Geospatial Analysis of the Terrain of Kachia LGA, Kaduna State, Nigeria, for Military Operations

Home , Kaduna State

British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 19(6): 1-18, 2017; Article no.BJAST.29669 ISSN: 2231-0843, NLM ID: 101664541

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Kehinde Ojeh Isaac1, Ikusemoran Mayomi2* and J. O. Odihi3

1Nigerian Army, 333 Artillery Regiment, Maiduguri, Nigeria. 2Remote Sensing and GIS Unit, Department of Geography, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. 3Geomorphology Unit, Department of Geography, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/BJAST/2017/29669 Editor(s): (1) Xu Jianhua, Department of Geography, East China Normal University, China. Reviewers: (1) Ahmet Sayar, Kocaeli University, Turkey. (2) Kadiri Umar Afegbua, Instrumentation Unit Centre for Geodesy and Geodynamics NASRDA, Nigeria. (3) Hamid Ashraf, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. (4) Hongzhi Song, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, USA. (5) Ndidi Felix Nkeki, University of Benin, Nigeria. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/18413

Received 23rd September 2016 Accepted 7th December 2016 Original Research Article Published 30th March 2017

ABSTRACT

The basis of this study is to analyze the terrain of Kachia LGA (the home of military institutions in Nigeria) for military operations. ArcGIS 10.0, in complimentary with Google Earth Pro and Suffer 10 were integrated with remotely sensed data such as SRTM Digital Elevation Models data, satellite imageries in conjunction with secondary data such as topographical and thematic map to analyze the terrain of kachia LGA. Relevant existing data were also acquired and processed to generate DEM, slope, contours, 3D-view and flow accumulations which were used for general reconnaissance and the analysis of the terrain, that is, the topography, landuse and landcover, drainage and some cultural features such as roads and settlements of the LGA. Viewshed analysis, Lines of Sight and 3D view were used to model the best avenue of approach by the military into the LGA. Moreover, the most suitable site for “release point” during military advance which were based on some criteria were also modeled and determined using geospatial techniques. Other military operations such as axis of advance and obstacle crossing were all demonstrated, while the scenario of the real battle ground were modeled and analyzed. The study revealed that only four

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

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out of the ten routes into Kachia LGA are suitable for advance, while the best release point was found to be located in the southern part of Kaja settlement with area coverage of 18.09km2. Bonds such as villages like Atara, Akwana, Ungwan Kanrara, Bika and Adage as well as Rivers Katera, Awon and Bika which all lie along the axis of advance between the Release Point and Kachia were also detected geospatially as the Report Lines. Rivers Atara, Akwana and Bika were discovered to be possible obstacles along the axis of advance. Nigeria military should as a matter of priority establish units for geospatial analysis in all the military institutions.

Keywords: Military operations; Kachia; terrain analysis; viewshed analysis; DEM.

