowledge of results will be apparent, though in some cases only after a period of time.time. Planting seedlings incorrectly will show up inin deathsdeaths inin twotwo toto threethree weeks time: the resultsresults ofof poorpoor pruningpruning oror thinningthinning practicespractices maymay notnot bebe fullyfully seenseen until after thethe cropcrop hashas beenbeen harvested.harvested. This principleprinciple can be viewedviewed fromfrom twotwo standpoints. During initialinitial practice or application of a newnew skillskill aa learnerlearner shouldshould bebe guidedguided on whether he is applying it correctly or he may slip intointo aa lessless efficientefficient method forfor lack of confirmationconfirmation that what hehe isis doingdoing isis correct.correct. Where he is notnot carrying out the correct procedure he should be helped to correct this or he may failfail toto achieveachieve hishis objectiveobjective andand blameblame itit onon thethe system,system, ratherrather thanthan on his own incorrect useuse ofof it.it. In terms of output, he should be encouraged to measure the resultsresults he achievesachieves in comparisoncomparison with thethe formerformer methodmethod toto confirm the benefitsbenefits ofof thethe newnew technique.technique. This aspectaspect must,must, however,however, bebe handled withwith care as the initial applicationapplication of a new technique will frequently resultresult inin aa fallfall inin outputoutput untiluntil thethe "appropriate"appropriate practice"practice" factorfactor overcomes this.this. This requires particularparticular dedication in extension staff toto overcome this difficult phase, where thethe learnerslearners appearappear toto bebe doingdoing worseworse than they werewere byby traditionaltraditional methods.methods. Again thethe extensionextension staffstaff mustmust bebe open-mindedopen""lIlinded and prepared to modify systemssystems ifif there are soundsound reasonsreasons forfor doing so and ifif therethere isis nono seriousserious deteriorationdeterioration inin thethe endend results.results. - 2828 -- Individual differentiation People learnlearn oror acquireacquire skillsskills atat theirtheir ownown pace,pace, basedbased onon aa greatgreat variety ofof differentdifferent factorsfactors andand earlierearlier experiences.experiences. This is s strong argument inin favourfavour ofof individualindividual extensionextension methodsmethods wherewhere aa personperson cancan developdevelop his ownown skillsskills atat hishis ownown speedspeed andand makemake hishis ownown mistakesmistakes inin thethe privacyprivacy ofof his ownown land.land. Since there are,are) however,however, distinctdistinct advantages, in savings of timetime andand in mutual support,support, whilewhile workingworking withwith peoplepeople inin groups,groups, aa suitablesuitable allowanceallowance must bebe mademade forfor thisthis factor.factor. Not all willwill acquireacquire skills,skills, oror acknowledgeacknowledge the benefits of a particularparticular techniquetechnique oror coursecourse ofof action,action, atat thethe samesame rate.rate. Handling suchsuch aa situationsituation oftenoften requiresrequires considerableconsiderable tacttact (and(and sometimessometimes aa sense of humour)hUIIlour) on thethe partsparts ofof bothboth thethe instructorinstructor andand thethe learners.learners. Individuals maymay even have different motives and reasonsreasons for wishing to learn similar thingthingss and these too have toto bebe takentaken intointo accountaccount inin presentingpresenting information oror skillsskills toto them.them. An essentialessential featurefeature isis toto ensureensure thatthat nono oneone withinwithin thethe groupgroup feelsfeels denigrated or shamed by initial difficulties in acquiring knowledge or skills. This requires considerable tact and versitility on thethe part of thethe instructor in reviewing information inin different forms and fromfrom differentdifferent standpoints, or devising repeated practice till one person grasps the situation. At the same timetime he must avoidavoid boringboring oror discouragingdiscouraging others who have reachedreached thatthat stagestage earlier.earlier. Maintaining cohesion in a group where rates of learninglearning differdiffer widelywidely isis notnot easyeasy andand thethe resortresort toto formingforming sub-groupssub-groups where members cancan proceedproceed atat aa moremore uniformuniform pacepace maymay bebe thethe onlyonly solution.solution. This again requires considerable tact on thethe partpart ofof thethe instructorinstructor toto avoid causing offence to some of the learners who may feel they are being down-graded byby thisthis action.action. Considerable differences may occur in rates of learning and this may lead toto tension betweenbetween workers - 29 - Graduated sequence People progress gradually from learning simple tasks or ideasideas toto more complex situations.situations. Success in learning simplesimple things usuallyusually leadsleads toto anan increased desire to tackle more difficult situations while failure to mamasterster a simple problem leads,leads, often, toto aa distastedistaste forfor learning.learning. This is usually reflected in aa forestryforestry extensionextension context,context, byby thethe personperson "dropping-out""dropping-out" andand persisting inin his old practices,practices, come-what-may.come-what-may. The problem in applying thisthis principleprinciple to forestry extension practices lies inin decidingdeciding atat whichwhich pointpoint toto enterenter thethe sequencesequence ofof learning.learning. If an extension assistant starts workingworking withwith aa group at tootoo basicbasic aa level,level, the group may reject his help asas beingbeing ofof nono valuevalue toto them.them. If he enters the learning process atat a stagestage which not all thethe groupgroup havehave reachedreached by theirtheir previous experiences, some willwill be "lost""lost" and gain no benefitbenefit fromfrom hishis guidance. It is doubtful if discussions of more general topics, such as conservation or management of naturalnatural vegetation,vegetation, are ofof muchmuch valuevalue untiluntil aa person can identify specific values in trees or particular types of vegetation. Fairly quick success and the provision of obviousobvious benefits in a simple process can prompt people to attempt more complex taskstasks of development, spreadingspreading outout fromfrom thethe initialinitial source.source. 4.5 Motivation forfor change The role of forestryforestry extensionextension staff as agentsagents forfor changechange isis not easy. They start normallynormally with aa populationpopulation whowho havehave considerableconsiderable experienceexperience inin doing things,things, usually entirely toto theirthei r ownown satisfaction,satisfaction, overover a longlong periodperiod of time.time. Staff must firstfirst establishestablish howhow andand whywhy thesethese customarycustomary proceduresprocedures are followed.followed. They must discuss and consider very carefullycarefully with thethe people whether any improvementsimprovements couldcould bebe made and ifif any suggestionssugges tions forfor improvementimprovement would bebe feasablefeasable inin relationrelation toto thethe existingexisting attitudes,attitudes, skillsskills and resourcesresources of the people.people. It may, sometimes, be difficult toto establishestablish aa genuinegenuine desiredesire or justificationjustification forfor change.change. Change will, however,however, only comecome aboutabout andand bebe incorporatedincorporated into the pattern of activityactivity ofof aa people,people, onon thethe basisbasis ofof individualindividual commitmentcommitment toto change. The basis of a successfulsuccessful extensionextension programmeprogramme must thereforetherefore be,be, in helping the peoplepeople toto reachreach aa rationalrational decisiondecision onon thethe needneed forfor andand benefitsbenefits of, some change inin theirtheir wayway ofof life.life. Once this has been achieved thethe people will have the incentive to seekseek outout alternativealternative methodsmethods ofof doingdoing thingsthings andand persist in acquiringacquiring knowledgeknowledge andand skillsskills untiluntil theythey securesecure theirtheir objective.objective. 4.6 Some characteristics of learning situations Vertical and horizontal learninglearning Learning can take placeplace eithereither byby acquiringacquiring newnew skills,skills, usuallyusually withwith the assistanceassi;tance of a guide oror instructor (vetical learning) or whenwhen anan individual applies certaincertain skillsskills previouslypreviously learned,learned, to a newnew situationsituation (horizontal learning).learning). A primary objective of vertical learning mustmust be to provide certain basic skillsskills oror techniquestechniques whichwhich aa personperson cancan adaptadapt toto his own use and encourageencourage him to seekseek outout waysways inin whichwhich thesethese skillsskills cancan bebe applied in hishis dailydaily activities.activities. Horizontal learning, inin which a personperson develops newnew applications for existing knowledge, isis the ultimate aim of learning in thisthis context.context. - 30 - Conscious or casualcasual learninglearning A personperson maymay learnlearn somethingsomething byby consciouslyconsciously settingsetting out toto followfollow aa programme to do so,so, withwith oror withoutwithout thethe helphelp ofof anan instructorinstructor oror guide.guide. He may alsoalso learn simplysimply byby observationobservation andand by "p"puttingutting things together", changing oror adapting actions which he has observedobserved fromfrom oneone oror moremore sources,sources, to achieve aa particularparticular objective.objective. Forestry extensionextension staffstaff should notnot under-estimate the role ofof casualcasual learning.learning. It is, after all, the method byby which most youngyoung personspersons acquireacquire aa widewide rangerange ofof skills.skills. Part:i..cularParticular care should be taken in following goodgood practices, "setting"setting a good example", in all technical and administrative matters as peoplepeopl e may copycopy thethe standardstandard setset andand adopt itit as theirtheir ownown withoutwithout anyany formalformal instruction.instruction. 4.7 Two-way flowflow At all times,times, forestryforestry extensionextension staffstaff shouldshould bebe consciousconscious ofof thethe needneed for, and value of, a two-waytwo-way flowflow of informationinformation andand learning.learning. The factfact thatthat an extension programme appears to be needed inin anan areaarea wouldwould suggestsuggest thatthat nono matter how wellwell existingexisting practicespractices maymay havehave beenbeen adaptedadapted toto conditionsconditions inin thethe area in thethe past,past, somethingsomething wouldwould appearappear nownow toto havehalTe gotgot outout ofof step.step . He must find out all hehe cancan aboutabout existingexisting practices,practices, why«hy theythey were«ere adoptedadopted andand howhml theythey areare handedhanded onon traditionallytraditionally fromfrom generationgeneration toto generation.generati on. He must consider what new informationinformation is available or mightmight bebe generatedgenerated byby locallocal investigation andand how thisthis could best be injected into thethe traditional learning process, or if any changeschanges inin thisthis processprocess mightmight bebe desirable.desirable. He must bebe willingwilling toto viewview thethe learninglearning process process as as a afeature feature oiT. of normalnormal life, not the special reserve ofof academicacademic institutionsinstitutions andand aimaim atat informalinformal learning,learning, inin both directions, inin all hishis dealingsdealings withwith thethe people.people . ..... ~': '.:." . ,;: .. "lItv,', ' ...... '~<~.:, . Learning mustmus t bebe aa jointjoint activityactivity forfor extensionextension staffstaff andand thethe peoplepeople - 31 - 55 COMMUNICATIONCOMUNICATION This section deals withwith the processesprocesses of communication in generalgeneral terms. These have not beenbeen extensivelyextensively linkedlinked toto forestryforestry problems, as in fact, they can apply equally to a wide rangerange ofof extensionextension activities.activities. It is hoped readers willwill bebe ableable toto ' examineexamine thethe pointspoints discusseddiscussed inin thethe contextcontext ofof their own experiencesexperiences and recogniserecognise ways in whichwhich theythey areare applicableapplicable to their local activities. 5.1 Communication in foforestryrestry extension Communication lies at thethe core of anyany extensionextension programme.programme. Without good communication new concepts or technologiestechnologies will not reach the people who might benefitbenefi t fromfrom them.them. Without aa reversereverse flow ofof informationinformation from thethe people, research workers or administrators will never really know whywhy promising ideas failed to gain acceptance or even what it is thethe people think they needneed to breakbreak throughthrough thethe barriersbarriers of low productivityproductivity oror poverty. Unfortunately, many people have failed to recognise fully the problemsproblems extension staff experience in conveyingconveyIng to their clients not only the technical requirementsrequirements ofof a new processprocess butbut thethe logiclogic ofof thethe wholewhole processprocess and how it can be presented asas anan acceptableacceptable componentcomponent ofof aa locallocal productionproduction syssystem.tem. A newnew processprocess is not necessarilynecessarily an acceptableacceptable ideaidea becausebecause thethe developer thinksthinks it isis good.good. A personperson mayUlay question why hehe shouldshould produceproduce more than hehe needs for hishis immediate requirements ifif the itemsitems are inin adequate supplysupply locally,locally, ifif market pricesprices areare low,low, ifif he isis heldheld toto ransomransom byby an expensive andand inefficientinefficient transporttransport system,system, andand ifif therethere isis nothingnothing toto buybuy in the stores withwith anyany moneymoney earned.earned. A extensionextension effort should arise from the felt needs ofof thethe people,people, notnot simplysimply thethe availabilityavailability ofof aa newnew process.process. Good communication helps people to expressexpress theirtheir needsneeds inin anan acceptableacceptable formform and toto relate theirtheir needsneeds toto availableavailable resourcesresources ofof techniquestechniques andand funds.funds. Extension staff, many ofof whomwhom areare educated at the vocational or technical levels, areare expected to bebe ableable to communicatecommunicate regularlyregularly onon atat least threethree differentdifferent levels.levels. They must bebe ableable toto communicatecommunicate freelyfreely withwith the communitycommunity theythey serve,serve, withwith theirtheir colleaguescolleagues inin otherother organisationsorganisations oror departments involved in development, and with higher level staff whowho determine policy or control budgetbudget allocations.allocations. Communication attempts to bridge the gap between thethe sourcessources of ideasideas and potential users ofof them.them. It attempts toto makemake availableavailable informationinformation or skills in a form the public can understand, examine critically, and incorporate into theirtheir regularregular practice,practice, if theythey cancan seesee anyany benefitbenefit inin applying them.them. New ideas,ideas, however,hOl Extension staff at thethe vocationalvocational oror technicaltechnical levellevel areare aa keykey factorfactor in thethe communicationcommunication process.process . They are normallynormally inin regular,regular, directdirect contactcontact withwith theirtheir clientsclients andand areare bestbest ableable toto communicatecommunicate ideasideas inin thethe colloquialcolloquial language and idiom the peoplepeople cancan understand.understand. Because there may bebe fewerfewer social barriers between themthem andand theirtheir clients,clients, theythey areare inin aa goodgood positionposition to gathergather informationinformation on thethe clients'clients I viel07Sviews on a widewide rangerange of topics, provided they know what is ofof interest,interest, and passpass itit onon toto personspersons whowho cancan evaluate and useuse thisthis information.information. - 32 - Barriers to thethe acceptanceacceptance of newnew technologiestechnologies oror toto developmentdevelopment areare not exclusively technical.technical. Administrative or organisational harriersharriers suchsuch asas a burbureaucraticeaucratic structure oror thethe statusstatus somesome seniorsenior staff confer on themselvesthemselves and how they expect toto bebe approached andand deferred to,to, may constitute barriers more effective than any languagelanguage problems. 5.2 The communication process Most communication systesystemsms identify four basic elements in the communication process: - the sender oror communicatorcommunicator ofof thethe idea;idea; - the message toto be sent;sent; - the channel or means ofof communication;communication; and, - the receiver ofof thethe messagemessage oror thethe audience.audience. Working against thisthis isis whatwhat thethe communicationcommunication theoriststheorists callcall "noise","noise", an unfortunate piece ofof jargon,jargon, whichwhich forfor somesome peoplepeople maymay tendtend toto blockblock thethe flowflow of understanding rather than facilitatefacilitate it. A simpler,simpler, and more descriptive term, such asas "barriers""barriers" would representrepresent the situationsituation moremore precisely to many people.people. Noise, in thisthis sense, is used not simplysimply inin itsits original meaningmeaning but coverscovers everythingeverything ',hichwhich may preventprevent aa messagemessage fromfrom getting through toto thethe intendedintended audience.audience. An exampleexample ofof this may bebe the suspicion amongst many ruralrural peoplepeople ofof strangersstrangers andand anythinganything theythey maymay havehave toto say about their customs oror wayway ofof life.life. This is illustrated inin Fig.Fig. 5.15.1 below.below. S-M-CS -M-C- -RR IIII I I Sender qiii Message Channels Receiver Sender .. Message .. Channels IIII .. Receiver or III Source Purpose (Methods) KnowledgeKnoOlledge Content Visual "Noise" Persuasion Treatment Spoken (Barriers) Decision Written Implementation Combination ConfirmationConfirmati.on (Also 55 senses:senses: sight, soundsound smell, touch,touch, taste) When the Receiver respondsresponds toto aa messagemessage thisthis isis termedtermed Feedback,Feedback, andand thethe S --M-C-R M - C -processR process is isreversed. reversed. III Receiver ...... Ai- --+1+1+1--- 1 lI Channel ~.~----- Message .....~------Sender (former(Eormer III (former sender) receiver) "Noise" (Barriers) Figure 5.1 The Communication Process:Process: from AgriculturalAgricultural Extension: a reference manual byby A.H.A.H. Hunter,Hunter, FAO,FAD, Rome,Rome, 1973.1973. - 3333 -- In practice, the feedback or response shoulshouldd receive as much attention asas the message itself.itself. A message which«hich is either not understood or not acceptable to a community isis valueless, no matter howhOl>l often it is repeated. In fact, continued repetition without,dthout modification may annoyannoy thethe receiversreceilTers and prove counter-productive.counter-productive. Feedback is not aLwaysalways compLimentarycomplimentary but shouldshouLd be carefullycarefuLLy considered. 5.2.1 The communicator The communicatorcommunicator is thethe personperson whowho originatesoriginates thethe communication.communication. As such he must taketake thethe initiativeinitiative ofof establishingestahli s hing communicationcommunication linkslinks with thethe community and keeping these functioning. Too often, unfortunately, the original communicators of ideas, have a very limited view of their responsibilities andand frameframe theirtheir communicationscommunlcations forfor publicationpublication inin scientificscientific journals or forfor discussiondiscussion withwith otherother professionals.professionals. They overlook entirelyentirel y the ultimateultimate useuse of the information andand frame it in technical language understandable onlyonly toto aa limitedlimited groupgroup inin theirtheir ownown fieldfield ofof work.work. The tasktask ofof translatingtranslating thethe scientificscientific texttext intointo commoncommon termsterms usuallyusually fallfallss on extensionextension agents.agents. They have to isolate the relevant information and present it inin aa formform theirthei r clientsclients cancan understandunderstand andand accept.accept. Communicators at this level needneed to be believedbeliev.ed by andand havehave the confidenceconfidence ofof their clients. They can only establishestablish thisthis acceptanceacceptance oror credibilitycredibility byby learninglearning to communicate effectively at thethe appropriate level.level. A good communicator:communicator: knowsknmys his audience,audience, itsits wantswants andand itsits needs;needs; - knm,sknows his message andand howhm' toto presentpresent itit toto thatthat particularparticular audience; - knows thethe mostmost effectiveeffective channelschannels ofof communicationcommunication to reachreach ththee audience with his message; knows hishis ownown abilitiesabili ties andand limitations,limitations, bothboth inin technicaltechnical knowledge and as aa communicator;communicator; is interested in hishis audience, its welfare,welfare, and how hishis message cancan helphelp them;them; is interested inin improvingimproving his skillsskills inin communication;communication; - prepares his messages carefully,carefully, usingusing appropriateappropriate materialsmaterials and aids to arouse interestinter.est and ensure aa successfulsuccessful receptionreception of its contents;contents; - speaks clearly and usesuses termsterms andand expressionsexpressions thethe audienceaudience cancan easily understand; realises that establishingestablishing a bondbond of mutualmutual understandingunderstanding between the speakers~eaker and the audience is mostly the responsibility of thethe speaker;speaker; - is very conscious of thethe limitationslimitations ofof timetime andand thethe spanspan ofof attention ofof listeners;listeners; - does not try toto covercover thethe whole ofof aa majormajor topictopic at anyanyone one time; - selects onlyonly thosethose partsparts mostmost appropriateappropriate toto thethe particularparticular situation; and, - does not involveinvolve thethe audienceaudience tootoo longlong atat anyanyone one time.time. - 3434- - Based on thethe samesame source,source, aa poorpoor communicator:communica'tor: - omits toto supplysupply informationinformation whichwhich isis relevantrelevant or usefuluseful toto thethe audience; fails to give full information and to relate it to the activities of thethe learners;learners; - forgets thatthat timetime andand energyenergy areare neededneeded toto absorbabsorb andand thinkthink over new ideasideas andand practices;practices; keeps on talking, even when the audience have stopped listening; - fails toto develop credibilitycredibility withwith hishis audience;audience; - fails toto understandunderstand andand allowallow forfor thethe locallocal values,values, customscustoms beliefs andand prejudicesprejudices ofof thethe audience;audience; and, - fails to startstart outout atat thethe correctcorrect levellevel ofof thethe audience'saudience's knowledge, skills,skills, interestsinterests andand needs.needs. (Based on J.M.J .M. Fenley and S.K. Williams,Hilliams, cited in Agricultural Extension, A Reference 11anual,Manual, FAO,FAO, 1973).1973). 5.2.2 The message Forestry extensionextension staffstaff normallynormally believebelieve they have some important information and ideasideas which theythey hopehope thethe peoplepeople willwill receive,receive, understandunderstand andand incorporate into theirtheir normalnormal patternpattern ofof activities.activities. In some cases theythey maymay not achieve this due toto incompleteincomplete oror erroneouserroneous informationinformation beingbeing givengiven toto the people, poorpoor presentationpresentation ofof it,it, oror forfor aa numbernumber ofof otherother reasons.reasons. To avoid these difficulties, they need to consider the purpose of thethe message,message, its content and how toto presentpresent it.it. The purposepurpose oror objectiveobjective shouldshould bebe clearlyclearly defineddefined inin theirtheir ownmffi minds.minds. WhatIVhat changechange inin behaviourbehaviour inin relationrelation toto forestryforestry dodo theythey wantwant toto bringbring about?about? Is it aa changechange in knowledge,knowledge, attitude,attitude, skill, or inin whatwhat theythey expectexpect the audience to do? In general,general, an objective which is limited in scopescope toto one of these factors at a timetime isis more likelylikely toto bebe successful.successful. The message mustmu s t bebe relevant to thethe receiver.receiver. It should be ofof interestinterest andand appearappear attractiveattractive toto him. It must be related to something hehe understands,understands, feels or thinks: something he can accept inin relationrelation toto hishis cultureculture andand beliefs.beliefs. The preparation of a message cancan do aa greatgreat dealdeal toto makemake itit acceptable to the receiver. It should be organised and presented in terms he understands and inin thethe formform ofof argumentargument oror discussiondiscussion hehe normallynormally uses.uses. In particular it shouldshould conformconform toto acceptedaccepted socialsocial standardsstandards andand customscustoms ofof speech, writingwriting oror illustrations.illustrations. Differing treatments can make a" messagemessage dull, boring, or even totallytotally unacceptableunacceptable toto anan audience.audience. Skills in thisthis fiefield,ld, however, are developeddeveloped moremore by experience of local reactions to messages than byby theoreticaltheoretical training.training. 5.2.3 The channels of communication The channels ofof communicationcommunication maymay bebe classifiedclassified as:as: - visual; - spoken; and, - written. There are alsoalso combinedcombined methods,methods, suchsuch asas audiovisualaudiovisual whichwhich areare oftenoften more effectiveeffective thanthan anyany ofof thethe channelschannels usedused inin isolation.isolation. A 16mm film with sound, or a video tape, may presentpresent aa complexcomplex messagemessage moremore effectivelyeffectively thanthan speech alone.alone. Each method, however,hm - 35 - '. Visual communicationcommunication "Seeing is believing" is an important principle ofof extensionextension educationeducation though it isis notnot necessarilynecessarily acceptedaccepted fullyfully inin allall societiessocieties amongstamongst whichwhich forestry extensionextension maymay seekseek toto operate.operate. Pictures, charts, diagrams, posters, exhibits, . and displaysdisplays can performperform importantimportant communication functions in countries wherewhere people are familiarfamiliar with thethe useuse ofof symbols.symbols. HethodMethod and result demonstrations are more valuablevaluable inin otherother circumstances.circumstances. These were used so widely in early extensionextension work in thethe U.S.A.U.S.A. thatthat thethe locallocal extension staff were calledcalled "demonstration"demonstration agents".agents". Visual and oral methods combinedcombined are mainly used by extension staffstaff toto serve peoplepeople withwith aa limitedlimited levellevel ofof literacy. Pictorial methodsmethods areare no,]now being used frequently and effectively toto drawdraw attention toto aa forestry extension message in manymany countries. Staff mustmust bebe careful,careful, however,however, to verify thatthat· the illustrationsillustrations and symbols used are properly understood andand meanmean to the people whatwhat they are intended to mean. Therernere can be considerable differences inin understanding oCof ,,]hatwhat symbolssymbol s meanmean between peoples ofof differentdifferent backgrounds.backgrounds. Films What is it --- - in particular must not use too sophisticated a house, techniques to presentpresent information oror they maymay a haystack, simply be dismissed asas "magic"."magic". or .a loaf? The use of colour in visual materials isis important;important; if properly used it can greatly enhance thethe impactimpact ofof visualvisual materials.materials. In general, the colours chosen should be "logical","logical", i.e.Le. grass shouldshould bebe greengreen oror brown,brown, accordingaccording toto the season or circumstances, tree trunks greygrey or brown and riversrivers blueblue oror fawn according toto thethe statestate ofof erosion.erosion. Care must be exercised in the use of colours for posters, or for printing pamphlets, circulars, handouts or abstract diagrams.diagrams. Certain colours maymay be taboo or "unlucky""unlucky" in particularparticular areas while others may have aa particularlyparticularly favourablefavourable significance.significance. This may be important ifif "colour"colour coding"coding" isis usedused Corfor easyeasy identificationidentification ofof particularparticular types of documents. It may not be easy to extract informationinformation on inauspicious colours fromfrom locallocal peoplepeople asas thethe topic maymay bebe one theythey are not willing toto discussdiscuss withwith strangers.strangers. Spoken communication Spoken communicationcommunIcatIon takestakes placeplace regularlyregularly duringduring individualindividual contactscontacts such as:as: - home or farmfarm visits;visits; - enquiries made atat ·offices;offices; - telephone calls; - meetings, discussions andand demonsrationsdemonsrations ofof allall kinds;kinds; and, - radio and TVTV programmes.programmes. Except for radioradIo andand TVTV thesethese contactscontacts allowallow two-waytwo-way communicationcommunication which has great advantages. The initial response or reaction of the recipient of a message may bebe asas importantimportant forfor futurefuture planningplanning asas thethe contentcontent of thethe messagemessage itself.itself. Lack of understandingunderstanding can bebe detecteddetected inin thethe replyreply and may hebe cleared up onon thethe spot.spot. Gestures, facial expressions and even the tone ofof voice, both of thethe speaker and thethe listener,listener, contributecontribute substantiallysubstantially to an assessmentassessment ofof howhot>l wellwell the collmunicationcOfrnnunication is being received.received. One obstacle which must be overcome is this: an oral message isis notnot recordedrecorded inin any way andand thethe receiverreceiver maymay rememberremember itit inin aa differentdiff.erent wayway fromfrom thatthat whichwhich the sendersender intended.intended. Particularly,Particularly, where preciseprecise instructionsinstructions onon forestryforestry techniques are given orally,orally, thethe receiverrecelver hashas nono meansmeans ofof referringreferring backback toto what waswas said.said. For this reason, oral messages are best followedfollowed up byby somesome - 3636 -- form of ,.rittenwritten instructions,instructions, where thesethese areare appropriate,appropriate, oror byby aa follow-upfollm,,-up visit or demonstration toto illiterateilliterate clients.clients. Only a limited number ofof peoplepeople cancan be contactedcontacted face-to-faceface-to-face inin a day. This is likelylikely toto bebe limitedlimited asas muchmuch byby thethe clients'clients' availabilityavailability basedbased onon their patterns of \vork,work, as by thethe extensionextension agent'sagent IS willingness\villingness to meet and discuss matters withwith them.them. This makes oraloral communicationcommunication expensive inin termsterms of staff time and efforteffort unless,unless, somesome formform ofof groupgroup contactcontact isis organised,organised, butbut it is nevertheless a very effective method of communication for those contacted and may bebe thethe onlyonly effectiveeffective methodmethod forfor peoplepeople lackinglacking skillsskills in reading andand interpreting diagrams. · Language itself, however, can be a barrier where thethe extensionextension staffstaff andand thethe receiversreceivers speakspeak differentdifferent languageslanguages or even dialects.dialects. Spoken communication then requires a thirdthird personperson toto actact as an interpreter with all thethe possibilitiespossibilities ofof differencesdifferences in emphasis,emphasis, or even misinterpretation, thatthat implies.implies. The process is awkward, slow and often unreliable. Even when bothboth thethe extensionextension staffstaff andand thethe receiversreceivers speakspeak the same language, differences in dialect, local usagesusages ofof particularparticular wordswords oror expressions, and levels of language may present barriers to effective communication. The use of language on thethe telephonetelephone must strikestrike a balance between the exchange of lengthylengthy customarycustomary greetingsgreetings commoncommon inin face-to-faceface-to-face meetingsmeetings andand the highly codified languagelanguage used,used, forfor example,example, inin air-trafficair- traffic communication.communication. Extension staff shouldshould bebe trainedtrained toto setset aa goodgood exampleexample inin thethe economicaleconomical useuse of limited telephonetelephone linkslinks inin ruralrural areas.areas. Domestic radioradio isis thethe quickestquickest andand far-reaching medium for conveying oral messages to peoplepeople inin inaccessibleinaccessible areas.areas. It is particularly valuable, and much used, for spreadingspreading forestryforestry informationinformation in manymany countries.countries. It is claimed that radio is a low1m. costcost methodmethod ofof spreadingspreading information. This is true if the information is received and understood by the people, but radio can be an expensiveexpensive medium, if air-time atat peakpeak periodsperiods hashas toto be paidpaid for,for, or ifif thethe audienceaudience isis smallsmall or does not fullyfully understandunderstand thethe message.message. Without some personal feedback and follow-up,follow-up, it isis difficultdifficult toto assessassess howhow successful a means ofof communicationcommunication itit hashas been.been. Its use is limited normally to giving general information as it is difficult to give specific instructions onon technicaltechnical mattersmatters byby thisthis method.method. Spoken communication enables the communicatorcommunicator toto establishestablish aa personalpersonal bond with thethe receiverreceiver thatthat nono otherother methodmethod cancan equal.equal. In spitespite ofof its limitations, whenwhen supplemented by some visual aids, it is likelylikely toto remainremain a most useful method ofof extensionextension workwork forfor thethe forseeableforseeable future.future. Written~vritten communicationcommunication WrittenIvritten communicationcommunication isis indispensibleindispensible inin thethe day-to-dayday-to-day operationsoperations ofof any organisation, particularlyparticularly anan extensionextension service.service. The advantages ofof writLenwritten communicationcommunication are:are: - withwith manymany people,people, it has greatergreater statusstatus andand carries moremore authority than oraloral communication,communication, particularlyparticularly ifif itit carriescarries an impressive officialoffi.cial stamp;s tamp; --3737 -- - in some countriescountries itit isis essentialessential forfor transactingtransacting anyany typetype ofof official business; it provides a generally low-cost method of spreading information toto largelarge numbersnumbers ofof people;people; when used in an interestinginte resting way, such as in attractive leaflets or magazines, it holds a reader'sreader's attentionattention andand maymay stimulate him to seekseek more informationinformation onon thethe matter; and, - the material can bebe retainedretained forfor asas longlong asas isis necessarynecessary andand is valuable for confirmingconfirmins detailed instructions given orally or by audio-visual methods.methods. The disadvantages ofof thisthis methodmethod are:are: - many peoplepeople whom forestryforestry extension staff wantwant to reach are not yetyet fully literate;literate; it is entirely one-way communication unless the reader followsfollmvs up;jp the contactcontact withwith aa requestrequest forfor furtherfurther information;information; few people will chanchangege their traditional practices just because they haphappenpen toto have read about alternative methods.methods. ExtensionExtension. staff,staff, inin anyany fieldfield ofof work,work, must adaptadapt theirtheir methodsmethods toto thethe particularparticular subject, to thethe abilityability ofof thethe audienceaudience toto understand the different techniques used and understand the different techniques used and )r;/..2) to thethe facilitiesfacilities available.available. Usually they will employemploy a combinatcombination ion ofof twotwo oror moremore channels of communicationcommunicllt lon in the same meeting oror presentation.presentation. r *- 11 A well written personal letterletter isis attractiveattractive tot.) many people 5.2.4 The receiver oror thethe audienceaudience The audienceaudience isi s mademade upup ofof allall thosethose whomwhom thethe communicatorcommunicator wisheswishes toto receive, understandunde rstand and use thethe ideasideas oror informationinformation hehe isis presenting.presenting. If an audience isis toco make progress,progress, an extensionextension agentagent mustmu s t helphelp themthem toto changechange their knowledge, attitudes andand behaviour.behaviour. If no changechange takestakes place,place, therethere has been nono effectiveeffective communicationcommunication andand nono progress.progress. CommunicationCOlillllunication has taken place if thethe peoplepeople learnlearn usefuluseful factsfacts (acquire(acquire knowledge), oror if some of them begin toto feelfeel aa newnew procedureprocedure maymay offeroffer somesome benefitsbenefits (change(change theirtheir attitude), oror decidedecide toto adoptadopt aa newnew techniquetechnique (change(change theirtheir behaviour).behaviour). People are different inin many1!lany ways.'.ays . One major differencedifference is inin theirtheir ability to understand forestry ideas and practices. For this reason,reason, communication sometimes fails becausebecause the communicator uses terms too difficult, . or too unfamiliar, for anan audienceaudience to understand. Forestry extension staff cannot expect much progressprogress inin gettinggetting peoplepeople toto plantplant treetree crops on parts of theirtheir landland ifif thethe ideaidea isis presentedpresented toto themthem inin wordswords andand expressions totally unfamiliar toto them.them. A goodgood testtest isis forfor extensionextension staffstaff working in aa commoncommon languagelanguage suchsuch asas EnglishEnglish oror FrenchFrench toto translatetranslate somesome technical instructions into a locallocal languagelanguage toto appreciateappreciate howhOI, difficultdifficult itit can bebe to findfind suitablesui table termsterms to expressexpress manymany importantimportant conceptsconcepts toto thethe people. - 38 - Good extensionextension practices,practices, therefore,therefore, require a thoroughthorough studystudy ofof thethe clients in order Loto know theirtheir abilities,abilities, interestsinterests andand backgrounds.backgrounds. This is done normally throughthrough thethe conductconduct ofof a study ofof the socialsocial andand economiceconomic conditions of thethe areaarea inin whichwhich theythey live.live. In more leisurely times,times, thisthis was accomplished simply by livingliving andand workingworking amongstamongst themthem forfor aa considerableconsiderable period and recording the knowledge acquired.acquired. This mustmust often, now, be speeded up byby thethe useuse ofof carefullycarefully wordedworded surveyssurveys oror questionnaires. questionnaires. An understanding of the groups with whomwhom extensionextension staff are to work is essential to plan their approach or strategystrategy inin termsterms ofof methodsmethods andand thethe useuse of available resources.resources. An obstacleobstacle toto goodgood communicationcommunication isis "noise"··noise" (or(or barriers),barriers), thethe conceptconcept of which has beenbeen explainedexplained inin SectionSection 5.25.2 above.above. Experienced communicatorscommunicators can anticipate when barriers are likelylikely toto occur,occur, andand trytry toto forestallforestall them.them. For example, thethe lacklack ofof plantingplanting materialmaterial forfor aa forestryforestry extensionextension projectproject may bebe suchsuch aa barrierbarrier toto anan all-outall-out efforteffort byby thethe community.community. To overcomeovercome this barrier the extensionextension staff cancan assistassist withw~th thethe establishmentestabl ishment of small forest nurseries at strategicstrategic placesplaces toto provideprovide thethe plantingplanting requirementsrequirements before proceeding with thethe mainmain task.task. Generally speaking, they shouldshould not advocate any change of practice unless they have made provision for overcoming any ofof thethe barriersbarriers toto achievementachievement whichwhich areare likelylikely toto arise.arise. Those who hopehope to work effectivelyeffectively mainlymainly withwith ruralrural peoplepeople shouldshould realise that therethere isis nono basicbasic competitioncompetition betweenbetween thethe methodsmethods oror channelschannels ofof communication. The challenge is thatthat oCof making meanings clearclear andand of getting ideas accepted. To achieve thisthis aim,aim, forestryforestry extensionextension staffstaff needneed toto useuse all thethe methods ofof communicationcommunication readilyreadily availableavailable toto themthem andand toto improviseimprovise others as theythey gogo along.along. It is a question of findingfinding thethe bestbest combinationcombination ofof channels forfor thethe tasktask inin hand.hand. 401, 441105 Communication brings people and ideas togethertogether - 39 - 5.3 The adoption process Consciously or unconsciously, every person goesgoes throughthrough certaincertain mentalmental stages before changing his oror herher ideasideas oror practices.practices. Experienced extension staff understand this process and fitfit theirtheir guidanceguidance toto thethe presentpresent stagestage ofof thinking of theirtheir audiences.audiences. People go through fivefive clearlyclearly defineddefined stagesstages whilst adopting a newnew ideaidea oror practice.practice. These are:are: awareness, interest,interest, evaluation, trial and adoption. These are often represented as steps on a stairwaystairway as shown below: Adoption Trial Evaluation Interest Awareness Figure 5.2 Stages in the adoption processprocess Each stagestage inin thethe adoptionadoption processprocess dependsdepends onon thethe precedingpreceding stagesstages having beenbeen completedcompleted successfully.successfully. Forestry extension staff might recommend the adoption ofof a community forestry project whichwhich is either tootoo advancedadvanced technicalltechnicallyy or notnot sociallysocially acceptableacceptable toto ruralrural people.people. In other cases, the people may not even be awareaware ofof thethe practicepractice andand will,will, therefore,therefore, notnot havehave any interestinterest inin it.it. The staff, inin suchsuch circumstances,circumstances, will not succeed in introducing it as theythey have notnot startedstarted atat thethe rightright pointpoint inin thethe sequence.sequence. Often the first stage of a forestryforestry extension programme is toto bring toto people's notice thatthat aa newnew forestryforestry techniquetechnique hashas beenbeen developed.developed. If the new technique can be shownshmm toto relaterelate toto theirtheir normalnormal practicespractices andand havehave somesome possible beneficial effect on thethe people,people, theythey maymay bebe interestedinterested toto findfind outout more about it.it. Some questions theythey mightmight askask are:are: is the new forestry practicepractice reallyreally asas goodgood asas itit isis describeddescribed to be; if so why are not more people already adoptingadopting it;it; - will itit notnot bebe inin conflictconflict withwith theirtheir traditionaltraditional cultivation,cultivation, grazing, socialsocial oror religiousreligious customs;customs; - what benefitsbenefits willwill itit bringbring toto them;them; and, - how can itit bebe carriedcarried outout withwith thethe skillsskills andand resourcesresources theythey have available?available? This step is also the first stage inin thethe processprocess ofof changechange whichwhich willwill continue until the new practicepractice isis finallyfinally adoptedadopted oror perhapsperhaps discardeddiscarded as impracticalimpractical or undesirable.undesirable. Change resultsresults fromfrom personalpersonal decisions,decisions, however,however, and thesethese areare affectedaffected byby beliefs,beliefs, emotions,emotions, customs,customs, traditionstraditions andand manymany other personal values.values. When adequate informationinformation isis notnot available,available, decisionsdecisions are basedbased on traditional values,values, e.g. the belief that grazing is moremore important than thethe protectionprotection ofof trees.trees. Such a viewview maymay bebe adopted whenwhen there is aa lacklack ofof understandingunderstanding thatthat grazinggrazing andand thethe successfulsuccessful growthgrowth of trees in the same area can be compatible,compatible, oror eveneven beneficialbeneficial inin manymany cases.cases. lfuereWhere peoplepeople lacklack essentialessential information,information, economiceconomic or socialsocial progressprogress seldom occurs. The task of forestryforestry extensionextension staffstaff isis toto bringbring newnew informationinformation toto the people and help themthem toto useuse thisthis informationinformation toto makemake importantimportant decisions.decisions. - 4040- - 5.45.4 Motivation of rural people A motive isi s somethingsomething which promptsprompts aa personperson toto actact inin aa certaincertain wayway toto achieachieveve aa goal he oror sheshe considersconsiders toto bebe importanti mportant atat aa particularparticular time,time, within theirtheir culturalcultural environment.environment. A studys tudy of whatwhat peoplepeople considerconsider to bebe important at differing stagesstages in their personalpersonal development, i.e. theirt heir needs, is fundamentalfundamental to determiningdete rmining whatwhat theythey maymay be preparedprepared tot o dodo toto satisfsatisfyy these needs.needs. In his studystudy ofof humanhuman needs,needs , A.A.H. H. Maslow (Fig.(.:-..F,:;i:!;gc:...... ,=.5.:..5.3)=.;3) has defineddefined aa hierarchy of humanhuman needsneeds risingrising fromfrom physiologicalphysiological or basicbasic needsneeds throughthrough security or safety needs, belongingbelonging oror affectionaffection needs,needs, esteemest eem oror egoego needs,needs, to self-actualisation needs. Physiological Security Belonging EsEsteemteem SelfSelf- orOr ..qp. orOr ..41110- or.Or . ~421,» or ...0. actualisationactualisation Basic needs SafetySafety needs Affection needs EgoEgo needsneeds needs Figure 5.4 Maslow's Hierarchy ofof Needs.Need s . Physiological or basic needsneeds areare needsneeds peoplepeople mustmus t satisfysatisfy inin orderorder toto exist. In ththeireir mostmost basic form they include food,food, drinkdrink andand rest.rest. In somesome circumstances theythey will alsoalso includeinclude clothingclothing andand shelter.shelter. The satisfaction of thesethese needsneeds determinesdetermines a person'sperson's ability toto existexist andand advanceadvance towardstowards higher needs.needs. They are needs which,which, inin ruralrural areasareas inin developingdeveloping countries,countries , are normally met byby family,family, oror lessless commonlycommonly individual,individual, effort.effort. In lessless developed areas changeschanges inin dressdress tendtend toto bebe limitedlimited largelylargely byby traditiontradition butbut as an community develops there is often a marked improvementimprovement inin standardsstandards ofof accomodation after thethe basicbasic needsneeds ofof foodfood andand drinkdrink havehave beenbeen met.met. Safety oror securitysecurity needs.needs. These concern self-,self-, oror family-protection,family-prot ection, avoidance ofof injury and,and, to a limitedl i mi ted extent,extent, provision forfor thethe future.future . Security maymay be expressedexpressed either inin aa particularparticular typetype ofof househouse oror farmsteadfarmstead construction oror inin bandingbanding togethertogether inin groupsgroups forfor mutualmutual protection.protection. In many cases, provision for the future maymay bebe limitedlimited toto aa prudentprudent storestore ofof foodfood toto last to thethe timetime ofof thethe nextnext harvest,harvest, oror longer,longer, dependingdepending on on thethe storagestorage qualities ofof thethe food.food. In other cases cattlecattle maymay bebe regardedregarded asas aa necessarynecessary provision forfor expectedexpected oror unexpectedunexpected eventsevents requiringrequiring exceptionalexceptional outlays,outlays, such as marriagesmarriages oror funeralsfunerals andand theirtheir accumulationaccumula tion cannotcannot bebe judgedjudged in terms of thethe purepure economicseconomics ofof animalanimal husbandry.husbandry. InI n a fewfew casescases provisionprovision for the futurefuture maymay consistconsist ofof burying currency in the ground, whichwhich maymay seem a futile action, but which may bebe thethe onlyonly solutionsolution wherewhere nono effectiveeffective savings or banking systemsystem hashas yetyet beenbeen developed.developed. Belonging or affection needs reflectreflect thethe factfact thatthat everyoneeveryone needs,needs, toto some extent, toto givegive oror receivereceive friendship.friendship. The expressionexpression ofof thisthis needneed may differ between an urbanised society whwhereere a personperson may notnot eveneven knowknow. thethe occupant of thethe next flat,flat, andand aa smallsmall ruralrural communitycommunity wherewhere almosta lmost everyone knows each other, probably over several generations, and may even be distantly related to most other members. TheThe social or fraternal organisations inin urbanisedurbanised societiessocieties whichwhich areare basedbased onon trades,trades, professions,professions, religious affiliations or other groupings,groupings, meetmeets s needsneeds whichwhich to a large extent are met inin ruralrural communitiescommunities byby familyfamily oror culturalcultural bonds.bonds. Esteem oror egoego needs.needs. These may bebe expressedexpressed inin certaincertain societiessocieties byby the desiredesire atat aa certaincertain ageage toto becomebecome independentindependent ofof thethe familyfamily group,group, to - 4141 -- secure the respect of othersothers eithereither byby achievingachieving certaincertain acceptedaccepted featsfeats ofof manhood or undergoingundergoing initiationinitiation ceremoniesceremonies to adulthood, or by acquiringacquiring certain possessionspossessions suchsuch asas valuablevaluable ornamentsornaments for women.women. In close-knitclose-knit rural communities independence maymay be less importantimportant than a risingrising position in thethe familyfamily oror communitycormnunity organisation.organisation. In urbanised societies, wherewhere a person is not required to assert his dominance by physical means or attributes, tokens of rankrank oror esteem,esteem, such as larger or betterbetter furnishedfurnished offices, official cars,cars, etc.,etc., taketake theirtheir place.place. Self-actualisation needs refer to the needs of aa personperson toto developdevelop hishis or her skillsskills oror capabilitiescapabilities to thethe highest levellevel and may bebe expressedexpressed inin certain societies, in leadershipleadership ofof familyfamily oror communitycommunity groupsgroups andand inin othersothers by creativecreative or artisticartistic pursuits.pursuits. Self-actualisationSelf- actualisation needsneeds may be more easily achieved inin societies where thethe acquisition ofof material possessionspossessions at lower levels inin thethe hierarchyhierarchy isis notnot consideredconsidered toto bebe ofof greatgreat importance.importance. They may be achieved by only a few inin urbanisedurbanised societiessocieties where much effort has to bebe expendedexpended inin acquiringacquiring andand maintainingmaintaining thethe customarycustomary possessionspossessions ofof "civilised" life.life. 5.45.4.1. 1 Perception and satisfactionsatisfaction of needs How personspersons may viewview aa needneed andand howhow theythey maymay attemptattempt to satisfy it depends on theirtheir culturalcultural background,background, theirtheir perceptionperception ofof thethe needneed andand theirtheir individual characteristics.characteristics. Culture, and in moremore advancedadvanced societiessocieties law,law, affects the way inin which~]hich aa personperson cancan satisfysatisfy basicbasic needs,needs, particularly physiological ones.ones. The perception aa person may have of anan areaarea ofof land depends toto whatwhat extentextent their needs havehave beenbeen satisfied.satisfied . An area may bebe viewed asas a potential food producing areaarea byby one whose needs are atat the primary level, as aa desirabledesirable sitesite forfor aa prestigeprestige homehome byby oneone whosewhose currentcurrent needs are esteemesteem andand ego,ego, andand asas aa sitesite forfor recreationrecreation byby oneone whosewhose needsneeds areare at thethe self-actualisationself-actualisation stage.stage. The individualindividual characteristicscharacteristics of peoplepeople affect the identification oror selectionselection ofof particular objects or activities to satisfy needs at various levels. In general, in close-knit rural communitiescommunities therethere isis likelylikely tot o be less individual expression in both the determination and satisfaction of needs.needs . In urbanised socieies, these are likely to be greater, as is suggested by attempts tto o CD "personalise" vehicles oror standardstandard housinghousing unitsunits in suburban residential areas.areas. C IJ~D / , / / -,. .. Human needsneeds motivate peoplepeople ~ to undertake activities toto meet thesethese needsneeds No setset patternpattern can covercover all needsneeds butbut thethe knowledgeknowledge that needs do exist and motivate peoplepeople stronglystrongly toto satisfysatisfy themthem cannotcannot bebe ignored.ignored. It is the task of extension staff, guided by sociologists,sociologists, to try to determine the people's current aspirationsaspirations andand motivating factorsfactors inin theirtheir particularparticular areasareas of work. - 42 - An individual'sindividual's motivation,motivation, howeverhowever,, is not static. Whatevertfuatever needneed applies atat a given timetime becomes thethe focusfocus ofof anan individual'sindividual's strugglestruggle toto achieve it.it. IfIf a lowerlower levellevel needneed is not sufficientlysufficiently met,met , there is a tendency toto fallfall backback toto thethe .lower lower level,level, butbut thisthis lastslasts onlyonly untiluntil thethe needneed is satisfied. The individual'sindividual's motivation is onceonce againagain directeddirected atat the appropriate higher level need. However, this does not imply that the hierarchy of needs is arrangedarranged like aa stepstep ladderladder withwith regularregular intervalsintervals between thethe satisfactionsatisfaction ofof oneone needneed andand thethe next.next. Needs may havehave fairlyfairly wide areas ofof overlap.overlap. No need may ever be completelycompletely satisfied but as each need emerges oaeone setset holdsholds thethe strongeststrongec.t motivatingmotivating oror drivingdriving force.force. 