Stitching the Silver Screen

Dressmaking Patterns, Hollywood, and the Second World War.

Master’s thesis 45 Credits Poppy Strange Thesis Advisor: Mikael Alm: Semester: Spring 2021 Date of Submission: 2021.05.17 Date of Defence: 31st May/1st June 2021

HISTORISKA INSTITUTIONEN

Contents

List of Tables List of Figure Abstract Acknowledgements Abbreviations Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Emulation and the consumer dream- 3 A theoretical and methodological outline Thorstein Veblen and Emulation 4 Walter Benjamin and the Reproduction of Art 6 Colin Campbell and the Creation of Fantasy and Desire through Objects 10 Material Cultural Methodology 13 Chapter 2. Dressmaking Patterns, Hollywood and the Second World War- 20 A historical perspective Hollywood Pattern Company and its Origins 20 Dressmaking patterns historical development 24 Hollywood, The Studio System and the Star System 25 The Second World War and Wartime Restrictions 29 Chapter 3. Dressmaking Patterns as objects of desire 35 Brochures and Catalogues 35 Batchelor’s Six Steps: Idea, Materiality and Manufacturing 41 Pattern Design and Usage 45 Chapter 4. Star gazing and stitching the silver screen 54 The impact of war on the glamour of clothes 54 Patterns and Films: The changing relationship 74 Shattering the dream 84 Conclusion 93 Glossary 96 Appendix 1 Origins of Patterns Examined 99 Appendix 2 Pattern 864 – A modern garment from a 1930’s pattern 105 Appendix 3 Number of Patterns by Actress 106 Sources and Literature 108 Published Sources (Patterns) 108 Literature 109

List of Tables: Table 1 Overview of sources examined. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 2 Number of patterns giving fabric suggestions, by year. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 3 Patterns suggesting silk fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 4 Silk types suggested (out of 41 patterns suggesting silk). Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 5 Patterns suggesting woollen fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 6 Woollen Types Suggested (out of 37 patterns suggesting woollen fabrics) Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 7 Patterns suggesting cotton fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 8 Cotton types suggested (out of 47 patterns suggesting cotton fabrics). Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 9 Patterns suggesting Rayon fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 10 Rayon types suggested (out of 44 patterns suggesting Rayon fabrics). Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 11 Hem allowance exceeding L85 limits. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 12 Swing or width exceeding L85 limits. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 13 Findings. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 14 Number of associated patterns by Film Studio. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1. Table 15 Number of Patterns associated with Stars by Year. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see appendix 1.

List of figures.

Figure 1: Front and Back Envelope. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, Phyllis Brooks, RKO Radio Year 1940, Pattern No. 425. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1940.57.URI. Figure 2: Design Options. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 3: Film Star Photograph. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942.Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 4: Pattern Size and Price. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942.Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 5: Colour Branding Stripe. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 6: Pattern Pieces and Garment Description. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 7: Back View Sketch. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 8: Fabric Suggestions. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 9: Fabric Requirements. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 10: Findings List. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Figure 11: “Typical of ‘Before and After’ Style Change Conforming To WPB Limitation Order L85.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 40. Figure 12: Pre L-85 Order Styling. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Year 1939, Pattern No. 1862. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.124.BWS. Figure 13: Post L-85 Order Styling. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, Maureen O’Hara, RKO Radio, Year 1941, Pattern No. 1142. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1941.2.JSE Figure 14: Fabric Comparisons With and Without Nap. Hollywood Pattern Company, Waistcoat and Skirt, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Year 1941, Pattern No. 654. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1941.141.BWS.

Figure 15: Fabric Suggestions. Hollywood Pattern Company, Jacket, Slacks and Bra Top, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Year 1942, Pattern No. 635, Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.254.URI. Figure 16: The impact of the L-85 Order of Fabric Suggestions and Requirements. Hollywood Pattern Company, Skirt, Blouse and Bolero Simple Sew, Betty Rhodes, Paramount, Year 1943 Pattern No. 1211. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1943.114.BWS. Figure 17: The Impact of the L-85 Order on Fabric Suggestions and Requirements. Hollywood Pattern Company, Skirt, Blouse and Skirt, Susanna Foster, Paramount, Year 1943 Pattern No. 1121. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1943.1.JSE. Figure 18: Front Cover Image. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress and slip, Ellen Drew, Warner Bros, Year 1942 Pattern No. 846. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.3.JSE. Figure 19: Hems and Hem allowances. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress and slip, Ellen Drew, Warner Bros, Year 1942 Pattern No. 846. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.3.JSE. Figure 20: “Authorized Measurements for Daytime Dress.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942, “Authorized Measurements for Evening Dress.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 41 Figure 21: Pattern Branding. Hollywood Pattern Company, Lucille Ball, RKO Radio, Year 1939, One piece dress and bolero, Pattern No. 1773. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.98.BWS. Figure 22: Pattern Branding Changes 1944. Hollywood Pattern Company, Hollywood Pattern, Year 1944, Red Star Branding, Pattern No. 1345. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1944.93.KLS. Figure 23: Pattern Branding Changes 1945. Hollywood Pattern Company, Hollywood Pattern, Year 1945, Black Calligraphy Branding, Pattern No. 1583. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1945.72.KLS. Figure 24: Incorrectly dated Pattern. Hollywood Pattern Company, Ann Miller, RKO Radio, Petticoat or Slip, Year 1945, Pattern No. 1753. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1945.37.JSE. Figure 25: Foreign Hollywood Actresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Brenda Marshall, Warner Bros, One piece dress and jacket, Year 1941, Pattern No. 658, held in authors possession.