1. INTRODUCTION all these military institutions have their training located in Kachia LGA. Most of the military Terrain includes natural and man-made features, trainings and instructions on the nature of the structures, and conditions that may favour the landscape or terrain have been based mainly on attacker, the defender, or both [1]. Terrain conventional methods of map reading and analysis as defined by [2] is the process of interpretation of topographic sheets and land analyzing and interpreting man-made and natural surveying techniques. The use of these outdated features on the earth surface. It is the technical methods have always been faced with the and scientific examination of the basic problems of inaccuracy of data and information, topographic parameters such as slope, aspect, difficulty in timely information extraction, surface curvature as well as specific applications problems of storage of the data, problems [3]. Thus, Terrain analysis has a military of data mobility and most importantly, the perspective that consists of the interpretation problems of updating the data. Remote Sensing and application of the knowledge of these and GIS are useful techniques of obtaining features for effective military training for warfare precise data on the Earth’s terrain features operations. without having any physical contacts with the environment. According to [4] knowing the principles of terrain analysis is vital to the commander’s ability to This remotely sensed data and GIS technique deploy, manoeuvre, and advance his unit in the offers a unique opportunity for analysing the battlefield. His ability to analyze and tactically terrain for application in military operations. With use the ground around him (and to know how his this technique, the terrain of a place can enemy can use the same ground) can transform accurately be analyzed within the shortest time the terrain into a valuable ally. According to [5], possible without having personal contact with the at Gettysburg in 1863, the Union Army gained environment. Hence, this relatively new significant advantage by holding the ridges and technology for terrain analysis is not only good hills south of the town, making it difficult for the for military training but also for war time Confederates to attack successfully. The crises appreciation [7]. Therefore, a careful analysis of in Iraq, Bosnia and Kosovo all illustrated that the terrain with this technology and the skillful use of success of military operations is increasingly this information for training with its applications in depending on the availability of good information the battle fields can help to gain surprise, win fire and a good information infrastructure [6]. Also, fight and save lives. The generated information because it is essential that the terrain be from the analysed terrain can also serve as described accurately, clearly and concisely, databank that is easier to update, store and be spatial information becomes of utmost transferred or communicated. importance to field commanders or his superiors for appropriate operational decisions in Thus, the study provides current and reliable and warfare. information on the terrain conditions of Kachia LGA for military operations and training, and if Kaduna State, where Kachia Local Government made available to the military institutions, will no Area (LGA) is located, is home to many military doubt improve the quality of military training institutions such as: The Nigerian Defence and subsequently move Nigeria military Academy (NDA), The Nigerian Military School away from the obsolete methods of terrain (NMS), The Command and Staff College, The analysis to modern techniques in their various Infantry Corp Center and School (ICCS), The training institutions and real time military Nigerian Army School of Artillery (NASA). Almost operations.

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Finally, geospatial terrain analysis eliminates surrounding environment is made possible in personal or physical reconnaissance which order to gather information about all the activities exposes the military to dangers from their of the enemy. enemies as the terrain of any part of the world can be analysed without being to the actual 1.1.8 Release point place. The latest insecurity crises especially in North East Nigeria extols the importance of this The point along the avenue of approach where technique, the prolonged battle between the the soldiers disembarked from vehicles and continue to the target on foot. insurgents and the Nigerian security agents no doubt is partly related to the inability of the Joint 1.1.9 Report lines Task Force to interpret using appropriate technology the terrain of the hideouts of the They are noticeable linear physical features insurgents: the terrain which the insurgents (mostly rivers) along the axis of the advance at understand so well and which becomes where the troop report to the commander not advantage on their part at war front [8,9]. The only on their location but on other necessary military and para-military forces of Nigeria can issues relating to the troops and the advance. benefit abundantly from this technology if it is imbibed. 1.2 Assumption of the Study

1.1 Definition of Terms In this study, military operations in Kachia LGA are based on these two assumptions: 1.1.1 Avenue of approach (i) The enemy is confined in a forest region Avenue of approach is a route large enough for a near Kachia town in Kachia LGA given unit to fire and manoeuvre. (ii) The military has to use any convenient route to capture or dismantle the enemy 1.1.2 Axis of advance with minimal risks and casualties. (iii) The enemy has already installed an OP on The path followed by the troop during advance to a high point near the objective the target is called the axis of advance. 1.3 The Objectives of the Study 1.1.3 Bonds The objectives of this paper are to: Bonds are settlements that are located along the axis of advance of the troop. (i) Determine the best avenue of approach of the troop to the target or objective. 1.1.4 Concealment (ii) Determine the best suitable site for releases point. Cover from the sight of the enemy’s air and (iii) Identify and analyze bonds, report lines ground observation, that is, for instance, the area and obstacle crossing along the axis of must be adequately covered with vegetation. advance. 1.1.5 DF target (iv) Examine the topography of the battle field and analyze the possible approach to real DF targets are registered grids that have been time operations. programmed and are at the reach of enemy or his artillery weapons, upon which fire can be Therefore, to achieve these objectives, the called at any time while his activity is observed following questions must be answered: where within such area. is/are the best avenue(s) of approach?, where is the best suitable site for release point?, how can 1.1.6 Objectives release points, report lines and obstacle crossing be geospatially identified and analyzed?, and The specific positions of the enemy also how can the battle field be examined and commonly referred to as the target. analyzed for real time war.