5.4.2 Motivating factors Many factorsfactors cancan motivatemotivate peoplepeople toto acceptaccept newnew ideasideas andand practices.practices. Some of these, which may apply toto peoplepeople inin areasareas wherewhere thisthis publicationpublication maymay be used, are asas follows;follows; Psychological factorsfactors - new experience; - greatergreater efficiency;efficiency; security of earnings oror output;output; - recognition withinwithin thethe community;community; - better lifelife forfor children;chi ldren ; - more leisureleisure time.time. These factorsfactors may varyvary considerablyconsiderably betweenbetween differentdifferent societiessocieties and it is an importantimportant functionfunction ofof sociologists,sociologists, workingworking withwith extensionextension staff,staff, to determine thethe factorsfactors ofof greatestgreatest importanceimportance inin anyany particularparticular area.area. These can then be used toto goodgood effect inin encouragingencouraging peoplepeople toto meetmeet thesethese needs,needs, asas far as practicable, by participationparticipation inin forestryforestry extensionextension activities.activities. Social status - higher socialsocial status;status; - greater prestige;prestige; - role expectancy; - sociability; - hobbies. Social status and the prestigeprestige associated with a particularparticular rolerole inin aa community may be bebe stronglystrongly motivatingmotivating factorsfactors inin certaincertain areas,areas, more so than individual achievements inin economiceconomic matters.matters. Economic factorsfactors secure foodfood supply;supply; better houses;houses; - safe drinking water;water; - health care;care; clothing and some consumerconsumer goods;goods; - education of children; - higher levels ofof training;training; - more earningearning power.power. Ranking inin importanceimportance ofof thesethese factorsfactors inin aa particularparticular communitycommunity could easily bbee undertakenundertaken by discussiondiscussion andand simplesimple surveyssurveys andand couldcould serveserve asas anan important guide both to whatwhat motivates thethe people and howhow theythey mightmight becomebecome involved in a forestry extension programme.programme. --4343 -- Satisfaction ofof learninglearning - one set of skillsskills when learned,learned, will helphelp toto motivatemotivate adultsadults to learn more difficultdifficult tasks.tasks. This can be a strong motivating factor in peasant communities especially amongstamongst the older groupsgroups who maymay havehave missedmissed out on formal education. If a skillskill isis properlyproperly presentedpresented andand sufficientsufficient trainingtraining givengiven in a friendly, encourging atmosphere, there is no doubt about the satisfaction some olderolder peoplepeople getget inin acquiringacquiring it.it. The discussion of these points may appearappear to manymany readers to be somewhat academicacademic and involveinvolve thethe considerableconsiderable useuse ofof technicaltechnical terms,terms, a warning againstagainst which was given in Section 4.6.4. They are included, however, as an indicationindication ofof thethe levelslevels toto which aa personperson maymay havehave toto exploreexplore to establish the motivation whichwhich maymay persuade someone to adoptadopt oror rejectreject forestry extension practices.practices. 5.5 The diffusion process Diffusion is defined as thethe processprocess byby whichwhich informationinformation andand improvedimproved practices are spread from their original sources, initially to a few adopters, and in timetime toto otherother users.users. In thethe casecase ofof forestry,forestry, it isis thethe process by which new forestryforestry practicespractices oror skillsskills areare transferredtransferred fromfrom theirtheir point of origin (forestry research stations or administrations) to the community. A distinction between the termsterms "diffusion""diffusion" and "adoption""adoption" must be made. Diffusion occurs between persons, usually in a group, "'hilewhile adoption isis the resultresult ofof anan individualesindividual's decisiondecision oror commitmentcommitment to the process. Though thisthis processprocess has beenbeen demonstrateddemonstrated to operateoperate inin certaincertain more advanced communities there is reason toto believebelieve thatthat inin societiessocieties with markedly differentdifferent culturescultures itit maymay notnot proceedproceed asas smoothlysmoothly asas Fig.Fig. 5.25.2 might suggest. ThisTI1is is one area which would justifyjustify furtherfurther detaileddetailed studystudy as soonsoon as practicable. lfuereWhere studiesstudies have beenbeen donedone inin developeddeveloped areas,areas, theythey showshow thatthat thethe most effective means of providing awareness and arousing interest in a newnew practice are thethe massmass media,media, printedprinted materials,materials, broadcastsbroadcasts andand audiovisualaudiovisual means. Following closelyclosely onon thisthis isis thethe influenceinfluence ofof friendsfriends andand neighbours.neighbours. In societies wherewhere the art of discussion hashas not yet been stifledstifled by television or other typestypes ofof massmass entertainment,entertainment, thethe influenceinfluence ofof discussiondiscussion with friends and neighbours maymay be of greater importanceimportance then mass media or print. Government agents, dealersdealers andand salesmen, inin that order, are less effective asas communicatorscommunicators of suchsuch informationinformation inin thethe initialinitial stages.stages. In some ruralrural areas,areas, the population areare found to be highlyhighly scepticalsceptical ofof any information onon agricultural mattersmatters comingcoming fromfrom anyone eveneven suspectedsuspected ofof being a salesman.salesman. At thethe evaluation,evaluation, trialtrial andand adoptionadoption stages,stages, friendsfriends andand neighbours,neighbours, are regarded as the most helpfulhelpful group,group, followedfollowed byby governmentgovernment oror voluntryvoluntry agencies. This emphasisesemphasises thethe importanceimportance ofof usingusing locallocal volunteervolunteer leadersleaders with whom the community can identify,identify, in introducingintroducing a newnew practicepractice intointo an area, in preference even to full-time paid extensionextension staff.staff. Staff are normally required, however,however, to follow up the growinggrowing interestinterest and to ensure that recommended techniques are properly applied.applied. 5.6 Categories of adopters Experienced forestry extension staff make fullfull useuse of allall availableavailable channels to pass theirtheir messagesmessages to the people.people. The speedspeed at whichwhich newnew forestry practices are adoptedadopted variesvaries considerablyconsiderably but isis normallynormally measured --4444 -- in years.years. There areare groundsgrounds for believingbelieving thatthat newnew practicespractices dodo spreadspread gradually throughthrough families.families. This may be an importantimportant factorfactor in areas where extended families are thethe socialsocial norm.norm. One innovatorinnovator oror earlyearly adopteradopter perper family may bebe enough toto setset thethe processprocess ofof changechange inin motion.motion. Fig. 5.4 showsshm,s fivefive categoriescategories ofof peoplepeople accordingaccording to thethe timetime andand speed of reactionreaction toto change.change. Innovators Early Early Late Late Adopters Majority HajorityMajority AcroptersAdopters 2.5%2. 5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16% Figure 5.45.4 Distribution of farmersfarmers amongst thethe fivefive categoriescategories based on the timetime ofof adoption.adoption. From Diffusion ofof InnovationsInnovations byby E.M.E.H. Rogers, The Free Press, New York,York, 1983.1983. 5.6.1 The innovators These are generallygenerally veryvery fewfew inin numbernumber initially.initially. They are people who are eager toto accept newnew ideas.ideas . Usually they amount to only about 1 in 40 of the population inin anan averageaverage ruralrural community.community. This is not simplysimply a matter ofof economics: traditional ways of doing things have a strong hold over populations inin general.general . A common replyreply toto manymany suggestionssuggestions ofof newnew practicespractices in certain countries in Africa is,is , "It is not our custom". In some societies, innoinnovatorsvators maymay be looked on with suspicionsuspicion oror eveneven jealousy,jealousy, andand yet theythey areare importantimportant inin initiatinginitiating anan extensionextension programme.programme . They can bebe persuaded to try new methods and thereby create an awareness of themthem inin thethe community. However, extension staffstaff shouldshould exerciseexercise tacttact andand greatgreat cautioncaution and avoid over praisingpraising innovators inin public or in spendingspending too much timetime with themthem whichwhich mightmight fosterfoster feelingsfeelings ofof jealousyjealousy amongstamongst thethe community.community. 5.6.25. 6.2 The early adoptersadopters The early adopters are more willing toto seesee thethe valuevalue ofof aa new practicepractice in theirtheir communitycommunity and willwill trytry it,it, if they feel it hashas aa fairfair chancechance ofof success. They form an opinion onon itsits suitabilitys uitability toto theirtheir circumstancescircumstances moremore through interactioninteracti on with otherother membersmembers ofof the communitycommunity than byby officialofficial persuasion. It is important at thisthis stagestage toto makemake sufficientsufficient informationinformation widely availablavailablee which people can discussdiscuss during this process. Early adopters are usuallyusually youngeryounger thanthan averageaverage andand havehave aa betterbetter educationeducation oror moremore experience ofof thethe world.world. They araree likely toto bebe moremore activeactive inin communitycommunity oror political affairsaffairs than thethe latelate adopters.adopte rs. They are likelylikely toto be just a little moremore prosperous than the average andand so able toto taketake limitedlimited risksrisks with theirtheir landland andand crops.crops. Their acceptanceacceptance of a newnew procedureprocedure isis notnot automatic and oftenoften involvesinvolves considerableconsiderable effort on thethe partpart ofof communitycommunity leaders and extensionextension staffstaff toto laylay thethe groundworkground,;ork forfor thethe change.change. 5.6.3 ThThee early majority They are usually of middlemiddle ageage andand ofof averageaverage experienceexperience andand educationeducation (if education is the norm inin thethe area).area) . They are usuallyusually respectedrespected membersmembers of their community, reasonably cautious, and adopt a practicepractice only after they are convincedconvinced ofof itsits value.value. If the practicepractice involvesinvolves tradetrade inin aa commoditycommodity they are likely to delay until somesome establishedestablished patternpattern ofof tradingtrading hashas beenbeen developed. - 45 - 5.6.45.6.4 TheThe late majoritymajority TheyThey makemake up about one thirdthird of thethe membersmembers ofof aa community.community. They are the more conservativeconservative and lessless wealthywealthy section,section, andand adoptadopt aa practicepractice onlyonly whenwhen it is becoming generally acceptedaccepted by thethe community.community. 5.6.55.6.5 TheThe late adopters TheseThese are commonly the older members of the community, very conservative in outlook, closeclose observersobservers ofof tradition,tradition, andand seldomseldom willingwilling oror financiallyfinancially ableable to taketake risks.risks. Because of their age and generalgeneral backgroundbackground they areare alsoalso likely to be less able to understand and apply a new technique.technique . Early adopters playplay anan importantimportant roler ole inin introducingintroducing aa newnew forestryforestry oror agricultural practicepractice into an area The main purposepurpose ofof this classification is toto understandunderstand howhow peoplepeople come toto adoptadopt newnew ideasideas whichwhich extensionextension staffstaff areare hopinghoping toto introduceintroduce toto them.them. It also indicates the percentages of the population theythey can reasonablyreasonably expectexpect to havehave convincedconvinced atat variousvarious stages inin thethe diffusiondiffusion -- 4646 -- process. It should narrow the field of thosethose whowho maymay proveprove suitablesuitable forfor selection as voluntary leaders to help achieve their objective and communicate effectivelyeffectively with thethe bulkbulk ofof thethe people.people. Serious thought must, however, be given to how thethe earlyearly andand latelate majoritymajority groupsgroups cancan bebe involved.involved. Unless a new techniquetechnique cancan penetratepenetrate thesethese groups,groups, itsits mainmain impactimpact willwill bebe toto make thethe prosperousprosperous members ofof thethe communitycommunity eveneven moremore prosperousprosperous and widen the gap between them and the bulk of thethe population. If there appears to be a significantsignificant checkcheck inin thethe spreadspread ofof aa practicepractice itit isis importantimportant toto findfind out if there is any underlying socialsocial oror culturalcultural reasonreason why thisthis isis so.so. Innovators and early adopters may also assist inin presenting information to the people in an acceptable order.order. If people are not awareaware of a newnew ideaidea it may bebe betterbetter toto showshow themthem whatwhat itit lookslooks likelike andand whatwhat benefitsbenefits theythey may expect from practising it beforebefore showing them how itit shouldshould bebe done.done. The innovators and early adopters can help to show toto a widerwider publicpublic how a newnew method couldcould bebe ofof benefitbenefit toto thethe peoplepeople ofof anan area.area. However, when people are selected to demonstrate on their own land, on a widerwider scale,scale, a new practicepractice whichwhich itit is proposedproposed toto introduce,introduce, it isis preferable thatthat those who havehave averageaverage resourcesresources (i.e. in land, labour, capital and skills) shouldshould bebe chosen.chosen. They will bebe more crediblecredible ifif theythey areare typical of thethe communitycommunity or sectionsection of thethe areaarea whichwhich isis thethe targettarget ofof thethe extension programme.progrannne. This cannotcannot normally be appliedapplied inin thethe initialinitial stagesstages of aa campaign,campaign, however,however, asas thosethose withwith limitedlimited resourcesresources areare unlikelyunlikely toto bebe innovators or early adopters. These points emphasiseemphasise thethe importanceimportance ofof extensionextension staffstaff reallyreally gettinggetting to know and understandunderstand their clients thoroughly and the needneed toto gaingain theirtheir confidence. Finally, it isis necessarynecessary toto knowknow howhow toto putput thisthis knowledgeknowledge toto use byby selectings electing thethe mostmost efficientefficient extensionextension methodsmethods andand workingworking throughthrough thethe most suitablesuitable people.people. These methods are described inin thethe Section 77 through 9 of this publication. - 47 - 6. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDSAIDS People learnlearn byby thethe useuse ofof theirtheir sensessenses (i.e.(i.e. throughthrough whatwhat theythey see,see, hear, smell, feel and taste).taste). When more thanthan oneone sensesense isis involvedinvolved thethe opportunities for learninglearning areare increased.increased. Research findings indicate that people remember 10% of whatwhat they hear,hear, 50% of what they see and up toto 90%90% ofof what theythey see,see, hear,hear, andand do,do, inin aa combinedcombined learninglearning situation.situation. Audio-visual aids are means available to forestry extensionextension staffstaff toto use, in addition to practical activities, toto makemake learninglearning moremore effective.effective. They can,can, however,however, never replacereplace personalpersonal contactscontacts betweenbetween staffstaff andand thethe public.public. AV aids enableenable peoplepeople toto understandunderstand thethe messagemessage moremore clearly.clearly. Not only do theythey hear thethe wordswords butbut theythey cancan seesee thethe shape,shape, size, or colour ofof an object, or thethe appearanceappearance ofof anan areaarea ofof land,land, andand carrycarry awayaway aa mental picture of it which makesmakes the forestry messagemessage being put over to them moremore understandable. Some of the more elaborate AV aids,aids, however, are not suitable or available toto ruralrural extensionextension workers workingworking inin remoteremote areas. In this section,section, attentionattention will bebe focussedfocussed onon thethe useuse ofof somesome appropriateappropriate AvAV aids without goinggoing intointo detailsdetails ofof theirtheir construction.construction. Though the use of AV aids inin fieldfield extensionextension activities is limitedlimited to their simpler forms,forms, wherewhere farmers'farmers' trainingtraining centrescentres andand ruralrural developmentdevelopment centres have beenbeen establishedestablished theythey provideprovide greatergreater opportunitiesopportunities forfor thethe useuse of more complexcomplex aids.aids . AV techniques are veryvery effectiveeffective when usedused toto support instruction in a "classroom" situation,situation, though this does notnot necessarilynecessarily imply a formal classroom.classroom. AV aids must, however, alwaysalways bebe regardedregarded asas aa help toto moremore effectiveeffective learning.learning. It is a mistake to think of them as making the jobjob of instruction easier.easier. In fact, they often take considerable skill and time to produce, or even toto setset up forfor use.use. Their use with a groupgroup mustmust bebe carefullycarefully plannedplanned and adequateadequate timetime allowedallowed for members toto see or get acquaintedacquainted withwith them.them. An objectobject passed round a groupgroup whilewhile thethe speakerspeaker isis contcontinuinginuing to talk is a considerable distraction and may have aa negativenegative effecteffect on understandingunderstanding the message as a whole.whole. In the same way a single specimen available for examination byby aa largelarge groupgroup forfor onlyonly aa ="1.., few minutes at the end of a session,session, cannotcannot fulfil its function properly. When properly used, however, AV aids make Learning isis aidedaided byby thethe useuse learning easier, moremore interesting and more of all thethe fivefive sensessenses complete. 6.16. 1 Non-projected aids Non-projected aidsaids formform thethe basisbasis ofof aa whole rangerange of teachingteaching and extension aids.aids. They are generallygenerally simplesimple andand oftenoften relativelyrelatively inexpensiveinexpensive and can be used toto re-inforce oror clarifyclarify aa speaker'sspeaker's message.message. 6.1.1 Some advantages of non-projected aids Non-projectedNon-projected visualvisual aids:aids: - normally requirerequire nono powerpower oror lightlight sourcesource forfor theirtheir use,use, whichwhich is an important advantage inin remoteremote areas;areas; - are usuallyusually easilyeasily available,available, or cancan bebe producedproduced byby locallocal staff; - 48 - - are usually moremore easily amendedamended or altered to apply to particular areas oror circumstances;circumstances; - can be of great variety of size,size, shapeshape oror colour,colour, withwith locallocal interest or appeal; - can be adapted toto the needs ofof a variety of subjects;subjects; and, - may givegive aa learninglearning groupgroup thethe opportunityopportunity toto taketake partpart inin their creation, which is, in itself,itself, a valuablevaluable part ofof the process of learning.learning. 6.1.6.1.2 2 Examples ofof non-projected aidsaids Real objects:objects: - these should be used whenever practicablepracticable becausebecause peoplepeople oftenoften know, oror at leastleast recognise,recognise, them;them; - they are generally easyeasy toto obtainobtain andand toto use;use; - they can usually be seenseen andand handledhandled byby all thethe group,group, with little riskrisk of damage;damage; - where appropriate,appropriate, peoplepeople cancan handle,handle, taste, smell or eveneven hear them;them; and, - their proper use cancan oftenoften bebe fullyfully explainedexplained oror demonstrateddemonstrated on the spot.spot. Samples oror specimens:specimens: -these are often real objects mounted in a special way, (e.g. sometimes enclosed in plastic) toto protect them when theythey are being examined and studied;studied; and, - while, perhaps, not makingmaking suchsuch aa directdirect impactimpact asas aa realreal object, they are aa sensiblesensible compromisecompromise for anyany equipmentequipment oror biological specimens which might suffer from unskilled handling. Specimens and models are valuable learninglearning aidsaids Models: - these are replicasreplicas (often on a different scale) of real objects which are either tootoo largelarge oror tootoo smallsmall toto bebe studiedstudied conveniently inin a learninglearning situation;situation; - they are oftenoften usedused atat publicpublic eventsevents suchsuch asas agriculturalagricultural shows or fairs toto makemake thethe objectsobjects moremore understandableunderstandable toto thethe visitors, (e.g.(e.g. models ofof differentdifferent typestypes ofof sawsaw teeth);teeth); and, - 49 - - because they often involve considerable effort and expense inin construction andand should be made asas robustly,robustly, and handled as carefully, as possible.possible. Photographs: - photographic prints,prints, if clear and enlargedenlarged to a suitable scale, cancan present good visual evidence ofof certaincertain forestryforestry activities; - they can bebe usedused toto illustrateillustrate objectsobjects oror activities,activities, whichwhich would bebe impossibleimpossible oror inconvenientinconvenient toto demonstratedemonstrate physicallyphysically in certain areas;areas; - each shouldshould illustrateillustrate clearly one point only, show thethe main point predominantlypredominantly and where possiblepossible have somesome locallocal oror human focus ofof interest;interest; and, - they should be available on a wallboardwallboard oror displaydisplay casecase forfor study afterafter thethe discussion,discussion, asas it is unlikelyunlikely thatthat allall thethe members will be able to seesee oror absorbabsorb allall thethe informationinformation inin them during thethe brief time thethe photographs are inin useuse with the group. Blackboard oror chalkboard:chalkboard: - this is oneone ofof thethe commonestcommonest itemsitems availableavailable andand thethe basisbasis ofof many valuable visual aids toto learning;learning; - it isis inexpensive and either generally available or cancan bebe easily improvised in many learninglearning situations;situations; - it cancan bebe usedused byby extensionextension staffstaff toto conveyconvey messagesmessages inin wordswords or illustrations, cheaply and often inin an attractive form;form; - it can be used to recordrecord importantimportant pointspoints during talkstalks or toto draw diagrams to illustrate particular pointspoints inin them;them; - it isis veryvery flexible;flexible; anyany writtenwritten materialmaterial oror diagramdiagram whichwhich isis not readily understood can be erased and presented again in a new and more understandableunderstandable form;form; - the audienceaudience cancan seesee aa diagramdiagram "grow""grow" duringduring aa talk;talk; thisthis takes away much ofof thethe mysterymystery ofof postersposters whichwhich areare sometimessometimes too complexcomplex toto understand quickly;quickly; - whenwhen appropriate,appropriate, diagrams and texttext cancan bebe writtenwritten onon thethe board before a talktalk starts,starts, toto avoidavoid interruptinginterrupting thethe deliverydelivery by drawing or writing, and help toto holdhold thethe attentionattention ofof thethe audience; - on thethe otherother handhand materialmaterial setset outout inin thisthis wayway maymay distractdistract the attentionattention of thethe audienceaudience before it isis requiredrequired in thethe talk and may introduceintroduce anan elementelement ofof confusion;confusion; - coloured chalks areare inexpensiveinexpensive andand cancan greatlygreatly improveimprove thethe quality of diagrams andand texttext andand assistassist understanding;understanding; and, - considerable skillskill inin thethe preparationpreparation ofof diagrams or the lay-out of texttext cancan bebe acquiredacquired byby practice,practice, atat littlelittle costcost other thanthan thethe initial timetime devoteddevoted toto acquiringacquiring thethe skills.skills. When using a blackboard, do not talktalk toto thethe audienceaudience whilewhile writingwriting onon the board. This is sometimessometimes difficultdifficult toto avoid,avoid, butbut thethe messagemessage isis likelylikely to havehave muchmuch lessless impact if the voicevoice is unclearunclear oror thethe listeners areare concentrating on twotwo thingsthings atat thethe samesame time.time. Flannelgraph: - flannel or feltfelt hashas aa surfacesurface whichwhich whenwhen pressedpressed againstagainst aa similar surface wiwillll remainremain inin positionposition becausebecause thethe fibresfibres interlock; - 50SO - - pictures oror cards can be backedbacked with feltfelt whichwhich willwill thenthen adhere toto thethe feltfelt boardboard byby simplysimply pressingpressing themthem intointo place;place; - in some cases,cases, thethe feltfelt onon thethe cardcard isis replacedreplaced byby aa specialspecial material withwith dots of aa syntheticsynthetic fibrefibre on oneone sideside whichwhich adheres toto aa feltfelt boardboard inin thethe samesame way;way; - it isis easyeasy andand inexpensiveinexpensive toto make;make; aa roughrough blanketblanket stretchedstretched tightly over a boardboard will serveserve ifif nothingnothing elseelse isis available,available, though a proper covering of felt is much more satisfactory;satisfactory; it can form a colourful and attractive aidaid if suitably prepared shapesshapes oror cut-outcut-out picturespictures areare used;used; cards can bebe movedmoved around and regrouped as necessary to illustrate a talk or support particular views;views; - it cancan alsoalso bebe usedused toto buildbuild upup oror illustrateillustrate aa complexcomplex ideaidea using a seriesseries ofof individualindividual steps;steps; and, - the materials can be prepared and triedtried outout inin advanceadvance andand re-used manymany times,times, if the cut-outs are storedstored carefully, preferably between sheetssheets ofof cardboard;cardboard; Some disadvantages ofof flannelgraphsflannelgraphs are:are: - they require a certain amount of flairflair andand aptitudeaptitude onon thethe part ofof thethe extensionextension staffstaff toto designdesign andand produceproduce attractiveattractive material; - they are difficult toto use atat outdooroutdoor meetingsmeetings becausebecause windwind maymay blow away thethe cards;cards; and, - ththereere may bebe somesome difficultydifficulty inin gettinggetting suitablesuitable sourcessources ofof cut-outs. Some guidelines onon thethe useuse ofof flannelgraphs:flannelgraphs: - use themthem onlyonly whenwhen the instructor has a clearclear conception of how thethe topictopic isis toto bebe covered;covered ; - decide in advance how thethe subjectsubject matter isis toto bebe presentedpresented (either asas a story or as a seriesseries ofof explanatoryexplanatory symbols);symbols); - select and prepare the picturespictures or key wordswords which may be usedused;; andand,, - rehrehearseearse the presentation and laylayout out thethe cardscards inin thethe correctcorrect order, forfor easyeasy use.use. .". " . " ") .. ~ ..- !4/1../19!-*Y1,1)1*#/11/161/11,- R 1~ Flannelgraphs areare usuallyusually bestbest usedused indoorsindoors - 51 - When using flannelgraphs inin aa presentation:presentation: - ensure all thethe audienceaudience cancan seesee thethe flannelgraphflannelgraph easily;easily; - stand on one side when placing pictures or words on thethe board, or when commentingcommenting on anyany ofof them,them, toto avoidavoid obstructingobstructing thethe view; do not clutter the board with too many words oror pictures;pictures; - remove themthem and repeatrepeat thethe presentationpresentation ifif itit isis necessarynecessary toto achieve full understanding; encourage the audienceaudience toto askask questions onon the topic or the pictures or symbols beingbeing displayed;displayed; and, - inviteinvite members of thethe audience toto reviewreview thethe importantimportant pointspoints of the presentationpresentation using thethe flannelgraphflannelgraph to check their comprehension. Flip-charts Flip-chartsFlip-charts are a useful alternative toto flannelgraphs:flannelgraphs: they are generally easier to transport and use than flannelgraphs; they are made with several large sheets of paper, as available, fastenedfastened betweenbetween twotwo hardhard coverscovers suchsuch asas plywoodplywood oror hardboard; - theythey can be opened out so that the coverscovers formform aa free-standingfree-standing unit; - each page has a picturepic ture or aa diagramdiagram relatingrelating toto oneone stagestage in a talk or demonstration; the pages can be turned over to expose thethe nextnext stagestage toto thethe audience; - they can also serveserve as aa handyhandy formform of teaching outlineoutline forfor the speaker;speaker; and, they are generally easier to use outout ofof doorsdoors thanthan flannel-flannel graphs. Posters, wall charts,charts, andand otherother large illustrated literature are goodgood sources of illustrations forfor enlargingenlarging and transferring to the flip-chart pages provided thisthis doesdoes notnot infringeinfringe copyright. Broad tippedtipped markermarker penspens are most suitablesuitable for addingadding titlestitles oror additionaladdi tional information to thethe sheetssheets during use.use. ""","'" .. •1"'" ." .. I' Flip-charts areare convenientconvenient to use in thethe fieldfield Flash cards These are smallsmall illustratedillustrated or letteredlettered cardscards which cancan bebe producedproduced during a talk and affixed toto anyany smoothsmooth surfacesurface byby oneone oror moremore smallsmall piecespieces of plasticplastic adhesiveadhesive placedplaced onon thethe reverse.reverse. They serve as emphasisemphasis or as a reminder of somesome particularparticular pointpoint inin thethe talk.talk. - 5252- - SomeSome usefuluseful points toto considerconsider inin usingusing flashflash cardscards are:are: - the illustrations oror texttext on thethe cardscards must bebe largelarge enoughenough toto be seen clearlyclearly byby thethe whole audience;audience; - illustrations cancan be drawn, printed oror cutcut out fromfrom postersposters oror magazines, subjectsubject toto thethe agreementagreement ofof thethe copyrightcopyright holders;holders; - they can be used to portray different forestryforestry systems;systems; - their use should be carefully planned and rehearsed;rehearsed; and, - the illustrations should be pre-tested on aa suitablesuitable targettarget group toto ensure thatthat thethe symbolssymbols areare understandable.understandable. Lettering and drawing Although free-hand lettering using felt tipped marker pens is satisfactory inin most cases,cases, there maymay be some advantages in usingusing largelarge stencils or self-adhesiveself-adhesive plasticplastic letters,letters, where thesethese areare available,available, to establishestablish aa style ofof texttext easilyeasily recognisablerecognisable andand understandableunderstandable by peoplepeople with limited literacyliteracy skills.skills. Whatever solution isis adopted,adopted, itit isis importantimportant to note that neither words nor diagramsdiagrams willwill serveserve asas effectiveeffective visualvisual aidsaids if they are not neatlyneatly andand clearlyclearly preparedprepared andand immediatelyimmediately recognisablerecognisable by the audience. 6.2 Projected visual aids The most common featurefeature ofof thisthis systemsystem isis thatthat aa brightbright lightlight is shone through aa transparent picture and, by means of a lens,lens, an enlarged picturepicture is projected on toto aa screen.screen. There is, however, another less common form of projection which is mentioned below.below. 6.2.1 Classification of projected visual aids Opaque projection In this case, thethe materialmaterial toto bebe projectedprojected isis notnot transparent.transparent. ItIt may be an item such as aa blackblack andand whitewhite oror colouredcoloured picture,picture, aa bookbook oror eveneven aa solid object such asas aa piecepiece ofof woodwood oror aa rock.rock. A specialspecial projectorprojector calledcalled an episcope, whichwhich uses a bright light and mirrors toto projectproject an image,image, is required. It is a relatively expensive and heavy piecepiece ofof equipment and most suited for useuse inin aa centralcentral locationlocation suchsuch asas a a communitycommunity trainingtraining centre,centre, where itit cancan serveserve aa varietyvariety ofof differentdifferent courses.courses. It isis alsoalso usefuluseful forfor projecting illustrationsillustrations from booksbooks on toto aa large sheetsheet of paper. The outlines can then be traced withwith a crayon and used as the basis of a posterposter or diagram. Permission from the copyright holder should, however, be obtained before these are usedused publicly.publicly. Transparent still projection The materials projected in this case are non-moving transparent pictures in thethe formform ofof slidesslides oror filmstrips.filmstrips. Some black and white film-film strips maymay still be inin circulationcirculation but theythey areare muchmuch lessless commoncommon andand therethere are greatgreat advantagesadvantages inin preparingpreparing oror orderingordering allall newnew materialmaterial inin colour.colour. The difference in costcost isis veryvery little.little. Both picturespictures andand projectorsprojectors areare relatively cheap and easyeasy toto obtain.obtain. Cine projection This involvesinvolves thethe projectionprojection ofof movingmoving picturespictures withwith oror withoutwithout sound,sound, in the form of either 8mm or 16mm16mm films.films. 8mm films are mainly thethe resultresult ofof amateur photography andand areare nownow soso rarerare thatthat thethe purchasepurchase ofof anan amm8mm projectorprojector is seldomseldom justified.justified. Films themselvesthemselves areare generallygenerally expensive,expensive, especiallyespecially - 53 - when made forfor aa specificspecific purposepurpose andand forfor onlyonly aa limitedlimited audience.audience. A 16mml6mm projector is alsoalso expensiveexpensive andand requiresrequires carefulcareful handlinghandling andand regularregular expertexpert maintenance. In future, the role of films is likely to be taken overover progressively byby videovideo tapes.tapes. 6.2.2. Some advantages and disadvantages ofof projectedprojected aidsaids The advantages ofof projectedprojected aidsaids are,are, briefly:briefly: - the viewersviewers' attention isis directed towardstowards a bright picturepicture inin a darkened room;room; - the wholewhole atmosphereatmosphere promotespromotes aa feelingfeeling ofof anticipationanticipation andand interest; and, - as therethere isis onlyonly oneone centrecentre ofof interest,interest, thethe screen,screen, casualcasual distractions areare avoided.avoided . Some of the disadvantages ofof projectedprojected visualvisual aids are: - if theythey areare mademade specificallyspecifically forfor aa targettarget audienceaudience theythey may involve a considerable amount of work and expenditure of time and money inin preparationpreparation andand organisation;organisation; thisthis work cancan inin itself, however, be a useful learninglearning experienceexperience andand leadlead toto a fuller understandingunderstanding of the subject and of communication techniques; - if the material is obtained fromfrom commercialcommercial sources,sources, itit may bebe expensive and too general or too sophisticated for a particular audience and have more entertainment than educational value; - staff sometimessometimes feelfeel discourageddiscouraged asas theythey cannotcannot influenceinfluence thethe content of films or filmstripsfilmstrips and they feelfeel theythey are playingplaying very little direct partpart inin thethe learninglearning process;process; and, - they may bebe somewhatsomewhat enviousenvious ofof the resourcesresources used inin thethe production ofof commercialcommercial projected aids andand discourageddiscouraged inin their attemptsattempts to workwork effectivelyeffectively with muchmuch moremore limitedlimited resources. Projected and non-projected aids are complementarycomplementary and shouldshould bebe usedused either together oror individuallyindividually asas circumstancescircumstances require.require. 6.2.3 Examples of projected visual aids Projected visual aids includeinclude thethe followingfollowing items:items: Colour slidesslides these are photographs taken on colour film, which is relatively cheapcheap and is now widelywidely available, and after processing mountedmounted in a slide frame, through which it can be projected by means ofof aa slideslide projector;projector; - for repeated useuse inin extension work,work, itit is best if thethe slidesslides are mountedmounted inin strongstrong plasticplastic framesframes withwith adequateadequate protectionprotection for the coating of thethe film;film; - they are useful forfor illustratingillustrating a longlong sequencesequence ofof events,events, such as thethe developmentdevelopment ofof aa plantation,plantation, andand compressingcompressing itit into a convenient viewingviewing time;time; - they can provideprovide out-of-seasonout-of-season demonstrationsdemonstrations of forestry extension activities, such as nurserynursery workwork oror treetree planting,planting, to prepare peoplepeople to engage actively in the real tasktask at thethe proper season;season; - they can bringbring aa particularparticular activityactivity toto the attentionattention of - 54 - people in theirtheir home area,area, savingsaving thethe costcost andand organisationorganisation required forfor aa fieldfield dayday oror tourtour toto viewview it;it; slides can be copied cheaply and distributed widely for use in publicising an activity;activity; - they are easy toto storestore andand toto transport;transport; - light, easily transportable,transportable, projectors are availableavailable forfor useuse either on mains electricity or with car-type batteries; - if no slideslide projectorprojector isis available,available, a numbernumber of batterybattery- operated, or daylight,daylight, hand viewersviewers cancan bebe usedused withwith smallsmall groupgroup of people, if multiple copies of the slides are available; - the pace and the content of slide projection can be altered to suit the needs of thethe audienceaudience (cf.(cf. cinemacinema films,films, thethe speedspeed and content of which cannotcannot be changed);changed); - close-ups or enlargements of a subject,subject, illustratingillustrating detailsdetails which could be overlooked by many people during a field demonstration, can be shown; - specific features of certaincertain taskstasks cancan bebe clearlyclearly illustratedillustrat ed for discussion; - the commentarycommentary can bebe variedvaried to suitsuit thethe requirementsrequirements ofof aa particular audience; slides cannot show movement, which is a disadvantage; - the audience cannot participate in their use as they can with a flannelgraph; and, - colour slides cannot, normallly,normailly, bebe leftleft displayeddisplayed forfor aa longlong time for personal studystudy byby individuals.individuals. Some other importantImportant considerationsconsiderations andand suggestions for the useuse of slides in forestry extension activities are:are: - it is essentialessential toto darkendarken thethe roomroom adequatelyadequately ifif usedused duringduring the day, unless special equipment for back projection on to a screen in daylight is used; - before giving aa slideslide show,show, checkcheck thethe projectorprojector andand screenscreen andand ensure thatthat therethere isis aa sparespare lamplamp available;available; - slides need a commentary; someonesomeone must explainexplain whatwhat eacheach slideslide demonstrates unlessunless it is a presentationpresentation usingusing slidesslides in conjunction with aa pre-recordedpre-recorded commentary;commentary; . the slides shouldshould support the commentary which shouldshould bebe suitable forfor useuse onon itsits own,own, ifif thethe projectorprojector fails;fails; - prepare a scriptscript onon whichwhich toto basebase thethe properproper arrangementarrangement of the slides, and selectselect slidesslides toto illustrateillustrate importantimportant featuresfeatures of it; - limit the showshow toto aboutabout 4040 slidesslides unlessunless itit is aa preparedprepared slide-tape show, where thethe pace of thethe commentarycommentary maymay requirerequire the use of more slides;slides; include pictures of local interest or people, whenever possible; - set up thethe projector and screen in advanceadvance andand arrangearrange thethe seating so that everyone cancan viewview thethe screenscreen easily;easily; - rehearse thethe presentationpresentation beforebefore thethe audienceaudience arrives;arrives; - introduce thethe show withwith a brief explanationexplanation of whatwhat the members ofof thethe audienceaudience areare goinggoing toto see,see, relatingrelating thethe subjectsubject to local problems and experiences; - each slide should be shown on the screenscreen long enough to bebe fully understood byby thethe audience;audience; - encourage thethe audienceaudience toto askask questionsquestions atat convenientconvenient pointspoints in the presentation; - answer these carefullycarefully but brieflybriefly butbut dodo notnot turnturn thethe answeranswer - 55 -- into an impromptuimpromptu talk;talk; and, - distribute literature on thethe subject,subject, ifif anyany isis available,available, atat the end of thethe show.show. j Slides are cheap and easy to use Filmstrips Filmstrips are lengths of 35mm filmfilm showingshowing a series of pictures forming a naturalnatural sequence.sequence. A filmstripfilmstrip projectorprojector is usedused toto projectproject thisthis non-motion filmfilm and isis sometimessometimes referredreferred toto asas aa 35mm35mm stillstill projector.projector. It is basicallybasically thethe samesame asas aa slideslide projectorprojector and,and, in fact, most goodgood slideslide projectors are availableavailable with thethe necessarynecessary attachmentsattachments to· showshow filmstrips.filmstrips. Masks areare alsoalso availableavailable toto reducereduce thethe picturepicture toto half-sizehalf-size toto suitsuit someSOme connnercialcommercial filmstrips which areare producedproduced in the half-framehalf-frame format. Some filmstrip carriers,carriers, however, are difficultdifficult to load and thethe filmfilm maymay bebe damaged in the process.process. People who use them should always be trained initially with stripsstrips of filmfilm which are ofof nono value.value. Some of thethe featuresfeatures ofof filmfilm stripsstrips are;are; - the sequence of picturespictures inin filmstripsfilmstrips cannotcannot bebe alteredaltered atat will toto suitsuit locallocal interests;interests; - unsuitable pictures cannotcannot bebe eliminatedeliminated andand maymay leadlead toto somesome unnecessary discussion by thethe audience; filmstrips are usuallyusually suppliedsupplied byby commercialconnnercial organisationsorganisations and are aimed at a wide audience;audience ; theythey may not, therefore, be particularly well adaptedadapted toto locallocal conditions;conditions; - they are reasonablyreasonably inexpensive;inexpensive; and, - they are easily transportable.transportable. Combined slide/tape presentations Projectors with ·facilitiesfacilities forfor synchronisingsynchronising the showing of slidesslides or filmstrips with a commentaryconnnentary preparedprepared on magnetic tape,tape, where thethe projectorprojector responds to signalssignals fromfrom thethe tapetape toto changechange thethe picture,picture, areare nownow readilyreadily available and notnot undulyunduly expensive.expensive. Preparing the tape to supportsupport a seriesseries of pictures, however,however, requiresrequires somesome expertise.expertise. Assistance to carry this out may be available at thethe locallocal broadcastingbroadcasting organisation.organisation. Such tapes normally use music, at leastleast forfor thethe introductionintroduction andand thethe ending,ending, andand it is worthworth seeking professional helphelp inin selectingselecting andand recordingrecording this.this. Tape/slide presentations standardise the presentation of an idea wherever they are used,used, whichwhich cancan havehave bothboth positivepositive andand negativenegative values.values. They must stillstill bebe presented,presented, however,however, byby someonesomeone whowho cancan answeranswer questionsquestions onon the topictopic authoritatively, ifif theythey areare toto bebe effective.effective. - 5656- - Overhead projector This apparatus projectsprojects largelarge transparenciestransparencies fromfrom aa horizontalhorizontal table,table, through a lens-prismlens-prism which focussesfocusses aa brilliantbrilliant imageimage onon toto anan angledangled screenscreen usually located behind thethe speaker.speaker. The main features of an overhead projectorprojector are:are: - it cancan projectproject charts,charts, diagramsdiagrams oror writtenwritten materialmaterial preparedprepared in advance on a sheetsheet ofof transparenttransparent plasticplastic film;film; - it can be used to project complex diagrams which cancan be copiedcopied on to treated film by a copying machine, known as a transparency maker;maker; - a series of overlays,overlays, i.e.i.e. one sheetsheet containingcontaining additionaladditional material placed on top of another, can bebe used toto buildbuild upup aa complex diagram;diagram; and, it can bebe usedused in placeplace ofof aa chalkboardchalkboard byby writingwriting withwith special penspens onon aa rollroll ofof clearclear filmfilm fittedfitted toto thethe machine.machine. Some of thethe advantages ofof usingusing overheadoverhead projectorsprojectors are:are: - they enable the speaker to faceface thethe audienceaudience while writing or explaining a diagram,diagram, whichwhich isis notnot possiblepossible withwith aa chalkboard;chalkboard; - the image onon thethe screenscreen isis normallynormally largelarge enoughenough forfor allall thethe audience toto seesee easilyeasily andand toto readread anyany captions;captions; and, - complete blacking-outblacking-out ofof the room isis not necessarynecessary asas the image isis veryvery bright.bright. Some disadvantages are:are: - the intense light can causecause eye-straineye-strain forfor thethe instructorinstructor ifif used forfor longlong periods,periods, and particularlyparticularly if he writes a greatgreat deal on aa transparencytransparency whilewhile itit isis inin use;use; the equipment and materials used are costly initially, particularly ifif aa transparencytransparency makermaker isis required,required, butbut theythey cancan serve for a number of years ifif handledhandled carefully;carefully; and, - standard classroom projectors are difficult toto transporttransport andand liable to suffer damagedamage inin handling,handling, but special portableportable models areare available.available. Overhead projectors are particularly valuable once a stock of transparencies hashas beenbeen builtbuilt upup --5757 -- Cinema filmsfilms Cinema filmsfilms areare undoubtedlyundoubtedly veryvery effectiveeffective "crowd"crowd pullers"pullers" inin ruralrural areas in developingdeveloping countries.countries. Their real value asas a teaching aidaid is, however, limitedlimited asas theythey areare veryvery seldomseldom sufficientlysufficiently specificspecific toto bebe ableable toto relate their topic directly to the needs ofof the peoplepeople inin thethe area.area. In countries where a film industry is being built up there are greater possibilities for films to be made for particular requirements at a reasonable cost. The local content of such films usually provesproves very attractive and should compensate Corfor any slightly less sophisticated production techniques.techniques. Even if they only entertainentertaLn a crowd and put them into a friendly, receptive, frame of mind films provide an opportunity for extension staff to taketake advantageadvantage of thethe situations ituation and getget overover aa seriousserious message. Judged on theirtheir teachingteaching valuevalue somesome advantagesadvantages ofof usingusing cinemacinema filmsfilms are: - theythey showshow movementmovement andand can bebe used to demonstratedemonstrate workingworking techniquestec1wiques in suitable locations, oftenoften asas skillfully asas a personal demonstration; people may find topics illustrated by films easier to understand than staticstatic aids because of thethe movementmovement and thethe setting inin which theythey areare filmed;filmed; - a long sequencesequence ofof events whichwhich takes place at a result demonstration can be compressedcompressed into a shortshort periodperiod ofof timetime and can make an interesting and entertaining film;film; - they can,can, to some extent, be used in place of long andand expensive tours toto bringbring thethe experiences andand successsuccess ofof peoplepeople in other areas toto thethe attentionattention ofof locallocal people;people; and, - they cancan bebe usedused toto getget aa messagemessage overover inin identicalidentical termsterms toto very large numbersnumbers ofof peoplepeople inin different locations.locatfons. There is always the possibility,possibility, however,however, thatthat somesome pointspoints inin aa film may bebe misunderstoodmisunderstood byby thethe audienceaudience andand itit isis importantimportant thatthat thethe showingshowing ofof any filmfilm shouldshould bebe followedfollowed byby discussiondiscussion toto verifyverify thatthat it made thethe rightright impression. It is particularlyparticularly important,important, if films areare being made for aa speciFicspecific audience, that theythey be carefullycarefully validated before the finalfinal printsprints are mademade to ensure they do notnot containcontain anyany pointspoints ofof doubtdoubt oror confusionconfusion oror scenes unacceptablunacceptablee toto thethe intendedintended audience.audience. Some of the disadvantages of using cinema filmsfilms are:are: - people often regardregard themthem more as entertainmententertainment thanthan education but, nevertheless, they maymay learn somethingsomething fromfrom them;them; a combination of entertainment andand educational films in one programme isis oftenoften anan effectiveeffective way ofof presentingpresenting aa message;message; - there may bebe nono electricityelectricity supplysupply inin areasareas wherewhere therethere isis most need toto showshow thethe films;films; aa mobilemobile unitunit is,is, therefore, required to provide power and possibly to transport the equipment; this is generally veryvery expensive;expensive; - the cost of makingmaking films,films, oror eveneven ofof purchasingpurchasing copiescopies ofof existing films,films, isis high;high; - copies of filmsfilms havehave aa relativelyrelatively shortshort lifelife ifif theythey areare usedused intensively inin thethe field;field; many filmsfilms areare notnot effectiveeffective asas teachingteaching aidsaids becausebecause theythey areare too fast a mediummedium ofof instructioninstruction forfor certaincertain audtences;audiences; anan activity may bebe shownshown veryvery brieflybriefly andand followedfollowed tootoo quicklyquickly by an entirelyentirely differentdifferent sequence for a ruralrural audience,audience, usedused to a much slower tempotempo ofof life,life, toto comprehend;comprehend; and, -58- 58 -- - modern filmf ilm editorseditor s oftenoften includeinclude extraneousextraneous sceness cenes (side- ( s i de cuts) for artistic reasonsr easons which are quite incomprehensibleincomprehensi ble toto rururalr al audiences and detractdetract fromfrom theirtheir understandingunderst anding ooff thet he memessage.s s a ge. SomSomee considconsiderationse rations and a nd suggestionssuggestions onon the useuse ooff cicinemanema filmsfilms in forestry extension programmesprogrammes are: a re: - there should be sufficientsuff ici ent mmovementovement aandnd acactivityt ivi ty in thethe film f ilm to justifyjustify itsits use;use; - for study purposes films madmadee inin thethe samesame localitylocali ty area r e ofteaoften more effective even if theythey areare notnot asas expertlyexpe rtly producedproduced asas films made outsideoutside thethe area;a r ea; silentsilent films (which araree now rare)rare ) cancan bebe shownshown withwi th a personperson supplysupplyingi ng a commentarycommentary in i n a locallocal dialect; dialect; theythey operate operate ata t a a lower speed thanthan sounds ound filmf ilm but mostmo s t projectorsprojectors cancan adjustadjust forfor this; - filmfilmss using a foreignforeign language l a nguage are oftenoften moremo r e valueval ue ifif thethe commentary is turned dodownwn aandnd repreplacedl aced bbyy a commentarycommentary spokenspoken by a person pe rson in thethe locallocal dialect;dialect; thethe termsterms usedused are likelylikel y tot o be more understandableunderstandable and a good operatoroper ator cancan soonsoon acacquirequi r e a considerable degreedegree of skillski l l inin providingpr ovidi ng aa commentary;commentary; "aand,nd, diplomatic missionsmissi ons anandd iinternationalnternational organisaorganisationstions oftenof t en maintain largelarge librarieslibraries fromfrom which filmsfUms cancan bebe borrowed,borr owed , usually without charge.charge. Some guideliesgui de lies in thethe useuse ofof cinemacinema filmsfilms are:are: - all films should bebe carefullyca r eful ly reviewed before being useusedd in forestry extensionextension programmes,progr ammes, oror eveneven asas entertainment,entertainment, to aascertainscerta in their suitabilitysuitability for aa particularparticular audience;audience; films ffromrom certain countriescountries may include scenesscenes which are consideredconsidered offensive inin others;others ; exercise discretion inin selectingselecting filmsfilms forfor anya ny givengiven learninglearning situation and eliminateelimina t e any likelylikel y toto causecause confusionconfusion oror toto bebe too sophisticatedsophisticated forf or thethe targett arget audience; tatakeke intoi nto account thet he objective ofof thethe programme,programme, thethe previousprevious experienceexperi ence ofof thet he audience,audience, their age andand educationeducation level,level , intinterestsere s ts and customs,customs, particularly inin thethe mattermatter ofof clothing;clothing; a filmfilm shouldshould onlyonly be usedused asas aa learninglearning aid;aid; itit shouldshould bebe followed up byby a talk, t al k, discussion or demonstration to consconsolidateolidate thethe mmessageessage it aimed toto convey;convey; - bbeEoree f ore showingshowing aa filfilm,m, explain briefly thethe informationinformation itit contains and tell thet he audience why itit isis importantimportant toto them;them; - alertale rt thet he audienceaudience toto looklook forfor certaincertain pointspoints inin thethe film;film; - always allowallow anan adequateadequate periodperiod for discussiondiscussion otot furtherfurt her explanation ofof tthehe fifilm;l m; when thisthis procedure is followedfoll owed many usefuluseful pointspoints may may bebe raisedraised inin thethe discussion;discussion; and, - alwaysalways hold one shortshort filmfilm inin reserve,reserve, preferablypreferably aa comedycomedy or generalgeneral iinterestnte r est film, to wind up the programme or the audienceaudience mayma y leaveleave beforebefore adequateadequate discussiondiscnssion ofof the mainma i n theme has takentaken place.place. The question of thethe suitabilitysuitability of a filmfilm forfor aa particularparticular audienceaudience is not likelylikely toto arisearise ifif locallylocally mademade filmsfilms areare usedused asas thesethese will,will, already,already , have takentaken suchsuch pointspoints intointo consideraton.cons i deraton. - 59 - Check the following pointspoints beforebefore showingshowing anyany films:films: - make suresure thethe powerpower supplysupply isis reliablereliable andand atat anan acceptableacceptable voltage; (most(most modern projectors can be adjustedadjusted toto a rangerange ofof voltages around thethe commoncommon standards);standards); - check the electrical connections and extension cord, ifif one isis required; carry screwdrivers,screwdrivers, multiplugsmultiplugs or adaptorsadaptors wherewhere there is a variety ofof socketssockets inin commoncommon use;use; darken thethe roomroom adequately without cutting off ventilation; keep sparespare projectionprojection lampslamps easilyeasily accessible;accessible; (there(there isis oftenoften a holder on the projector casecase Eorfor these);these); set up the projector, threadthread the film,film, focusfocus on thethe screenscreen andand test its operation inin advanceadvance ofof thethe arrivalarrtval ofof thethe audience;audience; resetr eset the film to thethe starting point; make suresure the sound is set at aa suitablesuitable levellevel forfor thethe placeplace and thethe numbernumber ofof peoplepeople expected;expected; - mount thethe projectorprojector highhigh enoughenough toto projectproject overover thethe headsheads ofof thethe audience and to avoid a distortiondistortion of thethe picturepicture onon thethe screen; and, - ereerectct the screen so thethe basebase is atat least 1.30m1.3Om above thethe floor. Films can combine entertainmententertainment with information for effective learning 6.3 Tape recorders The use of tapetape recordersrecorders isis discussed in moremore detaildetail inin SectionSection 9.99.9 Radio. TaTapepe recordersrecorders areare usefuluseful forfor recordingrecording interviewsinterviews andand discussionsdiscussions for use on radio'radiO oror asas aa specialspecial itemitem atat anan extensionextension meeting.meeting. They can also bebe usedused toto recordrecord songssongs oror playsplays forfor entertainmententertainment toto drawdraw peoplepeople intointo memeetingsetings where more seriousserious discussiondiscussion cancan taketake place.place. - 60 - Preparing a tape recordingrecording describingdescribing a commoncommon forestryEorestry tasktask can,can, inin itself,itself, bebe aa very valuable teaching experience in planning and organisingorganising thethe content.content. It can also highlight oddodd mannerisms of speech which a personperson cancan correctcorrect andand so improveimprove his or her extensionextension skills. Both tapetape recorders and tapes are relativelyrelatively inexpeninexpensive.si ve and soso widely used in most countries they can play a major partpart in forestryForestry extension programmes. Most countries havehave some commercialcommercial or officialofficial facilities for editing and reproducing tapes . to enable copies of aa goodgood standardstandard toto bebe produced and suppliedsupplied at aa reasonablereasonable cost.cost. 6.4 Video recorders The use oCoE video recorders is also referred to in Section 9.10 Television. They consistconsist of a video camera with a portableportable unitunit whichwhich records both picturespictures andand sound,sound, aa batterybattery packpack oror leadsleads toto drawdraw powerpower fromfrom aa vehicle battery,battery, andand anan AC adaptor to allow direct operationoperation from the mains or for rechargingrecharging batteries.batteries. A video recorder, and a televisiontelevision set or video monitor, are requiredrequired forfor s.creeningscreening the picture, which isis accompaniedaccompanied byby thethe sound recorded duringduring filming.filming. For some purposes additional lights and external microphones may bebe desirable.desirable. A sequencesequence cancan bebe reviewedreviewed onon thethe monitor of thethe cameracamera immediatelyimmediately after recordingrecording and cancan bebe retakenretaken ifif itit is, in any respect, unsatisfactory. Small format video equipment, i.e.Le. home-grade video using ~" tape, is by presentpresent standards,standards, reasonablyreasonably inexpensive,inexpensive, and easyeasy toto operate.operate. It isis valuable for quick, simplesimple recordingsrecordings of on-goingon-going activitiesactivities but itit has thethe drawback that editingediting thethe tapetape inevitablyinevitably leadsleads to somesome lossloss of picture quality. It is not, therefore, suitable forfor recordingsrecordings whichwhich areare to bebe widely copied and usedused forfor moremore formalformal studystudy purposes.purposes. Semi-professional equipment, which usesuses 1;"k" tape, is more expensive. As such tapestapes are normally carefully edited and more widelywidely usedused Corfor study,study, operationoperation ofof thethe cameracamera requires a higher degree ofof skill,skill, andand somesome detaileddetailed thoughtthought particularlyparticularly atat the planning stage of thethe programme.programme. The initialinitial valuevalue ofof videovideo recordingsrecordings to extensionextension staff is likely to be more as a learning aidaid than teachingteaching aid.aid. Planning and recording simple activities maymay bringbring toto light many personal mannerisms or difficulties inin expression whichwhich a personperson may not have previously recognisedrecognised and which can be easilyeasily corrected.corrected. It can alsoalso leadlead to very valuable self-criticism of the manner of presentation of trainingtraining material.material. In time, a collectioncollection ofof shortshort excerptsexcerpts cancan be built up which, while lacking the qualities of aa professionalprofessional programme,programme, cancan still be used as aids inin introducingintroducing eithereither extension staffstaff or limitedlimited numbersnumbers ofof the public to new skills. The facility of immediate reviewreview through the viewer of thethe camera should lead to very rapid improvements in both planning and recordingrecording the activity. - 6161 -- The useuse ofof more sophisticatedsophisticated recordingrecording equipment waswas found in ChileChile andand Peru, wherewhere video has been extensivelyextensively used inin ruralrural education,education, toto justifyjustify the rrecruitmentecruitment and training of a group of specspecialistialist "audio-visual trainers". If this is adopted, very close co-operco-operationation between the group for whom thethe material is beingbeing made, and thethe programmeprogramme makers is necessarynecessary to ensureensure thatthat thethe technicaltechnical contentcontent isis correct.correct. The experience of its use in Latin America suggestssuggests that video couldcould be muchmuch moremore widelywidely usedused inin ruralrural training programmes and may largelylargely replacereplace filmsfilms andand slidesslides asas aa trainingtraining medium inin thethe forseeableforseeable future.future. ThThee mainmain difficulty withwith thethe use of videovideo equipmentequipment inin ruralrural areas,areas, apart fromfrom makingmaking thethe right choice of equipmentequipment and thethe availabilityavailability of television setssets oror monimonitorstors forfor viewingviewing the results,results, hashas been problems ofof maintenance and repair. However, even this is being reduced as local technicians acquire moremore skill inin thethe repairrepair ofof domesticdomestic televisiontelevision sets.sets. The nationalnational televisiontelevision network inin a countrycountry is alsoalso likelylikely toto havehave thethe necessary skills to undertake maintenance and repair of the more sophisticated types.types. 