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Introduction / 14 Table of contents 00 ’s expanded field / 14 Two thresholds in time / 16 The dance of hegemonies / 18 The continuity of types / 19 Historians versus architects, or the problem of inclusion / 20

Sheds to rails: The search for Domestic innovation and American The challenge of the New production, the dominion of steel / 22 modern form / 38 tectonic expression / 54 discoveries / 70 metropolis / 86 new aesthetic / 102 01 02 03 04 05 06 The lamp of style / 22 Toward a “New Art,” from Paris to / 38 The central place of Great Britain / 54 Chicago in white and black / 70 An explosion without precendent / 89 The AEG model in Berlin / 106 The eminence of the beaux-arts / 30 Great Britain after Arts and Crafts / 42 Residential reform / 58 Sullivan’s inventions / 74 The planner’s toolbox / 93 Factory as inspiration / 111 Programs of modernization / 33 Art Nouveau and the Paris-Nancy Axis / 46 The aspiration to unify the urban landscape / 61 Wright and prairie architecture / 77 Town, square, and monument / 95 The Deutscher Werkbund / 115 Networks of Internationalization / 35 From the Italian “Floreale” to The advent of reinforced concrete / 63 Wright and Europe / 80 The idyll of the garden city / 97 Futurist mechanization / 117 the Russian “Modern” / 48 Concrete nationalisms / 66 The skyscraper migrates to New York / 84 Zoning, from the colonies to the The Catalan renaissance / 51 major cities of Europe / 100

Expressionism in Dada, De Stijl and Mies: In search of a language: The Great War and Weimar and the Return to order from subversion Architecture education classicism to cubism / 118 its side effects / 134 / 150 in Paris / 166 to elementarism / 182 in turmoil / 198 07 08 09 10 11 12 Anglo-American classicisms / 119 A Triple mobilization / 137 The Arbeitsrat für Kunst / 154 Purist forms and urban compositions / 166 The Dada blast / 182 The beaux-arts and the alternatives / 198 German nostalgia / 123 The spread of Taylorism / 140 Dynamism in architecture / 158 Le Corbusier and the modern house / 168 The new forms of De Stijl / 185 The Weimar / 201 Loos and the lure of “western culture” / 126 Commemoration and reconstruction / 142 Hanseatic / 162 Grand vessels in Paris and Geneva / 171 Van Doesburg builds / 188 The Bauhaus in Dessau and Berlin / 205 Berlage and the question of proportions / 130 Postwar recomposition / 144 De Klerk and the school / 165 Perret and the “sovereign shelter” / 173 Oud and Rietveld, from furniture to The Vkhutemas in Moscow / 209 Cubism and cubistics / 132 New architects between science Paris art deco / 175 house design / 191 Innovative Schools in the new and old Worlds / 212 and propaganda / 147 Mallet-Stevens, or elegant modernism / 178 Mies van der Rohe’s theoretical projects / 194 The extent of French modernism / 180

Futurism and Architecture and The architecture of Internationalization, its Rationalism The spectrum of classicisms North American revolution in Russia / 214 social reform / 230 networks and spectacles / 246 in Fascist Italy / 262 and traditionalisms / 278 modernities / 294 13 14 15 16 17 18 The Shock of revolution / 214 Modernizing cities / 230 The journal as printed stage / 246 A second Futurism / 262 Literal classicism / 281 Wright, the return / 294 A profession renewed / 217 Red Vienna / 231 Model cities and open-air exhibitions / 250 Muzio and the Novecento / 265 Modern classicism / 284 Los Angeles – fertile Ground / 299 The “social condensers” / 220 The new Frankfurt / 234 enters the museums / 253 The regime and Rationalism / 267 Traditionalism and self-critical modernism / 286 The skyscraper reloaded / 304 Polemics and rivalries / 223 Taut’s housing developments in Berlin / 238 The International Congresses of Terragni’s geometries / 270 Opportunism without borders / 288 Industrial products: between factory and market / 307 The Palace of the Soviets competition / 226 French suburbs / 240 Modern Architecture (CIAM) / 256 An ambiguous “Mediterraneanism” / 272 Islands of coexistence / 290 The New Deal: housing reform and Echoes overseas / 243 Networks of Influence and historial narratives / 258 New territories / 274 immigrant architects / 310 Equipping the suburbs / 244