1.1.7 OP 2. STUDY AREA

Op means observation point, it is a point usually Kachia is one of the LGAs in the southern part of located on high altitude where observation of the Kaduna state. It is bounded in the north by

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Chikun and Kajuru LGAs, in the east by Zango 671 m to 926 m (Fig. 4). The highest peak in the Kataf LGA and the south by Kagarko and Jaba LGA is the Mopa Upare hills with 926 m which is LGAs. Kachia LGA is located between latitude located between Amful and Dagwarga 7°32' and 10°10′N and longitudes 7°00′E and settlements. 8°05′E (Fig. 1). There are three major rivers in Kachia LGA. The Kachia LGA is located within the Kaduna Plains largest of these rivers is the River Bishimi which which comprises extensive tracts of almost level is located in the southern extreme of the LGA. It to gently undulating lightly dissected land, broken has several tributaries and a large basin in places by groups of rocky hills [10] The LGA is extending to the eastern and northern parts of divided into three main relief features: the the LGA. At the middle of the LGA is River western zone comprised mainly of plains and Amful, which drains the central as well as the lowland areas with 602 m above the sea level as western parts of the LGA. River Sarkin Pawa the highest peak, while the central part forms a natural boundary between Kachia LGA comprised of upland areas with elevation ranging and Chikun and Kajuru LGAs in the north. It is between 602 m and 676 m above the sea level. the main river that drains the north western The eastern margins of the LGA are more corner of the LGA. strongly dissected with elevation ranging from

Fig. 1. The study area

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According to [11] there are five geological such as, manual for military training and classes in Kachia LGA. They are (i) Coarse operations, existing training records required Grained Biotite (ii) Quartizites (iii) among others as presented in Table 1. Undifferentiated Schist (iv) Granite Gneis and (v) Migmatite. Out of all the five classes, the 3.1 Methods Migmatite covered the largest part, extending from the extreme west and almost the entire 3.1.1 DEM extraction and classifications central region of the LGA. Kachia LGA lies within the Sudan Savanna belt of the country. The study area map was digitized as polygon; According to [10] the activities of man on the the output was used to extract the area on the Kaduna Plains where Kachia LGA is located DEM data through the extraction by mask have, over the centuries, succeeded in modifying module of the spatial analyst tools in ArcGIS. much of the vegetation so that most of the The extracted DEM was then classified into five present plant communities consist of re-growth classes representing the river valleys, the plains, species. Bush burning, farming activities, the uplands, the highlands and mountain ranges. grazing, and cutting of trees for various purposes all contribute towards delaying the natural 3.1.2 Avenue of approach succession. The major soil type found in this area is the laterite soil, and they are hard and The determination of the safest routes that afford reddish in colour. the best cover and concealment from enemy observations and fields of fire in this paper were 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS based on three approaches: Viewshed analysis, Line of Sight and 3D view. The major materials required for this study include computer hardware as well as the 3.1.2.1 Viewshed analysis following software: ArcGIS 10.0, Google Earth Pro and Suffer 10. While ArcGIS software was The viewshed of both points, lines or polygons used for the extraction and processing of DEM were derived by generating the desired point , data and satellite images and general mapping, line or polygon on the DEM and using the the Google Earth Pro (which has high spatial viewshed module of the raster surface in the 3D resolution) and Suffer 10 were used to analyze Analyst tools of ArcGIS to generate the viewshed the assumed battle ground. of the feature.

The following data as well as their respective 3.1.2.2 Line of sight (LOS) sources were obtained: satellite imageries, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, landuse and LOS entails drawing a straight line between two landcover data, geological map, Google image, or more points of interest on the DEM data and topographical map and other secondary data using the Line of Sight module of Arc GIS 3D

Table 1. Types and sources of data

No Data Sources Purpose 1 ASTER DEM of Obtained online from Earth Has a spatial resolution of 30 m, for Kachia LGA Science Data Interface terrain analysis. 2 2015 L7 ETM+ Obtained online from The first 7 bands of the satellite image Satellite Image of EarthExplorer has resolution of 30 m which was Kachia LGA used for landuse and landcover classification 3 Geological Map of Obtained from Nigeria Required for site suitability Kachia LGA Geological Survey, Kaduna assessments for specific operation 4 Topographical Map Obtained from Federal To compliment the satellite image as of Kachia LGA Survey Office, Kaduna well as to obtain important information such as names and locations of some features of interest 5 Military training and Ministry of Defence and Specific mode of training and operations guide at Nigeria Defence Academy operations in Kachia LGA. Kachia LGA