6.5 PuppetsPuppets Puppetry is an aidaid whichwhich communicatescommunicates ideasideas throughthrough entertainment.entertainment, PuppetsPuppets are small, doll-like, figures representing people which are manipulated eithereither byby strings oorr by thethe handshands byby oneone or moremore puppeteerspuppeteers screened from the audience, often inin aa decorativedecorative boothbooth oror stand.stand. There is usually a considerableconsiderable elementel ement of entertainmentent ertainment in thethe performance, though a serious memessagessage shouldshould runrun throughout it and bebe broughtbrought outout prominentlyprominently atat the end. They may be used either to mobilise people for a specific objective, or toto stimulatestimulate discussion of a sensitive,sensitive, or embarrassing,embarrassing, issue which "puppets""puppets" may argueargue aboutabout butbut whichwhich "real"rea l people"people" maymay wishwish toto avoid.avoid. In general, if puppetrypuppetry isis alreadyalready anan establishedestablished art inin aa country,country, it is useful to putput itit to work toto spreadspread forestryforestry extensionextension ideas.ideas. If it isis not, it isis aa matter ofof ascertainingascertaining howhow easilyeasily thethe skillsskills cancan bebe acquiredacquired andand whether this novelnovel typetype ofof presentationpresentation wouldwould havehave aa majormajor impactimpact onon thethe people.people . The preparation of aa puppetpuppet showshow involves:involves: - defining thethe message toto bebe conveyedconveyed andand thethe targettarget audience;audience; - writing aa scriptscript incorporatingincorporating thethe intendedintended message;message; - dedevisingvising suitable characterscharacters andand creatingcreating thethe puppets;puppets; - training the puppeteers and thethe personspersons toto speakspeak thethe lineslines andand allowing them toto rehearserehearse together;together; (in(in somesome countriescountries puppetspuppets "speak""speak" in a very stylisedstylised way);way); - selecting and recordingrecording appropriateappropriate music toto accompanyaccompany thethe performance; and, - making a soundsound recordingrecording thethe completecomplete performanceperformance soso thatthat itit can be presented laterlater withwith onlyonly thethe helphelp ofof thethe puppeteers.puppeteers. Staging a puppet showshow involvesinvolves arrangingarranging aa suitablesuitable booth,booth, whichwhich inin thethe field maymay have to bebe thethe backback ofof aa vehicle.vehicle. Any windowswindows ini n thethe vehiclevehicle should be curtainedcurtained andand aa backclothbackcloth andand simplesimple stagestage curtainscurtains deviseddevised toto heightheightenen thet he illusionillusion ofof thethe performance.performance. In general,general, thethe performanceperformance isis likely to have moremore impact if some trouble has been takentaken toto makemake anan attractive booth forfor thethe purpose.purpose. - 62 - 6.6 MuslcMusic and plays The use of a themetheme song,song, particularlyparticularly a short,short, simple,simple, attractive tune with words people cancan singsing oror humhum asas theythey gogo aboutabout theirtheir normalnormal business,business, andand which can be played frequently on radio programmes ocor at meetingsmeetings and otherother extension activities,activities, is of greatgreat value.value. It servesserves thethe dualdual purposepurpose ofof getting over a messagemessage andand creatingcreating aa favourablefavourable attitudeattitude toto it. "Smokey Bear" songs havehave entertainedentertained andand educatededucated many childrenchildren in AmericaAmerica on thethe dangers ofof forestforest fires.fires. The use ofof plays,plays, likelike puppetry,puppetry, dependsdepends veryvery muchmuch onon thethe traditionstraditions ofof the area and onon locallocal skillsskills inin devisingdevising andand performingperforming suitablesuitable material.material. Where these exist they should be developed and used as «ide1ywidely as circumstances allow.a11m;. Where therethere isis nono traditiontradition oEof locallocal livelive theatre,theatre, thethe problems of introducingintroducing itit may notnot bebe worthworth thethe efforteffort involvedinvolved whenwhen comparedcompared to the use of otherother aidsaids suchsuch asas radioradio programmes,programmes, television,television, videos,videos, slidesslides or films.films. 6.7 Mobile units (audio-visual(audio-visual vans)vans) These are,are, preferably, all-weather cross-country vehicles which cancan generate their ownO\m power toto operateoperate aa widewide rangerange ofof audio-visualaudio-visual equipmentequipment carried on thethe vehicle.vehicle. They areare usedused toto supportsupport extensionextension activitiesactivities suchsuch as meetingsmeetings andand demonstrationsdemonstrations or asas a massmass contactcontact methodmethod particularlyparticularly during an extension campaign.campaign. 6.7.1 Normal facilities of a mobile unit The facilities foundfound inin aa mobilemobile unitunit wouldwould normallynorrually be:be: a public address system (i.e.(Le. microphone, amplHleramplifier and loudspeakers); -record andand tape players forfolC providingproviding musicmusic and recorded messages throughthrough thethe loudspeakerloudspeaker system;system; slide, filmstrip, video recorders and monitors and film projectors andand screens suitablesuitable for bothboth indoorindoor andand outdooroutdoor presentations; - stocks ofof suitablesuitable slides,slides, filmstrips,filmstrips, videovideo tapestapes andand filmsfilms related toto thet"e currentcurrent campaign;campaign; additional popular records,records, tapes and films to entertain and attract crowdscrowds toto presentations;presentations; and, adequate stocksstocks ofof suitablesuitable extensionextension literatureliterature andand postersposters for distribution toto thethe public.public. 6.7.2 Purposes of mobile units The main purposes ofof mobile unitsunits are;are; - to supplement the activities of locallocal extensionextension staffstaff atat keykey points in thethe awarenessawareness andand interestinterest oror implementationimplementation stagesstages of campaigns;campatgns; - to help create more confidence on the part ofof thethe publicpublic inin the locallocal extensionextension staffstaff whenwhen thethe informationinfot:"r1lation theythey havehave beenbeen giving isis authenticatedauthenticated and reinforcedreinforced by recordedrecorded messagesmessages from leaders and otherother importantimportant sources;sources; and, to stimulate people toto seekseek furtherfurther informationinformation andand adviceadvice onon extension matters. - 63 - 6.7.3 AdvantagesAdvantages and disadvantages ofof mobilemobile unitsunits Some of the advantages ofof mobile unitsunits are:are: their visitsvisits areare generallygenerally attractiveattractive to people in ruralrural areas, as they havehave a high entertainmententertainment as wellwell asas an educative value; they have a wide rangerange ofof facilitiesfacilities availableavailable forfor presentingpresenting a message which cancan bebe supportedsupported byby somesome attractiveattractive musicmusic oror visual entertainment; - they are highlyhighly mobilemobile andand cancan penetratepenetrate eveneven intointo remoteremote areas of aa country;country; and, - the factfact that the staff areare willing toto visitvisit andand provideprovide information and entertainment forfor people in remote areas fewfew other officialsofficials visit,visit, createscreates aa favourablefavourable attitudeattitude locallylocally towards them and theirtheir message.message. Some of thethe disadvantages ofof mobilemobile unitsunits are:are: - they are costly to purchase and maintain in use because of the special equipment they carry and there are normally few available inin most countries;countries; they need to be staffed with persons of very special qualities; sociable, friendly but knowledgeable persons capable of conveyingconveying a wide rangerange ofof informationinformation toto aa greatgreat variety of people, and willing toto workwork atat nights,nights, andand onon restrest days whenever an audienceaudience cancan bebe gathered;gathered; - proper maintenance of the vehicles isis notnot easyeasy toto arrangearrange ifif they are intensively used inin remoteremote areas;areas; - they require a back-upback-up organisationorganisation to prepareprepare andand replacereplace programme materials asas necessarynecessary andand toto ensureensure thethe supplysupply ofof literature and other consumable items;items; and, - some areas of thethe countrycountry may stillstill bebe inaccessibleinaccessible toto them.them. " " Mobile unitsunits cancan playplay aa valuable partpart inin extensionextension campaigns but they are expensive and notnot alwaysalways easyeasy toto staffstaff - 6464- - 6.8 Display visuals This is a generalgeneral termterm forfor variousvarious itemsitems usedused toto conveyconvey informationinformation which are discusseddiscuss ed inin detaildetail inin SectionSection 99 inin relationrelation toto theirtheir functions in mass education. A fewfew more specificspecific pointspoints concerningconcerning thethe useuse of thesethese itemsitems as visual aidsaids areare givengiven here.here . Posters: - these serveserve primarilyprimarily to announce or publicispublicisee extension activities oror campaigncampaign objectives;objectives; - they have very little training value unless they are followed-followed up byby otherother activitiesactivities suchsuch asas meetingsmeetings oror demonstrations; demonstrations; and, - they are useful inin remindingreminding thethe public of aa campaigncampaign message when used with other extension methods and information materials. Wallcharts Though somewhatsomewhat similar in appearance to posters, wallwall charts have a different educationaleducational function.function. Their main characteristics and usesuses are:are: - they are particularly suited to simplesimple classroomclassroom or workshop«orkshop instruction;instruction; - they are used toto provideprovide explanatoryexplanatory support for topics which may be difficultdifUcult toto covercover inin depthdepth within«ithin aa limitedlimited period;period; - they are usedused toto explainexplain byby simplesimple diagramsdiagrams certaincertain complexcomplex processes (e.g.(e.g. the rainfallrainfall cycle, oror aa particularparticular piecepie ce ofof mechanical equipment); and, - their principal value lies in thethe factfact thatthat theythey cancan bebe leftleft on a wallboard and used by students for revisionreV1S10n or verification of material coveredcovered previouslypreviously inin class.class . There are a number of useful seriesseries ofof wall chartscharts relevantrelevant toto forestryforestry produced byby commercialcommercial organisations,organisations, somesome forfor salesa le andand othersothers availableavailable freefree for public relations or community service functions.functions . Some wallcharts, hohowever,wever, have a tendencytendency toto provideprovide aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof informationinformation withinwithin aa lilimitedmi ted area. They maymay sometimessometimes bebe of most value if particular itemsitems illustratedi l lustrated on a chartchart cancan bebe enlargedenlarged andand displayeddisplayed onon theirtheir ownown forfor study.study. An episcopeepiscope cancan bebe usedused for.for thisthis purpose,purpose, subjectsubject toto thethe agreementagreement of thethe copyrightcopyright holder.holder. Wallboards oror bulletinbulletin boardsboards These shouldshould be constructedconstructed ofof materialsmaterials which mmakeake it i t pospossibles ible to attacha t tach noticesnotices withwith drawing-pinsdrawing-pins withoutwithout difficulty.diffi culty . AlternativelyAlternatively theythey cancan be constructedconstruct ed of a mnoothsmooth material which allowsallows noticesnotices toto bebe attachedattached with smasmalll l pieces of plastic adhesive material.material. The main functions ofof wallboards are:are: they cancan carrycarry posters, wal1charts,wallcharts, bulletins,bulletins , copies of handouts, notices of extension activities, forestry information and news, in factfact anythinganything relevantrelevant which can be displayed on a suitably sizedsized board;board; - they should be erectederected atat strategicstrategic placesplaces wherewhere peoplepeople cancan see andand studystudy themthem conveniently,conveniently, (preferably(preferably coveredcovered areasareas ofof markets, stores,stores, offices,offices, schools,schools, etc.);etc.); - if usedused forfor instructionalinstructional purposes, theythey should be selectiveselective - 6565- - and only display material relevant to the current topic for a limited periodperiod forfor studystudy andand review;review; or,'or, if used for generalgeneral information purposes,purposes , as an aid to extension, the material shouldshould bebe attractivelyattractively arrangedarranged andand regularly replacedreplaced andand updated.updated. A neglectedneglected wallboardwallboard with aa randomrandom assortment of oftenoften out-of-dateout-of-date noticesnotices isis most likelylikely toto have aa negativenegative effecteffect on the public. Training establishmentsestablishments or rural development centcentres res and schoo/sschools cancan seldomseldom have enough wallboard space.space . The manufacture andand supply,supply, freefree ofof charge,charge, ofof wallboards which cancan bebe usedused asas requiredrequired forfor forestry or general rural development information or wallcharts,wa11charts, would in manymany cases be an effectiveeffective use of a limited budget for extension work, particularly where thethe recipientrecipient ofof the board,board, e.g. a rural headmaster or community leader, undertakes responsibility for maintaining the material displayed onon itit andand soso becomesbecomes more involvedinvolved inin thethe extensionextension activity.activity. Magnetic BoardsBoards Magnetic boardsboards areare particularlyparticularly usefuluseful inin certaincertain learninglearning situationssituations but theythey areare notnot asas widelywidely usedused asas theythey mightmight be.be. The main obstaclesobstacles toto their use are thatthat largelarge sheetssheets ofof smoothsmooth steel,steel, about thethe sizesize ofof aa smallsmall chalkboard, are not easy toto findfind inin ruralrural areasareas andand areare notnot particularyparticu1ary easyeasy to transport over longlong distances.distances. They are heavy and if theythey becomebecome bentbent they are particularlyparticularly difficultdifficult toto straighten.straighten. They are, therefore,therefore, not soso common, or soso widelywidely versatile,versatile, asas chalkboards.chalkboards. All thethe displaydisplay materialsmaterials used on them must bebe preparedprepared inin advance.advance. To be effectiveeffective they must be usedused in aa prominentprominent positionposition in a studystudy areaarea andand asas suchsuch theythey areare inin directdirect competition for spacespace withwith chalkboards,chalkboards, feltboards,fe1tboards, wallboards and projector screens. The main characteristics andand functionsfunctions ofof aa magneticmagnetic boardboard are:are: the technique is similar to flanne1graph,flannelgraph, though the illustrative materials areare moremore expensiveexpensive toto construct;construct; - they consist of aa smoothsmooth metalmetal sheet,sheet, normallynormally attachedattached toto aa wall, toto which objects,objects , which have smallsmall magnets affixed to their back, cancan bebe attached;attached; - they cancan supportsupport heavierheavier objectsobjects thanthan aa flannelgraph,f1anne1graph, providedprovided magnets ofof suitablesuitable sizesize areare used;used; the symbolssymbols cancan bebe slidslid overover thethe surfacesurface andand showshow movement movement more effectivelyeffectively thanthan flannelgraphf1anne1graph wherewhere symbolssymbols mustmust "jump""jump" from place toto place.place. - they can be used outdoorsoutdoors relativelyrelatively unaffected by weather or wind,Wind , but only small sizes of magnetic boards can be considered easily transportable;transportable; and, some initiativeinitiative mustmust be shownshown to devise and prepareprepare newnew material forfor useuse onon aa magnetic board,board, otherwiseotherwise therethere may be a tendency to use thethe samesame materialmaterial repeatedlyrepeatedly for only one or two specific learninglearning situations.situations. - 6666- - 6.9 Extension literatureliterature The useuse ofof literatureliterature inin extensionextension campaignscampaigns isis discusseddiscussed inin fullfull inin Section 9.6.9.6. Its role is complementarycomplementary toto thethe mainmain extensionextension process.process. The preparation ofof extension literatureliterature is, therefore, a valuablevaluable teaching/teaching/ learning exercise for all staffstaff involvedinvolved inin forestryforestry extensionextension whowho willwill havehave to communicate ideasideas oror techniquestechniques toto members ofof thethe public.public. Leaflets These are ofof mostmost valuevalue ifif theythey areare producedproduced inin aa standardstandard sizesize andand format which is convenient to handle and which«hich isis easyeasy andand cheapcheap toto produce.produce. They should also bebe ofof aa formatformat whichwhich cancan bebe convenientlyconveniently storedstored inin bulkbulk forfor quick issue, and filedfiled forfor easyeasy reference.reference. Some of thethe qualitiesqualities ofof aa goodgood leafletleaflet are:are: - they should have an attractive design and lay-outlay-out which«hich makes them easily recognisablerecognisable forfor what theythey are;are; - they shouldshould havehave a clear, distinctive, title so that anyany particular leafletleaflet inin aa seriesseries cancan bebe easilyeasily located;located; they should provide simple, practical adviceadvice on forestryforestry matters forfor a specificspecific audienceaudience (e.g.(e.g. adviceadvice on treetree plantingplanting practices for farmersfarmers oCof arablearable landland maymay notnot bebe thethe samesame asas that for cattlecattle rearers);rearers); - theythey shouldshould be printed in thethe vernacularvernacular or inin veryvery simplesimple terms in a commoncommon language;language; they shouldshould makemake useuse ofof illustrationsillustrations toto supplementsupplement writtenwritten instructions but illustrations should not displace words entirely as is happening in instruction sheets for some commercial products marketedmarketed worldwide; - people should be encouraged to discuss the information in the leaflleafletse ts amongst themselves and with extension staff at meetings; any importantimportant observations made on thesethese occasionsoccasions shouldshould bebe taken into account when reprintingreprinting thethe leafletleaflet oror inin designingdesigning others inin thethe series;series; - without thethe reinforcementreinforcement of thethe messagemessage byby personalpersonal contactscontacts leaflets in themselvesthemselves maymay be of · littlelittle valuevalue inin persuadingpersuading people to change theirtheir practices;practices; and, they can serve as a valuable reminder of techniques demonstrated at meetings and are very importantimportant forfor verifyingverifying what aa personperson maymay thinkthink hehe waswas toldtold atat suchsuch aa time.time. Handouts These are simplesimple summariessummaries ofof whatwhat aa personperson hashas beenbeen toldtold oror hashas seenseen in aa talktalk oror aa demonstration.demonstration. As they may be used inin largelarge numbers,numbers, oror maymay serve the specific needs ofof oneone activityactivity only,only, economyeconomy inin theirtheir productionproduction isis a vital requirement. A stockstock ofof suitablesuitable paper,paper, possiblypossibly colour-codedcolour-coded forfor particularparticular topicstopics and pre-printed withwith headings,headings, aa logo,logo, oror somesome feintfeint backgroundbackground illustration,illustration, can be maintained forfor typing,typing, cyclostylingcyclostyling oror otherwiseotherwise reproducingreproducing handoutshandouts as required.required. People taking part inin formalformal coursescourses maymay wishwish tot o file andand retain handouts becausebecause theythey maymay containcontain aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof usefuluseful information.information. This is easier to do ifif they are inin aa standardstandard format.format. For many otherother people, however,however, whowho receivereceive handouts,handouts, theythey maymay havehave onlyonly aa veryvery shortshort usefuluseful life and their contents should be brief,brief, clearclear andand easilyeasily read.read. Their costcost should be kept as low as is compatible with theirtheir function andand their -67- 67 -- importance in an extension programme. TheTheir·ir main function may bebe summarisedsummarised as:as: - they are useful aids to extension work and are often distributed at thethe endend ofof meetings,meetings, demonstrations,demonstrations, fieldfield daysdays and tours;tours; - they are usedused toto summarise,summarise, inin shortshort simplesimple sentences,sentences, thethe main points of thethe activity;activity; and, - they help recall thethe message conveyedconveyed byby thethe extensionextension staff.staff. Bulletins The distribution of bulletinsbulletins isis largelylargely restrictedrestricted toto extensionextension staffstaff or particularparticular communitycommunity leadersleaders to provideprovide them with aa full summarysummary ofof information available on aa particularparticular topic.topic. They should also bebe usedused toto up-date staff on thethe latestlatest technologicaltechnological developmentsdevelopments or achievements in a particular fieldfield ofof work.work. If carefully prepared, distributed, and filed, they may formform thethe main source of reference materialmaterial for field staff preparing talks, planning demonstrations or answering queries on aa topic.topic. If theythey areare to serve aa useful purpose ofof thisthis sortsort theythey shouldshould bebe printedprinted onon goodgood qualityquality paperpaper andand stored in clearlyclearly identifiableidentifiable covers.covers. For bulletinsbulletins which may have to bebe referred to inin thethe field,field, laminating the pages between twotwo thinthin filmsfilms ofof plastic increases their useful lifelife andand keepskeeps themthem cleanclean andand attractive.attractive. This usually has toto bebe donedone atat thethe pointpoint ofof production.production. Though laminatinglaminating machines are notnot veryvery expensive,expensive, there is unlikelyunlikely toto be enoughenough work toto justify having them widely distributed throughoutthroughout anan organisation.organisation. Newsletters These are a moremore informalinformal sourcesource ofof information.information. They are more widely distributed and may gogo outout toto activeactive participantsparticipants inin extensionextension programmesprogrammes andand be made available toto peoplepeople . whowho areare potentialpotential participants.participants. They are used toto circulate information on achievements oror problemsproblems within aa particularparticular areaarea ofof work. They provideprovide a forum for a regular exchange of ideas between enthusiastic workers in different locationslocations who maymay rarelyrarely meet.meet. Staff ofof all grades should be encouraged to contributecontribute and items should be printed in the vernacular if this is thethe languagelanguage inin whichwhich aa contributorcontributor cancan mostmost easilyeasily express himself oror herself.herself. Newsletters are often launched with a certaincertain degree of enthusiasmenthusiasm and later fade away as staff feel either they havehave nothing important to contribute or areare tootoo busybusy toto getget theirtheir informationinformation oror ideasideas downdown onon paper.paper. Emphasis should bebe placed, throughout the organisation, onon the value of thethe exchange of ideas and staffstaff shouldshould bebe creditedcredited andand perhapsperhaps rewardedrewarded inin cashcash or in theirtheir careercareer prospects for usefuluseful contributionscontributions to thethe knowledge of extensiextension,on, made inin thisthis way.way . - 68 - 7. WORKING WITH PEOPLE Extension services seek to help people toto makemake decisionsdecisions whichwhich shouldshould lead toto anan improvementimprovement inin theirtheir environmentenvironment andand standardstandard ofof livingliving andand toto assist them toto acquire thethe knowledgeknowledge andand skillsskills toto implementimplement thesethese decisions.decisions. To do this, theythey relyrely onon effectiveeffective communicationcommunication withwith thethe people.people. Extension staff mustmust,, therefore,therefore, bebe atat allall timestimes inin closeclose contactcontact withwith thethe communitycommunity and must acquire thethe characteristicscharacteristics andand skillsskills necessarynecessary toto workwork closelyclosely andand harmoniously with them.them. 77.1. 1 Personal characteristics requiredrequired To serve effectively inin anan extensionextension organisation,organisation, staffstaff mustmust have,have, oror develop progressively, thethe followingfollowing characteristics.characteristics. Creativity Extension staff shouldshould not proposepropose aa solutionsolution toto aa problemproblem justjust because it appears toto bebe thethe "stock"stock answer"answer" toto thethe situation.situation. They shouldshould thinkthink roundround thethe wholewhole situation,situation, trytry toto study thethe problem from everyevery possiblepossible angle,angle, e.g.e.g. environmental,environmental, technical,technical, cultural, and financial,financial, andand generategenerate aa numbernumber ofof possiblepossible lineslines of approach toto solvingsolving it.it. They should be willing to examine every possible solution suggested, develop any favourablefavourable points inin itit andand ifif necessarynecessary combine these with favourable aspects of other possible solutions. They should present new ideas or viewpoints for the people to examine critically and make theirtheir own decisions.decisions . As agents of change, they should, by their ownolm exampleexample of flexibility, try toto bringbring aboutabout constructiveconstructive changeschanges inin thethe wayway people thinkthink andand act.act. Initiative When aa situationsituation arisesarises they shouldshould try toto taketake appropriate action on it, using theirtheir ownown resources.resources. They shouldshould discussdiscuss allall developmentaldevelopmental problemsproblems with thethe locallocal community concerned and encourage them toto makemake anan appropriateappropriate decision for themselvesthemselves onon thethe basisbasis ofof existingexisting knowledgeknowledge andand skills. If the situation isis too complex for themthem toto givegive properproper adviceadvice they should define thethe problemproblem clearly,clearly, firstfirst forfor discussiondiscussion withwith the community,community, andand thenthen referrefer specificspecific pointspoints toto subject-mattersubject-matter or administration specialistsspecialists atat districtdistrict oror centralcentral level.level . This is notnot likelylikely toto happenhappen unlessunless thethe extensionextension staffstaff havehave confidence in themselves and are able and allowed to make decisions about theirtheir ownown work.work. Organisational ability The work of thethe extensionextension staffstaff themselvesthemselves must bebe well plannedplanned and organised,organised, if the locallocal peoplepeople andand theirtheir leadersleaders areare to support a programme ofof extension.extension. Good organisationorganisation leadsleads to thethe mostmost effective useuse ofof limited resources. Success in this area will increaseincrease thethe reputationreputation ofof thethe membersmembers of thethe extensionextension serviceservice andand thethe willingnesswillingness ofof peoplepeople toto seekseek out and follow theirtheir advice.advice. - 6969- - Problem-solving ability Extension staff must be able to recognise and define the essential elementselements of a problem,problem, and equally, recognise anyany extraneous ffactors actors which may bebe attachedattached to it by aa special interest group.group_ They shouldshould measure thethe problemproblem againstagainst theirtheir ownown knowledgeknowledge andand experience and, ifif possible, suggestsuggest solutionssolutions toto it. They shouldshould discussdiscuss thethe optionsoptions andand possiblepossible solutionssolutions withwith thethe community andand encourage themthem toto taketake anan appropriateappropriate decision. They should observe closelyclosely thet he factors which influence the community inin decisiondecision making,making, e.g.e.g. personalpersonal influence,influence, culturalcultural values, finance, and take these into account in makingmaking any further proposals.proposals. Judgement Extension staff shouldshould alwaysalways considerconsider thethe effecteffect whichwhich theirtheir actions, general behaviour and the languagelanguage they use, willwill havehave on thethe community.community. They must learnlearn thethe significancesignificance attachedattached toto certaincertain wordswords byby particular groupsgroups ofof people.people. They must exerciseexercise tacttact andand discretiondiscretion inin allall theirtheir dealings.dealings. They must never letlet theirtheir wordswords oror actionsactions arousearouse hostilityhostility to the general concept of self-help throughthrough extension.extension. Self-improvement Extension staff must followfollow thethe principleprinciple thatthat learninglearning isis a ccontinuousontinuous process for all people and applyapply itit conscientiouslyconscientiously toto thetheiri r own activities.activities. They shou1dshould taketake every opportunity ofof keeping theirtheir knowledge up-up to-date by private study,study, reading,reading, discussiondiscussion withwith knowledgeableknowledgeable persons and attending demonstrations ofof newnew techniques.techniques. Reliability Extension staff must be awareaware ofof thethe importanceimportance ofof keepingkeeping anyany promises they may make toto peoplepeople andand limitlimit theirtheir commitmentscommitments toto what theythey cancan bebe suresure ofof delivering.delivering. If they fail in this, confidence in them and in their orgorganisationa nisation may be destroyed, andand thisthis isis difficultdifficult toto restore.restore. It is unlikely thatthat aa candidatecandidate forfor aa postpost inin anan extensionextension serviceservice will have all thesethese desirabledesirable qualities, soso somesome discretiondiscretion isis necessarynecessary inin thethe process ofof selection.selection. The qualities can, however, be developed by trainingtraining experience and personalpersonal effort.effort. The rewardreward structurestructure ofof the organisationorganisation should consider improvementsimprovements inin skillskill inin thesethese fieldsfields asas importantimportant asas formalformal academic qualifications.qualifications. 7.2 Public speakingspeaking Extension staff mustmust expect toto have toto speakspeak frequentlyfrequently toto membersmembers ofof the public,public, formallyformally andand informally,informally, eithereither asas individualsindividuals oror groups.groups. To carry out thisthis functionfunction effectivelyeffectively theythey mustmust acquireacquire skillsskills inin speaking.speaking. The followingfollowing points may assist aa personperson toto becomebecome aa betterbetter speaker.speaker. A personal list ofof "things"things thatthat diddid notnot gogo well",well", preparedprepared immediatelyimmediately afterafter each talk, is,is, however, ofof most valuevalue inin improvingimproving speakingspeaking skills.skills. - 7070- - Ensure that what youyou havehave toto saysay isis ofof realreal interestinter est to that particular audience.audience . Take time to find out in advanceadvance thethe typetype of audience youyou have toto meet,meet, theirtheir knowledge,knowledge, if any,any, ofof thet he subject, andand what more theythey wantwant andand needneed toto knowknow aboutabout it.i t . List aa numbernumber ofof particularparticular pointspoints youyou wantwant toto cover.cover . MentionMention these to the audience at the outsetoutset soso theythey knowknow atat whichwhi ch pointpoint in thethe talktalk youyou areare asas itit proceeds,proceeds, andand whenwhen thethe endend is i s due. due. Constuct this listlist from the knowledgeknowledge or ideasideas youyou wantwant the audience toto carrycarry awayaway withwith themthem fromfrom thethe meeting.meeting. Do not apologiseapologise inin advanceadvance forfor what youyou maymay considerconsider to t o bebe your your shortcomings or limitations as a speaker.speaker. If you ddoo hhaveave any,any, itit is not necesarynecesary toto emphasiseemphasise themthem byby drawingdrawing attentionattention to t o them.t hem. If you considerconsider itit necessary,necessary., make suresure thatthat thethe personperson makingmaking the introductionintroduction isis suppliedsupplied withwith allall thethe necessarynecessary informationinformation on thethe topictopic andand onon thethe backgroundbackground ofof thethe speaker.speaker. Talk "to" the audience, but not "at""at" them.them . EstabliEstablishsh sympatheticsympa t het ic eye-contacteye-contact with aa numbernumber ofof themthem inin differentdi fferent partsparts ofof thet he room.room. Do not direct your attention to the wall, thethe ceiling,ceiling, or outout of the windows. Start with the confidence thatthat youyou can givegive aa goodgood talk,tal k, butbut makemake the necessary preparationspreparations toto justifyjustify this.this. Do notnot be be upsetupset byby temporarytemporary nervousness: even goodgood speakersspeakers cancan suffersuffer fromfrom this t his atat times.times . Speak naturally in a firm, clear voice, but do not shoutshout ata t your audience. Do not stand rigid but avoavoidi d using unnecessaryunnecessary gestures:ges tures: they will distract the audienceaudience andand mamayy even mamakeke yoyouu look foolish.foolish. Observe the faces ofof thethe peoplepeople inin thethe audienceaudience throughoutthroughout thethe talk. The facial expressions of the audience are the bbestest guideguide to thethe speakerspeaker ofof thethe success,success, oror otherwise,otherwise , ofof thethe talkt al k asas itit proceeds. These may indicate interest or lacklack of it,it, approvalapproval oror disapproval oror even boredom.boredom. Be sensitive toto thesethese clues.clues. Illustrate aa talk with personal examples, as appropriate, bbutut do not let it degenerate into gossip. Do not over-emphasiseover-emphasise yyourselfourself as an example.example. Never memorise aa speech, or even attemptattempt toto readread it.it. It willwill lose all freshness and impact.impact . There aarere considerableconsiderable differences between formal written languagelanguage andand thethe colloquialcol loquial language familiar to most audiences at extensionextension activities.activiti es. It is usefuluseful toto havehave smallsmall cardscards withwith clearclear headingsheadings andand aa fewfew key words as reminders of thethe contentcontent ofof eacheach section.section . Make useuse of anyany visualvisual aidsaids appropriateappropriat e toto thethe situation.situation. Not only willwi ll these addadd interestinterest to the talktalk butbut they willwill sserveerve asas very effective reminders, both to you and the audiencaudience,e , of the important points. Single sheets ofof thin paper are not suitablesuitable for useuse asas notes.not es. They are difficultdifficult to handlehandle unobtrusivelyunobtrusively and area re liableliabl e to t o rustle or blow away and so distractdistract thethe audience,audience, whichwhi ch addsadds to the speakerspeaker'sts nervousnessnervousness.. - 71 - Rehearse thethe talktalk toto yourselfyourself inin private.private. If possible,possible, recordrecord parts ofof itit onon videovideo oror onon audioaudio tapetape andand studystudy thesethese critically.critically. Avoid recordingrecording allall thethe material, however, as thisthis may tempttempt you to try toto memorise it.it. Try toto relaxrelax thethe audienceaudience atat first.first. This can be donedone byby anan interesting anecdote or aa short,short, relevant,relevant, story. These must,must, however, be well told or theythey willwill notnot havehave thethe desireddesired impactimpact and willwill tendtend toto increaseincrease thethe strainstrain betweenbetween thethe audienceaudience andand speaker. An alternativealternative isis to reviewreview brieflybriefly what youyou intendintend to covercover during thethe talk,talk, byby wayway ofof anan introduction.introduction. Make suresure thethe wholewhole audienceaudience cancan seesee andand hearhear youyou adequately.adequately. If some personspersons are standingstanding atat the rear, and there are seats available atat thethe front,front, inviteinvite themthem toto occupyoccupy them.them. This usually has a relaxingrelaxing effecteffect onon thethe audienceaudience inin general.general. Avoid "talking"talking down"down" toto anan audience.audience. Do not underestimateunderestimate thethe basic intelligence oror interest ofof the membersmembers inin manymany ruralrural matters. Dress suitablysuitably forfor thethe occasion:occasion: dodo notnot appearappear inin fieldfield dressdress forfor a formal occasion in town, or attend a formalformal meeting or a locallocal council lookinglooking asas ifif youyou hadhad justjust hadhad aa hardhard day'sday's workwork inin thethe field. Never "play"play down"down" aa membermember ofof thethe audience.audience. You will do yourself more damage thanthan the personperson you areare tryingtrying toto hurt.hurt. This isis especially important during question periods. Try to be courteous when someone asks a question you havehave justjust finishedfinished answering. Try not toto getget angryangry oror provoked,provoked, oror ifif youyou are,are, trytry not toto showshow it.it. Answer the question asas brieflybriefly asas circumstancescircumstances allow. It mightmight assist someone who has not fullyfully understoodunderstood youryou~ earlier answer.answer. Leave timetime forfor aa carefulcareful summing-upsumming-up atat thethe endend ofof thethe talk.talk. In it refer only to thethe majormajor pointspoints discussed;discussed ; do notnot attemptattempt toto give aa complete review. A detaileddetailed summnrysummary lastingl asting 7 to 8 minutes mamayy make the audience wonder why you had toto havehave an hourhour to make the points inin thethe firstfirst place.place. If youyou wishwish toto answeranswer questionsquestions atat thethe endend ofof thethe talktalk letlet thethe audience know aboutabout thisthis atat thethe beginning.beginning. They can thenthen holdhold over any questionsquestions theythey wantwant toto askask untiluntil thethe end.end. It may bebe embarrassingembarrassing forfor aa speakerspeaker notnot toto getget anyany questionsquestions after invitinginviting them.them. This cancan sometimessometimes .be.be overcomeovercome by usingusing thethe direct approach,approach, "Now"Now whowho hashas thethe firstfirst question?"question?" At large meetings,meetings, or wherewhere time does notnot permit individual questions, suggestsuggest thatthat peoplepeople whowho wouldwould likelike furtherfurther informationinformation come toto you after thethe meeting andand thatthat youyou willwill bebe happyhappy toto speakspeak with them.them. If a questionquestion isis difficultdifficult toto answer,answer, oror needsneeds aa littlelittle thought,thought, throw itit openopen toto thethe wholewhole audience.audience. Address it firstfirst toto thethe audience inin general.general. If you address a questionquestion toto oneone membermember ofof the audienceaudience he maymay bebe embarrassedembarrassed andand thethe audienceaudience willwill showshow - 72 - more interestinterest inin howhow hehe oror sheshe dealsdeals withwith itit thanthan thanthan withwith thethe question itself.itself. Review any suggestions you have receivedreceived fromfrom the audienceaudience and formulateformulate your answeranswer asas bestbest youyou can.can. If necessary, undertake toto givegive aa written answeranswer later.later. Bring the questions toto anan end before they run down andand becomebecome trivial oror irrelevant.irrelevant. An effectiveeffective way toto dodo thisthis isis toto say,say, "There isis time for justjust one more question",question", whichwhich allows you toto end the discussion after itit has been answered.answered. Try toto bebe asas briefbrief asas possiblepossible inin answeringanswering questions,questions, withoutwithout actually leaving outout valuablevaluable points.points. It is better to stop while the audience'saudience' s interest isis still high, than toto continuecontinue untiluntil they are bored andand restless.restless. Hand outout anyany printedprinted materialsmaterials atat thethe endend ofof thethe talk.talk. It is distracting toto have thethe audienceaudience rustlingrustling andand readingreading paperspapers theythey have just received while the talk is going on. If it is necessary to givegive outout materialsmaterials at anyany particularparticular pointpoint inin aa talk, stop talking, issue aa copy to everyone and study the specific pointpoint withwith them.them. Ask them toto putput awayaway thethe paperpaper andand then resumeresume thethe talk.talk. Avoid anyany distractingdistracting mannerisms.mannerisms. Do not fidgetfidget or fumblefumble with keys, coins or chalk. A fewfew minutesminutes in front of a video recorder, or even a tapetape recorder, may telltell youyou aa lotlot youyou diddid notnot know about youryour presentation.presentation. Be genuinelygenuinely enthusiastic about your topic and as optimistic or cheerful as the circumstances allow andand letlet thisthis enthusiasmenthusiasm spillspill over toto thethe audience.audience. Accept politelypolitely any comments the chairman may make about you in closing the meeting. Accept anyany reasonablereasonable invitationinvitation toto speak;speak; thethe practicepractice acquiredacquired will buildbuild upup youryour stockstock ofof referencereference materialmaterial andand increaseincrease youryour confidence andand skills.skills. \. ~ :~',:¥"< ..• . ' \> ~, \i " Always prepareprepare aa talktalk carefullycarefully nono mattermatter howhow informalinformal thethe situationsituation maymay bebe - 73 - - 7.3 Working withwith locallocal leadersleaders A major objective of any extensionextension programme mustmust be to establishestablish a llocalocal organisaorganisationtion which is capable,capable, both of implementingimplementing thethe programme,programme, and of ensuringensuring itsits continuationcontinuation afterafter anyany officialofficial supportsupport ends.ends. To achieveachieve ththis,is, extensionextension stafstafff must work through local leadersleaders.. There are never likely to be enough paidpaid staff, either to contactcontact all the peoplepeople whowho should paparticipaterticipate inin such a programme,programme, or toto influenceinfluence oror traintrain themthem effectively.effectively. For this,this, the co-operationco-operation ofof local leadersleaders isis essential.essential. In addition,addition, peoplepeople are likely to be suspicioussuspicious ofof anyany activityactivity whichwhich appearsappears toto by-passby-pass ththee local leadership,leadership, and thethe obstaclesobstacles which thisthis couldcould raiseraise might prove didisastrous.sastrous . The leaders,leaders, through which extensionextension staffstaff havehave to work,work, are bothboth formal and informal. Formal leaders are people who hold positions in society which carry somesome officialofficial statusstatus andand responsibillity.responsibillity. ByBy theirtheir influence,influence, andand ththee respectrespect in which they are held by the people, theythey cancan gain support for a programme.programme. Informal leaders areare people who, thoughthough theythey do notnot holdhold anyany ofofficial'positions,ficial· positions, are regardedregarded by theirtheir neighboursneighbours as responsible and prprudentudent people whose judgementjudgement andand adviceadvice areare valuedvalued locally.locally. If they adopt a new procedure, or expressexpress supportsupport for it, othersothers willwill followfollow theirtheir lead.lead. They can bebe ofof greatgreat valuevalue inin organisingorganising meetingsmeetings oror demonstrationsdemonstrations locallylocally and generally inin promotingpromoting andand encouragingencouraging thethe adoptionadoption ofof newnew ideas.ideas . The supposupportrt and assistanceassistance ofof bothboth typestypes ofof leaderleader isis essentialessential toto thethe successsuccess ofof a development programme. 77.3.1. 3.1 Formal leaders Some examples ofof formalformal leadersleaders whosewhose supportsupport isis importantimportant forfor successsuccess are:are - political leaders, such as members of thethe legislaturelegislature oror thethe cabinetcabinet,, or party officials at national or locallocal level;level; - cultural leaders,leaders, leaders of religiousreligious groups,groups, teachers inin public or private educationaleducational institutions;institutions ; - leaders of the administration,administration, officialsofficials ofof otherother governmentgovernment organisations e.g.e.g. agriculture, animal husbandry,husbandry, health oror community developmedevelopment;nt ; - traditional leaders, village or district chiefs,chiefs , leadersleaders ofof clans or communitycommuni ty groups; and, - special interest groups,groups , headsheads ofof locallocal developmentdevelopment groups,groups, businessmen, farmers' associations, womens'womens' or youth organisations. The support of these leadersl eaders can spread initiallyinitially through the organorganisationsi sations they represent and,and, inin time,time, throughthrough thethe generalgeneral communitycommunity whowho notenote anyany statementsstatements theythey maymay makemake onon thethe matter.matter. To secure theirtheir support itit is necessary, initially, toto ensureensure thatthat thethe leadersleaders areare fullyfully informedinformed onon thethe background andand reasonsreasons forfor anyany extensionextension proposalsproposals andand theirtheir relevancerelevance toto thethe particularparticular area.area. They shouldshould bebe encouragedencouraged to attendattend locallocal meetingsmeetings oror demonstrations bothboth to widen theirtheir knowledgeknowledge of thethe topictopic andand toto indicatei ndicate their support forfor it publicly. 7.3.2 Informal leaders These cancan normally bebe identifiedidentified byby maintaining closeclose contactcontact with the locallocal people over a wide rangerange ofof activitiesactivities andand observingobserving thosethose whowho meetmeet thethe followingfollowing criteria:criteria: - 74 - - show goodgood judgementjudgement inin thethe conductconduct ofof theirtheir ownown affairs;affairs; - possessposse ss considerableconside rable practicalpractical experienceexperience inin suchsuch activitiesactivities asa s farming,f a rming, animalanimal husbandryhusba ndry or or rural r ural development;devel opment; show anan interest in follfollowingowing nnewew practicespractices before the majority of thethe people;people ; seek out information onon newnew practicespractices inin anyany appropriateappropriate way;way ; have a reasonablereasonable standardstandard ofof wealthwealth anda nd education;education; - are unemotional,unemotional , andand convincedconvi nced onlyonl y byby facts;f acts; are able tot o speakspeak convincinglyconvincingl y to t o their t heir neighbours;neighbours; and, - are soughtsought out byby othersothers inin theirtheir groupgroup forfor opinionsopinions andand advice. Their support isis importantimportant ini n spreadingspreading anan interestinterest inin newnew activitiesactiviti es throughout theirtheir communities.communities. TheiTheirr asassitancesitance is mosmostt effctive if theythey cancan be persuaded toto carrycarry outout somesome appropriateappropr i ate activityactivit y onon theirtheir ownown andand thenthen actact as a leader inin spreadingspreading itit toto others.others. 7.3.3 Training locallocal leadersleade rs Local leaders, bothboth formalformal andand informal,inf ormal , should should bebe encouragedencour aged toto taket ake up any trainingtraining opportunitiesopportuni ties whichwhich mightmight improveimprove theirtheir leadershipleadership qualities.qualities . For formalformal leaders,leaders , trainingtraining shouldshoul d centre centre onon thethe generalgeneral requirementsrequirements of extensionextens ion and thethe broadbroad reasonsr easons forf or promotingpr omot ing oror adoptingadopt ing aa particularparticular coursecourse of action inin anan area.area. ThTheyey sshouldhould bbee supsuppliedplied wiwitht h any appropriate documents and be encouragedencouraged to speakspeak informativelyinformatively aaboutbout thet he matter on anyany suitablesuitable public occasion, and to show their interesti nterest by attending appropriaappropriatet e meetings, discussions oror demonstrations.demons trations. .InformalInformal leaders shouldshould bbee givegivenn all the approappropriatepriate informatioinformationn avaavailable"ilable but shouldshould alsoals o be be offeredoffered opportunitiesopport unities to attendattend coursescourses oror programmesprogrammes in:in: - how toto carrycarry outout particularparticular techniques;t echniques; - how toto organiseorganis e meetings meetings and and demonstrations; demonstrat ions; - how toto reconcilereconcil e or or justifyjustify nnewew practicespr act ices ini n termsterms ofof locallocal custcustomsoms and beliefs; aand,nd , how toto expressexpress thethe benefitsbe nefi t s ofof aa practicepract i ce inin termsterms thethe publicpublic can understand. In offering this assistance,assistance, however,however, extensionext ensi on staff must bebe carefulcareful to avoid creatingcreating thethe impressionimpression thatt hat thethe locall ocal leadersleaders areare particularlyparticularly favoured bbyy the organisation or areare inin anyany wayHay directlydirectly a a partpart ofof it.it. TheirTheir inmpartiality aandnd lleadershipeadership mamayy be compromisedcompromised if theythey are thoughtthought to t o be representatives of an officialofficial organisation.organi sa t ion. In spite of this, it isis importantimpor t ant to t o recogniser ecognise thethe servicesservices ofof informalinformal leaders in somesome ways.ways . They cancan bebe acknowledgedacknowledged byby pointing out their achievements to political or formalformal leaders,leaders , particularlyparticularl y in a speechspeech oonn a suitable public occasion, by sendingsending themthem lettersletters ofof thanksthanks forfor particularparticul a r services or byby recordingrecording theirtheir activitiesacti vi ties inin officialofficial reports.reports. Photographs and brief accounts of their wworkor k mmayay be displayed oonn bulletin boards or in wall newspapers.newspapers . They maymay alalsoso bebe included in partiesparties invitedinvited to makemake official tourstours oror visitsvisits toto suitablesuitable activities.act ivities. However, it must bebe mademade clear toto the publicpubli c that ththeyey areare informalinformal leaders, andand notnot in anyany wayway employedemployed,, or dependent on,on, thethe extensionext ens ion organisation.organisation. Some benefits which can aaccrueccrue to an extension organisation by developingdeveloping a network of locallocal voluntaryvolunt ary leadersleaders are:are: - 75 - theythey are an importantimportant source of detaileddetailed information on local customs, viewpoints, attitudes, etc; they in turn normally have goodgood contactscontacts withwith thethe locallocal peoplepeople whomwhom they can inform or influence on appropriate topics;topics; and, the viewsviews theythey expressexpress areare moremore likelylikely toto gaingain acceptanceacceptance locally than those of a paid extension assistant. Some problems which may arise in their use, however, are: the difficultydifficulty of findingfinding peoplepeople willingwilling toto take on thesethese responsibilities on a voluntary basis; and, - thethe need to ensure that thethe informationinformation and advice they give is accurate and genuinely available toto all.all, - 7676 -- 8. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP EXTENSION METHODS It is the task of forestryforestry extensionextension staff:staff: - to provideprovide peoplepeople withwith anan opportunityopportunity toto learn,learn, byby methods,methods, and in circumstances,circumstances, appropriateappropriate toto them;them; and, to stimulate in theirtheir clientsclients mental and physicalphysical activityactivity which leads toto effectiveeffective learning.learning. To achieve theirtheir objectives,objectives, forestryforestry extensionextension methodsmethods mustmust meetmeet thesethese two major requirements. People learn inin differentdifferent ways,ways, somesome byby listening,listening, somesome byby observing,observing, and some through discussion. A person will, generally, learn more effectively by using aa combinationcombination ofof twotwo oror moremore ofof thesethese methods.methods. Studies suggest that the more varied the methods of extension used in anan area,area, thethe more people changechange theirtheir attitudesattitudes andand practices.practices. Different extension methodsmethods havehave been found to be moremore effective,effective, in different situations, and atat differentdifferent stagesstages inin thethe adoptionadoption process.process. All people do not learn,learn, or changechange theirtheir practices,practices, atat thethe samesame speed.speed. Some may be ready to adopt a new practice and need to know how to carry it out, while others are, as yet,yet, scarcelyscarcely awareaware thatthat itit existsexists oror areare justjust beginningbeginning toto show an interest inin it.it. For thesethese reasons, thethe use ofof aa varietyvariety ofof extensionextension methods, suited to the needs of thethe people,people, andand usedused eithereither consecutivelyconsecutively or in some cases simultaneously, isis necessarynecessary toto carrycarry outout anan effectiveeffective forestryforestry extension programme. Appropriate methods which forestryforestry extension staff can use fallfall intointo three main categories: - individual methods; - group methods; and, - mass methods. Individual and group methods will be dealt with jointlyjointly in this section while mass methods followfollow inin thethe nextnext section.section. 8.1 Individual methods Individual, face-to-face, contact has been found to be the most effective way of facilitating the learning process in an individual. Personal contactscontacts havehave manymany importantimportant valuesvalues suchsuch as:as: the personal influence of an extensionextension agentagent isis importantimportant inin securing co-operation and participation in extension activities andand inin thethe adoptionadoption ofof improvedimproved practices;practices; - people will listenlisten toto thethe adviceadvice andand suggestionssuggestions ofof extensionextension staff whom theythey feelfeel theythey knowknow andand likelike personally,personally, andand whosewhose knowledge theythey respect;respect; and, - immediate feedback isis obtainedobtained onon whetherwhether thethe messagemessage hashas beenbeen understood in thethe sensesense intended.intended. These factors pose considerable problems for extension organisations in developing countries.countries. There are usuallyusually seriousserious shortagesshortages ofof maturemature andand experienced staff available forfor extensionextension dutiesduties andand thethe organisationsorganisations havehave to rely mainlymainly on young urban, recently qualified, people who lack a depth of field experienceexperience andand whowho find it difficult to establishestablish thethe trusttrust andand mutual respect necessary between thethe extensionextension staffstaff andand theirtheir clients.clients. This may be a particularly serious problemproblem inin communitiescommunities wherewhere therethere isis more respectrespect for - 77 -- age andand wisdomwisdom thanthan forfor formalformal education.education. The need toto move relativelyrelatively juniorjunior staffstaff atat short intervalsintervals toto widenwiden theirtheir experienceexperience and improveimprove theirtheir careercareer prospects,prospects, makesmakes it even more difficult for them to establish long-term relations with the people in theirtheir areaarea ofof work. On the other hand more maturemature staffstaff tend to preferprefer aa less activeactive rolerole andand areare normallynormally offeredoffered few incentives to take up such posts which often involve considerable travel and irregular hours ofof duty.duty. A smallsmall corecore ofof experienced and well rewarded staff assistinassistingg a larger,larger, more mobile, groupgroup ofof 1 younger and lessless experiencedexperienced peoplepeople may be the best thatthat manymany countriescountries cancan hopehope forfor at this stage.stage. 8.2 Home visits Some of the purposes oEof making home visits are: - to acquaintacquaint thethe extensionextension staffstaff (particularly new members)members) with the client and his family, to exchange traditional courtesies, and toto establishestablish aa friendlyfriendly workingworking relationship;relationship; to obtain first-hand knowledgeknowledge of the livingliving andand workingworking conditions ofof the client and hishis family, and thethe problemsproblems faced by them;them; to supply general informationinformation onon forestryforestry mattersmatters to that family; to answer specific requests for helphelp (e.g. requests for information, seeds, plants or other materials), whenever possible; to explain in detail,detail, and demonstrate where practicable, recommendedrecommended forestry practices (e.g.(e.g. nursery techniquestechniques or thethe establishmentestablishment ofof smallsmall woodlots);woodlots); - to adjust general recommendations on forestry practices given in pamphletspamphlets or in radio programmes to suit the person'sperson's particular situation oror problems;problems; - to followfollow up andand observeobserve thethe resultsresults ofof recommendedrecommended forestryforestry practices which have alreadyalready beenbeen adopted;adopted; to identifyidentify andand arousearouse interestinterest inin problemsproblems thethe personperson maymay not yet have recognisedrecognised asas such;such; to plan an activity such as a meeting oror demonstration;demonstration; - to invite thethe personperson and his familyfamily toto taketake partpart in a planned activity; or, to recruit,recruit, train,train, oror encourageencourage aa locallocal volunteervolunteer leaderleader toto organise or leadlead aa locallocal forestryforestry developmentdevelopment committee.committee. 8.2.1 Some features of home visits Some of the advantages ofof making homehome visitsvisits are:are: - thethe extensionextension staffstaff gaingain first-handfirst-hand knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe actualactual problems faced by theirtheir clientsclients and are able to see the circumstances in which theythey arise;arise; they help to develop thethe goodwillgoodwill andand confidenceconfidence ofof thethe familyfamily visited inin thethe extensionextension agentagent andand inin thethe adviceadvice given;given; and, - individual teaching provided in this way isis most effectiveeffective as it can taketake place inin thethe way, andand atat thethe speed,speed, mostmost suitedsuited toto - 7878 - the client.client. Some disadvantagesdisadvantages of home visitsvisits whichwhich cancan bebe avoidedavoided asas far as possible by goodgood planningplanning are:are: visits are expensiveexpensive inin termsterms ofof timetime andand transporttransport requiredrequired and can only be made at timestimes convenientconvenient toto the client;client; the numbernumber of people who cancan bebe contactedcontacted withinwi thin aa givengiven period isis limited;limited; a tendencytendency may develop toto visit somesome families,families, with whom good relations have been established, more frequently, at the expense of tryingtrying toto establishestablish betterbetter relationsrelations withwith others;others; and, this situation may result in loss of contact with the community as aa whole andand causecause jealousyjealousy andand resentmentresentment amongstamongst some members ofof it.it. 8.2.2 Checklist for planning a home visit ItTt is useful to have aa simple checklistchecklist of steps for planningplanning andand making home visits, toto ensureensure thatthat eacheach visitvisit isis effectiveeffective andand makesmakes thethe bestbest use ofof thethe timetime involved.involved. Such checklistschecklists will develop and improveimprove withwith local experience but some points which shouldshould appearappear inin anan initialinitial checklistchecklist are as follows.follows. Planning thethe visit:visit: - suggest a timetime convenientconvenient toto thethe person'sperson's workwork oror habits,habits, (e.g avoid clashing with thethe timetime ofof religiousreligious observances,observances, known festivals oror market days);days); - make aa firmfirm appointment,appointment, ifif possible;possible; decide inin advance onon aa clearclear purposepurpose forfor thethe visit;visit; - review any notes made followingfollowing previousprevious visitsvisits toto thethe person;person; check any technicaltechnical information that maymay bbee required on the visit, (refer to publications or to a subject-matter specialist, ifif necessary); - collect any pamphlets,pamphlets, instructionalinstructional materialmaterial oror samplessamples ofof seed to be left with the client; - arrange a seriesseries of visitsvisits within an areaarea toto save timetime andand travel and, if possible,possible, includeinclude otherother workwork inin thethe areaarea (e.g.(e.g. visits to offices)offices) duringduring periods of thethe day when peoplepeople are not normally available; and finally, - consider carefully in advance the bestbest formform ofof approachapproach toto each person. Making thethe visitvisit be punctual (or(or followfollow locallocal customcustom inin thisthis respect); give a suitablesuitable greeting to thethe clientclient andand his familyfamily inin thethe customary form;form; - try toto findfind somethingsomething to comment onon favourablyfavourably toto startstart thethe discussion; let the person and hishis familyfamily talktalk aboutabout theirtheir problemsproblems (at(at length, ifif necessary); - prompt themthem toto ask forfor possiblepossible solutionssolutions toto theirtheir problems;problems; - give any relevantrelevant informationinformation andand somesome suggestedsuggested solutionssolutions or admit where more information is needed before a responseresponse can be given; - demonstrate any skillskill required,required, ifif appropriate;appropriate; - confirm any essentialessential informationinformation inin writingwriting oror inin diagrams,diagrams, - 7979- - eithereither on the spot, oror asas soonsoon after asas possible;possible; make careful notes on whatwhat hashas beenbeen discusseddiscussed oror achievedachieved during thethe visit;visit; - encourage the family members to joinjoin inin anyany suitablesui table groupgroup extension activities in thethe area,area, if appropriate,appropriate, (e.g. to taktakee part in establishingestablishing aa communitycommunity woodlot);woodlot); and, - keep anyany informationinformation collectedcollected about thethe personperson seekingseeking helphelp strictly confidential,confidential, (do notnot leave notesnotes oror files lying around inin thethe office).office). Follm,Follow-up- up - enter the notesnotes mademade duringduring thethe visitvisit onon thethe recordrecord cardcard oror file kept for thatthat particular person, asas soonsoon afterafter thethe visitvisit as possible; - supply any forestry or otherother relevantrelevant literatureliterature requestedrequested byby the person visited;visited; (pass(pass on requestsrequests to other exextensiont ension organisations, e.g. agriculagriculture,ture , community development or health services ifif theirtheir help is required); - calIoncall on thethe assistanceassistance of a subject-mattersubject-matter specialistspecialist for advice on any problems which cannot be solved by local resources; and, - plan and arrange follow-upfollow-up visits asas required;required; notenote thesethese inin aa programme of work diary. 8.3 Office calls and enquiriesenquiries Encourage people who areare interestedinterested in forestry extension to call at the extension office if theythey areare inin thethe area,area, and set aside particularparticular timestimes of the week for these visits, if possible,possible, (e.g.(e.g. market days, whenwhen people areare likely to be inin thethe = area ratherrather thanthan onon theirtheir farms).farms). Train the office staff to receive visitors politely and either deal with simple requests for publications directly,directly, ifif theythey can, or rereferfer them to one of thethe extensionextension staff for more detailed discussions if necessary. Ensure that nonenone ofof the staffstaff abuse their positions by asking favours from the public for doing thisthis work.work. Some important considerations and suggestions for dealing with officeoffice calls and making the bestbest useuse ofof thethe timetime ofof thethe staffstaff areare asas follows:follows: people whowho calIoncall on their own initiative at a forestry extension agent's officeoffice oror homehome showshow thatthat theythey areare interestedinterested in his work and in any information he may havehave toto offer;offer; - the more confidence thethe peoplepeople havehave inin anan extensionextension agent,agent, thethe more likelylikely theythey areare toto callcalIon on himhim forfor assistanceassistance andand followfollow any advice or suggestionssuggestions hehe mightmight offer;offer; - thithiss may reduce thethe numbernumber ofof homehome visitsvisits necessarynecessary andand savesave both timetime and traveltravel costscosts ofof staff;staff; - circulars, brochures and handouts on relevantrelevant mattersmatters shouldshould be readily available toto suchsuch callerscallers (even(even ifif theythey dodo notnot needneed to discuss any particular pointspoints with thethe personperson inin charge);charge); - a definitedefinite periodperiod ofof time,time, oror dayday suitedsuited toto locallocal custom,custom, should be set asideaside forfor receivingreceiving suchsuch callers,callers, whowho shouldshould receive priority attentionattention byby thethe staffstaff atat thatthat time;time; - 8080- - - calls and enquiriesenquiries dealt withwith inin thisthis wayway areare lessless expensiveexpensive and timetime consumingconsuming thanthan homehome visits;visits; and, a careful record of officeoffice callscalls shouldshould be kept;kept; thisthis maymay serveserve as aa basisbasis forfor follow-upfollow-up activity or as anan indexindex ofof public interesti nterest oror participationparticipation inin anan extensionextension activity.activity. 8.4 Personal lettersletters Personal lettersletters maymay bebe ofof limitedlimited importanceimportance inin extensionextension activitiesactivities in somesome areas atat present,present, butbut theirtheir importancei mportance willwill increaseincrease asas literacyliteracy becomes widespread. People usuusuallyally derive some satisfaction or pleasure from receiving aa helpful, well-written,well-written, personal letter.letter. This, in itself,itself, maymay help toto establishestablish goodgood workingworking relationsrelations inin anan area.area. Letters are thethe main form of communicationcommunication bothboth withinwithin anan extensionextension organisationor ganisation and withwith otherother public organisations. All extension staff should try toto acquireacquire somesome skillskill in letter writingwriting.. Some points which shouldshould be taken intointo accountaccount inin thisthis respectrespect are:are : - some peoplepeople maymay havehave toto writewrite forfor informationinformation becausebecause itit isis not possible forfor themthem toto makemake aa personalpersonal call;call; - all suchsuch lettersletters shouldshould bebe answeredanswered promptlypromptly andand courteously;courteously; a wellwell constructedconstructed replyreply cancan createcreate aa Favourablefavourable impressionimpression and help buildbuild up public confidence in an extension organisation; a poorlypoorly written,written, or veryvery formalformal reply, can discouragediscourage aa person fromCrom writing again, and damage any developing confidence; information given inin a replyreply shouldshould bebe asas fullfull asas requiredrequired forfor the purpose but should not contain any unnecessaryunnecessary details or irrelevanirrelevantt facts;facts; if a complete reply cannotcannot bebe givengiven immediately,immediately, a short,short, friendly, acknowledgement should bebe sent,sent, and aa fullfull replyreply should be promisedpromised andand sentsent asas soon asas the informationinformation isis available; and finally,finally, - leletterstters should bebe concise, clear andand well laid out; if theythey are too longlong theythey areare likelylikely toto confuseconfuse thethe reader.reader. 8.4.1 Some features ofof lettersletters LetterLetterss are: - useful inin answeringanswering requestsrequests forfor informationinformation where aa personalpersonal cacalllIon on thet he enquirer is not considered necessarynecessary in the circumstances, or cannotcannot bebe made promptly;promptly; - useful forfor following-upfollowing-up visitsvisits oror officeoffice callscalls andand confirmingconfirming or reinforcing anyany adviceadvice givengiven orally;orally; and, useful inin maintainingmaintaining contactcontact with,with, andand encouraging,encouraging, local voluntaryvoluntary leadersleaders inin theirtheir activities.activities. They are:are: not in themselves considered to be a major source of information to rural people, or if used onon theirtheir own,o,m, ofof muchmuch value in changingchanging work practices;practices; - not of very greatgreat valuevalue asas extensionextension aidsaids inin countriescountries withoutwithout a reliablereliable postalpostal service,ser vice, or wherewhere ruralrural peoplepeople areare mainly illiterate; they may, however, be anan importantimportant means,means, andand inin somesome casescases the onlyonly effectiveeffective meansmeans ofof communicationcommunication betweenbetween scatteredscattered -81- 81 -- membersmembers of an extension service;service; and, - though they are an expensiveexpensive and not veryvery effectiveeffective means ofof maintaining contact with largelarge numbersnumbers ofof people, if used properly they can bebe usefuluseful inin establishingestablishing confidenceconfidence andand creating a good impressionimpression ofof anan extensionextension serviceservice inin general.general. Letters play a vital partpart inin transmittingtransmitting informationinformation from thethe public and fieldfield staffstaff inin anan extensionextension serviceservice toto administrators,administrators, researchresearch workers or policypolicy makers.makers. While people atat thethe fieldfield levellevel maymay havehave somesome difficultydifficulty in expressing themselves in formal language, they should not be discouraged from setting down theirtheir viewsviews onon paper.paper. More attention should be paid to the substance ofof theirtheir lettersletters thanthan toto thethe nicetiesniceties ofof language.language. Though somesome guidance should be given in thethe proper format ofof suchsuch letters,letters, thisthis shouldshould not receive so muchmuch emphasis thatthat it is likely to inhibitinhibit peoplepeople fromfrom writing. 8.5 Telephone calls Telephone calls are becoming increasingly popular in transacting business in developeddeveloped societiessocieties and,and, if usedused properly,properly, they can bebe veryvery valuable in explaining a situationsituation andand obtainingobtaining adviceadvice oror instructionsinstructions overover long distances withinwithin aa veryvery shortshort time.time. Staff should be trainedtrained toto make andand to receive telephonetelephone callscalls effectively.effectively. It should, however, be emphasised in training that there is no permanent record of whatwhat waswas said during a telephone callcall andand great carecare mustmust bebe taken to ensureensure thatthat allall detaileddetailed instructions given during one are fully understood. Where important instructions or decisions are givengiven duringduring aa telephonetelephone call,call, theythey shouldshould bebe followed by written confirmation asas soonsoon asas practicable.practicable. Some people are not good at "thinking"thinking on theirtheir feet"feet" andand therethere isis alwaysalways thethe possibilitypossibility that a decision may be made, or some advice givengiven onon thethe spurspur ofof thethe moment,moment, duringduring a telephonetelephone call,call, whichwhich maymay seemseem laterlater toto bebe unwise.unwise. If there is any doubt on eithereither ofof these points,points, it is betterbetter to avoid makingmaking anyany importantimportant decisions and arrangearrange to callcall back,back, afterafter givinggiving thethe mattermatter somesome furtherfurther consideration, oror to send a letterletter ifif thethe instructionsinstructions areare tootoo lengthylengthy oror detailed toto send by telephone.telephone. WhileI 8,5.18.,5.1 Some features ofof telephonetelephone callscalls The main purposes andand advantagesadvantages ofof telephonetelephone callscalls are:are: - they serve aa similarsimilar purposepurpose toto officeoffice calls,calls, whilewhile avoidingavoiding time spent on travel;travel; they are useful in requestingrequestIng and receiving specific information quickly, providedprovided itit is possiblepossible toto conveyconvey thethe information accurately byby wordword ofof mouthmouth alone;alone; they provide a quick means of following-upfollowing-up and evaluating the effectiveness of radioradio andand T.V.T. V. programmes,programmes, wherewhere thesethese areare widely used in extension activities;activities; and, they are useful forfor "sounding"sounding out"out" aa personperson onon aa suggestion,suggestion, before committing thethe proposalproposal toto aa letter;letter; Some of the disadvantages which areare always present and should be -82- 82 -- compensated for,for, asas farfar asas possible,possible, are:are: - face-to-face contact isis not possible,possible, thoughthough variationsvariations inin thethe tone of voice, or in the way of speakingspeaking may addadd meaningmeaning toto the message, if bothboth thethe sendersender andand receiverreceiver areare sufficientlysufficiently familiar with the languagelanguage and idiom beingbeing used;used; - many ruralrural areasareas lacklack anan efficientefficient telephonetelephone serviceservice and in some areas, fewfew peoplepeople have access toto aa service;service; - calls may taketake somesome timetime toto connectconnect andand thethe callercaller maymay be tiedtied to his desk while waiting forfor a connection; - poor reception may leadlead toto misunderstandings oror frustration;frustration; - it is a relatively expensiveexpensive means ofof communication;communication; and, - some members of thethe public may lack confidenceconfidence inin itsits use.use. 8.6 Informal contacts Informal contacts are based on casualcasual or chancechance meetingsmeetings betweenbetween extensionextension staffstaff and membersmembers of the public, which can be turned to good account by gathering information onon attitudesattitudes towards forestry extension in the area, or on problemsproblems facedfaced by thethe public.public. Although totallytotally unplanned,unplanned, they maymay provideprovide usefuluseful opportunitiesopportunities for exchanging information and forfor establishingestablishing public confidence in thethe extensionextension staff.staff. They are of most valuevalue in circumstances where peoplepeople do not livelive rigidlyrigidly byby the clock and appreciate ' the opportunity to talk informally with othersothers theythey meetmeet byby chance.chance. \ ,-."t -t If not usedused withwith care,care, however, they cancan , , i,-~ , seriously upsetupset aa programme ofof workwork for a t :.... • particular day.day. Staff should bebe encourgedencourged to use themthem withwith discretion,discretion, so that otherother members of the publicpublic will not get the impression thatthat they are "never"never out of thethe coffee shop". Some points toto consider,consider, andand suggestionssuggestions onon informalinformal contactscontacts are:are: - they provide many good opportunities for introducing extension ideas toto thethe public;public; - at placesplaces wherewhere peoplepeople gather informally (e.(e.g. g. at marketmarket - places or coffeecoffee shops),shops), discussiondiscussion ofof suchsuch mattersmatters isis normalnormal and socially acceptable; - they givegive extensionextension staffstaff notnot onlyonly anan opportunityopportunity toto learnlearn about otherother people'speople's viewsviews andand attitudesattitudes onon forestryforestry butbut alsoalso their wants,wants, needs and aspirations over a whole rangerange of topics; - they provideprovide members ofof the public with anan opportunityopportunity toto seek information or advice on aa matter which theythey mightmight feelfeel did not justifyjustify anan officeoffice callcall oror letter;letter; - they may assist inin establishingestablishing goodgood relationsrelations andand confidenceconfidence in thethe extensionextension staffstaff which willwill encourageencourage thethe publicpubl'ic toto make fullerfuller useuse ofof theirtheir servicesservices inin future;future; and, - they can bebe usedused toto "float" suggestions or ideas which thethe public, after furtherfurther discussion,discussion, maymay decidedecide toto adoptadopt later.later. - 83 - 8.7 Group Methods Group methods consistconsist of aa numbernumber ofof activitiesactivities inin whichwhich therethere areare direct personal contactscontacts between thethe extensionextension staffstaff andand thethe public,public, butbut notnot on aa one-to-oneone-to-one basis.basis . They include such importantimportant extensionextension activities as community meetings, method andand resultresult demonstrations,demonstrations, fieldfield daysdays andand tours.tours. Their principalprincipal valuevalue isis to assistassist people toto progressprogress from thethe interestinterest toto the trialtrial stagesstages ofof learning.learning . They provideprovide excellent opportunitiesopportunities for extensionextension staffstaff toto presentpresent informationinformation to a groupgroup ofof people,people, which is often one inia which therethere isis alreadyalready somesome commoncommon interestinterest or bond.bond . They alsoalso provideprovide opportunitiesopportunities for discussiondiscussion andand directdirect contactcontact betweenbetween the group members themselves and the extension staff.staff. This processprocess cancan assistassist people to reachreach aa decisiondecision toto taketake jointjoint action on aa problem. Groups include,include, butbut they also exclude, certain people and those excluded may feelfeel neglectedneglected oror slightedslighted and adopt a veryvery negativenegative attitudeattitude towardstowards thethe objectives of thethe group.group. This is aa pointpoint which requires very careful consideration in selecting or forming groups to promote extension activities.activities. Groups exclude as well asas include certain people Group methods are useful forfor a number ofof reasonsreasons suchsuch as: - to givegive oror receivereceive informationinformati on aboutabout aa proposedproposed extensionextension programme; - to help create a favourable attitudeattitude towardstowards aa programme; . - toto focusfocus attentionattention onon problemsproblems jointlyjointly affectingaffecting members ofof the group and possible forestry solutionssolutions toto them;them; - to createcreate awarenessawareness andand interestinterest inin aa particularparticular forestryforestry practice by describing it carefully and discussing its implications forfor the locallocal communitycommunity andand possiblepossible benefitsbenefits from it;it; - to encourage, advise andand traintrain communitycommunity leaders;leaders; and, - to demonstrate basic forestryforestry skillsskills atat aa convenientconvenient location.location. 8.7.1 Features of group methods Group methods are:are : - less expensiveexpensive thanthan individualindividual methods,methods, in termsterms of staff time and effort, to cover aa given numbernumber ofof people;people; - very effective, in thatthat attitudesattitudes andand decisionsdecisions arrived at by group discussion usually carrycarry more weightweight inin aa communitycommunity thanthan individual attitudes and decisions and are more likelylikely toto bebe widely adopted;adopted; andand,, - they areare ableable toto assistassist thethe learninglearning oror changechange processprocess ofof individuals byby the exchange of ideas andand experiencesexperiences betweenbetween members ofof thethe group.group. Some of the disadvantages ofof groupgroup methods, however,however, are:are: - it maymay take a long periodperiod of discussion for aa group ofof - 84 - people toto arrive atat aa decisiondecision onon aa matter;matter; - one or twotwo peoplepeople withwith strongly-heldstrongly-held divergent opinions maymay deflect thethe groupgroup fromfrom aa wisewise decision;decision; - because of differencesdifferences inin conditionsconditions andand interestsinterests ofof thethe group members, instruction inin forestryforestry practices cannotcannot always be related to the particular problems of each member; and, - it is notnot alwaysalways easyeasy toto getget allall thethe membersmembers ofof aa groupgroup ofof people together at the samesame timetime forfor discussion or action. The advantages,advantages, however,however, ofof groupgroup methodsmethods outweighoutweigh theirtheir limitationslimitations and they playplaya a mostmost importantimportant partpart inin extensionextension programmes.programmes. They usually lead to a much more rapidrapid spreadspread ofof informationinformation andand changechange ofof attitudesattitudes thanthan could be achievedachieved by theirtheir spreadspread fromfrom aa few isolatedisolated personspersons enjoyingenjoying individual contactscontacts with extensionextension staff.staff. 8.8 Group meetings These are oneone ofof thethe oldestoldest andand mostmost popularpopular methodsmethods ofof contactingcontacting andand communicating with people largely becausebecause theythey have been,been, forfor aa longlong time,time, aa familiar meansmeans of receiving andand discussing information of importanceimportance andand taking decisions, in many communities. They are also a very effectiveeffective method of spreading newnew ideasideas inin relationrelation toto theirtheir cost.cost. 8.8.1 Purposes of group meetings The main purposes ofof groupgroup meetingsmeetings are:are: - to introduce and discuss new ideasideas oror practices,practices, suchsuch asas thethe concepts of agroforestry or communitycommunity woodlots; - to create a favourable attitude towardstowards forestry asas a means ofof local community development; - to obtainobtain thethe opinionsopinions ofof somesome membersmembers ofof aa communitycommunity onon possible activities;activities; and, - to gain support for solving some local problems by means of suitable forestry extensionextension programmes.programmes. 8.8.2 Types of group meetings Common types of group meetingsmee~ings are: - community meetings open toto allall personspers ons willingwilling toto taketake partpart and usually aimed atat aa generalgeneral descriptiondescription andand discussiondiscussion ofof aa situation affecting the people; - special interest meetings toto serveserve thethe needsneeds ofof aa groupgroup withwith aa particular interestinterest in aa topic, or somesome special needneed for assistance; - meetings limited toto selectedselected individualsindividuals whowho havehave acceptedaccepted responsibility as leaders and need assistance in carryingcarrying outout their tasks;tasks; - training meetings to encourage,encourage, adviseadvise andand traintrain communitycommunity leaders on some specific topic;topic; and, - organisation meetings, andand planningplanning meetings,meetings, toto establishestablish thethe framework and procedures forfor carryingcarrying outout decisions.decisions. 8.8.3 Checklist and guidelines for improving thethe effectiveness of meetings Meetings, ifif theythey areare toto bebe effective,effective, mustmust bebe systematicallysystematically organisedorganised and conducted.conducted. For this a basicbasic checklistchecklist of tasks, which cancan soonsoon bebe modified on thethe basisbasis ofof experienceexperience toto suitsuit locallocal conditions,conditions, isis necessary.necessary. - 85 - Some of the factors which shouldshould be taken intointo account are as follows. Planning aa meeting: - after taking into account locallocal opinion, decide onon thethe purpose of the meeting and review the subject matter and the information available;available; - decide on thethe formform ofof meetingmeeting mostmost suitedsuited toto thethe objective,objective, e.g. a lecture or discussion, a largelarge oror smallsmall meeting, formalformal or informal procedure;procedure; - decide on thethe timetime ofof thethe meetingmeeting bothboth inin termsterms ofof dayday andand season; select a convenient time of day for the target audience and an appropriate season toto allow peoplepeople toto actact on any new information or on any decisions theythey may make; - decide on the place of the meeting, one thatthat isis familiarfamiliar toto local people, easy toto reach,reach, as comfortablecomfortable asas possiblepossible inin thethe circumstances andand inin aa locationlocation appropriateappropriate toto thethe subjectsubject forfor discussion; - make thethe necessarynecessary arrangementsarrangements toto reservereserve thethe meetingmeeting place,place, advertise the meeting widely, erect notices and signposts, if required, and arrangearrange parkingparking facilitiesfacilities for any vehiclesvehicles which may bring peoplepeople toto thethe meeting; arrange adequate seating, according to local custom or requirements. e.g. specialspecial seatsseats maymay bebe expectedexpected byby visitorsvisitors from urban areas; the audience mustmust be able toto hearhear andand seesee clearly; they must be reasonably comfortable by local standards and,and, inin somesome areas,areas, specialspecial seatingseating arrangementsarrangements maymay have toto be made forfor women andand childrenchildren attending;attending; and, - a chairmanchairman andand speakersspeakers must bebe arrangedarranged andand formallyformally invitedinvited to take part, somesome timetime in advance ofof thethe datedate selected;selected; theythey should be briefedbriefed fullyfully onon thethe purposepurpose ofof thethe meetingmeeting andand thethe background and numbers of the audience expected and suitablesuitable transport arrangedarranged for them, if necessary;necessary; they shouldshould bebe welcomed on arrival byby oneone ofof thethe organisersorganisers ofof thethe meetingmeeting and properlyproperly introducedintroduced toto thethe audience.audience. Group meetings should be held in a way and at a place appropriate to the topic and the customs ofof thethe peoplepeople - 86 - As manymany asas maymay bebe necessarynecessary ofof thethe followingfollowing arrangementsarrangements shouldshould bebe made priorprior toto thethe meeting:meeting: advance publicitypublicity toto attractattract aa sufficientsufficient numbernumber ofof peoplepeople toto attend; a public address system, if thethe meeting isis toto be a large one; - a competent interpreter, ifif necessary; - any visual aids which may be required by thethe speaker;speaker; - handouts onon thethe topictopic forfor thethe audience;audience; - food and refreshments,refreshments, at leastleast forfor thethe principalprincipal guests,guests, ifif this is appropriate; and, toilets forfor thethe audience.audience. Administration: arrange fundsfunds to cover thethe costcost of hiringhiring aa meetingmeeting placeplace and any equipment needed, advance publicity, handouts, refreshments, etc.;etce; arrange transport facilities and refreshmentsrefreshments for thethe guestsguests and staff required and inin somesome casescases forfor thethe audience;audience; - decide onon anan agenda oror programmeprogramme forfor thethe meeting;meeting; and, rehearse thethe arrangements and verify thatthat theythey areare adequate;adequate; for subsequent meetings itit shouldshould bebe possiblepossible toto rely,rely, toto somesome extent, on the experience of previous meetings,meetings, suitably modified. Holding thethe meeting:meeting: - arrange toto startstart onon time,time, (subject to locallocal customcustom inin thisthis respect); - observe locallocal customcustom inin thethe procedureprocedure forfor openingopening thethe meeting;meeting; - welcome thethe audience;audience; thank thethe hosts forfor arrangingarranging thethe meeting, oror forfor allowingallowing itit to be held inin thatthat particular place;place; - introduceintroduce thethe guestsguests who areare toto speak,speak, oror whowho areare presentpresent as observers, making sure theythey areare addressedaddressed byby their proper titles oror descriptions;descriptions ; - describe thethe purpose ofof thethe meetingmeeting andand outlineoutline thethe agenda;agenda; start the main partpart ofof thethe programmeprogramme asas promptlypromptly asas circum-circum stances permit;permit; at suitable pointspoints duringduring thethe meeting,meeting, encourageencourage questionsquestions andand discussion oEof thethe topics;topics; summarise thethe importantimportant pointspoints learnedlearned oror discussed;discussed; note and emphasiseemphasise anyany importantimportant decisionsdecisions taken;taken; and, distribute informationinformation or extension materialmaterIal on the subject to those present.present. Closing thethe meeting: thank the hosts, thethe guestguest speakersspeakers andand thethe chairmanchairman forfo·( theirtheir assistance; and, follow locallocal custom inin the procedure for winding upup the meeting. Follow-up The following points should receive attentionattelltion as soon as possible after the meeting:meeting: -87- 87 -- - arrange for thethe meeting place to be cleaned and for any chairs or other itemsitems borrowedborrowed toto bebe returned;returned; - send letters of thanksthanks toto thethe host, thethe chairman and thethe guest speakers; - record any decisions takentaken and assistance promised and taketake prompt action onon thesethese matters;matters; and, - arrange publicitypublicity inin the locallocal press and radioradio for the meeting, the principal viewsviews expressed, and any decisions taken. Ensure everything isis leftleft cleanclean andand tidytidy afterafter thethe meetingmeeting The use of visual aids, charts, diagrams or slides will greagreatlytly increase the understanding ofof most topicstopics andand thesethese shouldshould bebe usedused duringduring thethe meeting, oror displayed atat thethe meetingmeeting place,place, asas farfar asas circumstancescircumstances allow.allow. 8.9 Training and Visit systemsystem The Training and Visit system (T&V) is now much usedused inin certaincertain areasareas in agricultural extension and has beenbeen well coveredcovered inin literature.literature. Whether it can be adapted toto forestryforestry extensionextension dependsdepends onon locallocal circumstancescircumstances such as thethe number ofof peoplepeople willingwilling toto participateparticipate inin anan area,area, thethe nature of the work theythey wish toto undertake,undertake, andand thethe needneed oror justificationjustification forfor regularregular visitsvisits at shortshort intervalsintervals throughoutthroughout thethe year.year. Where thethe T&VT&V systemsystem isis beingbeing usedused for agricultureagriculture or otherother ruralrural extensionextension inin anan areaarea aa forestryforestry componentcomponent might well bebe builtbuilt intointo it.it. Use could then be mademade ofof existingexisting extensionextension staff who havehave alreadyalready establishedestablished goodgood workingworking relationsrelations withwith thethe locallocal people to spread information onon forestry practices or toto assistassist peoplepeople toto implement taskstasks alreadyalready commenced.commenced. 8.9.1 Organisation of the T&V syssystemtem Under thisthis systemsystem anan extensionextension assistantassistant arrangesarranges toto meetmeet aa numbernumber ofof participating farmers (perhaps(perhaps 88 toto 12)12) atat regularregular intervals,intervals, usuallyusually forfor oneone day every two weeks. The meeting timetime isis devoteddevoted toto discussiondiscussion ofof progressprogress in their normalnormal farming practices, problems that have arisenarisen oror can bebe foreseen and possible solutions to them, work requiringrequiring to bebe donedone inin · thethe - 88 - immediate future and anyany possiblepossible improvementsimprovements inin techniquestechniques suggestedsuggested byby research or by thethe studystudy ofof practicespractices inin otherother areas,areas, asas appropriate.appropriate. The meetings give the extension assistantassistant an opportunityopportunity to demonstrate new techniques oror tools on the land of one of thethe participatingparticipating farmers and to allow the group to practise if they so wish. The procedure promotes co-operation betweenbetween numbersnumbers ofof progressiveprogressive farmersfarmers inin anan area who cancan inin turn demonstrate improvedimproved procedures toto otherother farmersfarmers inin theirtheir localitylocality whowho are not members ofof thethe formalformal T&VT&V group.group. The extensionextension assistant,assistant, on thethe otherother hand,hand, J01llSjoins otherother assistantsassistants working withwith similar groups in the area for oneone dayday everyevery twotwo weeks on a training session provided by subjectsubject mattermatte~ officersofficers oror specialistsspecialists fromfrom thethe local district oror regionalregional agriculturalagricultural organisation.organisation. The attention ofof thisthis training groupgroup is directed toto appropriateappropriate activities for thethe participatingparticipating farmers in the area at thatthat seasonseason andand toto information,information, adviceadvice oror skillsskills theythey can offer toto improveimprove performanceperformance onon thethe farms.farms. If a membermember ofof thethe forestryforestry staff with appropriate skills and experience can be attached to the specialist staffstaff group providing this training at appropriate times of the year it may bebe possiblepossible toto integrateintegrate valuablevaluable forestryforestry practicespractices intointo thethe normal patternpattern of agricultural activitiesactivities in the area. 1 It is unlikely, however, that the opportunities or demand for assistance in forestryforestry matters would everever bebe sufficientlysufficiently greatgreat toto justifyjustify establishing such a largelarge teamteam ofof forestryforestry extensionextension staffstaff in an areaarea asas agricultural extension might require.require. Some local procedure for co-ordinating forestry and agricultural activities should bebe found.found. To try to establish a forestry T&V systemsystem runningrunning parellelparellel toto anan existingexisting agriculturalagricultural systemsystem would be expensiveexpensive inin staffstaff andand resourcesresources andand wouldwould leadlead to the possibilitypossibility of conflicting advice beingbeing offeredoffered to farmersfarmers byby enthusiasticenthusiastic fieldfield staff,staff, though this would not bebe thethe intentionintention ofof theirtheir centralcentral orgnisations.orgnisations. 8.10 Demonstrations Demonstrations normallynormally fallfall intointo twotwo categories:categories: result demonstrations,demonstrations, and method demonstrations.demonstrations. 8.10.1 Result demonstrations A resultresult demonstrationdemonstration showsshows whatwhat cancan bebe expectedexpected afterafter aa particularparticular forestry practicepractice hashas been inin useuse forfor aa certaincertain periodperiod ofof time.time. It is intended to stimulate interest in thethe practicepractice andand induceinduce peoplepeople toto learnlearn more aboutabout it and to give ititaa trial. The comparison between the oldold practice or technique and the newnew oneone isis anan essentialessential featurefeature ofof aa resultresult demonstration. The differences areare there toto bebe seenseen andand discusseddiscussed byby thethe group. Questions can be askedasked andand answeredanswered andand additionaladditional informationinformation onon thethe time taken, work involved andand the costs can be explainedex plained by thethe extensionextension staff. Result demonstrationsdemonstrations in forestry involve a much longerlonger timetime spanspan than in agriculture and it may onlyonly bebe possiblepossible toto showshm' somesome stagesstages inin thethe whole process.process. Some of the main purposes of resultresult demonstrationsdemonstrations are:are: - they provide evidence of thethe benefitsbenefits ofof adoptingadopting aa recomm-recomm ended forestry practice; they are an effectiveeffective method ofof introducingintroducing aa newnew topictopic oror idea in an extension campaign;campaign; -89- 89 -- - theythey appealappeal to thethe individual and help influenceinfluence thethe moremore sceptical members ofof aa group;group; - . they provide a goodgood sourcesource ofof informationinformation forfor discussiondiscussion atat further meetings, forfor newsnews stories,s t ories, pictures,pictures, radioradio talkstalks Oror interviews; - they can provide costcost datadata andand otherother basicbasic informationinformation onon thethe proposed methods; - a high percentagepercentage ofof thethe audienceaudience isis likelylikely toto understandunderstand thethe topic duedue to the combination of seeingseeing and hearinghearing andand thethe availability of additionaladditional explanations from staff members on the spotspot; - helping to organise thethe demonstration gives some of the group members the opportunity to develop .skills in community leadership; - they establishestablish aa feeling of confidence by the people inin thethe extension staffstaff andand inin extensionextension workwork inin general;general; and, - they provide a certaincertain amount ofof entertainment,entertainment, usually in a relaxed social atmosphere, whichwhich helps developdevelop aa community spirit. Some disadvantages ofof resultresult demonstrationsdemonstrations are:are: - they may bebe relativelyrelatively costlycostly toto organise,organise, particularlyparticularly ifif travel to the site is involved at the extension organisation's expense; and, - they take time to plan and carrycarry out,out, especially for forestry activities. Guidelines for result demonstrations It isis very important to build up locally a series of guidelines forfor organising demonstrations,demonstrations , to reviewreview thesethese carefully after eacheach demonstrationdemonstration andand to incorporate improvements based on thethe experience gained. If this is donedone thethe standard of organising and presenting demonstrations cancan improve grgreatlyeatly over a sshorthort period of time. Some useful guidelines to adopt initially are as follows. Decide on thethe purpose ofof thethe demonstration:demonstration: what it is intended toto prove;prove ; simplesimple clear-cutclear-cut comparisonscomparisons between treatments oror species area re easiereasier toto understandunderstand thanthan more complex demonstrations involving aa combination of treatmentst reatments or factors.factors. Gather thethe necessarynecessary information:information: - technical information based on thethe historyhistory andand costscosts ofof the work seen,seen, supplementedsupplemented byby anyany relevantrelevant informationinformation onon thethe technique gained fromfrom otherother areas;areas; and, - extensionextension information, taking into accountaccount anyany social,social, fin-fin ancial or administative barriers thatthat mightmight exist to the adoption ofof the practice in the area andand any waysways ofof overcom-overcom ing them,them, which cancan bebe referredreferred toto inin thethe demonstrationdemonstration oror discussion. - 9090- - Make a detailed plan:plan: - decide on who isis toto dodo what,what, where, when andand how;how; consider what evidence isis needed toto convinceconvince thethe communitycommunity and how proof ofof thisthis cancan bebe established;established; identify the area most suitedsuited forfor thethe demonstrationdemonstration andand thethe source of anyany materialsmaterials neededneeded (e.g. seeds, plants, tools, equipment, visualvisual aids,aids, etc.);etc.); - decide on thethe numbernumber ofof demonstratorsdemonstrators neededneeded andand theirtheir rolesroles in the demonstration; and, - prepare a written planplan coveringcovering thethe entireentire demonstrationdemonstration stepstep by step.step. Select and train thethe demonstrators:demonstrators: - consult with the communitycommunity leadersleaders toto arrangearrange thethe most conven-conven ient date andand timetime forfor thethe demonstration,demonstration, thethe personspersons toto taketake part inin itit andand thethe personspersons toto bebe invited;invited; - as farfar asas practicable,practicable , involveinvolve thethe locallocal peoplepeople soso theythey willwill be convincedconvinced of thethe suitabilitysui tabili ty andand valuevalue ofof thethe recommendedrecommended practices; - agreeagree on the procedures toto bebe adoptedadopted withwith thethe demonstratorsdemonstrators and givegive themthem thethe trainingtraining andand practicepractice requiredrequired ifif thisthis isis necessary; and, - rehearse the demonstratorsdemonstrators inin thethe partsparts theythey havehave toto playplay andand the staff who will describedescribe andand explainexplain thethe activity.activity. (This(This isis often thethe most difficultdifficult partpart ofof thethe wholewhole procedure;procedure; itit isis sometimes very difficult toto persuadepersuade locallocal demonstratorsdemonstrators toto practise sufficiently to achieve the smooth performance required for a convincing demonstration.)demonstration.) Publicisepublicise thethe demonstration: - do thisthis byby wordword ofof mouth,mouth, throughthrough locallocal leadersleaders andand otherother influential people; their endorsementendorsement of it willwill bebe ofof greatgreat value; - by lettersletters ofof invitation,invitation, posters,posters, press andand announcementsannouncements on the radio,radio, where possible;possible; and, make any arrangements for transport widely knownknown to the persons invited toto attend.attend . Conducting the demonstration: - welcome thethe personspersons attendingattending thethe demonstration;demonstration; thank thethe hostshosts forfor allowingallowing thethe demonstrationdemonstration toto taketake placeplace in that particular area;area; - explain the purposepurpose ofof thethe demonstrationdemonstration andand whywhy thethe practicepractice is believed toto bebe ofof valuevalue toto thethe people;people; introduce the persons whowho willwill dodo thethe demonstrations;demonstrations; - explain whatwhat they will dodo andand whatwhat thethe expectedexpected resultresult willwill be; - arrange a clearclear commentarycommentary soso that everyoneeveryone cancan understandunderstand what thethe demonstratorsdemonstrators areare doing;doing; - invite, and answer as fullyfully asas possible,possible, anyany questionsquestions fromfrom the audience;audience; notenote the names andand addressesaddresses of personspersons whowho cannot be given a fullfull answeranswer atat thethe timetime andand arrangearrange toto letlet them have one as soonsoon asas possible;possible; and, - distribute extension literature or materialsmaterials relevantrelevant toto thethe situation to those attending. - 9191 -- Supervise thethe demonstration:demonstration: recordrecord details of what tooktook place,place, anythinganything thatthat wentwent wrong,wrong, comments by the audience or other relevant observations, carefully, and use these as a means of improving futurefuture demonstrations; - prepare press and radio releases where appropriate;appropriate; - visit thethe demonstrationdemonstration areaarea asas oftenoften asas necessarynecessary afterwardsafterwards to maintain thethe demonstrators' interestinterest inin thethe procedure;procedure; check on thethe progressprogress ofof the demonstrationdemonstration area andand ensureensure that any subsequent treatmentstreatments areare properlyproperly carriedcarried out;out; take photographsphotographs both during the demonstration and at intervals afterwards to recordrecord thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe area;area; and,and - erect a signsign toto ensureensure continued publicpublic interest in thethe demonstration area. Complete the demonstration (after(after aa suitablesuitable periodperiod ofof time):time): - call aa meetingmeeting ofof leadersleaders andand peoplepeople toto examineexamine thethe resultsresults achieved; summarise the various steps takentaken duringduring thethe demonstration and the information recorded;recorded; - show photographs of various stagesstages in thethe developmentdevelopment andand prepare exhibits or displaysdis plays of thethe highlights; and, - distribute literature about thethe practicepractice demonstrated.demonstrated. Follow-up: - report to the the relevantr e levant authorities the results and the impact of thethe demonstrationdemonstration onon thethe community;community; publicise thethe results, through thethe locallocal presspress andand radio,radio, atat local meetings and during extension visits;visits; - askask influentialinfluential personspersons andand thethe demonstratorsdemonstrators themselvesthemselves toto speak about the results at any meetingsmeetings theythey may attend;attend; and,and, - use photographsphotographs and other visualvisual aidsaids toto presentpresent thethe evidenceevidence to other interested parties.parties. Other points toto considerconsider inin resultresult demonstrations:demonstrations: carry outout the demonstrationdemonstration onon private or communitycommunity landland rather thanthan onon governmentgovernment land,land, ifif thisthis isis possible;possible; local demonstrators should carry out as many of the operations as possible, with thethe helphelp oror guidanceguidance ofof the extenextensions ion staff;staff; complex demonstrationsdemonstrations should notnot be attempted until the demonstrators have acquired considerable skill, andand the confidence and understanding ofof thethe communitycommunity havehave beenbeen gainedgained by a series of simplersimpler demonstrations; - photographs, transparenciestransparencies andand filmsfilms maymay bebe usedused toto condensecondense "a resultresult demonstrationdemonstration extendingextending overover manymany months,months, or eveneven years, for showing to anan audienceaudience atat meetingsmeetings or onon otherother suitable occasions; - radio items,items, newspapernewspaper articles,articles, pamphlets,pamphlets, circularcircular lettersletters and talks supported by visualvisual aidsaids can be used to informinform people of thethe resultsresults of demonstrationsdemonstrations and of thethe successessuccesses of local persons, thusthus making thethe resultsresults moremore widelywidely known;known; - result demonstrations should be carefullycarefully plannedplanned inin viewview ofof their importance in getting an extension programme going successfully, their value in building confidence in the - 9292 -- extension staff andand of the time and effort needed to organise them. 8.10.2 Method demonstrations Method demonstrationsdemonstrations areare thethe oldestoldest formform ofof teaching.teaching. They are thethe basis of thethe apprenticeapprentice systemsystem whichwhich hashas trainedtrained skilledskilled craft-workerscraft-workers forfor many hundreds ofof years.years. In forestry extension, theythey cancan bebe used to showshow aa person how to do a job,job, suchsuch asas pottingpotting seedlingsseedlings oror plantingplanting trees, step by step until they have acquired sufficientsufficient proficiencyproficiency inin thethe task.task. The purposes of method demonstrations are: - to teachteach basicbasic forestryforestry skillsskills toto smallsmall groupsgroups ofof people;people; and, - to teachteach howhow toto dodo certaincertain things,things, (rather than why theythey should be done, as inin aa resultresult demonstration);demonstration); Some advantages of method demonstrations are:are: - it is possible to instruct a reasonablereasonable number of people in basic forestry skills at oneone time;time; people attendingattending can see,see, hear,bear, discuss,discuss, andand participateparticipate inin the demonstration; - this results in muchmuch moremore completecomplete learninglearning thanthan passivelypassively listening to a talk, eveneven ifif illustrationsillustrations areare usedused toto supportsupport it; and, - if properlyproperly carriedcarried out,Aemonstrationsout, demonstrations cancan generategenerate aa greatgreat deal of interestinterest and enthusiasmenthusiasm for a practice,practice, as wellwell asas providing the skills requiredrequired forfor it.it. Some disadvantages ofof method demonstrationsdemonstrations are:are: - if therethere areare tootoo manymany participantsparticipants somesome ofof themthem maymay bebe unableunable to hear andand seesee clearlyclearly whatwhat isis beingbeing demonstrateddemonstrated andand maymay adopt wrong techniquestechniques;; and, - many people may not be able toto practise thethe skill demonstrated adequately duedue toto shortageshortage ofof timetime oror facilities.facilities. It is important to draw a clear distinction between method demonstrations and training courses. Because of the numbers present and the timetime availableavailable atat method demonstrations,demonstrations, peoplepeople maymay gaingain onlyonly a superficial knowledge of the procedure and may, therefore, be unableunable toto applyapply it on their ownown successfully,successfully, withoutwithout additionaladditional training. ( There are limits toto what a person cancan learnlearn atat aa method demonstrationdemonstration -93- 93 -- Guidelines for method demonstrations Many ofof thethe pointspoints notednoted inin thethe guidelinesguidelines forfor resultresult demonstrationsdemonstrations apply equally well here and shouldshould bebe modifiedmodified toto suits uit locallocal conditions.conditions. This applies particularly to advance planning and publicity for the demonstration. Guidelines more specificspecific toto method demonstrations areare asas follows.follows. First decide on the objectivesobjectives and whatwhat shouldshould be covered byby the demonstration, (e.g. nursery establishment,establishment, seed sowing, tree planting). Then check these objectives against suchsuch questions as:as': - is the practice, and thethe way it is done, really important;important; - can people afford toto follow it in theirtheir present circumstances;circumstances; - are suppliessupplies ofof plantsplants oror materialsmaterials requiredrequired readilyreadily availableavailable in sufficientsufficient quantitiesquantities to allow itit to be adoptedadopted inin thethe area; - is all thethe informationinformation aboutabout thethe practicepractice readilyreadily availableavailable and fully understood byby thethe staff;staff; and, have anyany social,social, culturalcultural or economic problems beenbeen fullyfully discussed with thethe locallocal leaders?leaders? This matter of discussion with thethe locallocal leadersleaders isis importantimportant because:because: - it helps toto establishestablish liaisonliaison withwith them;them; - it helps toto securesecure theirtheir endorsementendorsement ofof thethe project;project; - it encourages themthem toto provideprovide landland oror otherother necessarynecessary facilit-facilit- ies for thethe demonstrationdemonstration wherewhere thesethese areare needed;needed; - it provides staff with a valuable opportunity ofof demonstratingdemonstrating the skillsskills toto thesethese importantimportant peoplepeople inin aa discreetdiscreet way;way; and, - itit· involves more people inin thethe demonstrationdemonstration andand encouragesencourages widespread discussiondiscussion ofof thethe project.project. Preparing and presentingpresenting thethe demonstration: - gather allall thethe necessarynecessary materialsmaterials requiredrequired (such(such asas soil, seed, seedlings,seedlings, pottingpotting bags,bags, fertiliser,fertiliser, etc.)etc.) inin convenientconvenient places; - decide onon each stepstep inin thethe operationoperation whichwhich mustmust bebe shown;shown; - instructinstruct thethe demonstratorsdemonstrators onon thethe correctcorrect performanceperformance ofof eacheach step in thethe operation;operation; - rehearse the presentation, whenever possible, at leastleast threethree times untiluntil thethe staffstaff areare thoroughlythoroughly familiarfamiliar with it, know the most suitablesuitable pacepace andand thethe timetime requiredrequired forfor it;it; - when peoplepeople havehave gatheredgathered toto watchwatch thethe demonstration,demonstration, welcomewelcome them and explain what isis toto bebe done.anddone, and whywhy itit isis importantimportant for themthem toto learnlearn thethe newnew method;method; - ask forfor volunteers fromfrom thethe audienceaudience toto assistassist ifif necessary;necessary; - gogo throughthrough thethe demonstration, explainingexplaining itit stepstep byby step,step, repeating difficultdifficult sté-pss ~s \when necessary; encourage thethe audienceaudience to'askto "Isk questions;questions; - check thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof thethe demonstrationsdemonstrations byby invitinginviting somesome of thethe audienceaudience toto trytry oneone oror moremore ofof thethe stepssteps involvedinvolved and discretely correctcorrect anyany errorserrors theythey maymay make;make; allow as much practicepractice by members of thethe audienceaudience asas circum-circum stances permit; - summarise the importance of thethe operation, the stepssteps involvedinvolved and thethe materials required;required; and, - distribute literatureliterature showingshowing thethe procedureprocedure stepstep byby step.step. - 94 - Some other points for considerationconsideration in planningplanning methodmethod demonstrationsdemonstrations are: - arrange a series of demonstrations at convenient sites if too many peoplepeople areare likelylikely toto attendattend oneone centralcentral demonstration;demonstration; - encourage local leadersleader s to supplementsupplement thesethese withwith moremore locallocal demonstrations; - demonstrations often result inin requestsrequests forfor follow-upfollow-up visitsvisits to an individualindividual person'sperson's land;land; ensure locallocal resourcesresources areare adequate toto meet thisthis demand;demand; poor demonstrationsdemonstratIons may destroydestroy people'speople's confidenceconfidence in thethe staff carrying themthem out;out; - demonstrations shouldshould bebe limited to the number «hichwhich can be properly plannedplanned andand carriedcarried outout withwith thethe resourcesresources available;available; - in evaluatingevaluating demonstrations,demonstrations, follow-upfollow-up visitsvisits shouldshould bebe mademade to check whetherwhether the peoplepeople have inin factfact learnedlearned thethe skillsskills demonstrated and havehave putput themtheln toto goodgood use;use; - a reportreport shouldshould bebe preparedprepared containingcontaining informationLnformation on thethe locations of demonstrationsdemonstrations conducted,conducted, the attendances,attendanceB, the subjects of thethe demonstrationsdemonstrations andand thethe resultsresults obtained;obtained; - actual materials, equipment andand peoplepeople areare thethe bestbest visualvisual aids toto use. 8.11 Field daysdays Field days are best held on landland belongingbelonging toto locallocal personspersons who<1ho havehave successfully adopted improvedimproved forestryforestry practices,practices, oror ifif thisthis isi s notnot possible,possible, on experimental stationsstations oror governmentgovernment demonstrationdemonstration centres.centres. 