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Table of contents / 2

Tabula Rasa to Horror Functionalism and Modern languages Colonial experiences and Architecture of a Vacui: reconstruction Toward a fatal crisis of the mechanical aesthetics / 310 conquer the world / 326 new nationalisms / 342 total war / 358 and renaissance / 374 Modern Movement / 390 19 20 21 22 23 24 Taylorism and architecture / 311 British reticence defeated / 326 From Arabizing to modernizing in North Africa / 342 Front lines and the home fronts / 358 An American age / 374 The Festival of Britain / 390 From ergonomics to standard dimensions / 315 Northern European modernisms / 328 Near Eastern and African endeavours / 345 Extreme scales / 360 Literal reconstruction or Italian Neorealism / 393 Poetic functionalism: Chareau and Nelson / 319 The modern as Czechoslovakia’s brand / 329 Italian cities around the Mediterranean / 347 Air raid protection / 362 radical modernization? / 375 Planet Brazil / 397 Dynamic functionalism in France and The moderns in Hungary and Poland / 331 The modernization of Turkey and Iran / 350 Constructive and destructive techniques / 364 The “neighborhood unit” as model / 378 Housing and innovation in North Africa / 401 the United States / 323 Balkan figures / 334 Chinese pluralism / 352 Mobility and flexibility / 366 The traditionalists at work / 382 CIAM in Turmoil / 403 Iberian modernization / 336 Modern hegemony in Palestine / 356 Architecture of military occupation / 368 In search of a British model / 383 The End of CIAM / 405 Japanese experiments / 338 Imagining the postwar world / 369 German debates / 386 Brazilian figures / 340 Converting to peace / 370 A modernist triumph? / 388 Memory and memorials / 372

Between elitism and Le Corbusier reinvented The shape of Repression and populism: After 1968: Architecture and reinterpreted / 406 American hegemony / 422 diffusion of Modernism / 438 Toward new utopias / 454 alternative architecture / 470 for the city / 486 25 26 27 28 29 30 The Unité d’Habitation / 406 The second skyscraper age / 422 Seven Sisters in Moscow / 438 Italy: critical continuity / 454 Reseach and technocracy / 470 1968, annus mirabilis / 486 Of palaces and houses / 408 Mies the American / 423 Socialist realism exported / 440 Independent together / 457 Venturi’s critique / 474 Observing the extended city / 490 The surprise of Ronchamp / 411 Wright’s last return / 425 Khrushchev’s critique / 441 Technology: icon or ethos? / 460 Grays and Whites / 478 The shape of the city / 494 Indian adventures / 412 Research out west / 426 Aalto’s eminent position / 443 Hovering cities of indeterminancy / 461 From functionalism to advocacy The input of the user / 498 Invention and introspection / 415 Gropius and Breuer: the assimilation of Japan’s new energy / 445 Metabolism in Japan / 463 planning / 482 Corbusian mannerism / 416 the Bauhaus / 428 Latin Americanisms / 448 Megastructures and global agitation / 466 Anglo-American Brutalism / 417 Saarinen’s lyricism and Archipelagoes of invention / 451 Technology and its double / 468 The saga of Brasília / 419 Johnson’s anxiety / 429 The solitude of Kahn / 433 From experiment to commerce / 436

From regionalism to The neo-Futurist Architecture’s The postmodern season / 502 critical internationalism / 518 optimism of high tech / 534 outer boundaries / 550 Vanishing points / 566 End matter / 582 31 32 33 34 35 36 From nostalgia to play / 502 Scarpa, or the rediscovery of Beaubourg establishes a canon / 534 Gehry, or the seduction of art / 550 Strategic geographies / 567 Endnotes / 582 The “end of prohibitions” / 505 the craft / 518 Composition according to Rogers / 537 Koolhaas, or fantastic realism / 553 Reinvented materials / 570 Bibliography / 606 Retrieving urbanity’s figures / 508 Siza’s poetic rigor / 519 Experimentation according to Piano / 540 Nouvel, or mystery recovered / 556 Sustainable buildings / 572 Index / 630 America turns postmodern / 509 Collective endeavor in the Ticino / 521 Structure according to Foster / 543 Herzog and de Meuron, or the principle of The city reborn, yet threatened / 574 Image Credits / 634 The uncertain front of Moneo and Iberia / 523 Architects and engineers / 546 the collection / 558 Landscape as horizon / 585 postmodernism / 511 Europe as a field of experience / 524 New geometries / 548 Deconstructivists and Rationalists / 560 Hypermodern media / 587 The city – composition or collage? / 514 Research in South Asia / 526 Fragmentation and poetry in Japan / 563 Persistent social expectations / 579 Latin American personalities / 529 A critical internationalism / 532