Figure 26: Foreign Hollywood Actresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Danielle Darrieux, Universal, Year 1939, Coat, Pattern No. 1906. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.129.BWS. Figure 27: Foreign Hollywood Actresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Franciska Gaal, Paramount, One piece frock, Year 1939, Pattern No. 1774. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.103.URI. Figure 28: L-85 Order Style Changes. Hollywood Pattern Company, Shirley Patterson, Columbia Pictures, Two Piece Suit, Year 1942, Pattern No. 1024. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.138.BWS. Figure 29: Two-tone Dresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, One piece dress, front envelope, Year 1942, Pattern No. 873, held in authors possession. Figure 30: Two-tone Dresses and Fabric Consumption. Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, One piece dress, Year 1942, Pattern No. 873, held in authors possession.

Abstract:

The 1930s and 1940s were a time of political and social upheaval, focused mainly on the events of the Second World War. As a result of this global event many aspects of women’s lives in particular were affected. No aspect of life was unaffected, from industrial production to clothing to Hollywood, all industries felt the impact of the war which in turn impacted on the lives of American citizens. This is examined in depth in this thesis by considering how the War affected dressmaking patterns produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company. The thesis mainly aims to uncover how dressmaking patterns at this time were impacted by Hollywood and the second World War and the influence this had on women’s experiences through them. The Theories that will be utilised are Thorstein Veblen and emulation; Walter Benjamin and aura of objects; and Colin Campbell and fantasies and desire. These theories are explored via a material cultural analysis using R Batchelor’s six step methodology. This thesis will cover the issues of the war and its impact, the relationship between the parties involved with dressmaking patterns (Hollywood, the pattern company, and its female customers), and the impact of these aspects on women’s ability to emulate and create fantasy. The thesis exposes how wartime restrictions affected attributes of dressmaking patterns, as well as the relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and Hollywood. These aspects together impacted on women’s ability to create, emulate, and fantasise about Hollywood actresses through dressmaking patterns and clothing.

Acknowledgments

Writing my independent research study in the midst of a worldwide pandemic has been challenging. Limitations around travel, visiting museums and libraries and searching archives presented difficulties in accessing sources and other research materials. For every problem there is usually a solution, although this has meant that some of my research plans for the thesis had to change, a digital world has meant that I have been able to access resources which at first seemed impossible. Overall, the process has been challenging, interesting, stressful and rewarding. I would like to thank Karen Morse, Director of Distinctive Collections at the Commercial Pattern Archive, Rhode Island University, USA. Karen was immensely supportive and scanned many dressmaking patterns for me, so that I could use the electronic copies in my analysis. Without Karen’s efforts I doubt that this thesis would have been as rich in exemplar and detail as it is. Thank you to my supervising tutor Mikael Alm, I am grateful for his academic guidance, patience, and emotional support when most needed. Mikael kept me on task, and most importantly allowed me to believe in myself. Finally, I am forever grateful to my loving family for their continuous support through late nights of study, self-doubt conversations and endless proof reading.

Poppy Strange

Abbreviations:

COPA: The Commercial Pattern Archive OPA: The Office for Price Administration WPB: The War Production Board HPC: The Hollywood Pattern Company

Introduction

This thesis examines and considers the impact of Hollywood and the Second World War on dressmaking patterns, as well as how these two phenomena impacted women’s ability to emulate, create fantasies and produce clothing during the period 1939 to 1945. To quote George Orwell, in ‘The Road to Wigan Pier’,

You may have three halfpence in your pocket and not a prospect in the world, and only the corner of a leaky bedroom to go home to; but in your new clothes you can stand on the street corner, indulging in a private daydream of yourself as Clarke Gable or Greta Gabo, which compensates you for a great deal.1

The sources of this thesis are dressmaking patterns produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company, particularly that subset of patterns produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company that specifically featured a Hollywood actress and studio as part of their branding and promotional material, during this period. These patterns are important because they embody and demonstrate the relationship between Hollywood and dressmaking pattern companies. The Second World War had an impact on dressmaking patterns through fabric restrictions and stylistic changes, under various mechanisms (especially the L-85 Order), which changed that relationship. The thesis will be divided into 4 major sections. The first section focuses on the theories of Thorstein Veblen, Walter Benjamin, and Colin Campbell. These theories will be built on each other to create a 3 layered approach to the theory that will be used to understand and analyse the sources, their purpose, and their impact at the time. This section also introduces the material cultural approach employed by Ray Batchelor in considering objects of material culture of study, which utilises six steps in analysing an object. As part of the methodological introduction, the parameters of source selection and research difficulties are also discussed. Alongside this, the research questions are introduced these are: 1. How did the war impact on women’s fashion and dressmaking? 2. What changes in the relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and the Hollywood studios can be detected by an examination of the patterns of the Hollywood Pattern Company during the period 1939-1945? 3. How did the war time changes in fabric restrictions and clothing styles, alongside branding, studio and actress representation throughout the Second World War affect