8.11.8.11.11 Purposes of fieldfield daysdays The main purposespurposes ofof fieldfield daysdays are:are: - to commence, or inspectinspect progress,progress, or observeobserve the outcomeoutcome of result demonstrations; and, - to see, by field demonstrations, thethe scientificscientific basisbasis onon which'\-lhich advisory work isis based.based. 88.11.2.11.2 Some consconsiderationsiderations in planning fieldfield daysdays Some factors ',hichwhich shoshoulduld be taken into account inin planningplanning field days are: - they are usually organised forfor limitedlimited groupsgroups ofof people;people; it is usual toto allowallow plentyplenty ofof timetime forfor discussions,discussions, quest-quest ions and Forfor a careful inspectioninspection oCof thethe area;a 'rea; - the number of peoplepeople invitedinvited shouldshould bebe limitedlimited toto thosethose whowho will benefit most from the visit and who are likely to be most effective inin supportingsupporting thethe extensionextension programme;progralUlUe; - the programme must bebe plannedplanned carefullycarefully toto obtainobtain thethe bestbest results for the time and expenditureeKpenditure involved;involved; - for a field day, adapt thethe checklistschecklists andand guidelinesguidelines forfor ext-ext ension meetings and resultresult oror methodmethod demonstrationsdemonstrations toto suitsuit the particular circumstances, and make the necessary preparations; - extension staff shouldshould limitlimit themselves toto introducing thethe hosts, and commenting brieflybrtefly andand favourably oonn the most important and successful aspectsaspects ofof theirtheir activities;activities; - the hostshosts shouldshould dodo most of thethe talking andand demonstrating during a fieldfield day;day; - 95 -- - extension staffstaff should bebe ready toto explainexplain any technicaltechnical points toto visitors inin termsterms theythey cancan understand;understand; at the conclusion of the briefingbriefing theythey should thank thethe hosts for their co-operation in making the field day possible andand thethe visitorsvisitors forfor attending;attending; at thethe endend ofof thethe visitvis it thethe extensionextension staffstaff shouldshould summarisesummarise the main pointspoints ofof thethe discussion;discussion; and, - distribute reading materials rrelatedelated ttoo any subjectssubjects raisedraised durinduringg thethe discussion,discussion, ifif available.available. The use thatthat cancan bebe mademade ofof fieldfield daysdays isis limitedlimited asas frequentfrequent visits may causecause an unacceptable inconvenienceinconvenience to the hosts or toto thethe experimentalexperimental stations and may interfereinterfere withwith theirtheir mainmain functionfunction · ofof research.research. 8.12 Field tripstrips and tourstours Field trips and tours can be reregardedgarded as a series of field demonstrations arranged inin sequence.sequence. They are extensionextension activitiesactivities whichwhich appeal to people'speople's desiredesire toto traveltravel andand tot o seesee thingsthings inin otherother areas.areas. On account of the expense involved, however,however , they cancan only be undertaken occasionally and must, therefore,therefore, be veryver y carefullycarefully plannedplanned andand carriedcarried out to gain the maximummaximum benefitbenefit fromfrom them.them. Activities which may be visitedvisited range from small demonstration oror testtest plotsplots tot o establishedestablished forestryforestry plantationsplantations oror industries as appropriate.appropriate. 8.12.1 Purposes of field tripstrips and tourstours Field trips:trips: - offer peoplepeople thethe opportunity to see for themselvesthemselves validvalid evidence of improved forestry practices in a number of different areas;areas; and, - may be devoteddevoted toto a singlesingle topictopic or toto aa varietyvariety ofof topics,topics, thus acacquaintingquainting the public, through theirtheir leaders,leaders, with several importantimportant aspectsaspects ofof aa forestryforestry extensionextension programme.programme. 8.12.2 Advantages ofof fieldfield tripstrips andand tourstours FieldField trips:trips : can presentpresent informationinformation inin aa clearclear way~lay toto enableenable thethe visitorsvisitors to understand the message;message; aand,nd , - considering theirtheir importantimportant educationaleducational impactimpact onon thethe membersmembers they may bebe amongstamongst thethe mostmost effectiveeffective andand economicaleconomical methodsmethods of teachingteaching thethe broaderbroader aspectsaspects ofof extension.extension. 8.128.12.3. 3 Guidelines inin arrangingarranging fieldfield tripstrips andand tourstours Some usefuluseful guidelinesguidelines in arrangingarranging effective field tripstrips andand tourstours are: - deciddecidee on thet he purposepurpose ofof thethe tour;tour; - consult local leadersleaders tot o selectselect placesplaces andand thingsthings toto bebe seen,seen, the time required forfor each visitvisit andand thethe peoplepeople toto bebe invited;invited; - work outout a detaileddetailed scheduleschedule ofof visits;visits; - visit the areaarea to inform the hosts onon thethe purposepurpose ofof the visit, and thethe numbernumber andand naturenature ofof thethe party;party; and, rehearse the tour to check thethe adequacyadequacy ofof thethe timetime allowedallowed for visits andand thethe arrangementsarrangements Corfor traveltravel andand accommodation.accommodation. - 96 - 8.12.4 Factors in planningplanning field trips and tours Some factors which should be takentaken into considerationconsideration in planning fieldfield trips and tourstours are:are: - smaller groups are more manageable thanthan largelarge groupsgroups andand thethe membersmembers ofof aa smallersmaller groupgroup may,may, therefore, get more benefitbenefit fromfrom a visit; - the maximum number any tourtour leaderleader shouldshould attempt to managemanage is 30 participants; - keep thethe partyparty togethertogether andand persuadepersuade themthem toto movemove quicklyquickly fromfrom point toto point;point; - use a smallsma ll portableportable megaphonemegaphone if necessary as an aidaid to holding thethe attentionattention ofof thethe participants;participants; - the extension staff shouldshould bebe preparedprepared toto provideprovide technical,technical, background andand interpretiveinterpretive informationinformation onon activitiesactivities visited.visited. LimiLimit t the members on aa fiefieldld trip to aa number the leader can manage 8.13 Panel discussions This is a processprocess byby whichwhich aa numbernumber ofof personspersons poolpool theirtheir knowledgeknowledge andand experiences or feelings, and through discussion and general agreement, clarify the issuesissues underunder consideration.consideration. The leaderleader ofof thethe discussiondiscussion groupgroup should serve as aa moderatormoderator ratherrather thanthan asas aa resourceresource person.person. He shouldshould ensure that every member gets aa reasonablereasonable chancechance toto bebe heard.heard. His function is to keep thethe discussiondiscussion movingmoving inin anan orderlyorderly manner.manner. He should discourage anyone, includingincluding himself,himself , fromfrom tryingtrying toto dominatedominate thethe discussion.discussion. Such a meeting could be usedused whenwhen a group of peoplepeople havehave alreadyalready acquiredacquired somesome knowledgeknowledge about thethe possibilities ofof undertaking anan extensionextens ion programme in an area and are consideringconsidering inin moremore detaildetail whatwhat theythey mightmight dodo aboutabout it.it. Another type of panel discussion muchmuch favoured atat present isis one in which a group of persons knowledgeableknowledgeable in a subject are assembledassembled and questions areare posed by membersmembers ofof thethe audience.audience. The members ofof the panelpanel express their opinionsopinions andand givegive suchsuch informationinformation asas theythey cancan onon thethe topic.topic. This is somewhat similar to a symposium discussion. The panel method consists, however)however, of a ratherrather informalinformal discussiondiscussion byby severalseveral expertsexperts on a number of more or less related topics, while a symposium has several speakers, each of whom givesgives a rather detaileddetailed and carefully prepared presentation of his views. In usingusing anyany of these methods the organisers must exercise great care in selecting membersmembers ofof the panel whowho can speak to thethe local audience in a levellevel ofof languagelanguage theythey cancan understand.understand. The object is toto assist thethe audienceaudience to havehave aa betterbetter understandingunderstanding ofof aa problem,problem, notnot to baffle themthem withwith thethe erudition ofof thethe panelpanel members.members. -97- 97 -- 8.14 Extension schools Extension schools are characterised byby thethe following features: they are designed toto givegive participantsparticipants knowledge and skillskill in some specific fieldfield ofof work;work; they nonnal1ynormally involve intensive training over a period ofof timetime (1 to 4 days is common); theythey cancan be located in any suitable rural training facility; they normally involve pre-enrolment procedures and anan obligation to attend all the sessions; they offeroffer an opportunityopportunity for the presentation of much informationinformation andand practicepractice toto a selected group of people with a special interest inin thethe topic;topic; - demonstrations, discussionsdiscussions andand the use ofof visualvisual aids,aids, add much toto theirtheir effectiveness; andand,, - periodic and terminalterminal evaluationsevaluations helphelp toto keepkeep thethe programmeprogramme realistic and provideprovide guidanceguidance inin conductingconducting futurefuture courses.courses. 8.15 Farmers' trainingtraining centrescentres Farmers' training centrescentres 'tolere,were, atat one time, a major featurefeature of ruralrural extension programmes inin some countriescountries but theythey havehave recentlyrecently fallenFallen inin popularity as it is often difficult for rural people to be absent from their homes for aa lengthylengthy period.period. Where theythey exist,exist, however,hm,ever, theythey cancan bebe usedused toto train peoplepeople in thethe ideasideas andand practicespractices of forestry, either as specific courses or as components of aa wider agriculturalagricultural course.course~ A farmers' trainingtraining centrecentre shouldshould provideprovide thethe followingfollowing facilities:facilities: - accommodation for 20 or moremore peoplepeople withwith residentialresidential andand dining facilities;facilities; training areas completecomplete withwith thethe necessarynecessary facilitiesfacilities and equipment, such as nurseries andand plantations;plantations; - courses inin appropriateappropriate topicstopics deviseddevised toto lastlast fromfrom 22 daysdays toto about 44 weeks;weeks; - clear objectives for each trainingtraining programme, such as to showsho<1 that farming and forestry cancan bebe carriedcarried outout together;together; - an aimaim toto createcreate inin thethe participants'participants I mindsminds thethe desiredesire toto apply thethe informationinformation acquiredacquired onon theirtheir ownown lands;lands; the facilities to teach themthem somesome ofof thethe jointjoint skillsskills requiredrequired in forestry and agriculture (e.g.(e.g. treetree farmingfarming integratedintegrated withwith grazing or growing cashcash crops);crops); - the facilitiesfacilities toto provideprovide bothboth thethe necessarynecessary theoreticaltheoretical andand practical training to achieve these objectives; and, - skill to provide leadership trainingtraining inin conjunctionconjunction withwith thesethese other activities. To fulfil thisthis role,role , farmers'farmers' trainingtraining centrescentres must bebe integratedintegrated with current extension programmesprogrammes toto thethe extentextent that:that: - subjects covered inin thethe trainingtraining contributecontribute toto thethe educationaleducational objectives includedincluded inin extensionextension programmes;programmes ; participants are selectedselected onon thethe basisbasis ofof theirtheir leadershipleadership potential andand throughthrough recognisedrecognised leaderleader recruitmentrecruitment processes;processes; and, participants, on completioncompletion ofof thethe training,training, areare utilisedutilised inin planning and implementing forestryforestry extensionextension programmes.programmes. - 9898 -- Where such centres exist and are having difficultydifficulty in attractingattracting sufficient candidates they may convert to trainingtraining and motivating young men and women whowho dodo notnot yetyet havehave thethe samesame workwork oror familyfamily tiesties asas olderolder personspersons and cancan devote thethe timetime toto undertakingundertaking shortshort trainingtraining programmes.programmes. - 99 - 9. MASS EXTENSIONEXTENSION METHODS As neither individualindividual nor group methods cancan reachreach everyoneeveryone who may want or need informationinformation onon forestryforestry extensionextension matters various methods ofof mass communication such asas print,print, broadcastbroadcast oror audio-visualaudio-visual methods are employedemployed to reach large numbers of people quickly andand often at low cost.cost. The information they convey must be,be, in most cases,cases, generalisedgeneralised but it can play an important rolerole inin certaincertain phasesphases ofof anan extensionextension campaign.campaign. 9.1 Functions of mamassss methods Mass methodsmethods are usedused forfor a varietyvariety ofof reasons which includeinclude the following: - they help carrycarry forestryforestry informationinformation toto manymany moremore peoplepeople inin aa short period ofof time than can bebe reachedreached byby individualindividual oror group methods;methods; - they help create general awareness and interestinterest inin a new topictopic or forestry activity;activity; - they help form favourable attitudes amongst thethe general public towards forestry extension programmes; and, - they provide helpful repetitionrepetition and reinforcementreinforcement ofof extensionextension messages toto thosethose alreadyalready contactedcontacted personallypersonally throughthrough individual or group methods;methods; 9.1.1 Features of mass media Some ofof thethe positivepositive featuresfeatures ofof massmass mediamedia are:are: - they can increaseincrease thethe impactimpact ofof extensionextension staffstaff inin thethe fieldfield by thethe rapidrapid spreadspread ofof information,information, though they involveinvolve nono personal contact;contact; - many moremore peoplepeople cancan bebe influenced,influenced, overover aa givengiven periodperiod ofof time, thanthan by individual oror groupgroup methods;methods; and, - news stories,stories, repeating basicallybasically the same informationinformation on radio, TV and inin presspress releases,releases, help thethe peoplepeople toto rememberremember the message. Some of the less favourable aspects of mass media which must bebe takentaken into account in planningplanning theirtheir useuse are:are: - comparatively few peoplepeople inin ruralrural areasareas inin developingdeveloping count-count ries have access toto newspapersnewspapers regularly;regularly; - the number of televisiontelevision sets in thesethese areas is also limited by national coveragecoverage andand cost;cost; and, the amount of detaileddetailed information,information, onon whichwhich peoplepeople cancan act,act, that can be transmittedtransmitted byby massmass media,media, isis limited.limited. Some examples of mass media andand thethe waysways inin whichwhich theythey cancan bebe usedused mostmost effectively areare ,considered considered below.below. 9.2 Circular lettersletters Some suggestions on writing official lettersletters are given in Section 8.4.1 and are generally relevant here, thoughthough circularcircular lettersletters forfor massmass useuse shouldshould generally be written inin aa lessless formalformal way.way. - 100 - Some of the purposes for which circular lettersletters may be used are: - to givegive advanceadvance warningwarning toto locallocal authoritiesauthorities andand communitycommunity leaders of anticipatedanticipated forestry problems, such as shortagesshortages of fuelwood,fuelwood, oror thethe dangerdanger ofof forestforest fires;fires; - to publicise an extension activity, suchsuch as a demonstration or meeting; to serve as a reminder to thethe audienceaudience ofof informationinformation oror advice given atat meetingsmeetings oror demonstrations;demonstrations; - to summarisesummarise thethe outcomeoutcome ofof a resultresult demonstrationdemonstration andand to carry news of thethe success of thethe demonstration toto a much wider public; - to inform people about a new forestry practicepractice which extension staff believebelieve would be of benefit toto peoplepeople in thethe area; to create awareness and interest in a new practice by reporting the results achieved locally;locally; and, - to reinforcereinforce thethe effectseffects ofof personalpersonal contactcontact methods,methods, suchsuch asas meetings or demonstrationsdemonstrations oror ofof otherother massmass mediamedia campaigns.campaigns. 9.2.1 Features of circularcircular lettersletters Some of the benefits ofof usingusing circularcircular lettersletters are:are: they areare simple andand relatively cheapcheap to produce in largelarge numbers, though postage charges may add to the cost considerably; and, - they can bebe keptkept byby thethe receiverreceiver andand studiedstudied repeatedly,repeatedly, ifif necessary, inin his ownown time.time. Some disadvantages of using circular letters which are worth considering are:are: - they are ofof valuevalue onlyonly toto thosethose whowho cancan readread reasonablyreasonably wellwell and who can understand the contents without furtherfurther explanation; - there are limits toto howhow muchmuch informationinformation cancan bebe effectivelyeffectively conveyed inin aa letter;letter; and, - satisfactory duplicating facilities and adequateadequate suppliessupplies ofof paper and envelopes are not alwaysalways readilyreadily available toto staffstaff in rural areas. 9.2.2 Checklist and guidelines for usingusing circularcircular lettersletters A simplesimple checklistchecklist andand guidelinesguidelines for preparingpreparing andand using circularcircular letters are:are: - appeal immediatelyimmediately toto thethe reader'sreader's personalpersonal interestinterest byby usingusing a strongstrong statementstatement inin thethe firstfirst paragraph;paragraph; - if possible, use a smallsmall illustrationillustration oror aa logo,logo, somewheresomewhere inin the letter, to reinforce thethe message; quote relevantrelevant Eactsfacts to supportsupport thethe messagemessage beingbeing conveyed,conveyed, e.g. each household needs aboutabout 44 tonstons ofof fuelwoodfuelwood eacheach year;year; - suggest something positive thethe readerreader cancan dodo aboutabout it;it; - be informal; use simple language and style and make it soundsound as ifif thethe writerwriter werewere talkingtalking toto thethe receiverreceiver inin aa friendly,friendly, helpful way;way; and, - cover only one subjectsubject inin eacheach letter.letter. - 101 - 9.3 Newspaper storiesstories SomeSome.of .of the functions of newspaper stories inin forestry extension are: - to create awareness of and interest in a new forestry topic of general interest to give advanceadvance warning or advice on importan;important forestry probprob- lems, such as shortages of building materials; to increase people's knowledge and understanding ofof new for-for estry techniques,techniques, e.g.e.g. controlled or rotationalrotational grazinggrazing inin forest areas; to create more favourable attitudes towards extension programmesprogrammes and new forestry techniques; to publicise extension meetings and demonstrations; and, - to inform people ofof waysways to save labour, time oror money by adopting new and betterbetter forestryforestry methods.methods . 9.3.1 Use of newspaper storiesstories Some of the advantages of using newspaper stories in extension campaigns are:are: - more peoplepeople l ~~ Rural peoplepeople tendtend toto place great reliance on what theythey readread inin newspapers Some of thethe disadvantagesdisadvantages of usingusing newspapernewspaper stories s tories which shouldshould bebe taken into account are:are: in rural areas inin developingdeveloping countriescountries many peoplepeople stillstill do not havehave easyeasy accessaccess toto newspapersnewspapers becausebecause ofof theirtheir costcost oror limited circulation; some people may notnot be able to read them withwith easeease or - 102102 -- pleasure,pleasure, particularlyparticularly if thethe productionproduction standardsstandards areare poor;poor; - editors oftenoften shortenshorten stories for theirthei r own reasonsreasons and thethe full informationincot'iuation intendedintended .may not bebe included;included; and,and , editors maymay omitami t Loto print a story atat anan importantimportant ttime, i.rne J without givinggiving anyany aoticel10t I ce orat' reasonreason forfor doingdoing so.so~ 9.3.29. 3.2 PlaPlanniagnnine newspaper storiesstories Some stepss teps toto. be consideredconsidered inin planningplanning aa newsnews storystory are:are: - determine thethe purposepurpose of:)( thei.::le story;story; -_. identifyIdentify thethe problem;problem; identify thethe targettarget readers;readers; - consider howhot' muchmuch theythey alreadyalready knowknow aboutabout thethe subject;subject ; considercons i der theirtheir attitude,attitude, ifif any,any, toto thethe subiect;subject; - decide what~'lhat youyou want~Y'ant themthem toto knowknOl.'1 oror do;do; - make sureG a o~ ther:~le informationinformation you give is .1.CGlacicatel C3.te andand practical;practical; - make suresure thethe timingtiming ofof thethe storystory ist:::; appropriate;':!l"fn'opriate; - use onlyonly informatioainformation directlydirectly relatedrelated toto thethe problem;problem ; - listlist thethe factsfacts inin logicallogical order;orrleL; - make a roughrough outlineoutline ofof thethe story;stot'y; - learn what the editoredi tor wantswants andand trytry toto meetmeet hishis oror herher needs;needs; and, - adoptadopt thethe stylestyle normallynormally usedused byby thatthat particularparticular paper,paper, soso thethe editoreditor will bebe encouragedencouraged tot o printprint itit withwith few,few, ifif any,any, cuts.cuts . 9.3.3 PriPrinciplesnciples of 'tY'ritingwriting for newspapersne\·lspa f,Jer .s Some important principles toto followfollow inin writingI ..,rit i.ng forfor newspapersnet-lspapers are:are: check thatthat thethe informationinformation isis accurateaccurate aad4,11 ini n. lineline withwith offic-offic ial policy; consider ifif thethe story,story, asas written,\rritten, soundssounds entirelyentirely convincing;convincing; - consider if thethe targettarget audienceaudience willwi,11 uaderstandunderstand itit inin thethe wayway it is presented;presented; - give thethe importanthnpor-tant factsfacts first,first, soso thatthat U:i thethe editorerl ttGr decidesdecides to cutcut the story due toto lacklack ofof space, at leastleast the mostmost important partsparts ofof thethe message willwill appear;appear; - the leading statemeatsst 9.3.9.3.44 Follow-up Some necessary stepssteps toto follow-upfollow-up aa newspaperne\ys paper storystory are:are: keep copiescopies ofof thethe articlearticle onon aa filefile andand showsho\-l themthem toto peoplepeople concerned wheneverwhenever possible;possible; - 103103- - - consider if thethe initialinitial storystory justifiesjustifie~ a follow-upfollo«-up story,story, after some time, describing any action taken or results achieved; and, mention the news storystory andand publicpublic reactionreact ion toto t t in routineroutine reports to senior staff.staff. 9.4 PosterPosterss A posterposter is usuausuallylly aa large sheet of paper or cardboard «ithwith an illustillustrationration and usually a few simplesimple words.«ords. They may,may, lessl ess commonly,commonly, be painted or enamelled metal which",vhich isis more durable butbllt muchTl1llch moremore expensive.expensive . 9.4.1 Functionsqunctions of posters Posters are intendedintended to:to : - catch the eye ofof passers-by;passers-by; - impress on them a factfact oror anan idea;idea ; and, - encouencouragerage themthem toto supportsupport anan idea,idell. 9.4.2 Design of posters Some simplesimple factorsfactor.s Loto bearbear inin mindmind inin thethe designdesi.gn ofof postersposters are:are: - a briefbrief glanceglance isi.s usuallyusually allall thatthat peoplepeople givegive toto aa poster,pos te r, just long enough toto identifyi.dentify it;it; - passers-bypassers-by will onlyonly' looklook longerlonger if somethingsoniething particularlyparticularly catchescatches their attention andand stimulatesstimulates theirtheir interest;interest; - the messagemessage on aa posterposter mustmust thereforetherefore bebe simple,simpl e, clearclear andand direct. A briefbrie f glance is all that people usually give toto a posterposter 9.4.3 SSuggesLiousuggestiou8 Lucrue po6tecpvsLe r d~stit=511-;it.i.5 n Some useful suggestionssuggestions forror designingdesigning postersposters are:are: - considerconstder who thethe audienceaudience will\>lill be;be; decidecidede what«hat itit is hoped they will do asas a l:esultresult ofof the campaign;campaign ; - put downdmm on aa sheetsheet ofof paperpaper words\v"Ords andand roughrough sketchessketches thatthat express thethe message simplyslmply andand clearly;clearly; - put the message intointo aa veryvery fewfeH words,(-lOrUS, asas aa concise,concise , strikingstrikine slogan; -104 - - visualise, and put into picturepicture forform,m, the central idea of the message; - make a rough sketchsketch of thethe posterposter onon aa smallsmall scale,scale, 1/31/3 or 1/51/5 of actual size initially; - use plain bold letteringlettering andand lineslines throughout;throughout; - use colourscolours toto attractattract attentionattention andand for.[01: contrast, but notnot soso that they causecause confusion;confusion; and, - do not crowd thethe letters,l etters, words"ords or illustrations. PostersPosters canlOan be produced inin quantityquant-ety byby letterpress,letterpress, by silk-silk-screen,s creen, byby some more expensiveexpensive duplicating 11lE\chines,machines, or by hand-workhand-work if1£ only a few are required. 9.4.4 Some considerations onon thethe useU'3C ofof postersposters Some other factors that ~houldshould be taken into account inin usingusing postersp~)8ters ~re:are: posters should supplemeatsupplement ~)Uthat shouldshould not aim toto replacereplace otherother extension methods; they are useful toto introduceintroduce oror launchlaunch aa campaign;campaign; - theythey can be used to reinforcereinforce a campaign after it hashas beenbeen sucessfully launched;launched; in general,general, the greatergreater the numbernumber of posters used inen anan area, thethe greatergreater thethe impact;impact; - over-use of posters, hm:>lever,however, defeatsdefeats theltheir r purposerurpose and may turnturn peoplepeople again.stagainst theth~ idea they are tryingtry.tnn to promote; - common sense'Jense andand goodgood tastetaste shouldshould dictatedictate bothboth wherewhere theythe y shoushouldl d be used and thethe numbernumb,, )': thatthai: shouldshould appearappear inin anyanyone one place; - posters can bebe putput apup onon noticenotice boards,boards, walll-Ia l L, of buildings,buildings, ffences,e nces, trees or inin otherothel~ suitablesuitable places,placep, providedprovided theythey dodo notaot cause offence to the ovmownere c of the property; (seek permission fromfrom thethe occupier,occupier, ifif inin doubt);doubt); and,a-'1d, - posterspoaters should:;hould bebe removedremoved wheawhen theythey havehave servedserved theirtheir purposepurpos e and beforebefore theyl:ltey becomebe come untidy,untidy, oror theyt he y maymay causecause offenceoffence toto passers-bpassers-by.y . Competitionsr::01u"[>cti ti0 l1G to ddesighe s i gn p Opos,~I l.: o...!r s open, open to to members members oEof thet he publicpublic or toto students,studeats, araree an excellentexcellent wayway ofof: generatinggenerating interesti nterest ini n a topic and ini n gaining an insight intolato hot'1how the people in a particularpart lClIlar area view and wish tot o represent an.an idea.ide a. HoTIoderate(lerate cashcash prizesprizes maymay -':lattractt t 'ract very largelarge numbersnumbers ofof .entries.e ntrie s . Such a competition some yyearse ars aagogo in East Africa featuredfea ture d lossloss ofof poteatialpotent ial "wealthealth as farfar more importantimpocta n t inin thethe viewvie" ofof locallocal peoplepeople thanthan lossloss of soilsailor or wildlifewildlife intn forestf orest fires.fires . 9.5 Wall newspapers These are generallygenerally similar in sizesi:~ e aadand appearanceappearance toto postersposters but theythey can be preparedpre pared inin variousvarious forms.forms . TheirlIle lr value depends toto someRome extentextent onon thethe level of literacy inL11 the areaarea in ',",hichwhich they area n~ asedIl s ed andand whethert'lhether theythey can be exhibited in placesplaces protected[>(oi:ected fromfrom thethe weatherweath(~ r where:dhe (' t?: they can remainremain on viewview foefor a reasonablereasonable period.period. They mayiUay be preparedprepared inin aa combinedcombined formEorm Hithwith aa portion used asas aa bulletinbulletin boardboard andand aa portionportion forfor photographsphotographs oror newspaperne\vspaper clippings of taterest"interest toto thethe public.public. 9.5.1 Some considerations onon thethe useuse ofof wall\"811 newspapersnewspapers - they usually attempt toto communicatecommunicate a number A typicaltypical wallwall newspapernewspa pe r forfor extensionextension purposespurposes maymay containcontain materialmaterial such as:as: - reports and picturespictures ofof meetings,meetings, demonstrations,demonstrations, tours Oror other current extensionextension activities;activities; - an announcementannouncement of the appointment ofof a newnew membermember ofof thethe extension staffstaff inin thethe district;district; a progressprogress reportreport with picturespictures onon communitycommunity plantationsplantations in the district;dist rict; an illustratedillustrated feature on thethe successsuccess ofof aa locallocal personperson inin some forestryforestry extensionextension activity;activity; or, an article urgingurging thethe communitycommunity toto preventprevent forestforest fires.fires. Printed mattermatter andand picturespictures displayeddisplayed inin'lall wall newspapersnewspapers maymay bebe sabjectsubj ect to copyright and prior arrangements maymay have to be made with thethe publisherspublishers for theirtheir use.use. This can usuallyusually bebe obtainedobtained butbut.it it maymay involveinvolve aa delaydelay before the material cancan bebe displayeddisplayed andand willwill almostalmost certainlycertainly requirerequire fullfull acknowledgementacknm.ledgement ofof thethe sourcesource fromfrom whichwhich itit waswas taken.taken. 9.6 Pamphlets and leafletsleaflets These materials cancan oftenoften bebe producedproduced locally,locally, quicklyquickly and cheaplycheaply and can be used inin many ways inin forestryforestry extensionextension programmes.programmes. 9.6.1 FunctionsFunctions of pamphletspamphlets and leafletsleaflets Some of the functions of pamphletspamphlets andand leafletsleaflets are:are: - they maymay be usedused asas singlesingle items, for example,example, to explainexplain proper treetree plantingplanting techniques;techniques; they may bebe usedused inin aa seriesseries coveringcovering broaderbroader topicstopics suchsuch asas woodlot estabestablishment,lishment, with separate leaflets on nursery establishment,establishment , seedlingseedling production,production, plantingplanting andand maintenancemaintenance of woodlots,modlots and fellingfelling andand sales;sales; - they maymay be usedused inin conjunctionconjuncti.on with otherother visualvisual aids atat meetings and demonstrations ini n long-termlong-term campaigns;campaigns; - they areare usefuluseful toto supplementsupplement largerlarger publicationspublications whenwhen newnew information is available but whenwhen reprintingreprinting ofof the whole"lhole publication isis notnot necessarynecessary oror practicable;practicable; andand,~ - they can be handed out after meetings andand offeredoffered toto listenerslistenerr, on radio programmesprogrammes toto supplementsupplement thethe informationinformatIon givengi\len inin thethe programme. - 106 -- teaUetsLeaflets can be handedhanded outout afterafter meetingsme etings oror demonstrationsdemonstrations 99.6.2. 6 .2 Advantages ooff usingusing pamphlets and leafleafle etst s Some advantageadvantagess ofDC thethe use ofof pamphletspamphlets and leafletsleaflets are:are: their production cost can be low, (simple(simpl'~ nnesones may be mimeographed);mimeographed) ; the timettllle required for preparationpreparation isis short;short; - they can get a message across toto thethe publicpuhLic quickly; - their small size andand generalgeneral layoutlayout encouragesencourages thethe writer'vriter toto elieliminateminate non-essential informationinformation fromfrorn thethe message;message; and, - they serveserve as aa lastinglasting reminderreminder oror furtherfurther explanationexplanation ofof matters,na tters a person may havehave heard about at a talk or demonstration. 9.6.3 GuidelinesGuiuelines for producingproducing pamphletspamphlets andand leafletsleaflets In preparingpreparing pamphletspamphlets andand leaflets,leaflets, aa writerIITiter should:should: keep the particular public for whom't",hom they are intended constantly inin mind;mind; - write\'lrite in a simplesimIJle formtorm andand inin wordswords thethe intendedintended readersreaders can understand;unders tand; - lwritev-rite about thingsthings thatthat interestintere!:;t mostmost ofof thethe people;people; - avoid difficultdifficult scientificsc.ief1tific and technicaltechnical terms, such as thethe specificspeclff.c names of plantsplants oror diseases;diseases; - use simplesimple illustrationsillustr::lt tons wheneverwhenever possible;possible; adopt a goodgood layout,layout) (i.e. arrange materialmater. tal in a simple)simple, logical, easy-to-follow mannermanner andand makemake itit attractive);attractive); realisticrealistIc illillustrationsustrations (Le.(i.e. pictures) are usually mostmost effective in extensionextension work,'.J'ork, though they area r e difficultdifficult to reproduce with simplesimple equipment;equipment ; - elearclear line drawingsdr al -- 107107 -- 9.7 Fact sheets Fact sheets are a condensed treatmtreatmentent of any items ofof subjecsubjectt mattermatter ofof general interest.interest. They ~suallyusually cover a single topic and are often limited to a singlesingle page.page. A factfact sheetsheet onon treetree plantingplanting will give,give , briefly,briefly, thethe most impor'tantimportant informationinformation on the practice.practlce. Most~'108t sheetssheets areare illustratedi.llustrated withwi'f:h drawings or photographs, sometimessometimes inin palepale outlineoutline andand overprintedoverprinted with text.text. Fact sheetssheets areare mainlymainly usedused toto provideprovide informationinformation onon curreatcurrent subjectsubject matter toto fieldfield workersworkers oror communitycommunity leaders.leaders. Essential facts fromf rom technical bulletins can be given, combinedcombined with drawings and/orand/or photographsphotographs toto make anan effective, easily readread andand understandableunderstandable summary,sUlmuary, whichwhich cancan bebe reproducedreproduced quickly and inexpensively.inexpensively. Extension administrators concerned with the problems of improvingimproving thethe communication of informationinformati on withinwithin an organisationorganisation shouldshould considerconsider carefullycarefully the advantages of usingusing factfact sheetssheets which1;vohich cancan bebe colour-codedcolour·-co(led forfor topics,topics, filed and, in time,time, builtbuilt apup intointo aa comprehensive volumevoluTile ofof informationinformation onOT1 current techniques.techniques. 9.8 Exhibits andand displaysdisplays The materials in exhibitions and displays haveha,,,, some.s ome of the same characteristics as postersposters (Section(Section 9.4).9.4). The difference is, however,hO 9.8.1 Functions of exhibitsexhibi.ts and displays Some of the major functionsfunctions ofof exhibitsexhibits andand displaysdisplays are:are: to catchcatch thethe attentionattentlon ofof passers-by,passers-by, oror visiLorsvisitors toto officesoffices or shows; - to impress oneone centralcentral ideaidea oror factfact onon them;them; - to stimulate theirtheir interestinterest inin thethe subjectsubject mattermatter presented;presented; - to urge themthem toto taketake somesome sortsort ofof action;action; and, - to establish goodgood relationsrelations betweenbetween membersmembers ofof thethe extensionextension staff and the public they meetmeet ini n connection with"'ith thesethese activities. Exhibits and displays often use realreal objectsobjects oror modelsmodels andand areare able to give much detailed informationinformation toto thet he public.public. They attract and hold the attention forfor longerlonger periodsperiods thanthan postersposters becausebecause theythey areare usuallyusually placedplaced in areas where peoplepeople movemove aboutabout moremore slowly.slowly. ForestryForest ry extensionextension exhibitsexhibits and displays can bebe usedused veryvery effectivelyeffectively inin thethe entranceentrance hallshalls ofof offices,offices, at locallocal fairs,fairs, agriculturalagricultural shows,shows) exhibitionsexhibitions markingmarking importantimpor.tant nationalnational events, or at forestryforestry activitiesactivities suchsuch asas ArborArbor Days.Days. 9.8.2 Guidelines inin preparingpreparing andand usingusing exhibitsexhibits and'in.} displaysdisplays SomeSoMe simplesimple initial guidelinesguidelines inIn preparingpl.~eparing and using exhibitsexhibits andand displaydisplays,s, which cancan bebe modifiedmodified byby locallocal experience,experience, are:are: - decide who thethe audieaceaudience will'Will be, andand whatwhat itit is hoped theythey will do; - decide onon thethe message;me s sage; the most effective exhibttsexhiblts areare builtbuilt roundround aa singlesingle ideaidea withwith the minimum of supportingsupportinB information;information; - the centracentrall ideaidea shouldshould standstand outout clearly;clearly; a combinatloncombination ofof real objects, m.od(~lsmodels andand diagrams,diagrams, with - 108 - suitabsuitablel e labels,labels , plus a bold sign or slogan,s logan, usuallyusually gets the message across;across; - something should beb" tncludedi ncluded "whichhlch relatesrelates the subject to the vieweviewers'rs' own interests, experiences oror needs; - the exhibit shouldsh ould covercover suchs u ch pointspoints asas what"hat thethe problemproblem is,is, what"hat cancan bebe donedone aboutabout it,it, andand whatwhat thethe benefitsbenefits willwill be;be; - the supportivesupportive information should be presented in the form of "why" and "how""how" toto dodo something;something; "before""before" . andand "after""after" photographs,photographs, with captions, can conveyconvey useful information;information; - thethe useuse ofof actualactual objectsobjects e.g.e.g. old and newnew tools,tools, models,models, drawings,drawings , specimensspecimens oror actualactual demonstrations,demonstrations, helpshelps greatlygreatly toto convey thethe message;message; and, - projected visualvisual aids (e.g.(e.g. backback projectionprojection ofof transparencies)transparencies) can bebe used inin conjunctionconjunction withwith thethe exhibitexhibit when,("hen appropriate.appropriate. 9.8.3 SSomeome other suggestions on exhibitse"hibits and displays Some other considerations andand suggestions "hwhichich shouldshould bebe taken into account inin planningplanning exhibitsexhibits andand displaysdisplays are:are: clutterclutte r is the worst"orst enemyenemy ofo f anan exhibitexhihIt oror display;display; the fewer elementse l ements in it, within reason,reason, thethe betterbetter itit is;is; -keep keep written materialmate rial toto aa minimum;minimum; useuse onlyonly enoughenough captionscaptions or signss igns toto telltell thethe story;story; (at fairsf airs etc.etc. attendantsattendants canca n offer additionaladditional explanations,explanations, ifi f necessary);necessary); vavaryry thethe size, style, and colourcolour of letteringl e ttering to createcreate interest and toto directdirec t attentionattention toto thethe centrecentre ofof interest;inte rest; uusese a colour scheme ofof 22 oror 33 colourscolours withwith neutralneutral shadesshades fOrfor ththee backgroundbackground and areasareas of intense colourcolour for points of interest; select colours to be usedused toto makemake thethe bestbest useuse ofof "au-auspicious"spicious" colourscolours and aVoidavoid -taboo""taboo" colours;colours; locate the centrecent re ofof interestinterest nearnear eyeeye levellevel (a(aboutbout 1.60m1. 60m high)high); ; items aboveab ove 2m or belowbelow lm1m highhigh willwill notnot bebe seenseen asas wellwell asas those closecloserr to eye level; by securingsecuring the co-operationco-operation ofof peoplepeople in producingproducing a fewfetv basic items for exhibits,exhibits, to be kept permanently in a locality,locali ty, or at a rural("ul·al training cecentre,ntre, extension staffstaff can bebe sparedspared thethe difficultdi. fficult taskt ask ofof carryingcarrying heavyheavy displaydisplay material fromfroln placeplace toto place;place; - time spents pent on preparingpreparing exhibitsexhibit s isis moremoce effectivelyeffectively usedused if the exhibitexhibi t cancan be usedused ata t moremore thanthan oneone place;place; - design andand constructconstruct eAlibitsexhibits andand displaysdisplays inin suchsuch aa aayX-laY thatthat theythey can easilyeasil y bebe dismantleddismantled and transportedtransported for re-use at other places;places; - ;vhenwhen displayeddisplayed atat a majormajor eventevent sachsuch asas aa fieldfield dayday oror a national exhibition, manymany peoplepeople cancan benefitbenefIt fromfrom it.it. 9.8.4 OrganisingOrganlsi.ng and presenting thethe exhibiteX~lih it or display Some pracpracticaltical pointspotnts in presentingpresenting an exhibit or0, display which can bebe further devdevelopede loped as locall ocal experienceexperience isis gained,gained, are:are: - selectselect a typetype ofof exhibitexhibit appropriateappropriate toto thethe activityactivity andand thethe situation;situation; make a written plan,plan, diagramdiagr.am oror modelmodel ofof thethe exhibit;exhibit ; - for large exhibits drawdraw aa planplan onon anan openopen floorfloor toto verifyverify thatthat visitorsvisi tors will behe ableable toto circulateci rculate freely;freely; - locate and arrange thethe materialsmate daI s required;required; - 109 - - outline their positions on thethe backingbackin~ materialHl.1.t2r:"ial inin crayoncrayon or paint so they can behe .removed' removed and replaced quickly and precisely asas required;required; fix allall valuableva/uable portablepOctable materialsmaterials securely to a base; (strong copper vlirewire is veryvery suitablesui table forEar thisthis purposepurpose andand isis generally unobtrusive);unobtrusive); - where appropriate, have someone to presentpresent andand explainexpla tn thethe exhibit andand answeranswer questions;questions; - havehave readingreading materialsmatecials availableavailable forfor distributiondistribution (or(or eveneven seedlings forfor distribution)distribution) L[j_.f appropriate; - keep aa bookbook toto recordrecord requestsrequests forfor furtherfurther informationinformation andand follow up allYaay contacts by letter, personal vistt or invitations toto meetings;meetings; and, - evaluate and reportreport onon thethe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof thethe exhibitexhibit andand thethe interestinterest itit aroused,aroused, and anyany successfulsuccessful follow-upfollow-up with'\ 9.9 Radio Radio is one ofof thethe fastest,fastest, most powerful,powerful, andand inin manymany countriescountries thethe only effective way,\Yay, ofof communicatingcommunicating with\¥ith thethe majoritymajority ofof ruralrural people.people. It carlcan be a very valuable andand inexpensiveinexpensl1l0 meansnleans ofof spreadingspreading anan unaerstandingunderstanding ofof forestry amongstamonest thethe people.people. 9.9.1 Purposes of radioradLo programmesprogrammes The main purposespu-rpOSe8 ofof radioradio programmesprogrannnes are:are: to createcreate awarenessali-lareness and interestinter.est inin conservationconservation or inin newnew forestry practices;practices ; - tota givegive earlyeacly warningwarning toto the publicpublic ofof possiblepossible forestryforestry problems; to inform the public about on-goingon-goine forestry extension activities; to stimulate peoplepeople toto contactcontact andand seekseek thethe adviceadvicp. ofof forestryfor.es try extension staff; and, - to help buildbuild interestinterest ini..n extensiones 9.9.29.9.2 Features ofor: radioradio programmes Some of thet he advantages ofof radioradlo programmespro8rammes are:are: - the messageme ssage reachesreaches the people moremore quicklyquickly thanI:',,,n printedprinted mamaterial, t e ri.al, which'i:l7hich takes time to bebe compiled, printed and distributed; - it reachesreaches peoplepeople ofof allall culturalcultural levelslevels whowho cancan understandunderstand t~H~the langualanguagege of transmission, at littlel'tttle or no cost to themselves; a foresteyforestry radio progrannneprogramme is not, normally, a costly extension method, as therethere isis oftenoften nono chargecharge forfor airai.r timetime ifif the topic is ofoE wide"lide publicpublic interest;interest; it is an extremelyextre!Ul?ly usefulLlsetul andand effectiveeffective methodmethod ofi)( communic-c:omnlUni.c- ating with\l7ith peoplepeople whowho areare notnot fullyfully literate;litet::';tte; and, - 1listeners Lstenet'l3 come toto likelike thethe personalitiespersonal tties whowho areare oftenoften heardheard on radioradio programmesprogramme8 and -- llO110 - Radio is an effectiveeffective methodmethod ofof communicating with'tvith peoplepeople who~Y'ho are notnot fullyfully literatelitera.te -. Some ofof the disadvantages oEof radioradio programmesprogrammes whichwhich mustmust behe borneborne inin mind are:are: the number.number ofof peoplepeople owning,owning, oror havinghaving accessaccess to,to, aa radioradio setset may be limitedlimited inin poor,poor, ruralrllral areas; there is no easyeasy meansmeans ofof 'telling' tell ing if1.f the message isis fullyfully understood by thethe listeners;listeners; and, -a messagemessage may promotepromote more lataresttnte.r.es t in aa topictopic thanthan localloc-l.l staff can conveniently handlehandle oror follow-upfollow-up atat thatthat time.time. 9.99.9.3. 3 Guidelines and checklist forfor recordingrecording a radio broadcastbroadcast Radio broadcasts are commonly recorded illin advance on tape, which('lhich enables them toto bebe editeded tted aqdand adjustedadjusted forfor timingtiming beforebefore beingbeing broadcast.broadcast. The procedure forfor doingdoing thisthiR cancan hebe usedused CorfO 'r anyany tapedtaped messagemessage whichwhich maymay thenthen be used inin conjunctionconjunction withlY'ith extensionextension meetingsmeetings andand activitiesactivities oror byby mobilemobile unin.unit~. (Section 6.7). The diariesdiaries andand fiefieldld noteGnotes ofof extensionextension staffstaff shoulds hould suggests U3gest manymany useful items forfor programmes. WlereWhere posible,possible, interviewsinterviews anti alld discussions(1 iscussions witht,lith llocalo cal personspersons or groupsgroups shouldshould bebe arranged.arranged. These enableenable thet he speakersspeakers toto relate their experiences inIn Cleteth{~ . i.!: ownOim words,Hords, whichwhich cancan bebe veryve ry convincingconvi.ncinz toto Itstlisteners.e ners. Some simple guideltnesgutdp.:l"tnes andand aa checklistchecklist forfor makingma k:tng aa tapetape recordingrecording are:are: - prepareprepare a ColderraIder ofof forestryforestry informaijoninformal: 1.OI'l and;;lnd ideasideas suitablesui table for broadcabroadcastingt;ti ng and keep it up-to-dateup-to-dat e with~Y i th regularregular additionB;additions; - decide onon thethe purposepurpose ofof anyany broadcastbroadcast beforebefore attemptingattempting to plan it in detall;detail; - didiscussscu ss the outline ofof anyany interviewinterview witht., itrt thethe speakerspeaker beforebefore recording it; explainexplain thethe reasonreason forfor thethe broadcast;brt)adc;:t~t; Fiadfind outout what he oror sheshe diddid andand what' object to being namednamed, i and that no criticism of thethe personpe"eson isis made duringduring thethe interview;inter view; tryouttry out some questionsquestions beforebefore recordingrecor:-dil18 andand ifif thethe speakerspeaker isis nervous oror flusteredflu ~-3t.f:"!1.