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Analyst to generate a graph representing the Having known the suitable conditions, ArcGIS visibility between the two points. The graph software was used to develop a model through contains the heights and distances on its axes as which the most suitable site was determined. The well as a line showing the terrain between the following operations were performed for the two points from which it could be deduced model. whether such line is visible from the beginning and end points. The distance between the two (a) Extraction of forest/woodland and riparian points is also accurately presented, while the forest from the landuse and landcover classified nature of the terrain between the two points are from the 2015 satellite image of the LGA. These revealed. are the two landcover types that were considered vegetated enough for concealment in that 3.1.3 3D view environment. (b) Extraction of plains and upland areas from the DEM map of the area. Plains and 3D view was derived by exporting the extracted Upland were the only two land topographical DEM data to ArcScene environment where the units that could be suitable for wagon line and DEM was displayed in 3D view. The routes in the easy movement as highlands and mountain area were also overlain on the output image. areas may be too rugged, while the river valleys 3.1.3.1 Determination of release might be too swampy for consideration. (c) Buffering of 20 km and 50 km distance around According to [12], the following conditions must the objective (Kachia) so that the minimum of 20 be satisfied before a place can be considered to km distance away from the objective for fear of be suitable for release point: DF target could be avoided and the maximum of 50 km could also be determined. (d) Selection of (i) Concealment: This means that the area hard geological units: From the description of the must be concealed from the sight of the geology of the area, it was discovered that the enemy’s air and ground observation, in this geology of Kachia LGA are mainly hard rock paper, thick forest vegetation cover was types. Therefore, the geology were considered considered as the main feature for suitable for wagon line, installation of concealment. surveillance equipment and deployment of (ii) Plains: The terrain of the area must be artillery weapons, the whole area is considered relatively lowland area for easy movement to be geological suitable. and installation of necessary surveillance equipment as well as wide enough for 3.1.4 Barrier crossing wagon line. (iii) Distance from the objective: The River Akwana was used to demonstrate the distance from the objective must not be too procedures for the site suitability for crossing close for fear of being seen by the enemy; natural obstacles like large rivers. It is easier to and must also not be too far so that the cross a river valley where the width is not wide, troops would not be fagged out on foot. where the slope is not very steep and where the The determination of the distance however depth is shallow. In order to assess the suitable depends on the nature and magnitude of areas that meet these conditions, the Google the war. In this study maximum of 50 km image of the river valley was acquired and away from the enemy is suggested enlarged enough for clear visibility of the area because the enemy was assumed to have with the naked eyes. By mere looking at the been confined (in depth) but away from image, areas where the width of the rivers are enemy’s patrol. narrow could easily be delineated as shown in (iv) Geology: Hard ground for deployment of Fig. 10. However, the determination of shallow heavy guns such as artillery guns. Swamp and the slope of the river valley cannot be area for instance, is therefore considered detected with the naked eyes, hence, a profile of to be unsuitable. the river valley was drawn on the Google maps (v) Not a known DF target: The longest as a line, while the elevation profile of the Google range of a normal artillery pieces is about was run using the line. The output graph showed 18 kms (effective range) distance. the slope, depth of the profile and the distances Therefore, the selected range in this case between any points. The most suitable points or was suggested to be at least 20 km (2 km areas where the river can be crossed could beyond longest range of 18 km) from the easily be determined and recorded by using the objective. coordinates of such places so that whenever the