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155 Hermann Finsterlin, illustration from 153 , illustration from Architectural Projects, 1919–20 Alpine Architektur, 1919

154 Bruno Taut, illustration from The Dissolution of Cities, 1920

No nation was more deeply affected by the trauma of World Georg Kolbe, Ludwig Meidner, Max Pechstein, and Karl Sch- (1920; Call to Build) was dedicated. In 1919 Taut published his from 1921 to 1923 devoted his services to the city of Magde- War I than Germany. The caste-bound society of the Hohen- mitt-Rottluff, the former were clearly in control. In its Architektur- book Die Stadtkrone (The City Crown), 156 an urban vision full burg in an effort to bring about the social program prescribed zollern empire was replaced by the democratic Weimar Repub- program the Arbeitsrat put forward the idea of the Gesa- of references to pagodas and temples, propo sing to place at by the Arbeitsrat. lic and its highly decentralized political structure. Architectural mtkunstwerk—total work of art— “under the wing of great the center of the future city a soaring tower that would embody Some of the participants in the Gläserne Kette exchanges pru- policies began to be shaped principally by municipal adminis- architecture.” Written by Bruno Taut, this programmatic state- its spiritual aspirations. The stunning plates of his Alpine Ar- dently avoided putting their words into action on the building trations, though some national organizations contributed to fi- ment featured slogans such as “Art and people must form a chitektur 153, published the same yea, provided the most sys- site. This was the case with Hablik and with Hermann Finsterlin, nancing them. After the assassination of the leftist leaders Karl unity” and “Art shall no longer be the enjoyment of the few but tematic expression of the new architecture to which the Arbeit- whose projects, despite their apparently realistic programs, Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg in 1919 and the repression of the life and happiness of the masses”. 1 srat aspired, while expressing the ideal of brotherhood among were mainly situated in an imaginary world, Hablik’s Ausstel- their revolutionary party, the Spartacist League, the new Social This program laid out the new republic’s strategies by insist- the peoples of Europe. Indeed, he depicted the multicolored lungsbauten (1921; Exhibition Constructions) consisted of Democratic-dominated government abandoned any serious at- ing on the “public character of all building activity,” the “uni- glass cupolas of this architecture as suspended above the pyramidal superimpositions of prisms, while Finsterlin’s Ar- tempt to transform radically the modes of production. This left tary supervision of whole urban districts, streets, and residen- Alps—as if in response to the pacifist texts by the French writer chitekturentwürfe (1919–20; Architectural Projects) 155 were only the utopia of a progressive “socialization” on the agenda, tial estates,” and the creation of “permanent experimental Romain Rolland and in anticipation of his German compatriot unmistakably zoomorphic, evoking snails, seashells, and sea notably in the field of construction, where the model of the sites for testing and perfecting new architectural effects.” It Thomas Mann’s 1924 novel Der Zauberberg (The Magic Moun- urchins. Bauhütte—or medieval guild—proved seductive. For a few years demanded the dissolution of all academies and of all monu- tain). The origins of these images lie both in Scheerbart’s the unions considered having the Bauhütten participate directly ments, including war memorials, that required an excessive writings and in the plates published by Ernst Haeckel in his Dynamism in architecture in the reconstruction of the war-damaged north of France, as quantity of materials, as well as the creation of a “national Kunstformen der Natur (Art Forms in Nature) and Kristallseelen part of reparations. These political and economic strategies center to ensure the fostering of the arts within the framework (Crystal Souls). 