·e(l rehearset"eh~an;e themthem toto givegive himhim conCidence;COTl ~ ldence; - 111 - - keep questionsquestions short aadand frameftOame themthem toto startstart with,with, ""how",how", ""what",-.;·]hat" , " (yhehere"re" and "when","'{yhen", to avoidavoid getting~etting aa seriesseri es ofof "yes""yes" or "no""no" answersans\Yer.s \whic.11Y'ht ch require another questionquestioa to get thethe interviewintervie\v goiaggoing again;again; - avoid using questionsquestions beginning "how"hm·] many" as thethe aasweranstJer may simply hebe a number,number, without any furthercurther explanation;explanation; - make thethe interviewintervie,. "personal persoaal by stressingstressing thethe termsterms "you""you" aadand ""yours"yours" in the interview; - avoid discussing thethe speaker'sspeaker. ' s privatepr Ivate affairs,af fa ~rs, especiallyespecial~ ly hishis cash income;income; - make an efforteffor.t toto showshow thethe speakerspeaker youyou areare interestedinterested inin him;him; listen carefully toto what heh e has toto say;say; - try toto give thethe impressionimpression ofof having anan informalInfomal chat;chat; keep the speakerspeaker on familiarfamiliar ground aadand dodo notnot surprises urprise him with awkwardawkward questions;quesi:tons; - encourage the speaker toto do most of thethe talking;talking; - make thethe questionsquestions realreal questions,questions, not long statements of the ' interviewer'sintervie'{.-ler's opLaioasop ~ nlons forcor thethe speakerspeaker toto confirmconfitlu or deny;deny; - do not put words'{..,orels Latointo thethe speaker'sspeaker's mouth; - straight subject-matter talkstalks by a knowledgeableknm.ledgeable andand respectedrespected person are ofof valuevalue inin introducingintroducing aa newnew idea,idea, providedprovided theythey are bbrief,·cief, well-planned, interesting, and in a level of language thethe listenerslisteners cancan understand;understand; - reports ofor: corestforest visits, demonstrationsdemonstrations or fieldfield daysdays andand anSHersanswers toto requestsrequests forcoc informationi nformation areare usefuluseful in newsnews andand magazine-typerl\agazine-type programmes.programmes. 9.9.4 Some technical potnn Some technicaltechnic~l poiatspotnts which should bebe notednoten inin makingmak.ing recordings, are as Eollows:(0110'"8; conduct interviewsintervie\\fs aada nd recordingsr.ecordings inin thethe person'sperson 's ownown area,a rea, 1if f poasible;pos sible; this overcomovercomeses the difficultydt ~ I: LenIty ofof gettinggetting the personpers on to a studiostudio wherewhere liseassion(1 ts,I':,lssion may bebe inhibitedinhibited byby thethe unfamiliar surroundsurroundings tnes andand the gadgetry;gadgetry; it may alsoal~o behe pos!J Lbl~ tno r.ecordrecord some realisticrealistic background'r>A.ck.zround noises toto incor-incor porate inin thethe programme;p cog~_'amlile; - ensure thnee perGoaper>]O!.l making,naking thethe recordingrecording knowskno\>ls howhow toto operateoperat e thethe tapet ape recorder;cecorder; - check that thethe recorderreCOrd8 "C is[8 operatingoperating correctlycorrectly beforebefore Gtartingstarting the interview;lnterview; and, ifLE background noisesnoiseG araree likelyl l ke ly to iinterferenterfere with the intervinterview,ie'{.-l, (A:.e.(e.g. ehildrenc11tldren playing),playing) , make the recordingr ecord i nR indoors, e.g.e.3. inin a barnb~rn oror aa hut.hut. If ththee basic interviewLl1l.:er v l ew material}j1aterial is provided,prov-tded, the producer of thethe programmepr ogramme auat tt%e',,, radiocadio stationstation willHill normallynormall:J arrange"Hange allall the introduction, contcontinuityi nuity announcementsannouncements .., and music necessary to producepcod uce a well-well t., . balanced programmeprogram,ne iatn thethe normalnormal formatformat ofof ';..1.kg, ;..1 the statioa.statlnn. It should not be necessarynecessary forfoe / 1..... exteasioaextens ton staffsi:a.f [ toto tackletackle thisthi s stagestage 1:: of l:1 1 -~ \: workt\fo rk themselves.themselves. ?:7-'7:JvideovlJe. the basic materiallnaterial forf or professionalr r ofessional producers toto work on - 112lU -- 9.9.5 Some considerations aadand suggestionssuggestions Some considerations andand suggestionssuggeG tions inin preparingpreparing radioradio programmesprogrammes are:are: - researchresearch hashas shownshmm thatthat peoplepeople tendtend totn believebelieve whatwhat theythey hearhear on the radio;radio; the mass media, whicht-ll-ti ch includes radio, rank aass the mostf(lOSt effective media in the a~"arenessawareness and interest stages of learning;learning; heartnghearing friendsfriends andand neighboursneighbours speaks peak onon thethe radioradio increaseaincreases aaan extensionext ensIon programme'sprogramme '8 influence in thethe evaluation,evaluation, trialtrial andand adoption stagesstages ofof learning;learning; - if there is a choice,choice, thethe earlyearly adopters,adopter.s , oror informalinformal leaders,leaders, should be interviewedinterv iewed ratherrather thanthan thethe innovators,innovators, whotvho maymay bebe regarded as tootoo progressiveprogressive by somesome ofof theirtheir neighbours;neighbo1lt'S; - good interviews requirerequire careful thought and planning but cancan be re-usedre-used severalseveral timestimes atat meetings; - extension staff cancan provideprovi.de a radio stationstation withHith recordedrecorde.d spotspot announcements or radio plugs to be repeated at frequent intervals during thethe day;day; consider the listeninglistening habits of the people,people, (determined(determined by surveys),sur veys), when planning an extensionextension programme by means ofof radio and select broadcastingbroadcasting timestimes appropriateappropriate toto these;these; relate the scripts toto thethe experiencesexperiences and needsneeds ofof thethe locallocal people; - advertise thethe nextnext similarsImilar radioradio programmeprogramme byby anaouncingannouncing thethe subject andand who will be interviewed before closing each programme; and, - be selective andand take advice from professionals;professionals; not all extension information isis necessarilynecessarily goodgood radioradio material.material. 9.10 Television Television adds both visionvision andand movementmovement toto broadcastingbroadcasting andand inin manymany areas it can now also add colour.colour. These qualities greatly increaseincrease itsits valuevalue as a forestry extension technique,technique, where anan effectiveeffective TVTV serviceservice existsexists andand where therethere areare sufficientsufficient setssets to covercover a reasonable proportion ofof the population. This stagestage has,has , unfortunately,unfortunately, not yet beenbeen reachedreached inin manymany developing countries andand its spread to ruralrural areasareas maymay taketake severalseveral years.years. In otherother countries,countries, however,however, TVTV isis playingplaying anan increasinglyincreasingly importantimportant role.role. Sets have beenbeen installedinstalled inin suitablesuitable ruralrural locationslocations atat governmentgovernment expense,expense, to enableenable largelarge numbersnumbers ofof peoplepeople toto receivereceive broadcastsbroadcasts ofof educationaleducational andand entertainment value.value. 9.10.1 Uses of TV in extension On national networks, forestryforestry itemsitems may occupyoccupy aa relativelyrelatively minorminor partpart of thethe programmeprogramme schedule.schedule. They may appearappear asas occasionaloccasional generalgeneral interestinterest programmes, features to support the awarenessaHareness and iinterestnterest phases of extension campaigns, oror asas reportsreports onon outstandingoutstanding achievementsachievements inin forestry.rorestry. TV can, however, plaplayya a major rolerole inin trainingtraining extensionextension staffstaff andand inin promoting extension work inin ruralrural areas.areas. It may soonsoon not only taketake overover thethe role ofof cinemacinema filmsfilms inin extension,extension, butbut alsoalso greatlygreatly widenwiden theirtheir scopescope byby presenting more immediateimmediate andand localisedlocalised materialmaterial Eorfor training.training. UsUsinging simplesimple video recorders of variousvarious types,types, which'tvhich areare discusseddiscussed inin SectionSection 6.2.4,6.2.4, itit enables extension staffstaf f toto monitormonitor theirtheir ownmm performanceperformance asas extensionists,extensionists, inin a widewide varietyvariety ofof situations.situations. It can alsoalso enable the person to study critically, and at leisure,leisure, thethe reactionsreactions ofof thethe audienceaudience toto hishis performance,performance, based on facialfacial expressions,expressions, bodybody movementsmoveInent~ oror reactionsreactions toto statementsstatement s andand - 113 -- questions raisedraised duringduri ng thethe meeting.Ineeting. Even simple recordings,recordings, which are not iatendedintended for wider showing,shmJing, can bebe ofof great3reat assistanceassistance bothboth inin improvingimproving thethe performance of thethe lastructorinstrllci:or andand inin assessingassessing thethe interestinterest andand valuevalue ofof thethe material beingbeing covered.covered. HoreMore professtociallypro f ess tonally produced material can be1):= usedIPJed asas shortshort programmesprogrammes for eitheitherer instructionali..n s tructional staffstaff or theirthei. r clientscllents duringduring shortshort sessions,sessions) eithere i.tller in the morning oro r eveaiag,even.i. ~ l':L soso providing aa properlyproperly structuredstructured coursecourse ofof study over a relativelyrelatively shortshort period,period, withoutwithout thethe lossloss ofo f workingworking timetime involvedinvo·t veu. inin a residential ccourse.o urse 0 RecordincYsRe cordings can be made of:) r: resultr · ~~.;ul t oorr method demonstrations, cOcompressingj nfJ-c:~~ :;s ing i:la lelengthyng thy period of time Latointo an hour or so, or demonsteatingdt~l!ll)f1sj.: :::,at in g a techniquetechnique skilfullyskilfully aadand withwith allall the necessarynecessary resoarces.reSOlu'ces. These can be~)!~ shshownovm aoas shortshort programmes of0 C rouroughlyghly ttJentytwenty minutesminutes each followedfollmJed by discussiondiscIl.sslon and aa reviewreview oror furtherfurther demonstrationdemonstration ifif required,required. 9.10.29.11).2 GuidelinesGuidelines forfor prepaciagpreparing TVi'V materialmaterial lniInitially, tially, arrangemeat:;a rrange ! nl~!l i.:;.:; (()for r preparingpreparing aa TVTV programmeprogramme l'!either ~ i:1t '= (' fforor showingshowing to a nationalnational audience or forrot' useu se asas aa videovided cassettecasseti:e Lat il trataingt r~ aJ.f\ing smallersmaller groups area ce beGtbest handledhandled byby thethe natioaalnational TVTV organisation,organisation, oror byby aa commercialcOto.lllerclal company. They will havehave allall thethe necessarynecessary equipmeatequip111e nt andand expertiseexpertise toto dodo thethe work successfully.s ucc.ess [ully. The equipment and skillsskil.l.s requiredrequired toto editedit andand copycopy tapestap"s areare. expensiveexpensive aad·3.rld cannotcannot bebe justifiedjustified byby aa forestryforestry extensionextension organisatioaorganisation unlesunlesss there tolS ;1a :aational1;..\i : i.l)ual commitmentcommitment to use TVTV oror videov.lJeo recordingsrecordings in forestry extension onon a;.1 veryve r y widell~de scale.scale . By providing expertise,expertlse) facilitiesfacilities and fieldr:it~ ld services duringduring tthehe lUakinemaldag ofof a programme, however,hO \llever} forestry extension star:~staff c;.;tncan gala3atn an insightinsight intointo thethe complexitiescomplexities of thethe tasktask andand will bebe made toto thinkthink moremore deeplydeeply aboutabout theirt'u~l l' techniquestzchniques andand normalnormal methodmethol1 ofo f presentation. If a simplesimple videovideo cameracamera andand recorderrec.order become become avai.lAble aVil.:. '.'1'1'." toto forestryforestry extension staff,staff, ini.tialinttial attemptsattempts atat recording should be oa011 aa modestmodest scalescale and limited1. 1.m t t: (~ ; 1. tc)to pt~ogrprogrammesammes of a few minutminutes es, 0 The gguidelinesuidelines for radio recordrecordiag ine cancaa be modified initially but the elements of visionvision and movement add importantimportant newnew factors.fat:i.:ocs . The fact thatthat aa sequencesequence takentaken byby aa videovideo cameracamera can be reviewedrevie\Jed on thethe moaitormoni..i.:or ofor: the cameracamera immediatelyimmediately it is15 recordedr ecorded enablesenable.s faultsfaults toto bebe correctedcorrected aadand thethe generalgeneral levellevel ofof presentationpresentaU.on toto bebe improvedimpro.,Ted very rapidly.tOapidly. Recordings mademade on simplesimple videovideo equipmentequipment cannotcannot normally bebe edited to the standardstandard requiredrequired forfor "ide-scalewide-scale use butbut the exp.~rexperieace i.ence that can be gained in producingproducing thesethese isis aa valuablevaluable contributioncontri.bution to more effeceffective·tive preseatatioapresentai: ton ofof forestryforestry extensionextension aaterial.mate;" tal. - 114114- - 1010.. EXTENSION CAMPAIGNS The function of anan extensionextension campaigncampaign isis toto focusfocus thethe attentionattentton ofof thethe publpublicic on a particular, widespread, problemproblem whichwhich hashas beenbeen clearlyclearly identifiedidentified in an area (e.g.(e.g. a possiblepossible shortageshortage ofof fuelwood).fuelwood). The ultimate objective isi s to stimulate thethe peoplepeopl e toto taketake actionaction toto overcomeovercome thethe problemproblem byby personalpersonal oror communitycommunity efforts.efforts. An extension campaigncampaign involves:involves: a co-ordinated plan usingusing a rangerange of communication anandd educational skills to achieve widespread\videspread recognitionrecognition ofof a problem and thethe adoptionadoption ofof appropriateappropriate solutions tot o overcomeovercome it;it the co-ordinated use of aa varietyvariety ofof extensionextension methodsmethods inin aa carefully planned sequence and degree to achieve the necessary recognitionrecognition andand action;action; and, - a plannedplanned effort toto achieveachieve thethe objectiveobjective overover aa particularpartIcular period of time,time, relatedrelated toto thethe purposepurpose ofof the campaign, andand co-ordinatedco- ordinated at national, regional or district level as appropriate toto thethe objective.objective. 10.1 Reasons for using thethe campaigncampaign approachapproach There are many sound reasonsreasons forfor usingusing thethe campaigncampaign approachapproach inin majormajor extensionextension activitiesactivities ., such as:as: - a co-ordinatedco-ordinated approach toto aa large-scale,large -scale, complex,complex, extensionextension effort can be more effectiveeffective tbanthan thei:~ , e individualindividual efforts of a number ofof staffstaff workingworking inin isolation,isolation, onon theirtheir owno~m initiative;initiat ive; it permits the integrationintegration ofof aa varietyvariety ofof methodsmethods toto presentpresent a unified message toto a highhigh proportionproportion of thethe targettarget audience over the required area;area; - it allowsallot.s detailed planningplanning toto makemake thethe bestbest useuse ofof thethe staff,staff, time, and resourcesresources availableavailable overover thethe wholewhole area;area; - it enablesenables activitiesactivit ies toto bebe scheduledscheduled andand repeatedrepeated atat timestimes most favourablefavourable forfor particularpacticular sub-divisionssub-divisions ofof thethe area;area; and,and, the highhigh profile of the efforteffort helps to generategenerate public enthusiasm and supportsupport forfor thethe objectivesobjectives ofof thethe campaign.campaign. 110.20.2 Principles of extension campaignscampaigns Extension campaignscampaigns areare basedbased onon thethe principleprinciple thatthat thethe moremore peoplepeople areare expexposedosed to an idea,idea, the more likelylikely theythey are toto acceptaccept oror adoptadopt it.it. They must bebe conducted,conducted, however,however, as properproper communicationc OTamunication systemssystems inin which~.J'hich thethe nneeds,eeds, vie«sviews and constraints ofof thethe peoplepeople areare notnot onlyonly fullyfully respectedrespected but incorporated both into thethe informationinformation andand thethe activityact ivity componentscomponents ofof the ccampaign.ampaign. Campaigns are normallynor'1lally limitedlimited toto aa definitedefinite periodperiod ofof timetime dictateddictated byby ththee specific objectives of thethe campaign,campaign, (e.g.(e. g . firefire protectionprotection inin communitycommunity forests).f orests). Some campaigns may have nono seasonalseasonal constraints,constraints, but theythey shouldshould neneverthlessverthless havehave a time limit.limit. A campaigncampaign willwill loselose its impact ifif it ccontinuesontinues too longlong withoutHithout anyany measurableme a:3urable result.res ult. A finitefinite period,period, afterafter 'whichh'hich itit cancan bebe evaluated,evaluated, isis importantimportant bothboth toto assessassess itsits effectseffects andand toto plan any subsequent phases toto achieveachieve anan increasedi ncreased effect.effect. - 115115- - 10.3 Guidelines forf or planningplanning extensionex t ension campaignscampaIgns !lomeSome sisimplemple stepssteps inin thethe processprocess ofof planningplanning extensionextension campaigcampaignsns areare asas follows.fol loHS. 10.3.110.3. 1 Analysisfu,alysis of the current situation Important quesquestions tions to be asked and answered at thethe initial stage, by questionaires oror surveys,surveys, byby discussiondiscussion withwith informedinformed persons,persons, oror byby studystudy ofof officialofficial records, areare as follows.folloH8. TopicTopic:: - howhOl,;'l familiarfamiliar are thethe targettarget audienceaudience with"'lith thethe matter; can thethe problemproblem bebe seen by them oror demonstrateddemonstrated to them easily;easily; - is enoughenough knownknmffi aboutabout the problem toto determinedetermine itsits causescauses precisepreciselyl y and to offer realistic solutions; - to what extentextent isis thethe problemproblem thethe resultresult ofof firmlyfirmly heldheld viewsviews or thethe operationoperation ofof traditionaltraditional practicespractices byby thethe public;public; - what benefits Hillwill the people derive from a solutionsolution toto thethe problem; cacann it be solved mainlymainly by their ownQ{ffi resources or willwill significant assistance bebe required;required; - have theythey thethe necessarynecessary understandingunderstanding oror skillsskills toto solvesolve it;it; and, -- can it besolvedbe sol ved inin oneone stagestage oror onlyonly byby aa seriesseries ofof steps?steps? SituationSituation:: hm-lhow seriousserious isi2 the problemproblem or hOHhow great thethe opportunity;opportunity; - hOl"how has itit arisen;arisen; - have any previousprevious attemptsattempts beenbeen mademade toto solvesolve it;it; if so,so, - \'lhatwhat was thethe resultresult ofof these?these? Population: - houhOl-' many peoplepeople areare affecteda ffected byby thethe problem;problem; llm'1how are theythey distributed geographically;geographically; - whatHhat isis the"trtheir compositioncomposition byby age,age, sex, level ofof education,education, occupatiooccupation,n, resources,resources, facilities,facilities, etc.;etc.; - what dodo theythey knowlenO(; aboutabout thethe topic;topic; - have theythey shownshm"n anyany previousprevious interestinterest inIn it;it; - do theythey considerconsider itit importanti mportant inin theirtheir lives;lives; has their way ofof lifelife contributed,contributed, or givengiven rise,rise, to the problem; -. do theythey have thethe necessarynecessary knowledgeknm>1ledge oror skillskill toto solvesolve it;It; - have theythey aayany wishHish toto solvesolve it;it; - have thethe viewsvie't'lS of theirtheir familiesfami lies andand friendsfriends anyany influenceinfluence on ,;hatwhat theythey mightmight bebe willingHilling toto dodo toto solvesolve thethe problem;problem; _. have theirtheir customscustoms oror habitshabits anyany effecteffect onon solutionssolutions which1.]hich might bebe proposed;proposed; - from v1homwhom do theythey normallynormally seekseek adviceadvice onon suchsuch matters;matters; are theirtheir any groupsgroups oror organisationsofsanisatlons which{",hlch influenceinfluence them in ssuchuch matters; '\o]hatwhat isis theirtheir mainmain sourcesource ofof informationinformation onon suchsuch matters;matters; - do theythey viewvie\" thethe extensionextension organisationorganisation asas aa reliablereliable sourcesource of information;informat 1.on; - hOl;o]how do they normally taketake decisionsdecisions onon suchsuch matters;matters; and, - is the infrastructureinfrastruc ture ofof roads,roads, transport, etc. appropriateappropriate 116 -- to the suggestedsuggested solution?s olution? Organiser - why\vhy isis therethere officialofficial concernconcern aboutabout thethe matter;mat t er ; - is it considered toto bebe aa mattermatter ofof greatgreat urgency;urgency; .- does itit requirer equire prioritypriority in i n extensionextens ion activities;activities; - what resourcesresources ini n staff,staff, materialsmaterials andand fundsfunds areare avilableavilable toto apply toto thet he campaign;campaign; and, will any externalexternal assistanceas.'3istance bebe requiredrequired and,and , ifif so,so, cancan itit bebe assured from.from anan appropriateappropriate developmentdevelopment programme?programme? Such informationinformation as cancan bebe obtainedobtained onon thesethese pointspoint s willvIi l1 assistassist inin reachingreaching a decision on whether or not a campaign approach wouldwo uld be appropriate, at whom"hom itit shouldshould bbee directed,di r ected, byby what,.,hat meansmeans itit shoshoulduld bebe carried out, hO\;how long itit mightmight lastlast andand whether,.,hether itit shouldshould bebe limitedlimited toto aa particular seasonseason of thethe year.year. A campaigncampaign aimedaimed atat actionaction isi s unlikelyunlike ly toto be successful ifif peoplepeople areare notnot awareatola re ofof aa problem,problem, area re notnot interestedinteres t e d inin it,it, oror are likely to resist attempts to remedyr emedy it becausebecause thesethese appear tot o conflictconflict ,,·lithwith stronglystrongly heldheld viewsvie\oIs oror customs.customs . In suchs uch a case,case, aa campaigncampaign aimedaimed atat general education on thethe topictopic would\vould bebe thethe mostmost suitables ui t able initiali nitial step.step . 10.3.2 Determining objectivesobjectives Consult widely with representativesrepresentatives of connnunitycommunity groups, local leaders 'l:whooIho have some knowledge or interestinterest inin thethe situation,situation, local eextensionxtension sstaff,taff, subject-matter specialists and administrators, tot o determinede termine the possible broadbroad objectives ofof aa canpaigncampaign and then to define certain moremore specificspecific objectives.objectives . ;"';OllllllU,li.ty i5Luups;5fOUp.s dad..lad loco.'locc:l.l stastafff [ mustmus t be closely involvedinvolved inin determinideterminingng campaigncampa iBn objectives A broad statementstatement ofof objectivesobjective8 shouldshould covercover thesethese mainmaln aspects:aspects: the typetype and amountamount ofof changechange required;required; - who shouldshould makemake thethe change;change; - how theythey shouldshould makema ke it;.it; and, - over what periodperiod of timet ime shouldshould itit bebe made?made? The type of change requiredrequlred might be in one or more of thethe following(allowing areas of knowledgeknm·r1edge oror skill:skill : -- awar-enessawareness oror understandingunderstanding ofof thethe problemproblem byby thethe people;people; - their technical knowledgeknO\.,ledge oror skillsskills toto tacklet ackle thethe problem;problem; their attitudes,attitudes, interestsinterests oror valuesvalues ini n thethe matter;ma tter; - what, ifif anything, thethe peoplepeople thinkthink shouldshould bebe donedone aboutabout it;it; - 'l:Jhatwhat theythey are willingwi lling toto dodo aboutabout it;it; and, - what theythey realisticallyrealistically cancan bebe expectedexpected dodo aboutabout it.it. A campaign shouldshould firstfir s t define define what..hat typet ype ofof changechange isis desireddesired andand thenthen try to quantify whatvlhat degree ofof change should be aimed fofor,r , e.g.e.g . t.;rhatwhat - 117117 - percentage of thethe peoplepeople shouldshould makemake aa changechange oror whatwhat areaarea ofof landland shouldshould bebe subject toto change.chan8e. Throughout all this discussion, however,ho\vever, it must be keptkept in mind thatthat nono mattermatter howhow desirabledesirable thethe plannersplanners thinkthink thethe changechange toto be,be, iti t is thethe peoplepeople themselvesthemselves who will, oor will not,not, make it,it. andand thenthen onlyonly ifif they are satisfiedsatisfied that itit willwill bebe toto theirtheir benefit,benefit, andand notnot materiallymaterially offend theirtheir customscustoms oror beliefs.beliefs. Rigid targets formulated before thetbe public have been sufficientlysufficiently involved have beenbeen thethe downfalldownfall ofof manymany attemptsattempts ini n the past toto spreadspread desirabledesirable oideas.ideas. 10.3.3 Planning phasepha:3e At this stage the campaign organisers must, in relation to thethe objectives theythey havehave selected;selected: - establish a formalformal committeecommittee or groupgroup withwith strongstrong locallocal rep-rep resentation to guideguide the preparationpreparation and executionexecution ofof the campaign; - define thethe message toto bebe communicated;communicated; identify the targettarget audienceaudience more preciselyprecisely inin termsterms ofof geog-geog raphical area, age, sex, occupation, as relevant;relevant; select the most appropriateappropriate methodsmethods ofof communication,communication, inin rel-rel ation toto theirtheir availability, staffstaff resourcesresources andand cost;cost; decide on thethe typetype andand amountamount ofof material toto bebe used;used; - fix a time schedule for thethe various phases of thethe campaign;campaign; - plan the type of feedback expected, and how itit isis toto bebe used; - prepare aa budgetbudget for thethe campaign, identify the sourcesource ofof ffundsunds and evaluate thethe benefitsbenefits in relation toto thethe expectedexpected costs. Any committeecommittee entrusted with the task of organlslngorganising an extensionextension campaign must either have veryvery strongstrong representationrepresentation ofof thethe targettarget populationpopulation or somes ome means of ensuring thatthat their views are available and properly presented at all stagesstages ofof decisiondecision making.making. The message toto be communicatedcommunicated is nownow frequentlyfrequently associatedassociated with a campaign slogan and aa logo,logo, with"ith which"hich thethe targettarget groupgroup cancan identify.identify. Though it isis unrealisticunrealistic toto assumeassume thatthat aa messagemessage ofof anyany greatgreat importanceimportance cancan bebe satisfactorily condensedcondensed intointo aa fewfe" I'ords,words, the use of thethe sloganslogan and logologo should be adopted to attract peoplepeople toto look,look, readread oror listenlisten more,more, toto exploreexplor e the objectives of thethe campaigncampaign andand whatwhat opportunitiesopportunities itit offersoffers toto them.them. The target audience must bebe identifiedidentified clearlyclearly asas theirtheir compositioncomposition andand geographical distributiondistribut lon willwi.ll greatlygreatly affectaffect the meansmeans ofof communicationcommunication selected. The timing ofof the campaign "illwill be affected both by the nature of the message and thethe targettarget audience.audience . The type and amount of materialmaterial to be used mustmust inevitably bebe a compromise between what couldcould be used, and what is affordable in the circumstances.circumstances . In manymany cases the ultimate benefits ofof aa successfulsuccessful extensionextension campaign could bebe soso greatgreat thatthat aa considerableconsiderable investmentinvestment wouldwould bebe justified,justified , but inin practicepractice thethe currentcurrent availabilityavailability ofof resourcesresources oftenoften fallsfalls shortshort ofof what is desired and greatgreat cacec~ce mustmust bebe exercisedexercised inin planningplanning theirtheir use.use. It is essential to build into a campaign programmeprogramme a method of monitoring its effect on thethe targettarget population,population, and eveneven onon othersothers notnot directly concerned but who, ~sas taxpayers,taxpayers, may have strongstrong viewsvie«s onon itsits formform and use.use. Those closely associated "ithwith the campaigncampaign are likelylikely toto havehave aa favourable view of its progress and a more objective assessment byby independent surveys or questionnaires should be sought. The monitoringmonitoring activity should not be an end in itself but shouldshonld leadlead toto aa criticalcritical reviewreview 118 - of the activities as eacheach phasephase isis implementedimplemented toto correctcorrect anyany defectsdefects andand strengthen any favourablefavourable responses.responses. This topic is dealtdealt withwith furtherfurther inin Section 11.ll. At thisthis stagestage itit isis appropriateappropriate toto prepareprepare aa campaigncampaign guideguide coveringcovering all the proposed steps in the campaign,campaign, toto bebe supplied,supplied, asas required,required, toto allall involved in implementingimplementing thethe campaign.campaign. 10.3.4 Timing the campaign The programme forfor implementingimplementing thethe campaigncampaign mustmust bebe relatedrelated toto thethe wayway in which thethe targettarget audience makes decisions andand carriescarries outout activitiesactivities related to thethe campaigncampaign topic.topic. If the campaign is intendedintended to perform the combined roles of creatingcreating awareness,awareness, followedfollowed byby somesome positiveposi ti ve actionaction toto overcome the problemproblem highlighted,highlighted, the awarenessawareness stage mustmust be scheduled sufficiently earlyearly for the public to absorb thethe ideaidea andand discussdiscuss itit amongstamongst themselves beforebefore the effort switchesswitches toto promotingpromoting thethe detaileddetailed stepssteps theythey should take toto overcomeovercome it.it. This is turnturn mustmust allowallow peoplepeople to make thethe necessary decisionsdecisions and prepare to take actionaction atat the mostmost appropriate season. 10.3.5 Preparing thethe material The choice of media and the preparation of the material to be used should bebe undertaken sufficientlysufficiently wellwell in advance of launchinglaunching thethe campaigncampaign toto enableenable material to be pre-tested onon groupsgroups similarsimilar to the main targettarget group.group. The choicechoice ofof media to be usedused willwill dependdepend primarilyprimarily onon the type of message, but also on the resources, particularly the personnel, available to implement it. A general ~ awareness and information campaign requiring the extensive use of mass media, the preparation of radio and TV broadcasts, press releases and featurefeature articles,articles, postersposters and pamphlets, it is likely to involve mainly the central organisatorganisation,i on, in collaboration with appropriate media experts. Material toto bebe usedused inin extensionextens ion campaigns shouldshould bebe pre-testedpre-tested on suitable personspersons oror groupsgroups If the objective is toto translatetranslate ideasideas intointo action,action, locallocal extensionextens ion staff must bebe usedused toto promotepromote meetings,meetings, discussions,discussions, andand demonstrationsdemonstrations toto involve the peoplepeople andand prepareprepare themthem toto makemake decisions.decisions. Staff numbersnumbe rs andand available resources mustmust be matchedmatched to the tasktask requiredrequired ofof them.them. ThisTIlls may require the preparation of training pamphlets, films or videos, and demonstration techniquestechniques toto convconveyey the methmethodsods inin aa suitablys uitably standardiseds tanda r dised manner. During the adoption stage,stage, trainingtraining maymay bebe requiredrequired toto enableenable local leaders toto pass on thethe necessarynecessary skillsskills toto theirtheir communities.communities. DuringDuring thisthis phase, moremore attention may have toto bebe paidpaid toto localisedloca lised publicitypublicity toto motivate specific groups of people toto adoptadopt thethe recommendedrecommended practices.practices. At all stagesstages inin thethe decision-makingdecision-making processprocess thethe organisingorganising groupgroup must take fully intointo accountaccount thethe viewsviews ofof locallocal staffstaff andand thethe communitycommunity leadersleaders who will ultimately havehave toto implementimplement thethe decisionsdecisions inin thethe field.field. - 119 - 10.3.6 Training phase To ensure the proper implementation ofof the campaign allall staff who may be involved, even remotelyremotely withwith it, shoshoulduld be thoroughlythoroughly briefed onon thethe objectives, methods andand scheduling of the effort. For those directly involved, proper trainingtraining programmesprogrammes mustmust be deviseddevised andand implementedimplemented to ensure that they have the necessary knowledge and operational skills to carry it out fully. Training should bebe continuedcontinued throughoutthroughout the campaign, as required, both toto keepkeep staffstaff up-to-date with anyany changeschanges in emphasis oror detail and toto maintainmaintain theirtheir interestinterest andand enthusiasmenthusiasm forfor thethe task.task. Problems that may arise during training,training, particularlyparticularl y the trainingtraining of vovolunteers,l unteers, may suggestsuggest pointspoints atat whichwhich methodsmethods shouldshould bebe modifiedmodified beforebefore wide-scale use.use. 10.3.7 productionProduction phase During thisthis phase:phase: list all the items and services needed and thethe financial requ-requ irements ofof each;each; confirm that this falls within the agreedagreed budget; - prepare a scheduleschedule forfor obtainingobtaining andand distributingdistributing anyany factualfactual information required;required; - confirm thatthat any externalexternal assistance willwill be available onon schedule, particularly personnelpersonnel required;required; - assign responsibilities toto individuals; prepare an action plan indicating what activities are toto bebe carriedcarried outout withinwithin whatwhat time limits and nominatenominate thethe personperson responsible;responsible; - prepare a calendar and work-chartwork-chart toto monitor thethe progressprogress of the activities; - fix dates for checking and co-ordinating materials; and, - define whowho isis responsibleresponsible forfor makingmaking technicaltechnical andand financialfinancial decisions andand giving approvalapproval for acquiringacqu1r1ng materialsmaterials and include this informationinformation inin thethe actionaction plan.plan. 10.3.8 Implementation phasephase This covers,covers, inin practice,practice, fourfour mainmain stages:stages: launch,launch, build-up,build-up, climax and follow-through. Correct timing and duration isis crucialcrucial toto eacheach ofof thesethese stages and shouldshould bebe plannedplanned inin advance.advance. The performance should be carefully monitored and adjustmentsadjustments mademade byby thethe organisingorganising group,group, ifif thesethese appearappear toto bebe necessary forfor success.success. Launch Steps required atat thisthis stagestage are:are: - information and otherother materialsmaterials toto bebe distributeddistributed throughoutthroughout the target area asas necessary;necessary; - communication outlets, i.e. press, radio and TV toto bebe alerted and supplied with advance information;information; - staff to be in post toto carrycarry outout thethe initialinitial tasks;tasks; and, a rally or majormajor public functionfunction should be organisedorganised toto launch the campaign with thethe maximum possiblepossible impact.impact. - 120 - Build-up Appropriate activitiesactivities atat thisthis stagestage are:are: - ensure thatthat allall communication channels operate smoothlysmoothly toto spread the campaigncampaign message toto thethe targettarget audience;audience; - try to obtain thethe maximum coveragecoverage ofof allall speechesspeeches andand centralcentral activities during thethe launchinglaunching ceremonies;ceremonies; - arrange launchlaunch activitiesactivities byby locallocal leadersleaders withinwithin thethe targettarget area; - introduce thethe locallocal staffstaff toto thethe community;community; - organise local meetingsmeetings or demonstrationsdemonstrations asas appropriateappropriate andand secure the widest'rldest possible distribution of any campaign literature oror publicitypublicity materials;materials; and, - arrange a steadysteady flowflow ofof informationinformation toto press,press, radioradio andand TVTV toto sustain interestinterest inin thethe campaign.campaign. Climax This phase shouldshould be scheduledscheduled to precede Chethe period at which itit isis hoped peoplepeople will taketake actionaction toto carrycarry outout thethe activitiesactivities promotedpromoted by thethe campaign. direct attention and publicity to urging thethe peoplepeople toto taketake the action suggested byby thethe campaign;campaign; - aim for the maximum publicpublic participationparticipation inin reachingreaching decisionsdecisions to adopt the recommended practice;practice; - make facilitiesfacilities availableavailable forfor peoplepeople toto seesee and,and, ifif necessary,necessary, practice the suggested activities;activities; and, - obtain thethe maximummaximum coveragecoverage forfor allall positivepositive suggestionssuggestions andand contributions. Follow-through Sustain the initial impetusimpetus byby schedulingscheduling thethe followingfollowing activities:activities: - arrange follow-up visits or meetings with groupsgroups whowho havehave adopted the recommended practice;practice; - provide any technical oror material assistanceassistance promised;promised; - give maximum publicity toto theirtheir successes;successes; - sustain the campaign activities on a limitedlimited scalescale inin areasareas where people may adopt thethe practicepractice thethe followingfollowing season;season; and,and, - continue any · necessary supportsupport andand encouragementencouragement toto people oror groups who have adopted thethe recommendedrecommended practices.practices. 10.4 Monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation procedures for extension campaigns are discussed atat lengthlength inin SectionSection 11.U. A majormajor extensionextension campaigncampaign willwill almostalmost certainly warrant . a formal contInuouscontinuous or periodic surveillance of its implementation toto ensure that thethe activitiesactivities areare proceedingproceeding accordingaccording to plan. This will leadlead toto aa betterbetter evaluationevaluation ofof thethe campaigncampaign toto improveimprove itsits effectiveness, relevance andand impact. It will alsoalso helphelp to designdesign futurefuture campaigns to be moremore effective.effective. People not directlydirectly responsibleresponsible for thethe planning and implementation ofof thethe campaigncampaign willwill normallynormally bebe involvedinvolved inin thisthis process. A basis forfor theirtheir workwork cancan bebe thethe actionaction planplan forfor thethe campaign.campaign. At each stage the achievementsachievements or performanceperformance of each unit or personperson cancan bebe compared with the targettarget setset outout inin thethe plan.plan. The adequacyadequacy ofof resources,resources, personnel,personnel , finance andand the suitabilitysuitability of thethe campaigncampaign message,message, sloganslogan oror logo cancan bebe assessed.assessed. . Surveys can be usedused to assess thethe reactionreaction ofof thethe - 121 - target groupgroup toto thethe message.message. lfuileWhile it would be wrong to suggest that the organising committee should change course atat every minorminor criticism,criticism, they should be alert toto anyany significant s ignificant trends inin opinion andand bebe ready to take action toto modify thethe messagemessage oror thethe ' targetstargets ifif thisthis isis clearlyclearly necessary.necessary. Extension goals I __ ---.~Objectives----Objectives I Selection and development ofof extension programme/campaign contentcontent I Selection of extension methodsmethods Feedback Development/selection of extension materials lmPlemenlationImplementation ofof extension programms/campaign l1onitoringMonitoring andI evaluation Figure 10.110.1 Stages in the development ofof extensionextension campaigns.campaigns. - 122 - 11. EXTENSTONEXTENSION PROGRAMME MONITORING,MONITORI NG, EVALUATIONEVALUATION ANDAND FEEDBACK 11.1 General principiesprinciples Three essential features of a forestry extension programme are monitoring, evaluationevaluation andand feedback.feedback. Monitoring hashas beenbeen defineddefined asas aa continuouscontinuous oror periodicperiodic surveillancesurveillance over thethe implementationimplementation of a projectproject toto ensureensure thatthat inputinput deliveries,deliveries, workwork schedules, targeted outputs and other required actions are proceeding according toto plan.plan. (1)(1) Evaluation isis a systematicsystematic approachapproach toto assessingassessing as objectivelyobjectively asas possible the relevance,relevance, effectivenesseffectiveness andand impactimpact ofof aa projectproject inin thethe contextcontext of the project activities and the needs of the people. Evaluation essentially analyses the rational and logiclogic ofof thethe projectproject (objective oror design), reviewsreviews thethe implementationimplementation processprocess (inputs,(inputs, activities,activities, outputsoutputs andand implementation management) and thethe emergingemerging resultsresults (output,(output, effect,effect, impact).impact). It assesses, inin thethe lightlight ofof thethe foregoing,foregoing, thethe validityvalidity andand relevancerelevance ofof project objectives and design,design, andand thethe projectproject effectivenesseffectiveness andand efficiencyefficiency in achieving thethe intendedintended results.results. (2)(2) Feedback can be defined as applying promptly and effectively information gathered byby thethe monitoring oror evaluationevaluation processesprocesses toto promotepromote thethe achievement of thethe projectproject objectives,objectives, oror toto rectifyrectify factorsfactors impedingimpeding itsits achievement. It may alsoalso alteralter thethe emphasisemphasis oror directiondirection ofof thethe projectproject activities where these are found to be out ofof lineline withwith thethe requirementsrequirements ofof the situation or the wishes,nshes andand needs ofof tbethe people.people. The principal functionsfunctions ofof monitoringmonitoring andand evaluationevaluation areare toto enableenable thethe people andand the staff involvedinvolved inin extensionextension programmesprogrammes to learnlearn fromfrom thethe achievements and problemsproblems ofof eacheach programme,programme, inin orderorder toto devisedevise methodsmethods ofof planning and implementingimplementing subsequentsubsequ~nt programmesprogrammes moremore effectively.effectively. The wider'nder definition of evaluation given above, to a certain extent merges the activities ofof monitoringmonitoring andand evaluationevaluation intointo fivefive majormajor elements:elements: operation,operation, performance, effect, impact and context. These are dealt with comprehensively, mainly withwith referencereference to.to· majormajor extension andand community forestry projects,projects, in thethe FAOFAO publicationpublication citedcited belowbelow (2).(2). This sectionsection aims toto deal with the problem at thethe levellevel ofof minorminor projectproject activitiesactivities where the evaluation isis essentiallyessentially participatory,participatory, asas itit isis presumedpresumed thatthat thethe locallocal community will already have beenbeen closelyclosely involvedinvolved inin bothboth thethe preparationpreparation andand implementation ofof thethe project.project. Monitoring and evaluationevaluation areare basedbased onon informationinformation gatheredgathered fromfrom thethe participants and intendedintended beniflcariesbenificaries ofof aa project,project, atat allall levels.levels . There isis a need, therefore,therefore, to co-ordinate information gathering for these two functions to avoid overlap and waste of timetime ofof bothboth staffstaff andand clientsclients in answering repeatedrepeated enquiries.enquiries. There is aa limitlimit to the time,time , effort (and patience) they cancan devotedevote toto answeringanswering questions.questions. MonitoringMonitoring should continuecontinue throughoutthroughout thethe durationduration ofof aa projectproject andand form anan essentialessential managementmanagement process to measure and adjust performanceperformance against plannedplanned activity.activity. The particular itemsitems toto bebe monitoredmonitored willwill differdiffer (1) IFAD (1984).(1984). Guiding principles for thethe designdesign andand useuse ofof monitoringmonitoring and evaluation in rural development projects/programmes. A panel on monitoringmoni toring and evaluationevaluation forfor ruralrural development.development. ACC TaskTask ForceForce onon RuralRural Development. Rome. (2) Monitoring andand evaluationevaluation ofof participatoryparticipatory forestryforestry projects.projects. Forestry Paper No.No. 60.60. FAO, Rome, 1985.1985. - 123123 - in each project but thesethese cancan bebe defineddefined initiallyinitially fromfrom thethe projectproject documentdocument and subsequently from the annual or semi-annual plans of operations. Monitoring, if it is to be effective,effective, should give attention both to sucesses and shortcomings.shortcomings . It is equally importantimportant toto looklook criticallycritically atat areasareas whichwhich have beenbeen successful,successful, oror eveneven over-runover-run targets,targets, to identifyidentify factorsfactors whichwhich contribucontributedted toto this, soso thatthat theirtheir importanceimportance inin developing futurefuture programmesprogrammes can be properlyproperly recognised.recognised. In the case of shortfallsshortfalls in performance, it is necessary toto followfollow thesethese backback toto determinedetermine theirtheir underlyingunderlying causes.causes. Some of the specific questions whichwhich maymay havehave to bebe askedaSked to elicit this information are dealt withwith inin thethe followingfollowing sectionssections onon evaluationevaluation procedures.procedures. Evaluation proceduresprocedures have recently focused much attentionattention on the relevance ofof aa projectproject during,during, oror eveneven after,after, itsits implementation.implementation. This would ssuggestuggest that insufficient attentionattention maymay havehave been paid to evaluation of the project concept during the formulation and planning stages. In majormajor projects, formalformal baselinebaseline surveyssurveys toto determinedetermine thethe preciseprecise statusstatus ofof supplysupply and demanddemand inin anan area,area, asas distinctdistinct fromfrom informalinformal estimates,estimates, areare necessary,necessary, followed byby subsequent surveyssurveys toto measuremeasure toto what extent these needs have been met.met. For minorminor projects,projects, the process ofof discussiondiscussion implicitimplicit inin thethe "bottom up" process of projectproject developmentdevelopment advocated by ComptonCompton should leadlead to a setset ofof proposalsproposals muchmuch moremore closelyclosely alignedaligned toto thethe needsneeds ofof thethe people.people. Though thisthis will notnot eliminateeliminate thethe needneed forfor evaluation,evaluation, eithereither duringduring oror after thethe programme,programme, ifif onlyonly toto measuremeasure thethe valuevalue gainedgained inin relationrelation toto thethe effort expended, it should reduce the needneed for considerableconsiderable changes in objectives during the life ofof aa projectproject unless externalexternal conditionsconditions on which decisions were mademade havehave alteredaltered considerably.considerably. Evaluation shouldshould bebe anan ongoingongoing activityactivity throughoutthroughout allall programmes,programmes, andand should involveinvolve everyoneeveryone concernedconcerned withwith thethe programme.programme. It should look beyond the limitedlimited questionquestion ofof thethe extentextent toto whichwhich aa seriesseries ofof plannedplanned activitiesactivities has been carried out, to examine the real relevancerelevance of thethe programmeprogramme toto thethe people and thethe area,area, itsits originsorigins andand development,development, itsits beneficiariesbeneficiaries andand howhow useful it has beenbeen toto them. It should encourage a processprocess ofof personal evaluation where both thethe peoplepeople andand staffstaff considerconsider atat frequentfrequent intervalsintervals "what I hoped to do" against "what"what II did",did", andand determinedetermine objectivelyobjectively whywhy anyany targets or expectationsexpectations werewere notnot fullyfully achieved.achieved. Evaluation must be appliedapplied toto aa wholewhole programme,programme, andand notnot asas hashas oftenoften happened in the past, to thethe performanceperformance of thethe fieldfield oror operationaloperational staff.staff. In particular,particular, it shouldshould not bebe regardedregarded as aa formform ofof staffstaff assessment,assessment, a task which shouldshould bebe tackledtackled inin anan entirelyentirely differentdifferent way.way. Evaluation has in the past oftenoften provokedprovoked aa negativenegative reactionreaction amongstamongst programmeprogramme administratorsadministrators and field staff, as it has tended to concentrate on "what went wrong", ratherrather than on balancing the achievements of the programme with any noted shortcomings.shortcomings. Determination of allall thethe externalexternal circumstancescircumstances oror factorsfactors wwhichhich may havehave preventedprevented the fullfull achievementachievement of the objectives are anan essentialessential featurefeature of evaluation.evaluation. The question of who should carry out evaluation is discussed in ForestryForestry Paper 60, which notesnotes thethe importanceimportance ofof collaborationcollaboration ofof projectproject staffs taff andand aa specialisedspecialised monitoringmonitoring unitunit inin thisthis activity.activity. More emphasisemphasis needs, perhaps, toto bebe givengiven toto involvinginvolving inin thisthis tasktask locallocal peoplepeople whowho areare both thethe mainmain executorsexecutors andand intended beneficiaries of forestryforestry extensionextension projects. The suggestions onon evaluation givengiven belowbelow aimaim to involveinvolve thethe people and staffstaff at bothboth fieldfield andand headquartersheadquarters levellevel inin expressingexpressing theirtheir views on thethe performanceperfonnance andand valuevalue ofof anyany project.pro ject. Such aa tasktask may bebe "administered""administered" byby anan independentindependent monitoring and evaluationevaluation unit withinwithin aa forestryf orestry organisation but thethe "evaluation""evaluation" asas suchsuch isis whatwhat thosethose concerned,concerned, particularlyparticularly the people,people, thinkthink ofof it.it. The extentextent of the evaluationevaluation mustmust dependdepend on thethe scalescale ofof thethe project.project. Since thethe emphasisemphasis inin thisthis publicationpublication - 124124- - has beenbeen onon thethe processprocess ofof workingworking upup fromfrom minorminor projectsprojects identifiedidentified by people as ofof importanceimportance toto themthem locally,locally, thethe suggestionssuggestions onon monitoringmonitoring andand evaluationevaluation maymay appear toto bebe much tootoo exhaustive.exhaustive. TheyTIley represent, however, aa series of questions which,which, fromfrom experience,experience, havehave beenbeen foundfound toto bebe importantimportant in the effective execution of projects, but which have notnot necessarilynecessarily been extensivelyextensively probed inin evaluationsevaluations inin thethe past.past. The group carryingcarrying out thethe evaluation task cancan select,select, judiciously,judiciously, aa rangerange ofof questionsquestions appropriateappropriate toto the particular situation,situation, whichwhich ensuresensures thatthat the persons concernedconcerned getget a proper opportunity to express there views whilewhile notnot being harassedharassed by irrelevant questions. The process cancan bebe carriedcarried outout inin aa number[lumber ofof waysways but,but, forfor simplicitysimplicity where minor projects areare concerned,concerned, itit cancan bebe consideredconsidered inin threethree phases:phases: programme foLmulationformulation andand planning;planning; programme implementation;implementation; and, - post-programme evaluation.evaluation. 11.2 Evaluation ofof programmeprogramme formulationformulation andand planningplanning Some questions which should be asked during the formulation and planning phase ofof a programme, and particularlyparticularly before it is approvedapproved for implementation, are suggestedsuggested below.below. conceptionConception - how did thethe proposalproposal arise; - whowho first suggested thethe activity;activity; how did itit developdevelop before itit waswas formallyformally putput forwardforward asas aa programme; - how closely were thethe locallocal peoplepeople involved;involved; how diddid theythey makemake theirtheir viewsviews known;known; - did itit arisearise initiallyinitially fromfrom feltfelt needsneeds oror suggestionssuggestions byby thethe people, or inin orderorder to meetmeet officialofficial workwork oror expendItureexpenditure targets? Relevance is thethe programmeprogramme relevantrelevant toto locallocal needs;needs; whatwhat areare thethe needs;needs; how were thesethese needsneeds determined;determined; - how dodo theythey affectaffect thethe presentpresent livingliving conditions,conditions, markets,markets, transport systems, etc. ofof thethe area;area; will thethe programmeprogramme have anyany impactimpact onon relatedrelated activitiesactivities suchsuch as agriculture, animal husbandry, health or community development; - are thethe proposalsproposals inin keepingkeeping with'rl th locallocal cultureculture oror socialsocial organisation; - how dodo theythey fitfit intointo overalloverall governmentgovernment planning,planning, i.e.i.e. areare they likely toto gain and retainretain thethe supportsupport ofof thethe government;government; - to whatwhat extentextent waswas thethe programmeprogramme thethe outcomeoutcome ofof aa desiredesire toto utilise a grantgrant oror loanloan opportunity,opportunity, toto balancebalance thethe workwork loadload over anan area,area, oror toto developdevelop aa programmeprogramme thatthat would,muld attractattract external support?support? Feasibility - what areare thethe people'speople's priorprior attitudes,attitudes, knowledge,knowledge , skills,skills, andand resources of energy, time, and land availableavailable for the programme; - is therethere adequateadequate provision inin thethe programme forfor motivatingmotivating - 125 - and trainingtraining locallocal leadersleaders andand participants;participants; - are the resources of staff,stafE, funds and equipment of the assist-assist ing organisation adequateadequate forfor thethe programme;programme; - have thethe edaphic and biotic requirements of the proposed actact- ivity been matched toto thethe locallocal conditions;conditions; - do thethe proposals complycomply with,.itl! guidelines setset upup by anyany agenciesagencies which might offer material support?support? Acceptance - have thethe people,people, inin priorprior discussion,discussion, indicatedindicated aa willingnesswillingness to participateparticipate actively and develop anan organisationorganisation to taketake over fullfull implementationimplementation of thethe activitiesactivities atat anan appropriateappropriate time; - has the programme beenbeen adequatelyadequately discussed with, andand acceptedaccepted by, the locallocal administrationadministration and otherother publicpublic oror voluntaryvoluntary organisations which may be affectedaffected byby it.it. These questionsquestions are,are) in no way,way, intendedintended toto discouragediscourage initiativeinitiative inin bringing forwardforward proposalsproposals forfor forestryforestry extensionextension programmes.programmes. They should,should, however, help toto ensureensure thatthat proposalsproposals areare basedbased onon soundsound justificationsjustifications which havehave beenbeen closelyclosely examined.examined. 