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troops approach such areas they already know them to counterattack the attacking force and where to follow by using compasses. keep in mind that an avenue of approach is an approach route large enough for a given unit to 3.1.5 Battle ground assessment fire and manoeuvre through. All the possible routes to Kachia town is shown in Fig. 2. For the terrain of the battle ground to be adequately assessed, there is the need for a high Looking at the Kachia LGA in Fig. 2 there are ten spatial resolution imagery through which the possible routes that are wide enough (primary, landscape, the trees, the topography, the roads, secondary and minor roads) to access Kachia the rivers, settlements areas among others can LGA and Kachia town. They are: be conspicuous enough for analysis before and during the operation. In this study, Google Earth (i) Route A: From Kwoi – Kachia(South of Pro was used to assess and analyze the battle Kachia) ground. The advantage of this Google image (ii) Route B: From Kajuru - Kachia (North of analysis is to familiarize the troops to the actual Kachia) terrain because the high spatial resolution of the (iii) Route C: From Zonkwa – Kachia (East of image made it possible to identify, delineate and Kachia) analyze features as if one is physically present in (iv) Route D: GidanDuusi – Mai Ido – Atara that environment. The existing and locations of Junction specific artificial and natural features, distances (v) Route E: Atakfa – GarinBahago -- of features from one another, possible hideouts, Maimadaji Junction gradients, depth and elevations of features (vi) Route F: Kaduna – Doka Junction -- among others can easily and accurately be Maimadaji Junction determined on the Google image. (vii) Route G: Abuja - Maimadaji Junction – Atara -- Kachia Since the Google map is 2-dimentional, which is (viii) Route H: Niger State – Doka Junction – not capable of showing the elevation of GarinBahago interested areas. For instance during a real war (ix) Route I: GidanDuusi – Dogo Minor Road time, it is necessary to mount an OP, usually on (x) Route J: Atara Junction – Kaja Junction higher ground, which cannot be determined on a 2D image like Google. Moreover, the battle From the ten possible routes, the selection of the ground is a small area, using online DEM data safest route becomes imperative for the such as ASTER or SRTM would not give desired commander and his troops based on the terrain result because of their low spatial resolution. In and the location of the objective. Hence, the this paper, 85 points were selected on the determination of the safest routes that afford the Google image ensuring that the points were best cover and concealment from enemy uniformly distributed as much as possible. The observations and fields of fire in this paper were acquired data (latitudes, longitudes and based on three approaches: Viewshed analysis, elevation) of the 85 points were used to generate Line of Sight and 3D view. the 3D image of the battle ground using Suffer 10. 4.1.1 Viewshed analysis

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this study, point OP which is the highest position around Kachia (Fig. 3) was used as an 4.1 Avenue of Approach assumed position where the enemy might have planted the OP. Fig. 3 shows the viewshed According to [10], when analysing terrain for analysis of the OP, and all the places that are avenues of approach, considerations must be visible from the OP. given to how both own troops and the enemy will use the avenues of approach. The troops look for The visible places from the OP are clearly seen avenues of approach that afford the best cover in Fig. 3. Areas as far as northern part of Gidan and concealment from enemy observations and Duusi, Gidan Kwaasu north-west Awon village fields of fire. The defender will attempt to identify among others, were all visible from the OP. the most likely enemy avenues of approach Moreover, some parts of the road from Gidan through line-of-sight (LOS) analysis and emplace Duusi and Mai Ido (Route D) were also found obstacles on them. In addition, the defender to be visible from the OP. Therefore, as should seek avenues of approach that will allow observed here, viewshed analysis was used to

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demonstrate the visibility of any point or line assumed OP situated at a higher elevation near features on the terrain from its immediate and far Kachia Town. A route is only considered suitable environment. Each of the ten available routes if no part of the route could be visible from both was also subjected to viewshed analysis. The Kachia town and the OP. The visibility and suitability of any of the routes was based on its suitability of each of the ten available routes was non-visibility from either Kachia town or the presented in Table 2.