5 The fluid and indeed elusive Expressionist movement in archi- found a cultural and architectural response in Expressionism, of future law-making”. 2 From late 1919 to late 1920 another allusion to crystalline trans- tecture that was embodied in these projects shared with an aesthetic orientation born in poetry and in painting, which fa- In April 1919 the Arbeitsrat organized the Ausstellung für un- parency, the utopian correspondence known as the Gläserne contemporary pictorial experiments a world of broken but vored dynamic forms that embodied the psychological torment bekannter Architekten (Exhibition for Unknown Architects), de- Kette (), brought together the Taut brothers, Wenzel dynamic forms. It also attracted older architects like Peter of wartime Germany. voted to members of the group. In the catalog Gropius wrote Hablik, Hans and , and . The Behrens, who transformed his former architectural language that architecture was “the crystalline expression of mans no- pseudonyms adopted for this series of chain letters—among in several new structures .6 The headquarters he built for The Arbeitsrat für Kunst blest thoughts, his ardor, his humanity, his faith, his religion! … them Anfang (beginning), Mass, Stellarius, Prometh, and Ang- Hoechst in Frankfurt am Main (1920–24) was a more lyrical There are no architects today, we are all of us merely preparing kor—allude to the reconciliation of man and the cosmos, an as- version of his classic pre-war buildings. By reflecting the verti- Following the empire’s collapse, demobilized architects organ- the way for him who will once again deserve the name of archi- piration typical of the immediate postwar period. Taut rounded cal light coming through glass roofs onto multicolored enam- ized events intended to reveal new conceptions of architectural tect, for that means, lord of art, who will build gardens out of out this series of utopian pronouncements with Die Auflösung eled-brick walls, he created one of the most striking interiors space. In late 1918, with a growing number of workers’ and sol- deserts and pile up wonders to the sky.” 3 Taut affirmed in the der Städte, oder die Erde eine gute Wohnung (1920; The Disso- asso-ciated with Expressionism. diers’ councils being organized, the Arbeitsrat für Kunst (Work same leaflet that the desire for the future was architecture in the lution of Cities, or the Earth as a Good Dwelling), 154 in which Hans Poelzig’s new projects responded to Taut’s call for trans- Council for the Arts) was established in Berlin under the direc- making: “One day there will be a Weltanschauung [world-view], he imagined a great migration from the corrupted cities to the parency by playing with solid masses. His contribution to the tion of , Cesar Klein, and Adolf Behne. Though and then there will also be its sign, its crystal-architecture.” 4 redemptive countryside, adopting as his own the anti-urban ar- competition for the Haus der Freundschaft (1916; House the council was composed of a minority of architects—Otto Bar- Such a crystalline architecture had been prophesied by Paul guments of Piotr Kropotkin and other anarchist and socialist of Friendship) in Constantinople, the magical grotto he devised tning, Bruno and Max Taut—and a majority of artists, including Scheerbart, to whom the Arbeitsrat’s manifesto Ruf zum Bauen theorists. Taut also founded the periodical Frühlicht (Dawn) and within the Großes Schauspielhaus 157 (1919; Great Playhouse)