11.3 Evaluation of programmeprogramme implementationimplementation It is suggested that the evaluation process should be based on information drawn from threethree mainmain sources,sources, the participatingparticipating public,public, the field staff up toto thethe districtdistrict levellevel andand thethe centralcentral organisation,organisation, which maymay include public or voluntaryvoluntary organisationsorganisations concerned with, but notnot directlydirectly involved in,in, implementation.implementation. Some questions, which couldcould usefullyusefully bebe asked ofof suchsuch groupsgroups atat regularregular intervals during the programme,programme, areare suggestedsuggested below.below. The public howhOH much do theythey knowknow aboutabout thethe programmeprogramme overall;overall; - does it affectaffect only thosethose directly participating, or cancan others expect toto benefitbenefit inin somesome ways;ways; - how much is known aboutabout thethe achievementsachievements toto date;date; - howhm' much is known about current work or plansplans forfor thethe immed-immed- iate future;future; - how much effort byby thethe peoplepeople hashas thethe programmeprogramme involved;involved; - how much have theythey contributedcontributed inin cashcash oror resources;resources; do the results toto datedate justifyjustify this;this; have theythey receivedreceived allall thethe necessarynecessary training,training, information,information, or material support promised; can the participantsparticipants seesee howhow thisthis willwill helphelp themthem inin future;future; - has a locallocal planaingplanning oror co-operationco-operation groupgroup beenbeen established;established; has the groupgroup had anyany effecteffect onon thethe implementationimplementation ofof thethe programme; - have anyany official oror voluntaryvoluntary aidaid fundsfunds beenbeen wellwell used;used ; - howhm. would they likelike toto seesee thethe programmeprogramme develop;develop; how do other organisationsorganisations e.g.e.g. agriculture,agriculture, animalanimal husbandry,husbandry, water supplies,supplies, publicpublic healthhealth andand communitycommunity developmentdevelopment viewview the project? - 126 - Field staff physical targets:targets: plantsplants produced,produced, established,established, areasareas covered,covered, otherother worksworks undertaken, success rates after 6 months, 1219 months, 2 years; state ofof generalgeneral maintenance;maintenance; do results indicate any need for change in techniques or policy? - financial targets: actual costs of each phase of thethe operation in relationrelation toto plannedplanned costs;costs; reasonsrea30ns forfor variations,variations, local performance or externalexternal factors,factors, e.g.e.g. increasedincreased costcost ofof fuelfuel etc.; can positivepositive features be furtherfurther developeddeveloped oror appliedapplied elsewhere; can negative features be rectified by local action? - communication support:support: has aa satisfactorysatisfactory flowflow ofof communic-communic ations,ations, vertically andand horizontally,horizontally, been established;established; is this relevant to other activities;activities; do reportsreports or requestsrequests from all levels receive prompt attention; are publicity materials readily available; have any been produced specifically for this programme or target group; is thethe helphelp of mobilemobile unitsunits availableavailable whenwhen necessary;necessary; areare communicationcommunication systems, e.g. postalpostal services,services, telephones,telephones, radios,radios, effective;effective; have any useful improvisations been devised to overcome problems? - staff: have both local or aidaid staffstaff beenbeen mademade availableavailable asas planned; are they of thethe rightright mixmix ofof age,age, sex, experience,experience, and qualifications;qualifications; were theythey properly trainedtrained oror briefedbriefed inin their responsibilities before arrival; has any programme slippage resulted from late availability of staff; can it bebe measured and directly related to this factor; have any extraneous activities, e.g. participation in political campaigns orOr election arrangements, reduced staff availability; are salarysalary scalesscales and allowancesallowances appropriateappropriate toto their tasks;tasks; areare housing,housing, transporttransport andand domesticdomestic arrangmentsarrangments satisfactory; have staff aa proper understandingunderstanding ofof thethe cultureculture and valuesvalues ofof thethe participants;participants; havehave theythey hadhad adequateadequate supportsupport from thethe publicpublic andand thethe centralcentral levellevel ofof thethe organisationorganisation toto carry out their task?task? equipment and supplies:supplies: whatwhat itemsitems areare currentlycurrently available;available; have thethe typestypes selectedselected provedproved satisfactory;satisfactory; havehave theythey beenbeen made available as planned; are spares and replacementsreplacements available; were fieldfield staff involved in the selection andand procurement procedures;procedures; cancan anyany modificationsmodifications ofof proceduresprocedures bebe suggested; were deliverydelivery proceduresprocedures andand dates notified to field staff in advance and suitablysuitably monitored; were clearanceclearance and distributiondi stribution proceduresprocedures satisfactory;satisfactory; cancan locallocal productsproducts be substitutedsubstituted inin future?future? - transport: what itemsitems areare currentlycurrently available;available; werewere thethe needsneeds realistically assessed; are thethe meansmeans ofof transporttransport availableavailable suitable to the task;task; areare anyany vehicles providedprovided ofof thethe correctcorrect type and capacity; has suitable provision been made for thethe costs ofof operationoperation andand maintenance;maintenance; areare adequateadequate recordsrecords beingbeing maintained of their operation; are these being -used effect~velyeffectively to plan improvements in staff mobility and economy? construction: has any construction been carried out specificallyspecifically forfor the programme;programme; have thethe locallocal peoplepeople beenbeen - 127 -- involved in any way;way; do the local staff and the people consider it adequate; have the long-termlong-term use andand maintenancemaintenance of the facilities been considered; were the needs realistically assessed; waswas adequateadequate financialfinancial provisionprovision made;made; have the users had anyany influenceinfluence onon designdesign oror locationlocation ofof thethe buildings; was construction efficient and within cost estimates; were sufficient funds provided forfor furnishing, equipment and maintenance;maintenance; could anyany slippageslippage inin programmeprogramme performance be attributed to delays in the provision ~fof buildings; couldcould theirtheir designsdesigns bebe recommended,recommended, oror modified,modified, for use in other areas?areas? - general factors:factors : did thethe weather followfollow thethe normalnormal pattern;pattern; was thethe locallocal financialfinancial andand politicalpolitical situationsituation stablestable andand conducive to good progress; were there any unexpected shortages,shortages , such as fuel;fuel; diddid thethe staffstaff enjoyenjoy goodgood relationsrelations and co-operation with thatthat of other public and voluntary organisations in the area? CentCentral ral levellevel - physical targets: is therethere aa fullfull understandingunderstanding of whatwhat hashas been planned;planned; a knowledgeknowledge of the resultsresults to date;date; has thethe success rate after 66 oror 1212 monthsmonths beenbeen considered;considered; areare thethe resultsresults considered satisfactory in relationrelation toto thethe resourcesresources committed; have anyany differencesdifferences inin performance,performance, positivepositive or negative, been sufficiently explained; has anything beenbeen learned from this; shouldshould thethe targetstargets bebe revisedrevised upwards or downwards;dotmwards; what would bebe thethe implicationsimplications inin staff,staff, resourcesresources or morale of such a change?change? - financial targets: howhow much is knownknown aboutabout thethe costcost ofof eacheach stage of the operation; does this agree with the field staff's assessment ofof the costs;costs; havehave adequateadequate explanationsexplanations of costcost over- oror under-runsunder-runs beenbeen obtained;obtained; havehave thesethese beenbeen relatedrelated toto avai1abiliavailability ty of staff, equipment or transport; is this information applicable to other programmes; are any changes of financial targets desirable; cancan this be donedone byby internalinternal adjustments, or do theythey needneed referencereference toto centralcentral sourcessources ofof · funds or donors? - communication support: are all involved at the central levellevel fully aware ofof thethe philosophyphilosophy ofof extensionextension practices;practices; havehave they fullyfully utilisedutilised thethe resourcesresource s availableavailable in thethe media,media, oror the centralcentral informationinformation services,services , toto supportsupport thethe programme;programme; has any information materialmaterial been produced, or planned, specifically for the programme; have theythey beenbeen fullyfully suppliedsupplied with information by thethe participantsparticipants and fieldfield staff;staff; havehave they identified and publicisedpublicised the positivepositive features;features; have they offeredoffered suggestions,suggestions , or takentaken anyany necessarynecessary action,action, toto overcome negative aspects; have they tried to utilise communication channels toto thethe best advantage?advantage? - staff: how many staffstaff areare engaged,engaged, fullfull oror partpart time,time, onon thethe programme; are staff at thethe centralcentral levellevel fullyfully awareaware ofof thethe field staff levels vs. the plannedplanned staffingstaffing at thisthis time;time; ifif there is any under-staffing,under-staffing, can theythey offeroffer anyany explanation;explanation; are the problems being ttackled;ackled; have they assessed the implications ofof this on the physical performance or cost ofof the programme; is there a plan to meet future staff - 128 - requirements; is the trainingtraining programmeprogramme adequateadequate toto thethe need;need; have theythey askedasked for,for, oror received,received, anyany commentscomments oror suggestionssuggestions from fieldfield staff onon theirtheir workingworking oror livingliving conditions;conditions; cancan they, or dodo theythey thinkthink itit necessarynecessary to,to, insulateinsulate fieldfield staffstaff against other calls on theirtheir timetime, e.g. politicalpolitical activitiesactivities or assisting with elections; are staff matters the responsibility of one person,person, or a group? - equipment and supplies:supplies: are equipmentequipment requestsrequests processedprocessed as normal activities or given special treatment;treatment; who has thethe main influence on specifications, fieldfield staff,staff, central staff, or an external agency; who makesmakes thethe finalfinal decisions;decisions; howhow longlong doesdoes processing a request take;take; areare thethe fieldfield staffstaff fullyfully awareaware ofof this timetime scale;scale; areare locallocal availabilityavailability ofof spares,spares, trainingtraining and technicaltechnical back-upback-up takentaken intointo account,account, asas wellwell asas price,price, inin procurement decisions; areare procurementprocurement proceduresprocedures formalisedformalised and individuallyindividually monitored; are fieldfield staffstaff keptkept informedinformed ofof progress, particularly of any possible delay inin delivery;delivery; isis there a procedure for collecticollectingng users'users' opinionsop1n10ns on the suitability of equipment supplied;supplied; has thisthis influencedinfluenced furtherfurther orders; has any assessmentassessment beenbeen mademade ofof thethe effectseffects ofof delaysdelays in delivery on overall "performanceperformance ofof thethe programme? transport: what means of transporttransport have been providedprovided toto date;date; have allall requestsrequests beenbeen inin accordanceaccordance withwith thethe programmeprogramme andand atat the correct time; were fieldfield staffstaff informedinformed ofof thethe reasonsreasons forfor any delaysdelays in approvalapproval or delivery;delivery; how werewere decisionsdecisions onon types and models made; by individuals,individuals, accordingaccording toto an overalloverall purchasing programme, or inin accordance withwith donordonor wishes;wishes; have any comments been asked for, and received, on suitability and performance, servicing or spares; have operating and maintenance programmes beenbeen adhered to and beenbeen keptkept withinwithin the budget; has anan assessmentassessment of thethe effecteffect ofof transporttransport availability on overalloverall performance ofof the programmeprogramme been made? administrative support:support: do the programmeprogramme activities have aa significant effect on thethe work-load aatt central level; are the staff able toto meet allall reasonablereasonable requestsrequests promptly; are they making use ofof allall availableavailable resources?resources? - construction: what construction has beenbeen undertakenundertaken toto date;date; how can any constuction carried out under the programme facilitate further extension workwork in the area; has therethere been any local invlovementinvlovement inin thethe provisionprovision ofof accommodation;accommodation; have any problems arisen due to unforseen requirements or insufficient financial provision; if so, how did this situation arise; has it affected programmeprogramme implementation;implementation; cancan any slippage be overcome; are any additional resourcesresources neededneeded to overcome this;this; can theythey bebe providedprovided byby reallocationreallocation ofof existingexistin.a resourcesresources oror byby additionaladditional resources? general factors: have any generalgeneral factorsfactors e.g.e.g. thethe weatherweather hadhad an effecteffect onon implementation;implementation; areare theythey sufficientlysufficiently importantimportant to affectaffect thethe achievementachievement ofof physicalphysical oror financialfinancial targets;targets; have anyany adjustmentsadjustments beenbeen mademade or areare plannedplanned because of these; have theythey appearedappeared inin thethe reportsreports fromfrom thethe centralcentral level to government oror otherother donordonor organisations?.organisations? - 129 - - local organisation: what steps have beenbeen takentaken toto establishestablish aa local organisation to continue the programme activities; is it an elected or anan "ad"ad hoc"hoc" ·bbody;ody; isis itit thethe mostmost suitablesuitable formform of organisation for thethe purpose;purpose; is itit receivingreceiving supportsupport andand co-operation from thethe fieldfield staff;staff; is anyany trainingtraining ofof itsits members inin administrationadministration oror forestforest technologytechnology required;required; cancan this be providedprovided under the programme; if not, how can it be arranged? - relations with other organisations:organisations: how dodo otherother developmentdevelopment organisatiorganisationsons view thethe programme; have theythey been kept informed of its progress; have they noted any opportunitopportunitiesies for co-operation; have any such suggestions beenbeen followed up? The aboveabove listslists involveinvolve askingasking somewhatsomewhat similarsimilar questionsquestions ata t differentdifferent levels in thethe organisation.organisation. Whereffi1ere thisthis isis done,done, thethe responsesresponses maymay indicateindicate diifferent perceptions ofof thethe samesame situationsituation oror eventevent atat differentdifferent levelslevels ofof staff. This may indicateindicate thethe needneed forfor betterbetter communicationscommunications to explainexplain certain situations toto thosethose concerned.concerned. An evaluationevaluation report based on thisthis procedure must balance the views of thet he ggroupsroups and individuals who contributed toto it.i t. 11.4 post-programmePost-programme evaluation The function ofof post-programme evaluaevaluationtion is primarily to get an overall view ofof thethe achievementsachievements of thethe programmeprogramme andand thethe benefitsbenefits itit hashas generated in relationrelation toto thethe totaltotal resourcesresources employed.employed. This, in aa modestmodest way, incorporates thethe impact and contextcontext evaluations desirable in major projects.pr ojects. An importantimportant objectiveobjective is toto identifyidentify positivepositive factorsfactors which are seen to be ofof benefitbenefit toto thethe peoplepeople andand whichwhich cancan contributecontribute toto thethe successsuccess of other programmes.programmes. In the natur-enature ofof thingsthings somesome activitiesactivities maymay havehave failed to achieve their targets.targets . It shouldshould not be necessarynecessary,, however, in a post-programme evaluation to detail, step by step, all the problems identified and correctedcorrected duringduring thethe planningplanning andand implementationimpl ementation stages.stages. It may bebe relevant, however, to comment on howhow successfulsuccessful thisthis processprocess of self-evaluationself-evaluation hashas been,been, andand the extent toto whichwhich sourcessources otherother thanthan thosethose immediately involvedinvolved inin the programmeprogramme activitiesactivities have contributedcontributed to thethe evaluation.evaluation . The organisationorganisation and-compositionand · composition of evaluation groups are discussed in Section 11.511 . 5 below.below. The processprocess of evaluationevaluation must,must, however,however, drawdraw onon thethe experiencexperiencee of those who have been involved in the project, in a constructive way, andand identifyidentify anyany featuresfeatures oror proceduresprocedures whichwhich couldcould enhanceenhance programmeprogramme performances and avoidavoid unnecessaryunnecessary expense.expense. Some questions on which a post-post programmeprogramme evaluationevaluation maymay bebe basedbased areare suggestedsuggested below.below. The publicpublic what has been achievedachieved ini n materialmaterial terms,terms, e.g.e.g. ini n treestrees oror areas planted,planted, waterwater suppliessupplies oror grazinggrazing areasareas improved,improved, etc.;etc.; have anyany measurablemeasurable benefitsbenefits comecome fromfrom itit soso far,far, e.g.e.g. aa supply of poles or fuelwood, fruits,fruits, improvedimproved grass,grass, etc.;etc . ; - do the benefits now,now, oror expectedexpected inin future,future , meet thethe needsneeds ofof the people;people ; - was thethe efforteffort requiredrequired justifiedjustified byby thethe benefitsbenefits available;available; have thethe peoplepeople acquiredacquired sufficientsufficient skillsskills toto continuecontinue a sim-sim ilar programmeprogramme onon theirtheir own;own; - do theythey feelfeel theirtheir viewsviews oror suggestionssuggestions werewere fullyfully consideredconsidered by thethe extensionextension organisation,organisation, particularly during earlierearlier evaluations; - 130130- - - do they feelfeel theythey werewere ableable toto participateparticipate fullyfully inin decision-decision making; has thethe programmeprogramme affectedaffected _theirtheir traditionaltraditional wayway ofof lifelife or working practices;practices; - is the degree ofof changechange acceptable;acceptable; - isis thethe co-operatingco-operating groupgroup willingwilling toto continuecontinue similarsimilar exten-exten- sion work;~vork; are theythey willing toto introduceintroduce othersothers toto improvedimproved practices;practices; - cancan theythey generategenerate enoughenough resourcesresources fromfrom theirtheir presentpresent progr-progr amme toto implement additional work; - cancan theythey nownot< mobilisemobilise anyany additionaladditional resourcesresources forfor develop-develop ment; - ifif additionaladditional supportsupport isis required,required, cancan theythey nownow securesecure thisthis from voluntaryvoluntary agenciesaeencies oror directdirect fromfrom governmentgovernment withoutwithout thethe intervention ofof thethe extensionextension organisation;organisation; - have anyany buildings,buildings, equipmentequipment or transporttransport used duringduring thethe programme been transferredtransferred toto theirtheir control;control; - if not, can they continue to operate successfully without this support; have theythey the necessary organisation, skillsskills andand funds toto maintain andand operateoperate allall thethe itemsitems transferredtransferred toto them;them; have theythey anyany proposalsproposals toto replacereplace thesethese itemsitems asas theythey become unserviceable; - did theythey feel thethe funds suppliedsupplied by governmentgovernment or otherother sources, well used;used; - did theythey formform good working.,or~dng relationsrelations withwith thethe extensionexten~ LO<1 staff;staff; ,wuldwould theythey welcome theirtheir advice oror assistanceassistance inin future?future? Field staff physical targets: were the targets selected for thethe programmeprogramme relevant toto thethe needsneeds ofof thethe people;people; how areare theythey benefittingbenefitting from their achievements; will the benefits Increaseincrease or decrease inin future; how longlong cancan theythey bebe expectedexpected toto last;last; areare they sufficient to alleviatealleviate the needsneeds on whichwhich thethe targetstargets were based;based ; will theythey generategenecat" resourcesresources or income to supportsupport further programmes;programmes; are therethere anyany additionaladditional resourcesresources theythey could devote toto extension programmesprogra~nes inin Future?future? - financial targets: was the target achieved withinwithia the estimated cost; were any factors identified which could increase the local contributioncontribution toto thethe costcost oror reducereduce supportsupport expenditure in future;future; diddid anyany unforeseenunforeseen circumstancescircumstances arise which affectedaffected costs favourablyfavourably or unfavourably;unfavourably; did both thethe public andand thethe fieldfield staffstaff receivereceive sufficientsufficient informationinformation onon financial mattersmatters throughoutthroughout thethe programme;programe; diddid theythey respondrespond to this information; were~ere the financial achievements sufficiently well publicised? - connnunicationcommunication support:support: has a goodgood communicationcommunIcation systemsystem beenbeen established between thethe centralcentral level,level, field levellevel andand the people; will it continue toto functionfunction afterafter thethe programmeprogramme ends;ends; can it bebe usedused forfor anyany otherother purposepurpose oror programme;programme; diddid thethe programmeprogramme leadlead to betterhetter communicationcommunication systemssystems withwith similarsimilar government or voluntary organisations; isis there nownow a better understandingunders tanding of eacheach other'sother's contributioncontribution to development; can any of thethe communicationco~nunication skills or materials be used forfor other purposes; are the locallocal leadersleaders and peoplepeople more ableable toto communicate effectively;effectively; werewere the communication systemssystems or equipment used suitable and adequate for the particular - 131 -- situation? - staff: how have thethe staffstaff increasedincreased theirtheir skillsskills inin extensionextension work during thethe programme;programme; have theythey gainedgained aa betterbetter insightinsight into the needs oror ways"ays ofof thinkingthinking ofof thethe people;people; havehave theythey communicacommunicated ted thisthis knowledgeknowledge to others; did theythey feel they received all the training or advice they needed; would they be willing toto continue working with thisthis group;group; ifif theythey startedstarted aa similar programme ~thwith a different group, what would they like to do better; did they feel fairlyfairly treated in respect of hours and conditionsconditions of work,work, housing,housing, transporttransport etc.; which'tvhich oneone aspect, if changed,changed, would increaseincrease theirtheir efficiencyefficiency oror job-job satisfaction, at leastleast cost;cost; howhow manymany staffstaff membersmembers servedserved during thethe programme; what percentagepercentage turn-overturn-over was there;there; why did staff leave or were replaced; is ...service service ~thwith the programme consideredconsidered toto havehave improvedimproved oror harmedharmed theirtheir careercareer prosprospects?.pects? - equipment and supplies:supplies: diddid thethe quantities,quantities, suitability andand arrival times agreeagree withwith thethe programmeprograllll1le planning;planning; was itit thethe right material atat the right time; have anyany favourable oror unfavourable observations been publicised on the equipment or its use; could any economieseconomies havehave been made in anyany ofof thethe items; did the people learnlearn to value andand carecare forfor equipmentequipment made available to them; could the programmeprograwne have been accomplished without thethe equipment;equipment; what effect would it have had on staff efficiency, loclocalal co-operation and overall performance. - transport: have local transport facilities improved during thethe programme period, e.g. betterbetter roads,roads, more buses,buses, more vehiclesvehicles available for hire; will thisthis affect futurefuture planning;planning; whatwhat waswas the transport mainly usedused for, movement of materials or personnel; can any alternative method of moving materials now be employed; to what extentextent did transporttransport (or(or thethe lacklack ofof it) affect work out-put of fieldfield staff;staff; howho" wouldwould anyany increasedincreased oout-putut-put ·-relaterelate toto thethe cost of providing additional transport;transport; were thethe means ofof transporttransport providedprovided suitablesuitable for thethe task; were theythey sufficientlysufficiently robustrobust forfor fieldfield work;work; diddid theirtheir useuse cause any comment (or(or envy) amongst the locallocal people or staffstaff in other organisations; were they transferred to other programmes, or toto thethe organisingorganising group,group, inin goodgood condition?condition? - construction: were the buildings available, or supplied, suitable in construction,construction, facilities,facilities, andand locationlocation forfor theirtheir purpose; could the local people construct similar, or adequate, replacement buildings if necessary; werewere theythey well maintained throughout; did they present a favourable image of the programme; couldcould they bebe adapted to other uses when nono longer required,required, (e.g. an office become a clinic);clinic); diddid the local people regard them as essential toto thethe programmeprogramme oror asas a luxury? - general factors: "erewere problems of weather, distance, communications,communications, health andand educationaleducational facilitiesfacilities forfor familiesfamilies taken intointo accountaccount sufficiently in planningplanning andand allocatingallocating staff for the programme? - 132 - Central levellevel - physical targets:targets: what was accomplishedaccomplished duringduring thethe programmeprogramme in termsterms ofof treestrees oror areasareas planted,planted, grazinggrazing areasareas improved,improved, etc.; how doesdoes thethe costcost comparecompare withwith similarsimilar workwork donedone byby direct labour; what additionaladditional benefitsbenefits did the people get in trainingtraining,, new skills and technology, organisation and accounting, decision-making, confidence; are the directdirect or indirect benefits of most value at thisthis stage;stage; cancan thethe groupgroup be expected to continue or expand their activities with minimal help? financial targets: were estimates of costs realistic; have any -improved methods of costcost estimatingestimating oror controlcontrol emergedemerged fromfrom this programme; is the systemsystem suitable for adoption by otherother local groups; areare thethe participantsparticipants sufficientlysufficiently consciousconscious ofof the importanceimportance of costcost factorsfactors inin decision-making;decision-making; hashas any build-up of financial resources, by thethe people, occurrecnoccurred~ communication support:support: are staff at centralcentral levellevel now moremore aware ofof locallocal aspirationsaspirations andand workwork practices;practices; hashas thethe locallocal culture and technology been an aid or a barrier to implementation; can anything be learned from this in formulating and implementingimplementing new programmes;programmes; were thethe locallocal people regularlyregularly informedinformed '1hywhy certain decisionsdecisions hadhad to be made; were theirtheir viewsviews consideredconsidered toto bebe helpfulhelpful toto planningplanning oror decision-making at central level;level; was thethe programmeprogramme consideredconsidered to be fully in keeping withwith government policy; did the achievements receive appropriate recognition from high officials; were there any spill-over benefits to other organisations; will the communication systemssystems or equipment established be of peLmanentpermanent valuevalue to extensionextension activities;activities; have anyany usefuluseful linkslinks beenbeen establishedestablished withwith otherother governmentgovernment or voluntary organisations, research or educational facilities; have thethe peoplepeople nownow aa betterbetter understandingunderstanding ofof government procedures and requirements in formulating extension programmes?programmes? - staff: has thethe overalloverall staffstaff positionposition beenbeen strengthenedstrengthened inin either numbers or skills as aa resultresult ofof thethe programme;programme; havehave useful linkages beenbeen establishedestablished withwith educationaleducational institutes;institutes; have any improvedimproved proceduresprocedures ofof staffstaff managementmanagement emergedemerged from the programme; has any degreedegree ofof specialisationspecialisation beenbeen seenseen toto be required; can this be incorporated into the staff structure; can the work-load atat centralcentral levellevel bebe quantifiedquantified toto determine staff requirements for similar new programmes;programmes; can any field supervision tasks be handed over toto locallocal people on a part-time or honorarium basis?has is? - equipment and supplies: are anyany itemsitems ofof equipmentequipment acquiredacquired for the programmeprogramme of long-term benefitbenefit to the extension organisation, or to the co-operatinco-operatingg group; can they be re-deployed to other programmes; did the procurement, clearance, receipt and issuing procedures meet the requirements of thethe programme;programme; havehave anyany usefuluseful newnew materialsmaterials or sourcessources of supplysupply beenbeen identified;identified; have staffstaff skillsskills inin handling procurements and issues beenbeen improved;improved; has propertyproperty control and usage been satisfactory; has any useful information beenbeen gatheredgathered on thethe service life,life, spares and servicing requirements or operating costs ofof equipment;equipment; hashas - 133133- - this been made available toto allall users?users? - construction: what construction waswas carried out under the programme; could the requirements havehave been met in any otherother way e.g.e.g. by temporarytemporary or portableportable accommodation; havehave any new designs or constructionconstruction techniquestechniques been developeddeveloped duringduring thethe programme; have anyany usefuluseful informationinformation onon costscosts beenbeen obtained;obtained; can standardstandard plansplans andand costingscostings bebe appliedapplied toto otherother areas;areas; would an expansion of the programme create accommodationaccommodation problems at central level? - general factors:factors: were exceptionalexceptional factorsfactors noted whichwhich couldcould have had a markedlymarkedly favourablefavourable oror unfavourableunfavourable influenceinfluence on the programme? 1111.5.5 Organisation of evaluation activities ll.5.111.5.1 Evaluation of programme formulation and planning This must normallyno~mally be organisedorganised atat thethe centralcentral levellevel as itit isis essentialessential that any programme which isis supportedsupported byby aa publicpublic organisationorganisation isis inin keepingkeeping with governmentgovernment policiespolicies andand guidelinesguidelines for planning. It is important, however, that these guidelines shouldshould notnot bebe setset soso rigidlyrigidly thatthat theythey stiflestifle initiative from thethe fieldfield staffstaff oror thethe community.community. It is from this level thatthat many valuable innovationsinnovations areare likelylikely toto arise.arise. Evaluation must, however, involve the field staff and community leaders, on whomwhom responsibilityresponsibility for initiatinginitiating and carrying out thethe workwork fall.fall, Discussion should play a large part inin thethe processprocess toto allowallow thethe staffstaff and communitycommuni ty membersmembers toto explainexplain oror defenddefend thethe suggestionssuggestions theythey havehave made.made. Their "defence" of thethe proposalsproposals Willwill involve them in thinkingthinking deeplydeeply about the objectivesobjectives and methodsmethods theythey havehave suggestedsuggested andand maymay evokeevoke aa strongerstronger commitment toto success.success. Staff from the central level involvedinvolved at thisthis stagestage shouldshould preferablypreferably have hadhad fieldfield experienceexperience inin thethe areaarea inin question,question, oror bebe preparedprepared toto spendspend some timetime gettinggetting to know thethe areaarea andand the peoplepeople beforebefore attemptingattempting toto evaluate thethe proposals.proposals. Voluntary agencies who may bebe givinggiving supportsupport -toto thethe programme will normally expectexpect toto bebe involvedinvolved atat thisthis stage.stage. It is important to be quite clearclear aboutabout theirtheir objectivesobjectives oror aspirationsaspirations inin supportingsupporting thethe programme. These may not alwaysalways bebe identicalidentical toto thosethose ofof thethe community.community. Any modifications ofof thethe programmeprogramme whichwhich thethe evaluatingevaluating groupgroup maymay requirerequire mustmust bebe handled sensitivelysensitively andand fullyfully discusseddiscussed withwith thethe participatingparticipating groupgroup oror theythey may loselose enthusiasmenthusiasm forfor aa programmeprogramme theythey dodo notnot feelfeel theythey havehave determineddetermined forfor themselves. ll.5.2.11.5.2. Evaluation of programmeprogramme implementationimplementation Generally this should be donedone atat districtdistrict levellevel andand involveinvolve fieldfield staff, the community and representatives ofof anyany voluntary agenciesagencies supportingsupporting the programme as well asas representativesrepresentatives ofof thethe centralcentral levellevel andand supportingsupporting agencies. In casescases wherewhere thethe programmeprogramme activitiesactivities havehave implicationsimplications for other work,work, such asas agricultureagriculture oror animalanimal husbandry,husbandry, it is necessarynecessary toto involve representativesrepresentatives of these organisations in thethe discussions.discussions. The process, however, requires considerable assistance, andand access to data, from staff of ththee central level and thethe structurestructure ofof thethe evaluationevaluation groupgroup mustmust bebe devised to achieve this.this. It is desirabledesirable for thethe evaluationevaluation groupgroup toto bebe headed by aa representativerepresentative fromfrom thethe centralcentral level,level, or byby aa seniorsenior staffstaff member fromfrom anotheranother areaarea toto monitormonitor thethe validityvalidity ofof thethe informationinformation andand thethe views on which the evaluation isis based.based. - 134134- - Evaluation may be combined at first with a monitoring procedure and maymay take place atat intervalsintervals ofof sixsix monthsmonths initially,initially, the monitoringmonitoring activityactivity being extended toto oneone yearyear oror longer,longer, asas aa programmeprogramme settlessettles down.down . As far as practicable an agreed reportreport onon thethe programmeprogramme shouldshould bebe prepared,prepared, but thisthis should not preclude any individual or group attaching a minority or supplementary report ifif they consider the main reportreport doesdoes notnot adequatelyadequately represent their views or thatthat itit cancan only be fully understood in the light of the additionaladditional information.information. In particular,particular, field discussions and aa closeclose review of results inin thethe fieldfield shouldshould bebe carriedcarried outout inin relationrelation toto thethe datadata recorded in reports and returns. An essentialessential featfeatureure of programme implementation evaluationevaluation is to ensure that appropriateappropriate actionaction isis taken on it.it. In somesome casescases programmeprogramme slippages maymay be attributed to the inabilityinability of thethe centralcentral levellevel toto meetmeet targets for staff, release of funds,funds, or thethe supply of equipment or transport.transport. Such details maymay tend toto bebe glossedglossed overover atat thethe centralcentral level,level, but it is essential that a measure be maintained of the effects on fieldfield performance on such problems. Conversely, any improvisations to overcome these difficulties should be noted and publicised as thesethese may, in time,time, leadlead toto less dependence on the central level for suchsuch support.support. . n.S.311.5.3 Post-programme evaluation If a constructiveconstructive programmeprogramme of implementation evaluationevaluation has been carricarrieded out,out, there should bebe littlelittle needneed forfor anan in-depthin-depth post-programmepost-programme evaluation. Most of the informationinformation on which thisthis cancan bebe basedbased willwill alreadyalready be available and actionaction willwill havehave beenbeen takentaken onon it. A post-programmepost-programme evaluation would then consist of collating the existing information, summarising the achievementsachievements andand benefits in relationrelation toto the costscosts andand highlighting usefuluseful developmentsdevelopments oror areasareas inin whichwhich improvedimproved proceduresprocedures couldcould be adopted. It is important not to overlook the effect of existing administrative proceduresprocedures onon field activities andand to suggest areas in which flexibility isis required to meetmeet thethe needneed forfor quickquick responsesresponses toto changingchanging situations in the field, e.g. thethe needneed toto bringbring forward,forward, oror delay,delay, operationsoperations in response to weatheweatherr conditions. Where aa formalformal in-depthin-depth evaluationevaluation isis requiredrequired thethe workwork shouldshould bebe givengiven due importance.importance. By its nature it may requirerequire somesome peoplepeople whowho havehave notnot beenbeen directly involvedinvolved inin thethe programme,programme, to securesecure anan independentindependent view of itsits achievements. For preference, these should currently be involvedinvolved in somesome related fieldfield ofof work andand havehave aa goodgood knowledgeknowledge andand understandingunderstanding bothboth ofof thethe area and thethe peoplepeople who participatedparticipated inin thethe programme.programme. The evaluators shouldshould allow themselvesthemselves sufficient time to acquaint themselves fully withwith the background of the programmeprogramme as wellwell as reviewing inin detail the actual achievements and the circumstances in which they were secured. Most countries can nownow findfind withinwithin theirtheir ownown personnelpersonnel peoplepeople of sufficient sstandingtanding and experienceexperience inin administrationadminisJ:ration oror academicacademic fieldsfields toto undertakeundertake this work.work. Where evaluation byby one or moremore peoplepeople fromfrom outsideoutside thethe countrycountry isis proposed a carefulcareful cost/benefitcost/benefit assessmentassessment ofof thethe proposedproposed evaluationevaluation shouldshould be made. Because of the high costs of remunerationremuneration and travel, and the work commitmentscommi tments ofof such persons,persons, an externalexternal groupgroup areare frequentlyfrequently requiredrequired to conduct the evaluation within a veryvery limitedlimited time.time. Because ofof protocolprotocol andand formal meetings with ministers and otherother officials, they cancan seldomseldom spend anan adequate period inin thethe field.field. In the selection ofof externalexternal evaluators,evaluators, itit isis also importantimport ant to ensure that theirtheir viewsviews and recommendationsrecommendations are not unduly coloured by theirtheir experiencesexperiences inin otherother areasareas whichwhich areare notnot directlydirectly relatedrelated to the current situation. - 135135- - 11.6 Feedback No mattermatter howhow carefullycarefully monitoringmonitoring and evaluation activities are carriedcarried out, theythey areare ofof nono valuevalue unlessunless theirtheir contentscontents andand recommendationsrecommendations are carefullycarefully considered,considered, and wherewhere appropriate,appropriate, implemented by thethe peoplepeople and the staff concerned.concerned. This involves full, frankfrank and friendlyfriendly discussions,discussions, and a willingness toto listenlisten as well as toto talk,talk, byby all takingtaking part.part . Extension is forfor thethe benefitbenefit ofof thethe people,people, andand improvementsimprovements suggestedsuggested in the system of supportingsupporting itit must taketake thisthis fullyfully intointo account. The people may notnot yetyet bebe sufficientlysufficiently experiencedexperienced toto adoptadopt aa neat,neat, formal system of administration whilewhile the staffs of government administrations, or even voluntary agencies,agencies, maymay notnot bebe attuned to the informalinformal way in whichwhich many local decisions are made andand successfullysuccessfully implemented.implemented. Monitoring andand evaluation,evaluation, atat allall stages,stages, must bebe widelywidely discusseddiscussed with all thethe partnerspartners concernedconcerned withwith aa viewview toto developingdeveloping thethe positivepositive featuresfeatures identified in thethe programmeprogramme andand findingfinding aa solutionsolution toto thethe problemsproblems whichwhich have arisen. In most cases some degree of compromisecompromise isis essentialessential toto ensureensure thatthat the benefitsbenefits ofof thethe programmeprogramme areare notnot lostlost inin recriminations recriminations aboutabout thingsthings which maymay notnot havehave provedproved satisfactory.satisfactory. In general,general, the outcomeoutcome of anyany monitoring oror evaluationevaluation exerciseexercise shouldshould bebe aa brief,brief, clearclear statementstatement ofof whatwhat action has beenbeen agreed.agreed. The success inin implementingimplementing thisthis statementstatement couldcould form the starting pointpoint forfor anyany subsequentsubsequent evaluation.evaluation. - 136 - 12. ORGANISING AN EXTENSION TRAINING PROGRAMME Training forms a major elementelement inin thethe establishmentestablishment andand implementationimplementation of a forestryforestry extensionextension programme.programme. TrainingTraining,, in thesethese circumstances,circumstances, may,may, for convenience, bebe consideredconsidered underunder twotwo mainmain headings:headings: - formal staff education andand trainingtraining inin extension;extension; and, - informal extension informationinformation andand trainingtraining programmes.programmes. There must,must, however, bebe close co-ordination between allall forms and levels of trainingtraining toto ensureensure thatthat theythey serveserve commoncommon objectivesobjectives and seek to reach these by compatible means. Responsibility for ensuring this co-ordination shouldshould restrest on a seniorsenior staffstaff membermember at thethe centralcentral levellevel of the forestry authority who shouldshould havehave thethe responsibilityresponsibility forfor establishingestablishing effective channels of consultation andand co-operation between thethe various organisations involvedinvolved in extensionextension eductioneduction andand training. This sectionsection seeks to bring togethertogether materialmaterial coveredcovered inin thethe earlierearlier sectionssections ofof thisthis . publication toto develop suitablesuitable trainingtraining programmesprogrammes withinwithin thisthis context.context. 12.1 Staff education and training programmes A paperpaper presented to the Fourteenth Session of the FAOFAO AdvisoryAdvisory Committee on Forestry EducationEducation in September 19861986 suggestedsuggested appropriateappropriate curricula and training programmes forfor staffstaff engagedengaged inin forestryforestry extensionextension atat the graduate, technical and vocational levels. It was proposedproposed thatthat professionalprofessional forestryforestry staff engagedengaged in extension services shouldshould undertakeundertake aa course lastinglasting one academicacademic year inin subjectssubjects related specificallyspecifically toto forestryforestry extensionextension activities.activities. TheThe programmeprogramme shouldshould be located at an academicacademic institutioninstitution which wouldwould awardaward aa recognisedrecognised higher qualification or degreedegree toto successfulsuccessful candidates.candidates. The fields of studystudy would cover areas of communications, professional studies and research, and planning and organisationorganisation ofof extension activities.activities. Considerable emphasisemphasis would be placedplaced onon viewingviewing forestryforestry extensionextension as oneone aspectaspect ofof anan overalloverall rural development programmeprogramme andand ofof integratingintegrating forestryforestry programmesprogrammes into the established patternspatterns ofof rural life in anan area.area. The staffingstaffing andand academicacademic requirements of the course would be determined byby thethe institutioninstitution undertakingundertaking the programme. Technical levellevel educationeducation envisagedenvisaged aa programmeprogramme ofof threethree months'months' studystudy for staff who havehave completedcompleted aa twotwo yearyear post-secondarypost-secondary coursecourse inin forestryIorestry technology and who have,have, forfor preference,preference, somesome subsequentsubsequent fieldfield experience.experience. The training would be located at an agricultural or forestry college providing post-secondary education in forestryforestry andand wouldwould involveinvolve extensiveextensive field andand practicalpractical training components.components. Considerable emphasis would bebe placed onon understandingunderstanding the joint roles ofof forestry,forestry, agriculture,agriculture, animalanimal husbandry, water supplies, health and education in ruralrural developmentdevelopment and in integrating forestry extensionextension activitiesactivities into overall ruralrural development programmes. The staffingstaffing andand academicacademic requirementsrequirements inin thisthis casecase wouldwould alsoalso bebe determined by thethe collegecollege oror institutioninstitution organisingorganising thethe course.course. The vocational training programmeprogramme could runrun atat aa numbernumber ofof locationslocations simultaneously, if staff requirementsrequirements oror environmentalenvironmental conditionsconditions inin thethe areaarea justified it. The training wouldwould focusfocus on skillsskills of communication andand demonstration toto produce extensionextension assistantsassistants whowho could,could, inin additionaddition toto theirtheir responsibilities for promotingpromoting extensionextension programmes,programmes, provide trainingtraining in extension techniques toto largelarge numbersnumbers ofof peoplepeople participatingparticipating inin these,these, oror inin other development programmesprogrammes wherewhere aa forestryforestry componentcomponent wouldwould proveprove ofof value.value. These vocational training programmes would be organisedorganised and, inin general,general, be staffed by the forestry extension organisation which would have the -137- 137 -- responsibility for ensuring satisfactory standards of teaching and assessment at the variousvarious centres.centres. Where suchsuch programmesprogrammes are runrun atat centrescentres' whosewhose primary functionfunction is some otherother formfOrm or level of training,training, a suggestedsuggested management structure for organisingorganising aa programmeprogramme is givengiven inin SectionSection 12.612.6 below. 12.212.2 Public information and trainingtraining programmes . Public informationinformation programmes areare required at thethe centralcentral levellevel toto acquaint government ministers and officials,officials, seniorsenior representativesrepresentatives ofof otherother public organisationsorganisations and of voluntary agencies,agencies, academics, cultural and religious leaders and leadersleaders ofof businessbusiness organisationsorganisations with thethe philosophy,philosophy, requirements, and proposalsproposals ofof thethe forestryforestry extensionextension organisation,organisation, inin orderorder to secure an understandingunderstanding atat the higherhigher levelslevels of government and the community, of such aa programme.programme. An importantimportant objectiveobjective isis to secure a two-way flow of information,information, which willwill promotepromote thethe understandingunderstanding of,of, andand support by, influential persons for thethe objectivesobjectives andand methodsmethods of forestryforestry extension, while at thethe samesame timetime givinggiving thethe forestryforestry extensionextension organisationorganisation access to thethe viewsviews ofof thisthis stratastrata ofof the public onon theirtheir objectivesobjectives and performance. At the operational level, (district level andand below), the publicpublic information and training pogrammes tendtend to place moremore emphasis on the training aspects ofof thethe work.work. Information playsplays an important role at thethe awareness and interest phases of an extensionextension programmeprogramme while a decision to implement a specific programme may generategenerate aa considerableconsiderable needneed forfor trainingtraining local voluntary leaders to motivate and instruct their communitiescommunities to carcarryry ououtt the agreedagreed tasks.tasks . A basic requirementrequirement ofof allall publicpublic informationinformation andand trainingtraining programmesprogrammes is a clearclear determination ofof thethe objectivesobjectives ofof eacheach particularparticular activity.activity. The objectives should be expressed in specificspecific terms, such as a change in knowledge, attitudes oror skillsskills relevantrelevant toto thethe topic.topic. To achieve thisthis itit isis desirable to link audiences moremore closely to thethe specificspecific objectivesobjectives of aa programme. Whilelfuile aa generalgeneral lecturelecture onon forestryforestry extensionextension requirementsrequirements or proposals toto an audienceaudience of governmentgovernment officials maymay appear to have beenbeen successful, it may be of littlelittle practical valuevalue unlessunless itit has establishedestablished how members of thethe audienceaudience areare expectedexpected toto showshow theirtheir practicalpractical supportsupport ·for the proposals and how their subsequent actions cancan bebe measured.measured. An instructionalinstructional programme for religiousreligious leaders,leaders, linkinglinking extensionextension conceptsconcepts toto thethe tenetstenets ofof their faiths, with its successsuccess measured byby howhow manymany favourablefavourable pronouncementspronouncements they make onon it ini n future, might bebe effectiveeffective inin thatthat area.area. 12.3 Nature of trainingtraining activitiesactivities Some appropriateappropriate formsforms ofof publicpublic informationinformation andand trainingtraining programmesprogrammes for use in forestry extension activities areare asas follows.follows. Conferences Conferences frequentlyfrequently involveinvolve the narticipationparticipation ofof representativesrepresentatives of groups outside thethe immediateimmediate organisationorganisation promotingpromoting thethe conference.conference. Their function may be toto promotepromote aa poolingpooling ofof informationinformation oror ideasideas andand toto developdevelop aa common stand on a particular topic.topic. They consistconsist ofof oneone oror moremore sessionssessions atat which newnew ideasideas or information are presentedpresented · in a stimulating wayway forfor subsequent discussion by thethe participants.participants. InIn somesome cases,cases, theythey maymay involveinvolve field visits toto illustrateillustrate particularparticular points.points. TheThe participantsparticipants may, inin somesome cases, form a numbernumber ofof workingworking partiesparties toto studystudy particularparticular aspectsaspects ofof thethe topic in greater detail andand subsequentlysubsequently reportreport tot o thethe fullfull conference.conference. The outcome is normally anan agreedagreed reportreport byby thethe participants.participants. ConferencConferenceses are a - 138138 -- very attractive form of informationalinformational or educationaleducational activity and are veryvery popular especially where theythey involveinvolve traveltravel andand somesome entertainmententertainment providedprovided by the hosts. They tend to give thethe organisingorganising bodybody aa highhigh profileprofile and wide exposure to presspress andand TVTV coverage.coverage. It is doubtful, however, if the testtest ofof measurable resultsresults isis alwaysalways strictlystrictly appliedapplied toto conferences,conferences, oror ifif itit were,were , if it would suggest a high returnreturn onon Chethe efforteffort andand expenseexpense involved.involved. This, however, should not bebe taken asas a reasonreason forfor dismissingdismissing conferencesconferences asa s . unimportant,unimportant, but a justificationjustification for organisingorganising themthem moremore effectivelyeffectively andand with closer attention to the desired outcome and subsequent implementation of the recommendations. Training meetings TrainingTraining meetingsmeetings cancan be organisedorganised at many differentdifferent levels in anan information or trainingtraining programme.programme. They normally require thethe participationparticipation of persons inin activitiesactivities leadingleading toto thethe acquisitionacquisition ofof knowledgeknowledge andand skills.skills. At the upper levelslevels of anan extensionextension organisation,organisation, theythey cancan bebe usedused toto presentpresent the organisation's viewsviews onon a particular problem or promote a suitablesuitable line ofof approach to solvingsolving it.it. At the operationaloperational levellevel theythey maymay concentrateconcentrate onon the development of skillsskills inin organisationorganisation andand leadershipleadership amongstamongst technicaltechnical staff and voluntary leaders.leaders. They are usually ofof shortshort duration,duration, thoughthough toto transfer aa range ofof usefuluseful skills,skills, aa series of trainingtraining meetings may bebe required. Short courses These may last fromfrom a fewfew days toto aboutabout threethree weeks andand areare designeddesigned toto give more in-depthin-depth training andand adequateadequate practicalpractical experienceexperience toto participantsparticipants on someSOme important technical matters. These may cover topics such as establishing forest nurseries or simple techniques of contouring land before plantingplanting.. The participants, however, may mainly bebe confinedconfined toto employeesemployees ofof agencies involvedinvolved inin developmentdevelopment activitiesactivities asas individualindividual farmersfarmers andand herdherd ownerownerss may not be ableable toto absentabsent themselvesthemselves fromfrom theirtheir normalnormal activities for such lengthy periods, eveneven thoughthough theirtheir livingliving andand traveltravel expensesexpenses areare met.met. Workshops These are a seriesseries ofof meetingsmeetings organisedorganised aroundaround specificspecific problemproblem areas identified as important by thosethose participatingparticipating inin thethe workshop.workshop. While theythey can be applied to matters of a purely technicaltechnical nature theythey may alsoatso be used for analysing social or administrative problems, and making use of ·contributionscontributions fromfrom otherother participants,participants, toto devisedevise solutionssolutions toto them.them. TheyThey may deal with problemsproblems suchsuch asas motivation, communication,communication, programmeprogramme planningplanning andand financial responsibility. They maymay also be used to explore different attitudesattitudes or approaches to development in a number of participating organisations,organisations, in orderorder toto establishestablish aa betterbetter understandingunderstanding ofof eacheach other'sother's position and,and, ifif possible,possible, reconcilereconcile existingexisting differences.differences. They should have some specificspecific objective, though ththisis maymy bebe modifiedmodified duringduring thethe discussiondiscussion asas differing pointspoints ofof viewview emerge.emerge. Field tripstrips These have alreadyalready beenbeen discusseddiscussed inin detaildetail inin SectionsSections 8.118.11 andand 8.12.8.12. Their functionfunction is toto provideprovide participantsparticipants withwith opportunitiesopportunities toto observeobserve andand studystudy at firstfirs t handhand specificspecific problemsproblems oror achievementsachievements relevantrelevant to a particularparticular extension oror developmentaldevelopmental situation.situation. Again, they must have somesome specificspecific objective. An informativeinformative and entertainingentertaining tourtour isis ofof littlelittle valuevalue unlessunless the information gained iiss not onlyonly recordedrecorded andand disseminateddisseminated toto othersothers butbut applied inin somesome effectiveeffective way.way . - 139 - Exchange visits These are carefullycarefully organisedorganised visitsvisits betweenbetween participantsparticipants inin differentdifferent fields of work. They may also include short exchanges of work responsibilities. The main outcome should be a higher degree of understanding and co-operationco-operation betweenbetween the individuals andand organisationsorganisations involved. They can normally only be implementedimplemented whenwhen a certaincertain degree of understanding and co-operation already exists between the different organisations involved inin thethe exchange. 