Legend " OP Villages Minor Road State Boundary " Kachia Main Road Secondary Roads Kachia LG Boundary

Fig. 2. Routes in Kachia LGA

Table 2. Suitability determination of the routes

S/N Routes Visible from Kachia Visible from OP Suitability 1 Route A Yes Yes No 2 Route B Yes Yes No 3 Route C Yes No No 4 Route D No Yes No 5 Route E No No Yes 6 Route F No No Yes 7 Route G No No Yes 8 Route H No No Yes 9 Route I No No Yes 10 Route J No No Yes

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Legend Villages Minor Road Not Visible % OP Secondary Roads Visible " Kachia Main Road

Fig. 3. Visibility assessment from OP Source: Processed from aster DEM data

The first four among the ten routes were found to 4.1.2 Line of sight (LOS) be unsuitable. They were also found to be very close to the objective it is expedient that routes Line of sight is another method of detecting the are not too close to the objective, especially visibility of one point from another. [13] opined when there are alternatives routes or when such that LOS analysis is to determine the route that routes are avoidable because the enemy might will give the best cover and concealment to the have laid mines, lay ambush or any other means objective while denying the enemy observation of protective measures on such routes. The and fields of fire on troop’s movement. spatial location of the ten routes as well as their However, LOS has the capability of finding suitability or otherwise was presented in Fig. 4. the visibility from only one direction. Therefore, Routes E – J were considered suitable as an LOS as used in this study, is to find out the advance routes, (route for movement of troops visibility of the end point (marked A) of the and equipment) as presented in (Fig. 4). It is this selected suitable route to Kachia located at map that will finally be used as guide for the the foot of Mt Upare shortly after Awon choice of best route of advance to the objective settlement (Fig. 4), based on an assumption that in other to achieve surprise and maintain the troop is interested in assessing the momentum as well as provide security to the topography between point A and Kachia town. troops, which are keys to the success of any The LOS between the two places was drawn as operation. shown in Fig. 5.

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Legend Villages Route B Route H VALUE % OPS Route C Route I 0 - 532 = River Valleys " Kachia Route D KachiaMap1.tif 532.0000001 - 596 = Plains Route K Route E 596.0000001 - 671 = Uplands Route J Route F 671.0000001 - 741 = Highlands Route A Route G 741.0000001 - 926 = Mountain Ranges

Fig. 4. Suitable routes in Kachia LGA

Fig. 5. LOS between point A and Kachia

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Fig. 5 shows that Kachia is located on 720 m reported by [14], that the analysis of the terrain altitude, while point A is on 680 m, with about provides the decision makers and commanders 0.18 km distance between them. Fig. 5 also the opportunity to analyze the terrain visually revealed that there is no visibility between point using computers in order to obtain correct A and Kachia town because they are separated information about the terrain. by ranges of mountains with the highest peak above 780 m. One of the tactical information 4.2 Determination of Release Point from the non-visibility between the two points is that the foot of the mountain may serve as In a real war situation, there is a limit to which hideout of the troops from both the OP and the vehicles could be used to approach the enemy’s enemy at Kachia. strong hold. There is always a release point where the troops are dismantled. Hence, release 4.1.3 3D-view analysis point requires a wide and plain area that will conveniently accommodate all the packed 3D view is a method by which the terrain of an vehicles, the place must also be concealed from area is viewed from above, from where the the enemy to prevent unexpected attack, hence, length, breath and the heights of the place can the place required thick vegetation coverage be seen. All the routes in the LGA were overlain such as forest or woodland. Distance from the on the 3D image so as to see the location of the objective, geology and no known DF target were routes in relation to the terrain of the place. the other factors that must be put into considerations. Fig. 7 shows the spatial coverage Fig. 6 showed the 3D view of Kachia LGA from of each of the factors. the north, where it was observed that Upare hills which is located at the central part of the LGA is Fig. 7 showed the suitability maps of: (i) the higher than any other part of the LGA and terrain, (ii) vegetation suitability map and (iii) 20 therefore capable of blocking the sight from km and 50 km buffer distance from Kachia town Kachia and the OP from the western region of respectively. From Fig. 7, the inner ring the hills. For instance, as shown in Table 2, represents the twenty kilometers buffer, while the Route D was clearly seen to run through two outside buffer represents the 50 kilometers buffer elongated hills and which may not be suitable for from Kachia town. the advancing troops to pass through because they can easily be trapped in an ambush within Overlay operations were performed on the three that environment. Therefore from 3D view alone, maps, while the road networks, villages and all Route D can be said to be unsuitable. Hence other relevant features were overlain on the map decisions on avenue of approach can be to produce the suitability image of the release conveniently carried out from output maps as point as shown in Fig. 8.