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160 Fritz Höger, Chilehaus, , 1922–23

161 , Eigen Haard housing cooperative, Amsterdam, 1917–21

162 Michel de Klerk and , De Dageraad housing cooperative, Amsterdam, 1918–23

Paula Modersohn-Becker (1926–27), which combined an vaarthuis, was the young de Klerk, many competition projects oneiric layout of oddly convoluted rooms with a rough exterior. before building the Hillehuis (1912), an apartment house echoing the complex vertical organization of Van der Mey’s De Klerk and the building. Most significant, de Klerk’s three projects for the Eigen Haard The obvious parallels between these buildings in Hamburg (Own Hearth) cooperative 161 in Amsterdam, built from 1913 and and those erected in Amsterdam by Michel de to 1921, created a neighborhood in which urban form was ab- Klerk beginning in 1915 were not coincidental. Though partly sorbed into a continuum of interrelated sculptural effects. The attributable to a shared culture of brick construction, the cor- play of the bricks’ colors, which range from crimson to or- respondences went deeper. To some extent, Weimar policies ange; the way they are laid both horizontally and vertically; were a continuation of Dutch housing legislation, notably the and their diverse shapes—which can be rectilinear, convex, or Woningwet, which had guaranteed public financing for work- concave—combine to create a rich world in which the modest ing-class housing since 1901. Regulated by a system of con- size of the housing units is partly compensated for by the trols and standards, Dutch housing was built through munici- buildings’ sensuous opulence. The facade is an undulating pal or cooperative programs. The neutrality of the Netherlands spectacle with unusual-shaped openings that call to mind during the war had allowed the country to launch programs woven and embroidered textiles. For the third building (1917– more advanced than those of the combatant nations. While 21), nicknamed “The Ship,” de Klerk combined a village German cities were struggling to reactivate their construction theme with a mechanical motif. The housing wraps around a industry, Amsterdam was already flush with building sites. 13 courtyard in which the meeting hall plays the role of rural church, while the post office serves as a locomotive pulling German and Dutch projects originated in a shared architec- the entire complex, which in fact stood beside the city’s main tural matrix that incorporated the Theosophical theories of railroad tracks. J. L. M. Lauweriks and the teaching of , Next de Klerk collaborated with Piet Kramer on the housing which had widely circulated in Germany. Meetings of Archi- units of the De Dageraad (1918–23; The Dawn) cooperative, tectura et amicitia (Architecture and Friendship), a society of 162 built as a component of Berlage’s plan for Amsterdam- Amsterdam professionals established in 1855, hosted an South. Here de Klerk presented a clearer, more open image intense debate on the question of Gemeenschapkunst, or of low-income housing. He aligned the houses along the social art. 14 Johan Melchior van der Mey’s Scheepvaarthuis street in a continuous wave, in which each unit appears to be (1911–16; House of Shipping Companies) in Amsterdam, woven together with its neighbor. Once again he created the which deconstructed and recomposed the traditional archi- illusion of a village community by grouping the units two by tectural language, also seems to anticipate Hoetger’s build- two on a central square to form large houses separated by ings of the 1920s. Among the assistants on the Scheep- tall chimneys. 15

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442 Mies van der Rohe, Apartment Buildings on Lake 26 Shore Drive, Chicago, 1952

While the rest of the world was drained of its resources, the insufficient recognition of his contribution. 3 Harrison designed United States came out of World War II as a creditor to most of the details of the office tower as well as the low General As- the combatants, holding an unprecedented amount of eco- sembly building (1948–52). nomic and symbolic power. Thanks to the general admiration No newcomer to the New York scene, Harrison was able to win for American technology and culture and to the effect of U.S. other significant commissions as well. He built the Alcoa Build- foreign policies, the appreciation of American culture that had ing in Pittsburgh 444 (1951–53) with Abramovitz and Oscar prevailed during previous decades now fed into a more or Nitchk, creating the first curtain wall made of aluminum panels. less potent process of Americanization, as countries were The skyscraper’s rounded windows, punched into the panels transformed by American cultural models and capital. 1 But in and similar to those found in railroad cars, made it look like a the United States itself, the hopes for a continuation of the kind stack of television sets. MoMA’s curator Arthur Drexler de- of socially oriented policies that had characterized the Depres- scribed the play of light across these panels, which were sion and the war years were dashed. With the Cold War and stamped with a lozenge pattern, as “a shifting diagonal move- McCarthyism, progressive and dissident voices in the field of ment and a sculptural interest reminiscent of, say, the rustica- architecture were silenced and public housing programs were tions of the Czernin Palace.” 4 sometimes suspended; in Los Angeles, such programs were The modern office building may have found its first West Coast brought to a halt after being denounced as Communist in- incarnation in Pietro Belluschi’s Equitable Building in Portland spired. 2 (1944–48)—the first anywhere to be fully air conditioned. 5 The firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) was also key in the The second skyscraper age development of the postwar office building. With Gordon Bun- shaft as chief designer, SOM built Lever House 445 (1952) on After a hiatus of two decades, skyscrapers reappeared on Man- New York’s Park Avenue. The building broke with the principle hattan’s skyline in the early 1950s. The first building project to of setbacks established by the zoning regulations of 1916 and symbolize American hegemony to the world was the headquar- set the new norm with a rectangular tower standing on a low ters of the United Nations, an institution created by the Allies in plinth occupying the entire area of the block. The lightness of its 1945. An international advisory committee 443 was established glass facade and the airiness of its interior volumes made it the the next year under the direction of Wallace K. Harrison, com- prototype for a new generation of modern, open work spaces. posed of Le Corbusier, Josef Havlícˇek, Oscar Niemeyer, Ernest With Natalie De Blois’s more modest building for Pepsi-Cola Cormier, Sven Markelius, and Max Abramovitz (as Harrison’s (1956–60), the “Park Avenue School of Architecture” created assistant). Once the Rockefellers donated a site along New what critic Ada Louise Huxtable would describe as nothing less York’s East River, they got down to work. The committee ended than a “a post-war miracle.” 6 SOM also built the lower-rise up adopting Niemeyer’s project, which was based on an idea Manufacturers’ Bank Building on Fifth Avenue, with an by Le Corbusier, who was stung in turn by what he felt was entirely glazed facade that, when illuminated at night, makes it