12.4 Selection of training methods Training programmes frequently calcalll for a combinationcombination of aa numbernumber ofof training situations and thethe employment of various training methods. The choice of methodsmethods of training may bebe based on thethe following assumptions: - participants bring to the training situation their past knowledge and workwork experienceexperience which can bebe a significant contribution to thethe learninglearning processprocess both ofof themselvesthemselves andand of others; - people learnlearn mostmost effectivelyeffectively inin situationssituations whichwhich encourageencourage active participationparticipation inin thethe learninglearning process;process; - no oneone methodmethod ofof learninglearning cancan bebe singledsingled outout asas thethe best;best; normally a combinationcombination ofof methods isis most likelylikely toto bringbring about desireddesired behaviouralbehavioural changes;changes; and, - the more sensessenses involved inin the learning task,task, the moremore effective the learning isis likelylikely toto be.be. The choice of the particular method or methods to bebe usedused willwill dependdepend on whatwhat specifically is to be learned,learned, as defined inin thethe trainingtraining objectives,objectives, on thethe particularparticular circumstancescircumstances prevailingprevailing atat thethe time,time, andand onon thethe resourcesresources at the disposal of the staff. While learning planting techniques by practical demonstration may be most efficientefficient inin thethe plantingplanting season,season, thethe useuse of slide/tapeslide/tape presentations,presentations, videos or cinecine filmsfilms maymay playplaya a largerlarger partpart ifif the instruction mustmust be donedone duringduring thethe drydry season.season. In everyevery situation,situation, however, opportunities for activeactive participationparticipation will greatlygreatly enhanceenhance thethe possibility of effective learning.learning. 12.4.1 The lecture method This term, "lecture","lecture", is,is, atat leastleast inin businessbusiness matters,matters, tendingt ending toto fallfall out of use. A lecture, unsupported by visual aids ofof anyany sort,sort, isis notnot highly effective and is nownow seldomseldom employed.employed. The termterm "presentation""presentation" is now more widely used forfor situationssituations inin whichwhich informationinformation givengiven orally,orally, byby diagrams,diagrams, charts, and illustrations is used toto conveyconvey aa seriesseries ofof ideasideas oror suggestionssuggestions to stimulate desired actions.actions. However, the basic principles of preparing and presenting such a presentationpresentation stillstill apply.apply. The use ofof additionaladditional aidsaids will simply enhance thethe performance. A lecture, so enhanced, isis stillstill aa usefuluseful methodmethod ofof givinggiving backgroundbackground information to aa largelarge audience.audience. If a suitablesuitable situationsituation for itsits use doesdoes arise, the followingfollowing points shouldshould make itit asas effective,effective asas circumstancescircumstances permit.permit . A good lecturelecture consistsconsists ofof twotwo phases:phases: preparationpreparation andand presentation.presentation. - 140140- - Preparation It takestakes considerablyconsiderably longerlonger toto prepareprepare aa lecturelecture thanthan itit does toto deliver it, even ifif thethe lecturerlecturer knowsknows thethe subjectsubject thoroughly.thoroughly. This leads toto the unfortunateunfortunate tendencytendency onon the partpart of some speakers to use the same material repeatedlyrepeatedly without regardregard coto thethe particularparticular circumstancescircumstances oror thethe audience. Some important pointspoints toto considerconsider are:are: Audience - find out all therethere isis toto bebe knownknown aboutabout thethe audience;audience; theirtheir age andand educationaleducational levels;levels; theirtheir knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe topictopic andand their particular interestsinterests inin it.it. Objective - determine thethe naturenature andand extentextent ofof thethe knowledgeknowledge thethe audienceaudience is expectedexpected toto acquireacquire asas a resultresult ofof thethe lecturelecture andand thethe general impressions you ,want themthem toto taketake away.away. Specific points - consider thethe specific points of knowledge youyou think are necessary to establishestablish thethe objectives;objectives; limitlimit thesethese toto 44 oror 55 points as an audience may not be able toto comprehendcomprehend and retainretain many importantimportant ideasideas inin oneone session.session. Material - gather available material toto supportsupport ' thethe pointspoints youyou wishwish toto establish; classifyclassify itit into "must"must know",know", "should"should know" andand "could know" categories, andand select thethe materialmaterial toto presentpresent within thethe timetime availableavailable inin thethe correctcorrect orderorder ofof importance.importance. AV Aids - review the typetype andand rangerange ofof AVAV aidsaids whichwhich areare appropriateappropriate toro useuse inin relationrelation toto thethe topictopic andand thethe locationlocation ofof the lecture andand the specificspecific points these aidsaids can be usedused toto reinforce in the presentation. Organise the available material into aa structurestructure toto supportsupport thethe majormajor points of the lecture.lecture. Review and regroup thisthis asas necessary until itit appears to form a well organised flowflow of information.in~ormation. Devise a suitablesuitable introductionintroduction to gain the attention of thethe audienceaudience andand aa shortshort conclusionconclusion toto sumnarisesummarise thethe main pointspoints ofof thethe talk.talk. Presentation A lecturerlecturer mustmust adjust his mannermanner ofof presentationpresentation to the subject matter, the audience and thethe location.location. The tonetone andand pitchpitch ofof thethe voicevoice mustmust suit the topic, whether it requiresrequires carefullycarefully arguedargued statementsstatements onon particularparticular points or aa moremore vigorous,vigorous, generalgeneral expositionexposition ofof aa theme.theme. The numbernumber andand type of the audience will alsoalso determine whetherwhether the speaker can use a well modulated, almost conversational,conversational, tonetone oror aa loud,loud , forceful,forceful, perhapsperhaps almostalmost strident, approach. The locationlocation ofof the lecture, the acousticsacoustics ofof the building, the timetime ofof day,day, thethe temperaturetemperature andand humidityhumidity willwill allall influenceinfluence the presentation of thethe material. The pace ofof presentationpresentation will dependdepend bothboth - 141 - on thethe sizesize ofof thethe audienceaudience andand onon theirtheir familiarityfamiliarIty withwith thethe topic.topic. Good eye contact and thethe avoidance of distracting mannerisms by the presenter areare vital. The presentationpresentation of anyany projectedprojected oror staticstatic visualvisual aidsaids mustmust bebe practised to ensure they complement the flow of informationinformation and not disruptdisrupt it. Clues-fromClues' from thethe audienceaudience intn thethe formform ofof restlessnessrestlessness oror signssigns ofof boredomboredom should alert a speakerspeaker either toto varyvary hishis presentationpresentation or,or, preferably,preferably, to wind-up his talktalk asas soonsoon asas practicable.practicable. The decision whetherwhether or not to use a public address system is important. Too often this is a statusstatus symbol for presenters, rather than anan aid toto understanding.understanding. A poorpoor qualityquality p.a.p.a. systemsystem maymay inin factfact distortdistort sound and make a talktalk harderharder toto follow.follow. A speaker who can hold the attention of an audience by good voice projection and make himself clear by carefulcareful diction and phasing of his wordsIJords presents aa much more impressiveimpressive figure than someonesomeone whose naturalnatural intonations,intonations, ifif any,any, areare lostlost inin electronicelectronic amplification.amplification. Questions after the presentation provide an opportunityopportunity to assess how much interestinterest itit hashas arousedaroused andand enableenable thethe speakerspeaker toto clearclear upup anyany pointspoints which may notnot havehave beenbeen fullyfully understoodunderstood byby thethe audience.audience. Questions for which a speaker has no immediateimmediate answeranswer can be handled by throwing them openopen to thethe audienceaudience toto discussdiscuss or,or, if they are onon aa moremore preciseprecise point,point, by promising the questioner a writtenwr.itten answeranswer asas soonsoon asas possible.possible. 12.4.2 Group discussion methodsmethods It is important for extensionextens i on staffstaff toto acquireacquire skillsskills inin thethe useuse ofof thethe discussion technique. A numbernumber of other training methodsmethods depend on a person's ability toto leadlead discassions.discuss·ions. The technique should, howevehowever,r , be uusedsed with discretion. It will only produce effective conclusionconclusionss iiff the participants already have sufficient knowledge or experience of a topictopic toto make aa constructiveconstructive contributioncontribution toto thethe discussion.discussion. Preparations for discussionsdiscussi ons - select a suitable topictopic forfor discussion;discussion; - prepare anan outline ofof thet he mainmain points that are likely to bebe raised and allocateal locate a periodperiod ofof time,time, provisionally,provisionally, toto each;each; - consider anyany additional additi onal problemsproblems oror objectionsobjections whichwhich mightmight bebe raised and . how thesethese mightmi ght possiblypossibly be dealt with during thethe discussiondiscussion.. Conduct of a discussiondiscussi on To open a discussiondiscussi on trytry toto tietie thethe topictopic upup withwith somesome mattermatter whichwhich hashas previously been discussed or withwith aa mattermatter ofof somesome relevancerelevance toto thethe groupgroup members. The role of thethe discussion leaderleader isis toto assistassist thethe groupgroup membersmembers toto putput forward, and examine critically,critical ly, pointspoints of view whichwhich willwill serveserve to t o achieveachieve the objectiveobjective ofof thethe discussion.discuss ion. It is not toto limitlimit oror controlcontrol thet he viewsviews expressed or thethe flow of discussiondis cussion for" or anyany otherother reasons.reasons. However, it1 t isis important to ensure that thethe main lineHne ofof discussiondiscussion doesdoes notnot straystray fromf rom the major topic, as may sometimes happen when oneone member,member, whowho maymay havehave stronglystrongly held viewsviews onon aa particularparticular topic,topic, tendstends toto divertdivert thethe dtscussiond i scussion toto hishis oror her main interest.interest. A leader cancan guideguide aa discussiondiscussion backback toto itsits mainmain themet heme byby the Skilfulskilful use ofof: questions. Points raised during a discussiondIscussion can bebe recordedrecorded onon aa flipchart,flipchart, aa chalkboard, or on cards on aa feltboard, which willwill allow themthem to be re-arranged and developed into a possible final conclusion. Irrelevant - 142 - material cancan inin thisthis wayway bebe identifiedidentified andand setset asideaside duringduring thet he discussion.discussion. All membersmembers shouldshould bebe encouragedencouraged to participateparticI pate asas ffullyully as possible toto ensure a sense of involvementinvolvement inin thethe outcome.outcome. SufficientSufficient controlcontrol of thethe discussion shouldshould bebe exercisedexercised byby thethe leaderleader toto easuree nsure thatthat allall thethe importantimportant points are properlyproperly consideredconsidered and sufficientsufficient timetime allowedallowed forior reviewre"iew andand conclusions.conclusi.ons. All thethe pointspoints expressedexpressed shouldshould be summarised atat the enend,d , includingIncluding oopposingpposing viewpointviewpoints,s, and thethe groupgroup shouldshould bebe encouragedencouraged oror guidedguided to mmoveove towardst owards aa conclusionconclusion basedbased onon aa consensus,consensus, ratherrather thanthan oa01.1 aa vote.vote. Group discussiondiscussionss araree suitablesuItable fortor exploringexploring matters of policypolicy or of of tacticst actics in pursuing extension objectl"esobjecttves andand maymay lead toto adoptingadopting liaeslines of advaadvancence which have already takentaken possible objections fully into considconsideration.erat ion. Case-studyCase-study methodmetho,j The case-study method is important illin ttrainingraini ng sstafftaff ttoo handle adminisadministrativetrative problems whichwh ich may arisearise inin thet he coursecourse ofof theirtheir work.work. ITtt can play an importantimportant rolerole inin in-servicei n-service trainingtratning Forfor staffstaff moving fromfrom technicaltechnical or clerical toto administrativeadministrative functions.f unctions. It serves to provideprovide experienceexperience inin problem analysis andand decisiondecisIon making.making. Before aaskingsking a group toto work on aa case itit isLs necessary to "set"set thethe scene"scene" byby establishingestablishing somesome assumptions,assumptions , such as thethe structurestructure ofof thethe organisation,organisation, staffing,staffing, resources,resource.c;, capacitycapacity toto expand, policy constraints,constraints , etc.etc . A case can thenthen bebe presentedpresented asas aa setset ofof factsfacts concerningconcerning tasks,tasks, funds,funds, staff or resourcesresources requiringrequiring thethe bestbest availableavailabl e solutionsolution withinwithin thethe limitslimits imposed. It isis usefuluseful toto introduceintroduce aa casecase studystudy beforebefore thethe endend ofof a day so the group members can thinkthink itit overover and,and, if necessary,necessary, discuss itit amongstamongst themselves in theirtheir freefree time.time. The case presented shouldshould bebe closelyclose l y relatedrelated to the members' normal work andand carecare mustmust bebe takentaken toto establLshestablish thethe relevancerelevance of thethe discussioasdiscussions aadand conclusionsconclusions toto thethe members'members ' real-lifereal-life situation.situation. In extension activities, proble1usproblems concerning the allocation of equipment,equipment, transport, staff or funds areare relevantrelevant andand couldcould provideprovide suitablesuitable pointspoints for(or study. During the actualactual discussiondiscussion ofof thethe casecase thethe proceduresprocedures referredreferred to in discussion /eadingleading shouldshould applyapply toto thethe group.group. Role-playing techniquestechniques Role-playing techniquestechniques area r e anan. extension ofof the case-study method,method, where thethe studeatsstuuer,ts actact outout specificspecific rolesroles inin aa situation.situation. The techniquetechnique isis applicable to operational level staff of an extension orgaatsationorgarllsation whowho require to improve their skillsskills inin dealingn"aling with"ith thethe public.public . RoleRole-playing- playing isis usefuluseful for:for: - developing thethe participants!participants" communicationcommunic",tion skills;skills; building staff members' confidenceconfidence inin iealingdealing withwith real-lifereal-life situations; and, enabling leadersleaders to givegive adviceadvice and,and, wherewhere necessary,nec2.ssary, some criticism, based onon thethe handlinghandling ofof aa simulatedsimulated situation.situation. Two typestypes ofof approachapproach cancan bebe used, structured or spontaneousspontaneous role-role playing. In sstructuredtructured role-playing, thethe scene isis setset byby thethe leaderleader who" ho may, in fact,fact, provide aa script or atat least an outlineoutline ofof whatwhat eacheach charactercharacter should contribute.contribute. This procedureprocedure isis helpfulhelpful inin studyingstudying differentdifferent patteraspatterns of leadership, communication ofof informationInformation oror interpretioninterpretion ofof aa report.report. In spontaneous role-playing,role- playing, thethe participantsparticipants actact outout roles,roles, whichwhich areare selectedselected for them, in a simplesimpl e situationsituation withoutwithout advanceadvance planning.planning. - 1143-43 - rneThe general procedure forfor initiatinginitiating aa role-playingrole-playing sessionsession is:is: describe the situation,situation, usually inin briefbrief notesnotes forfor eacheach part-part icipant;icipant; these may instruct one or moremore members to behave in a "difficult""difficult" or unco-operative way to determine the reactionr.eaction of others toto thisthis situation;situation; allow timetime for the players toto think howho" theythey areare toto respond to the information given and thethe rolerole assignedassigned toto them;them; - set the process in operation butbut windwind it up if itit appearsappears toto be degendegeneratingerating into a genuine dispute situation amongst ·pParticipants;articipants; and,and, - reviewreview the performance of thethe participants; evaluate theirtheir strostrongng and weak points, their reaction to conflict situations, theirtheir skill and tacttact inin handlinghandling difficultdifficult situatioas.situations. The membersmembers of the group not actively participating in role-playing may be told in confidenceconfidence ofof thethe rolerole eacheach playerplayer isis expectedexpected toto taketake and asked to observe closely howhow they handlehandle the situation so they can participateparticipate in the subsequentsubsequeat discussion of the performance.performance. Management games Management games are usefuluseful in motivating thethe traineestrainees byby injectinginjecting varietyvariety into the sessions. An instructorinstructor should build upup a number oEof situat:lons,situations, allall based more or lessless onon realreal eveats,events, onon whichwhich problemsproblems can be set, to be solved,solved, in thisthis case,case, byby thethe combinedcombined activitiesactivities of a numbernumber ofof partIcipantsparticipants eacheach taking the part of aa membermember ofof aa managementmanagement team,team, e.g.e.g. productionproduction manager, financialfinanclal controller, personnel offficer, stores controller, etc. The participants should be setset certaincertain limitslimits ofof resourcesresources andand time within which they must actact inIn orderorder toto produceproduce aa solution.solution. The game becomes an exerciseexercise in team-work and co-operation, adjusting individualindividual "ideal" solutions toto thethe requirementsrequirements oror limitationslimitations . ofof otherother membersmembers ofof thethe team. 12.5 Steps in organisingorganising aa trainingtraining programmeprogramme 12.5.1 Determining trainingtraining needsneeds Before resources are committedcommitted tot o training,training, aa clearclear needneed forfor a trainingtraining programme mustmust bebe established.established. Two questions whichwhich mustmust bebe askedasked are:are: who isis toto bebe trained;trained; and, - for what purpose are theythey toto bebe trained?trained? In practice, it isis oftenoften necessarynecessary toto answeranswer thethe secondsecond questionquestion firstfirst in orderorder to determine thethe trainingtraining objectives,objectives, the subject-mattersubject-matter contentcontent and, to some extent, the methods toto bebe employed.employed. The questionquestion ofof who isis toto be trainedtrained isis notnot alwaysalways oneone overover whichwhich thethe trainingtraining organisationorganisation can havehave much influenceinfluence but theythey should,should, atat least,least, bebe givengiven detaileddetailed informationinformation on the background and experienceexperience ofof thethe membersmembers ofof eacheach coursecourse sufficientlysufficiently wellwell in advance to modify both objectivesobjectives andand standardstandard trainingtraining programmesprogrammes toto meetmeet their particular needs.needs. The development of a training programme requiresrequires a careful and systematicsystematic analysisanalysis andand e.valuationevaluation ofof the areas of studystudy toto bebe includedincluded inin the programme.programme. These needs maymay bebe expressedexpressed byby thethe employingemploying organisation,organisation, or byby potentialpotential employersemployers ofof thethe participants.participants. In somesome cases,cases, theythey maymay bebe expressed by thethe general public who have toto relyrely onon thethe personspersons trainedtrained forfor assistance inin developmentalde"elopmental matters.mat ters. In manymany circumstances,circumstances, they maymay bebe determined, to a largelarge extent,extent, byby thethe participants'participants' feltfelt needsneeds or thethe viewsviews - 144144- - of the people with whom the trainees must co-operate in their work situations. A knowledge of thethe jobjob requirements,requirements, thethe standardstandard ofof performanceperformance required and thethe degreedegree ofof supervisionsupervision oror assistanceassistance availableavailable inin thethe workwork situation is alsoalso important.important. Some system of prioritiespriorities must bebe deviseddevised inin listing subject-matter areas to bebe includedincluded inin thethe programmeprogramme andand determiningdetermining the emphasis to be given toto each of them.them. The development of an effective training programme requires the co-operation ofof bothboth plannersplanners andand participantsparticipants inin determiningdetermining objectivesobjectives andand programme content, if thethe participantsparticipants areare toto devotedevote theirtheir fullfu~l interestinterest andand energies toto thethe programme. 12.5.2 DeterminingDetermi.ning the objectives of trainingtraining Training objectivesobjectives mustmust bebe stated spedspecifically Eically inin t'lrmsterms ofof whatwhat a participant should bebe ableable to do asas a result ofof the training.training. The more specific the statementstatement ofof obiectives,objectives, thethe easiereasier itit isis toto identifyidentify thethe stepssteps needed to achieve thesethese objectives andand toto evaluateevaluate howhow successfullysuccessfully theythey have been achieved. 12.5.3 Determining the training contentcontent The training content must be directlydirectly relatedrelated toto thethe objectivesobjectives which have beenbeen determineddetermined forfor thethe programme.programme. The following steps may serveserve as a guide to determining thethe contentcontent ofof aa programme:programme: - consider whatwhat change in knowledge, attitudes or skillsski lIs isis expected of each participant as a result ofof the training activity; - list thethe important aspects thatthat make up'lP thethe subject-matter8ubject--matter content; - given certaincertain facilities,facilities, resourcesresources andand aa timetime frame,frame, selectselect the mostmost important topics that should be included in the programme; - set up a priority list forfor topicstopics forfor study;study; - break downdown major topicstopics intointo moremore specificspecific componentscomponents inin termsterms of behavioural changes desired;desired; and, - for each specificspec [fic component make a listlist ofof thethe knowledgeknowledge or skills a participant shouldshould develop.develop. 12.5.4 Developing a final programmeprogra.nme and teachingteaching planplan A well organisedorganised trainingtraining programmeprogramme consistsconsists ofof thethe following:following: - a statement of thethe objectivesobjectives ofof thethe trainingtraining activity;activity; -a statement of thethe coveragecoverage ofof thethe subjectsubject mattermatter toto bebe pres-pres- ented; lists ofof teaching aids, equipmentequi pment and other materials required; - identification ofof thethe perpersonssons whowho araree toto bebe involvediavolved inin thethe training; - selection ofoE thethe methods ofof training;training; - a briefbrief explanationexplanation of thethe manner inin which the group is toto participate in each trainingtraining activity;activity; - a list of thethe learninglearning activitiesactivities toto bebe assignedassigned toto thethe part-part icipants; and, - prOV1S.l0nprovision forEor evaluation of thethe participantsparticipants before thethe startstart of training,training, during training,training, after trainingtraining and aa follow-upfollow-up of performancperformancee aaCterfter eeachach participant has contin.uedcontinued his nor.nalnormal activities forfor somesome time.time. - 145 - 12.5.512.5.5 Scheduling training activities It is necessarynecessary toto determinedeteOQLne ·tthehe extentextent ofof thethe trainingtraining course.course . The number, nature,nature, frequency, time and duration ofof the sessions needneed to be specified. There.isThere is often,oftea, in the casecase of relatively shortshort courses, a tendetendencyncy to trytry to crowdcrowd a_a greatgreat deal intoLoto aa short period without properproper res"rdregard for the students'students' ability to absorb all,,11 thethe materialmaterial or acquire the necessary skills.skills. The preparationpreparation ofof the scheduleschedule mustmu s t taketake into[rito accountaccount locallocal.. conditions,conditions, suchsuch asas dailyJaily variationsvariations inin weather,weather, particularlyparticularly wherewhere [,practicalc,,"tical activities areare involved.involved. The time allotted for activities must be realrealistic LGtic and must provideprovide appropriateappropriate timet lIne Corfot" movingmo v ing betweenbetween trainingtraining areasareas, J break periods, private study or practiceprA.ct ice and leisure. The participants andand others involvedinvolved must hebe (ullyfully informedlnformed of thethe schedule.schedule. They shouldshouli hebe given an opportunity to comment onon itit andand theirtheir viewsviews shouldshould be taken into account inin implementLaglmplementtng it,i.t, as3B farfar asas circumstancescircumstances permit.permit. 12.5.612.5.6 Organising for work This stage draws atattentioa t(:!nt lOll tc) the organisational problems in implemenimplementiagt tng a.::t trainingtraining programme.programme. DependingDepending onon the natureaature and slzesize of the training group,group, a numbernumber ofof (llrlCi.:fuactioas i.() J)s or servicesi3e cvices maymay be performedperformed byby a single person, a training management committee, oror by a number of committees. When several committeesco! n,nttt~ ei3 areare involved,involved, oneone personperson mustmust alwaysalways bebe designateddesignated asas co-ordinator andand have authority to ensure thatthat allall thethe arrangementsarrangements mademade areare consistent. This topic is discusseddiscusAed inin detaildetail inin SectionSection 12.612.6 below.below. 12.5.712.5.7 Implementimplemeatiag tl18 thethe programmeprogramme During the i.lTlplementationimplementation of the training programme, ddefectsefects or we"k~essesweaknesses may appear inin thethe trainingtraining plan.plan. Such defects should be corrected as quicklyquickly asas possible.possible. This can behe done IFif aa suitablysuitably detaileddetailed writtenwritten programme,progr,qrnrne, or SchemeScheme of Work,Work, coveringcovering eacheach sessionsession ofof. thethe coarse,course, has been prepared in advance and ifif reasonablereason.qb1e allocationsal1.oc.qtions ofof timetime havehave beenbeen mademade for[or unforseen circumstance.s.circUlllstarlCe,s. 12.5.8 EvaluattonEvaluation andand folloq-uptollo'.-up Provision should be mademade for[or. evaluatione""lu.qtion ofof thethe participantsparticipants duringduring andarId after traintng.trainins. AaAn initiallnit lal evaluationevaluation may bebe administeredadministered atat thethe startstart ofof training toto determinedetennine the, levelIt?:'u~l ofof knowledge,knowledge, skillsskills oror attitudesattitudes ofof thethe persons. ThisTh ls must be handledhandled veryvery carefullycarefully asas it can proveprove somewhat di.sturbingdisturbing to participantsparticipants to behe faced[aced withwith aa seriesseries ofof questionsquestions toto which"hlch they may have veryvery fewfew answers.ans"ers. Personal evaluationeval,jation shouldshould bebe carriedcarried outout throughoutthroughout thethe coursecourse andand thethe participantsparticlpants informed individually ofof the resultsresults toto motivatemotivate them in theirtheir work andand to give ththee instructorsinstructors a measuremeasu r e ofo[ the achievementachievement ofof their objectivesobjectives.. The participants shouldshould bebe askedasked toto commentcomment oaOIl thethe trataingtra tntng sessionssessions oror activitiesactivltL~s at frequentfrequent intervals.intervals. Suggestions or commeatscomments recetvedreceived from them should, as far as practicable,practicable, bebe usedu.sed inin makingmaking revisionsrevisions oror adjustmentsadjustment" toto the trainingtraining programan.progr"mme . ALAt thethe endend ofof thethe coursecourse thethe participantsparticipants shouldshoulrl bebe evaluated iain termstenns otof the specificspecific objectivesobjectives of thethe training andand theirtheir participationparticipatioll tian it and they shoulds hould bebe informed of the resultsresults of the evaluaevaluation.tion. A programmeprogr.amme forFor following-upFollowing-up the participants initl theirtheir normalrlarmal activities should bebe mademade toto determinedetennine ifif whatwhat theythey havehave learnedlearned isis relevantrelevant to their actualactl.l:tl jobs.jobs. This is a vital step toto obtainingobtatnioe inFormattoainformati.on onon which - 146 -- to base decisions forfor improvingimproving futurefuture trainingtraining programmes.programmes. 12.6 Management ofof aa trainingtraining programme According to thethe staffstaff available,available, and thethe generalgeneral patternpattern of working adopted, the planning and implementation of training activities maymay be assigned to individuals oror to various workingworking committeescommittees at a training centre. In general, a committee should only be entrusted with the work «herewhere some obviousobvious advantagesadvantages can bebe seenseen inin sharingsharing thethe responsibilitiesresponsibilities forfor decision making and thatthat thesethese advantages compensatecompensate forfor thethe additionaladditional staff burdens and possible delaysdelays ofof committeecommittee sessionssessions andand decisionS.decisions. Where committeescommittees are used, their taskstasks shouldshould be clearlyclearly defined and assigned to membersmembers whowho areare bothboth willingwilling andand competentcompetent toto undertakeundertake them.them. Care must be exercisedexercised toto ensureensure that therethere isis nono overlappingoverlapping ofof functionsfunctions between committees.committees. A centralcentral contact person shouldshould bebe assignedassigned toto provideprovide leadership and co-ordinationco-ordination ofof thethe workwork of·of thethe committees.committees. The numbernumber andand organisationorganisation ofof workingworking committeescommittees depends, amongst other things,things, on the size of the training group,group, the kindkind of training programme and activities to be undertaken, and whether the training organisation has any prior experience of running such a programme. Experience willwill establish aa pattern of organisation in which only a limitedlimited number of newnew decisionsdecisions willwill havehave toto bebe takentaken onon eacheach repetitionrepetition ofof the programme. Not allall thethe committeescommittees mentionedmentioned belowbelow maymay bebe necessarynecessary but,but, wherever working committeescommittees areare organised,organj.sed, it is importantimportant toto keepkeep inin mind that each membermember sshouldhould feelfeel hehe oror sheshe hashas an important rolerole to playasplay as a member ofof aa team.team. Each member shouldshould bebe wellwell acquaintedacquainted withwith thethe objectivesobjectives of thethe trainingtraining programmeprogramme andand thetl,e variousvarious activitiesactivities planned.planned. Moreover, committee members shouldshould bebe willingwilling toto acceptaccept thethe responsibilitiesresponsibiliti.es involvedinvolved and to carry them . out, even atat some inconvenience ttoo themselves. The important linklink between thesethese committees isIs anan acceptableacceptable leaderleader who maymay bebe referred to asas coordinator oror director,director, oror somesome otherother titletitlewa_c_ whichhi h reflectsreflects his centralcentral rolerole inin thethe programme.programme . The followingfollowing isis anan exampleexample ofof aa listlist ofof workingworking committeescommittees andand theirtheir designated functions,fnnctions , suggested for one-one- toto four-weekfour-week trainingtraining programmesprogrammes involving about 3030 participants.participants. 12.6.1 Planning, steerings teering andand managementmanagement committeecommittee The leaderleader ofof thisthis committeecommittee willwill normallynormally bebe designateddesignated asas overalloverall co-ordinator ofof the trainingtraining programmeprogramme andand is likely toto bebe anan experiencedexperienced staff membermember ofof thethe trainingtraining organisation.organisation. This committeecommittee shouldshould havehave thethe following functions:functions: - to draw upup plansplans andand programmesprogrammes forfor training,training, inin consultationconsultation with thethe instructorsinstructors concerned, within thethe guidelinesguidelines laidlaid down byby thethe headhead ofof thethe trainingtraining organisation;organisation; to formulate generalgeneral proceduralprocedural plans and guidelines forEor training and make thesethese knownknown toto bothboth staffstaff andand participants;participants; - to maintain liaison with thethe otherother workingworking committees;committees; - to plan thethe sessionssess ions eacheach dayday andand briefbrief guestguest staffstaff aadand re-re- source persons on thethe activitiesactivities ofof thethe day;day; to provide the equipmentequipment neededneeded forfor thethe variousvarious sessions;s essions; and, - to arrange forfor custodialcustodial servicesservices forfor meetingmeeting roomsrooms andand training areas.areas. - 147 - 12.6.2 Accommodation, foodfood and social committee While therethere must bebe aa basicbasic frameworkframework ofof staffstaff onon thisthis committee,committee, itit isis necessary · thatthat therethere shouldshould alsoalso bebe somesome representationrepresentation fromfrom thethe participantsparticipants so thatthat tileirtlfeir views cancan influence the decisionsdecisions of the committee. The functions ofof thisthis committeecommittee shouldshould be:be: - to arrange thethe housing ofof thethe participants;participants; - to arrange with thethe cateringcatering organisationorganisation forfor mealsmeals forfor thethe .participants in the institute or inin thethe field,field, asas required;required; - to arrange refreshments for participants duringduring breaks; and, - to plan and implementimplement aa programmeprogramme ofof socialsocial activities.activities . 12.6.3 Registration, evaluationevaluation and informationinformation committeecommittee The functions of thisthis committeecommittee shouldshould be:be: to arrange forfor receivingreceiving andand registeringregistering thethe participantsparticipants inin the programme; - to keep records of anyany dailydaily participants oror guestguest staff;staff; to designdesign andand administer procedures for evaluationevaluation of thethe daily trainingtraining sessions or activities, particularly where "guestguest lecturerslecturers oror demonstratorsdemonstrators areare involved;involved; - to tabulatetabulate and interpretinterpret evaluationevaluation datadata aadand prepareprepare aa reportreport on the results;results; - to set-upset-up and maintain an information centrecentre and bulletinbulletin board services for thethe durationduration ofof thethe course;course; and, - to arrange for photographic and press and TVTV coveragecoverage ofof thethe training activities asas appropriate.appropriate. 12.6.4 Travel arrangements, transporttransport and tourstours committeecommittee The functions ofof thisthis committeecommittee shouldshould be:be: to maintainmaintain contact with traveltravel agencies, andand busbus companiescompanies oror train services, inin connectionconnection withwith thethe arrivalarrival andand departuredeparture of participantsparticipants andand guestguest staff.; staff; to assist participants and guestguest staffstaff inin confirmingconfirming traveltravel arragements-;arragements·; - to arrange transport of participants and guest staffstaff toto andand from thethe nearest town or travel centre to the training institution; - to arrange transporttransport servicesservices forfor thethe trainingtraining activitiesactivities forfor the duration ofof thethe programme;programme; and, - to arrange tourstours andand fieldfield tripstrips asas requiredrequired byby thethe trainingtraining programme. 12.6.5 Library committeecommittee In some institutions thethe libararianlibararian andand hishis staffstaff maymay carrycarry outout allall thethe functions of this committee. If one is formed, itsits dutiesduties shouldshould be:be: to prepare a list of relevant references such asas books,books, journals, charts, and mapsmaps for use byby thethe participantsparticipants andand guest staff;staff; to arrange forf.or makingmaking thesethese references,references, copiescopies oror reprintsreprints available toto participantsparticipants forfor thethe durationduration ofof thethe course;course; and,and, - to assist participants andand guestguest staffstaff toto makemake thethe fullestfullest useuse of the librarylibrary servicesservices andand learninglearning resourcesresources during the course. - 148148- - 12.6.612.6.6 Documentation and proceedings committee The requirementrequirement forfor thisthis committeecommittee willwill dependdepend onon thethe administrativeadministrative structure within thethe training organisation.organisation. Where it does function Itsits responsibilities shouldshould be:be: to prepare and distribute adequateadequate suppliessupplies ofof paperpaper andand writ-writ ing materials for thethe use ofof participantsp" rt.lcipants and guestguest staff;s taff ; to collate all thethe trainingtraining materialsmaterials preparedprepared forfor thethe coursecourse and arrange for theirtheir distribution, as required;required; - to supply reports or informationinformation to groups inin sessionsession at anyany time during the training,training, as required; - to record the proceedings ofof sessionssessions ofof working groups;groups; - to prepare daily summariessummaries of proceedingsproceedings andand bebe responsibleresponsible "for their reproduction and distribution; and, - to collate, edit and prepare a finalfinal reportreport on thethe trainingtraining programme. 12.6.7 Finance committee The relationr "elation of thisthis committeecommittee with thethe financefinance officerofficer oror accountantaccountant primarily responsibleresponsible forfor thethe disbursementdisbursement of funds should be carefully worked out so that thetherere is no weakening of this person's formalformal responsibilities. Where a committee isis formedformed itsits functionsfunctions shouldshould be:be: - to allocate funds necessary for thethe operationoperation of thethe training programme in accordanceaccordance with anan approvedapproved budget;budget; - to arrange forfor disbursementsdisbursements toto bebe mademade atat appropriateappropriate times;times; and, - to prepareprepare aa financialfinancial reportreport onon thethe trainingtraining programmeprogl:amme asas the basis forfOI: drafting future budgets. 12.7 Estimating trainingtraining costscosts Organising and conductingconducting anan effectiveeffective trainingtraining programmeprogramme takestakes time,time, effort and money.money. Unfortunately, moneymoney is not always available inin the amounts organisers wouldwould like. It is, therefore, important that those responsible for a training programmeprogramme learnlearn to budgetbudget accuratelyaccurately for any necessary expenditure toto ensureensure thatthat theythey cancan justifyjustify fullyfully thethe requestsrequests theythey may make forfor funds.funds. The financial allocation for a trainingtraining programmeprogramme must be based on a properlproperlyy prepared budget which cancan standstand upup toto closeclose scrutinyscrutiny andand bebe defendeddefended durduringing discussion.discussion. No overalloverall amount per person can bebe suggestedsuggested for aa training programme as thethe costscosts varyvary accordingaccording to:to: - the type of trainingtraining provided;provided; - the size of the trainingtraining group;group; - the administrative costscosts ofof trainingtraining suchsuch asas supplies and classroom materials;materials; equipment and field materials; travel expenses; number of training staffstaff involved;involved; and,and, honoraria andand otherother staffstaff expenses.expenses. A frameworkframework withinwithin whichwhich estimatedestimated trainingtl:aini ng costscosts maymay bebe allocatedallocated isis gigiven ven below.belm•. - 149149 -- Item Cost Transport Numb'erNumber ofof partlcipantsparticipants xx cost of transport forfor each roundround trip.trip. Number ofof guestguest staffstaff xx costcost ofof transporttransport forfor each roundround trip.trip. Per diem or subsistence allowance Number of participants x amount perper dayday xx numbernumber ofof days on course, plusplus an appropriateappropriate numbernumber of days forfor traveltravel toto andand fromfrom thethe course.course. - Number of guest staff days requiredrequired x appropriateappropriate allowances per day and forfor traveltravel time.time. Supplies and materials Number of participants xx costcost ofof trainingtraining materials~aterials per participant.participant. The accuracy of thisthis estimateestimate ·cancan bebe improvedimproved steadilysteadily ifif · recordsrecords ofof materials issued and unituni t costscosts areare maintainedmaintained byby thethe DocumentationDocumentation andand Proceedings Committee.Committee. Honoraria forf or lecturerslecturers Number ofof hourshours (or(or teachingteaching units)units) taughttaught byby lecturers x raterate ofof honorariumhonorarium perper hourhour oror unit.unit. Educational fieldfield tripstrips Determine thethe numbernumber ofof fieldfield tripstri ps planned.planned. Compute costs on basis of vehiclevehicle distance coveredcovered at thethe standardstandard raterate perpee kilometre'<.ilometre forfor eacheach vehiclevehicle used.used. Include overtimeovertime oror anyany specialspecial paymentspayments forfor drivers.drivers. Training feesfees Where fees may bebe charged by anan associatedassociated training organisationorganisation providing facilities or instruction Eorfor part of thethe course provdsionprovision must be made forfor thesethese onon thethe basis,basis , Number ofof participantsparticipants xx feesfees chargedcharged perper participant.participant. Overhead expenses ThisThis item may be hard toto determinedetermine preciselyprecisely initiallyinitially and itit isis oftenoften simply quoted as aa percentagepercentage ofof thethe overalloverall costscosts ofof thethe programme.programme. It should covercover any additionaladditional secretarialsecretarial oror domesticdomestic staffstaff requirementsrequirements duringduring the course.course. An allowanceallowance ofof 1010 -- 15%15% shouldshould bebe mademade initiallyinl.tially inin mostmost cases.cases. This can bebe adjustedadjusted forfor subsequentsubsequent coursescourses onon thethe basisbasis ofof recordsrecords ofof thethe actual costs incurred.incurred. Other expenses MakeHake provision for exceptional expenses ssuchuch asilS speC!special tal items of equipment oror supplies used in thethe trainingtraining oror specialspecial clothingclothing oror safetysafety equipment requirements.requirements. - 150150- - Miscellaneous This is frequently computed onon thethe basisbasis ofof 10%10% ofof thethe totaltotal budgetarybudgetary requirements, includingincluding overheadoverhead expenses.expenses. It should be heldheld inin reservereserve toto finance any item of expenditureexpenditure whichwhich couldcould notnot reasonablyreasonably havehave beenbeen forseenforseen and which,which, if not met, "ouldwould seriouslyseriously affectaffect the standardstandard ofof trainingtraining offered. 12.812.8 Checklist for organisingorganising andand conductingconducting aa trainingtraining programmeprograme These notes will bebe ofof valuevalue mainlymainly toto thosethose requiredrequired · toto organiseorganise a training programme for the first time. If detaileddetailed records are maintained oEof each programme implemented, and notes kept of observations made by participants and staff on thethe coursecourse content,content, teachingteaching methods,methods, programmeprogramme ofof work and generalgeneral livingliving conditions, aa much more specificspecific checklistchecklist for aa particular organisation can be evolved.evolved. Initially, however, thethe followingfollol<1ng outline may be ofof value. 12.8.1 PUrposesPurposes of training Determine the trainingtraining needsneeds inin relation to thethe organisation'sorganisation I s programme and the jobjob requirements of thethe persons toto bebe trained.trained. Consider thethe timelinesstimeliness ofof thethe programmeprogramme bothboth inin relationrelation toto thethe overall needs of thethe organisationorganisation and toto thethe seasonalseasonal relevancerelevance of any topic.topic. Define the specific objectives of the training. (The more specific this statement is, the more specific the statementstatement of intended behavioural changeschanges cancan be.)be.) Define thethe changeschanges expectedexpected inin termsterms ofof knowledge,knowledge, attitudesattitudes oror skills. Consider the most appropriate location for the training in relation to the specific obiectives.objectives. 12.8.2 Selection of participants Collect details of their background, i.e. their age, sex, previous level of training oror education,education, workwork experience,experience, specialspecial interests or characteristics. Consider what advance informationinformation theythey requirerequire aboutabout thethe trainingtraining in order toto prepareprepare themselvesthemselves properly;properly; arrangearrange toto supplysupply thisthis at an appropriate time.time. Verify thatthat thethe participantsparticipants understandunderstand thethe objectivesobjectives oEof the training programme and acceptaccept the requirements in terms of commitment to the hours andand naturenature ofof thethe work,work, etc.etc. Verify thatthat theythey have beenbeen informedinformed howho" thethe trainingtraining willwill bebe ofof value toto them.them. Consider if the programme appears toto meet fullyfully thethe needsneeds ofof thethe participants. - ISl - 12.8.3 Content of the training programmeprogramme Define the needs ofoE training and thenthen select the content of the programme toto meetmeet thesethese needs.needs. Arrange thethe contentcontent andand materials,materials) inin clearclertt' progressivept:'ogressi ve units,units) so theythey will facilitatefacilitate effectiveeffective teachingteaching andand learning.learning. 12.8.4 Choice of instructorsinstructors Select instructors whowho are likely toto proveprove thethe mostmost effectiveeffective teachersteachers in thet he particularparticular circumstances,circumstances, (e.g. experienced technicianstechnicians maymay be more suitedsuited to teaching atat certain levelslevels or inin certatacert;l:i.. ll topicstoplcs thanthan highly qualifiedqualified graduates).graduates). Brief the instructors well in advance oaon thethe objectives of the training and on thethe participants,participants, soso theythey caacan planplan appropriateappropriate teachingteaching materialsmaterials and methods.methods . The instructorsinstructors should meet and discussdiscuss thethe overalloverall teachingteaching strategy and ensure thatthat theirtheir particular classesclasses fitfit intointo thethe totaltotal programme. 12.812.8.5.5 Training methods Review the trainingtraIning methodsluethods available and choose the one most likelylUc.ely to achieve thethe objectives of thethe training.training. LIstList thethe behaviouralbehavioural changes desired as aa resultresult ofof thethe trainingtraining and consider it thethe methods selectedselected are likelylikely toto achieveachieve this,this, e.g.e.g. - to provideprovide knowledgeknowledge throughthrough lectures,lectures, assignedassigned readingsread 1.ngs and field trips;trips; to influence attitudesattitades through group discussions, case studies, demonstrations; to teach a skill by demonstrations lrleThe choice mustmust be made in the light of practicability,practlcability, economy, availability ofof resourcresourceses and thethe abilityability ofof thethe instructorsinstructors to use thethe method effectively..effectively. · 12.8.6.12.8. 6. Detailed arrangementsarrangements Verify that adequateadequate arrangements for housiaghousing and feedingfeeding thethe particip"ntsbarticipaats been made, and that all thethe necessarynecessary materials are available, oror areare onon order.order. 1)ecideDecide where and when the training sessions will be held and the areas and facilitiesfacilities requiredrequired Cor[O( practicalpractical exercises.exercises. Prepare realisticrealistic and appropriateappropriate timetime schedulesschedules and followfollow themthem as closelyclosely asas practicable.practicable. Allow reasonablereasonable timet-trne forfor privateprivate study, or private practicepractice wherewhere skillsskIlls areare involved.involved. P.akeMake thethe scheduleschedule knownknown toto allall participantsparticipants andand staffstaU asa·s earlyearly asas possible. Ensure thethe meetingmeeting placesplaces are appropriateappropriatel:-o to the topictopic andand asas well arranged andand comfortablecomfortable asas circumstancescircumstances allow.allow. - 152152 -e Ensure chethe meeting placesplaces areare properlyproperly preparedprepared andand thatthat allall thethe instructional facilities andand equipmentequipment areare available.available. Arrange forfor appropriate record keeping, recognition of the participani:Sparticipants at the end ofof thethe trainingtraining andand anyany otherother necessarynecessary activities relatedrelated toto thethe trainingtr;llning programme.programme. Arrange field tripstrips well inin advance;advance; makemake thethe necessarynec".%ary contactscontacts withwith the staff and visit thethe area toto checkcheck thingsthings toto be seen and thethe times requiredrequired for thethe visit.visit. Arrange for thethe use of librarylibrary facilities toto avoid clashing with other ongoing programmes. Look out for details which may have beenbee" overlookedo"erlooked in the early stages of planning, and correct these as sooisoon as noted. Keep good,good, clearclear recordsrecords ofof allall thethe arrangementsarrangements made, andand thethe reasons for decisions, to improve planning procedures inin future.future. 12.8.7 Provisions for evaluation during and after training If appropriate, carry out anan evaluationevaluation ofof thethe participantsparticipants toto determine thethe level of knowledge,knowledge, attitudes and skillsskills at the commencement ofof thethe training.tralnLl1g. Find outout thethe reactionsreactions ofof thethe participantsparticipants toto thethe sessionssessions oror activities ofof the coursecourse asas earlyearly asas possible.possible. Use aa post-post meeting reactionreaction sheetsheet toto collectcollect data,data , andand discussdiscuss anyany problemsproblems raised by thethe students.students. Encourage suggestions oror. COl1l1nelltscomments from the participants and instructors. MakeHake revisions or adjustments in thethe trainlngtraining programme, if necessary, as it proceeds. Always record the reasons for thesethese changes.changes . They may be applicableapplicable toto onlyonlf oneo'le particular groupgroup ofoE participants.participants. Evaluate thethe trainingtratning inin relationrelation toto thethe specificspecific objectivesobjectives ofof trainingtraining.. (Collect objectiveobjectiv" evidenceevIdence to determine to what extent thet.he behaviouralbehavioural changeschanges specifiedspecified forfor thethe trainingL(':;1 In log ·have have been achieved.) Let thethe participantspart.icipants and thethe instructorsinstructors know thethe resultscesnlts ofof thethe evaluation. Consider whetherwhether this should bebe donedone privatelyprivately oror publicly. 12.8.8 Post-training evaluationevalu.:ltLon UseUse aa questionnaire,questionnaLf(:~) or personalpersonal interviews,interviews, to findfind outout the applicabilityapplicability of what the participants havehave learned to the requirementsrequirements ofO( the work theythey havehave toto do.do. Collect observations onon which toto basebase decisionsdecisioTls For(Of' improvingtlnpcoving future trainingtraining programmes. 12.8.9 FeedbackFeedback Arrange detailed discussions amongst the training and administrativead,ntnistrative staff of all the information gathered on thethe executexecllt-Lon ion ofof thethe trainingtraining programme andand nethe 0.cmoleaLst~O'lli'llents byby thethe - 153-153 - participantsparttcipants both during itsits progreseprogress andand on011 ttsits relevancerelevance andand value to themthem inin theirtheir subsequentsubsequent activtties.acU"lties. Incorporate thethe lessons learnedlearned intointo futurefutIH' f~ programmes.pr.oerammes. 12.S.1012.8.10 Follow-upFollow- up Contact partLcLpantsp:.trt tcipants six oror twelve months aftera£ tel" thethe programmeprogramme ends and collect their views on the relevancereievance and value of thethe toptopics Les covered toto theirtheir actualactual duties.duti e ~. Take account ofof thesethese observations inin plant:U[1g planalng futureCnture programmes. - 154 - REFERENCES Compton, J.L. Linking scientistscientist andand farmer:farmer: rethinking extension'sextension's role.role. 1984 World Food Issues edited by M. Drosdoff, Ithaca, NY. CorneCornell 11 UniUniversity, versity, International Agricultural Programme, 1984. FAO Agricultural extension:extension: aa referencereference manual.manual. FAO, Rome, Italy,Italy, 1973 1973. FAO Forestry forfor locallocal communitycommunity development.development. FAO Forestry PaperPaper 1978 No.No.7. 7. FAO, Rome, Italy,Italy, 1978. 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Graham, H.T. Human Resources Management: MacDonald and Evans Ltd. London,London, 1976 1976. - 155 -