Legend KachiaMap1.tif 596.0000001 - 671 = Uplands VALUE 671.0000001 - 741 = Highlands 0 - 532 = River Valleys 741.0000001 - 926 = Mountain Ranges 532.0000001 - 596 = Plains Roads

Fig. 6. 3D view of Kachia from the North

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Topography SuitabilityMap Vegeatation suitability Map

20km

50km

20 and 50kms Buffer Distance from Kachia

Fig. 7. Overlay for suitability mapping

After overlaying the images, the output image respectively, the selected zone is separated was then zoomed in for a clearer view. The best from the direction of the objective by a large area among the numerous parts that satisfied the river which can easily be fortified and lastly, conditions was selected as the Release Point as the LOS between the release point and shown in Fig. 9. Kachia OP shows that the two places are not visible as shown in Fig. 9. The area was selected as the release point having satisfied the following conditions: The release point was found to be located in the southern part of Kaja settlement (Fig. 9). The area is covered by large forest which The area coverage of the Release Point was was expected to conceal the troop from air calculated to be 18.09 km2. The area and ground attack, it is also located in a plain coverage of any release point will be topography which was deemed fit for wagon determined by the size of the troops, the line, the area is also within the required less advance formation to adopt at the form-up- than 50km and more than 20km distance in place (FUP) which should be about 200 m to order to minimize fatigue and avoid DF target 300 m from the release point and the

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frontage it will cover. Moreover, the it is necessary to fully analyze the terrain before coordinate of the center point of the area final decisions are taken; tradeoff among the was also taken, that is, 9° 39' 43.57"N and 7° factors therefore, becomes imperative. For 37' 48.61"E, which will serve as guide to instance if an area is not properly or not align the troops towards the axis of advance concealed at all, the troop would be made to during the real time operations. pass through such places at night. The problems of rugged topography or swampy areas can be 4.3 Axis of Advance overcome by properly and specially kitting the troops for such areas. The axis of advance may not necessarily be road or any route since the troops are on foot. The 4.3.1 Bounds and report lines selection of axis of advance would depend principally on four factors: concealment by In advance operations several con points such vegetation, plain and dry areas (not rugged or as Bounds and Report Lines are required to swampy) for easy movement, should not be always know the position of the advancing visible from the enemy, and availability of water troops. In this paper, such villages are: Atara, (especially in a long distance). Akwana, Ungwan Kanrara, Bika and Adage. Rivers Katera, Awon and Bika which all lie along It may not be possible to find an area that the axis of advance between the Release Point satisfies all these conditions at a time, therefore, and Kachia were used as the Report Lines.

Legend Villages State Boundary Main Rivers 20km Buffer Riperian Forest # OP Main Road Secondary Road 50km Buffer Uplands " Kachia Minor Road Release_Point Forest/Woodland Plains

Fig. 8. Suitable site for release point

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Meters Elevation

Kachia

Release Point Line of Sight

E NC VA AD OF

a S

a I r

n t X

a A a

t w

k A

r r

RELEASE POINT e e

v v

i i

R R

Legend Villages Main Road Release_Point Riperian Forest KachiaMap1.tif 596.0000001 - 671 # OP Minor Road 20km Buffer Uplands VALUE 671.0000001 - 741 " Kachia Main Rivers 50km Buffer Plains 0 - 532 741.0000001 - 926 State Boundary Secondary Road Forest/Woodland 532.0000001 - 596