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451 Marcel Breuer, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 1966

452 Eero Saarinen, TWA Terminal, New York, 1959–6

materiality of the Whitney, Breuer explored the various possibili- but also that he aspired to design “a building in which the ar- ties of exposed concrete. 18 chitecture itself would express the drama and specialness and excitement of travel,” thus a “place of movement and of transi- Saarinen’s lyricism and Johnson’s anxiety tion.” 19 His terminal at Dulles Airport, near Washington, D.C., has a cable-supported roof that evokes the pitch of an airplane Eero Saarinen’s career, abruptly ended with his early death in wing and looks as if it were about to lift the building off the 1961, was characterized by buildings that each proposed a ground. Among his more solid structures are the Ezra Stiles 453 unique and powerful idea, taking into account function, overall and Samuel Morse Colleges at Yale (1958–62), a labyrinthine image, and structural invention. After working with his father Eliel, complex evoking Italian hill towns, and the granite-covered he made the General Motors Technical Center in Warren, Michi- “black rock” of the CBS Tower in New York (1960–64), in which gan (1948–56), into an upbeat campus where offices and lab he rejected glass curtain walls to return to the idea of a con- buildings with steel structures were disposed around a large lake crete load-bearing facade, as expressive as it is thick. 20 and transfigured by the vivid color of glazed brick. The potential The diversity of responses to specific functional and symbolic value in building monumental complexes was confirmed for ma- programs is also characteristic of the work of Philip Johnson, jor companies with Saarinen’s office headquarters for the tractor who went along with change more than he generated it. His manufacturer John Deere in Moline, Illinois (1957–63). The slab work often looks like an anxious reaction to the new paradigms construction utilizes Cor-Ten steel for the first time, exploiting its being invented around him. The Glass House he built for him- weathering, rusty colorationagainst the pastoral green of the self in New Canaan, Connecticut (1949), was an effete echo of landscape. At Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Saarinen Mies’s Farnsworth House, as well as a frontal, static one. It does juxtaposed two ideas: while Kresge Auditorium (1954) is a thin- not achieve Mies’s sophisticated three-dimensional play despite shell structure resting on three points—the very embodiment of the fact that it is built on a more spectacular site, dominating an lightweight construction, which he compared to an “eighth of an idyllic valley. Johnson would erect a series of playful pavilions orange”—the adjacent chapel (1952–54) is a solid cylinder of on his property at regular intervals, like an eighteenth-century brick into which sunlight is directed through an oculus so that it British aristocrat building temples and pagodas. Responding hits the altar vertically, evoking the theatrical devices of Gian- anxiously as well as methodically to the architecture’s succes- lorenzo Bernini in Baroque Rome. sive changes in orientation he would cast a long shadow over These two contradictory orientations—light and solid—would de- the American profession as well as its cultural institutions. 21 termine Saarinen’s major projects. Among the light structures In 1954 Johnson distanced himself from the precepts of func- he built were the thin barrel-vaults of the TWA Terminal 452 tionalism in a lecture whose title alluded to John Ruskin’s Seven (1959–62) at Idlewild—now John F. Kennedy—Airport. In 1959 Lamps of Architecture (1894). Johnson’s “seven crutches of he wrote that he intended the architecture of the terminal to be modern architecture” were history, “pretty drawing,” utility or “distinctive and memorable” among the terminals at Idlewild, usefulness, comfort, cheapness, service to the client, and struc-

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Frank Lloyd Wright, drawing for the Robie House, Chicago, 1908–10

The design committee for the United Nations Building, including Le Corbusier and Wallace K Harrison, New York, 1947

Louis Kahn, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, 1959–65

Page 1: Mies van der Rohe, on site at the Illnois Institute of Technology Alumni Memorial Hall, Chicago, 1945–46

Page 10–11: Rudolf Steiner, Second Goetheanum, Dornach, 1924–28