Fig. 9. Release point and the axis of advance

4.3.2 Obstacle crossing In Fig. 10 the position of the red arrow on the image also signifies the actual position on the According to [15] the purpose of a river crossing ground it is indicated on the graph by a straight is to move combat power across the water line containing the information of that particular obstacle in an expedient manner losing minimal point in terms of the slope (in percentage), the forces. A successful river crossing is one in distance of the point from the beginning point (A) which the process of getting across the obstacle in meters and the depth of the point also in does not adversely affect the unit’s ability to meters. Therefore, taking the position of the accomplish its’ final objective. Obstacles that are arrow on the image and the line on the graph, the found along the axis of advance may be natural point is 840 m from point A, with a slope of 1.6% such as rivers, deep valleys, mountains, large and 540 m as the elevation of the point. lakes and swamps among others, while settlements and busy roads are among the Fig. 10 revealed that the deepest part of the river common artificial barriers. Looking at the axis of is 533 m above the sea level, while the maximum advance in Figs. 8 and 9 the only possible height is 840 m above the sea level. From this obstacles are Rivers Atara, Akwana and Bika. A depth information and the corresponding profile, high spatial resolution imagery obtained from the shallow and the deep region of the river Google Earth Pro was needed to assess the river valley could easily be determined. The arrow on valleys so as to examine the topography of the Fig. 10 signifies the best crossing point of the river valleys such as the slope, depth and width river whenever the need arises because the area in order to know the most suitable areas for the has the shallowest and a gentle sloping region. troop to cross the rivers even before they get to However, the troops must adopt the best method the rivers. of crossing the obstacle for fear of being covered

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by fire or mined by the enemy. A proper breach geographical information on locations of analysis must therefore be done. According to advancing troops as well as the position of the [16], proper terrain analysis is as essential to enemy [17]. success on the battlefield as units are having difficulty in conducting successful combined arms The scenario modeled in Fig. 11 is that of a breaching operation as well. The terrain has a battalion group deliberate attack operation. Since direct impact on selecting, movement, and the battle is for battalion group it will require a control of forces; effectiveness of weapons and broad (wide) frontage. It was observed that other systems; and protective measures. motorized movement along the most suitable route is possible up to Kaje village where the 4.4 The Battle Ground troops dismount. The advance formation adopted is two-up supported by tanks for mutual support The assumed battle ground in this study is a and flank protection, artillery for all kinds of fire forest closed to Kachia town in Kachia LGA, support and other fire support available to the Kaduna State. It is necessary to have a fore battalion including mortar. At the Final Assault knowledge of the battle ground before the battle Position (FAP) the battalion must adopt a begins. It is important that a detailed map with different formation to effectively assault the information on the terrain model and proximity of objective. Before the final assault however, the habitat are obtained for any military operations. artillery will be required to fire in depth to cover Logistics and strategy have always posed a the movement of the troops to the Start Line serious challenge to every operation especially to (SL). Two coy of the battalion will be required to advancing troops as this would further requires carry out the assault either by the right or left the knowledge of spatial information, that is, flanks. The third coy is for mop up.

A B

Narrow Valley Shallow valley Deep Valley Suitable Direction

Fig. 10. Obstacle crossing on River Akwana

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Fig. 11. 3D view of the battle area

[18] asserted that, the rapidly changing battlefield found to go beyond the war needs only as [20] of the 21st Century warfare, demands dynamic reported that military operations now take place mapping solutions and that military-specific in various operational contexts such as applications is now being developed and peacekeeping, stability, disaster relief, civic employed with digital databases to provide action, and of course combat operations. customized digital maps of variable scale, content and symbolization tailored to unique As desirable as geospatial techniques are, they demands of military units. Fig. 11 shows that the are also faced with some shortcomings topography of the battleground is rugged, especially in the developing countries where the containing valleys and several hills. The area technology is still considered as new. was also found to be located on a high altitude Dependence on foreign bodies for data with 700 m and 740 m as the minimum and acquisition, high cost of data, poor spatial and highest altitudes respectively. The area also radiometric resolutions of some data and the revealed the presence of some depressions expertise demand are some of the limitations. which could serve as natural trenches during real However, in spite all these challenges, the use of war time situations. The gradients of the slopes remotely sensed data and GIS techniques for could be assessed by the troops, that is, areas terrain analysis as demonstrated in this paper, that can easily be crossed and those with can be considered to be better in terms of cost possible difficulties could be identified on the and accuracy. image. Moreover, the coordinates of points of interest can be easily identified and documented 5. CONCLUSION for use. The importance of post battlefield analysis has been reported by [19] that full Geospatial analysis and modeling of the terrain digitization of the battlefield will demand the of Kachia LGA for military operations has been complete embracing of digital geospatial data demonstrated in this study. The DEM of the LGA and the means of exploiting these data with GIS showed that the LGA is divided into three at all levels of war. Moreover the has also been main relief features: the western zone; which

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