1 Orwell, 1962, pg 79. 1

the construction and continuation of fantasy driven desires, imagined community, escapism between the actresses and the audiences? The second section deals with the contexts in which the Hollywood Pattern Company existed at the time. This section explores the history of home dressmaking patterns from the 1850s to their wider spread development and the history of the Hollywood Pattern Company itself. It also details the history of Hollywood and the Hollywood studios and star systems (both of which fed and created the status of Hollywood actresses as consumable commodities, in which every aspect of their lives was up for public consumption. The final section of context focuses on the impact of the Second World War and the stylistic and fabric changes that came about as a result of the L-85 Order and how this impacted both the patterns themselves and women’s ability to emulate and create garments. Alongside the context there will be incorporated the aspect of the literature review, with each context section detailing the key authors and texts that informed each section. The third section brings together and synthesises the abstract theory and methodological concepts introduced in Chapter 1 as well as examining how the other products produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company played a role in advertising the patterns produced and impacted on the way women were able to initially buy and eventually consume them. This is examined through dollar store brochures and department store catalogues, these catered to different segments of the potential buying public based on purchasing power of the shopping clientele. The impact this had on consumption and the ability of emulation is also discussed. The section also expands on the role Batchelor’s six steps approach plays in this thesis, by indicating the aspects of the patterns that fit with and can be examined each step. The final chapter deals with answering the research questions posed in Chapter 1. Each question is dealt with separately, and the sections of pattern information that contribute to answering the questions posed. This section moves from a brief quantitative presentation of pattern information (the presentation of pattern information on the broad scale) to a more detailed qualitative presentation of pattern information, with in depth references to specific patterns and how they demonstrate the changes observable in patterns of the period as impacted on by Hollywood and the Second World War. The thesis is an attempt to begin to understand the impact of home dressmaking in the lives of women, how certain companies sought to exploit opportunities that presented themselves to provide women with the practical means to emulate and bring to life celebrity fantasies through emulating their clothes.

2

Chapter One: Emulation and the consumer dream- A Theoretical and methodological outline:

This chapter will present and discuss the nature and perceived usefulness of the theoretical and methodological approaches that will be applied to the sources (Hollywood Pattern Company dressmaking patterns from 1939 to 1945) throughout the duration of this thesis. From a theoretical perspective, there are three levels of theory that will be applied and form the structure through which the patterns and their impact will be examined and understood. The theories themselves are broadly drawn from the sphere of economic theory but coming from a more sociological viewpoint rather than a pure economic perspective, drawing on ideas around consumption, and the needs that drive consumption, emulation, and desire. The theorists utilised here will be, firstly Veblen and his ideas of pecuniary consumption and emulation.2 His theories will form the base layer of the economic theory used in this thesis. Secondly the theories of Benjamin surrounding the auras of objects and the changes that take place when mass production produces numerous copies.3 Thirdly Campbell’s ideas of fantasy and desire as drivers of consumption and the formation of escapism provide the final layer for examining dressmaking patterns from the 1930s and 1940s.4 These theories will build upon each other, interlinking and complementing to provide a theoretical perspective that will be implemented later in the thesis to provide a nuanced examination and interaction with the Hollywood Pattern Company and its products. The methodological approach is that of a material culture approach which is appropriate for the study of objects, their historical usage, composition and importance or value throughout the past. Utilising various aspects of the material culture approach, including the developing of and utilisation of observation, categorisation and analysis of objects, their appearance and stylistic characteristics, helps unpack and facilitates the examination of dressmaking patterns as an important historical source.5 The material cultural approach links well with the theories used as both concern objects, their consumption, production and usage by society and how they are representative of the culture of the time. In this instance the examination of the material culture approach will consider the pertinence of using it for examining dressmaking patterns, the steps taken to develop the methodological procedures and questions to be asked of it, the issues of dressmaking patterns as a source as well as the analytical perspective to be taken in later chapters in extracting and analysing the patterns.

2 Veblen, 1899, pg 16. 3 Benjamin, 1998, pg 1. 4 Campbell, 2018, pg 141. 5 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 1. 3

This chapter will present the theoretical and methodological structures as separate sections; however, they will also be presented as linking and building on one another to be used conjointly to analyse the sources that form the core for examining home dressmaking as impacted by Hollywood, the celebrity cult of the time and the Second World War.

Thorstein Veblen and Emulation:

Veblen’s work that will be utilised in forming part of the theoretical approaches is that of ‘The Theory of the Leisure Class’.6 This is an important work in economic theory and was published in 1899; throughout this work Veblen develops his ideas around the drivers of consumption, linking to ideas of class and status, including two key points that of “pecuniary emulation” and “conspicuous consumption”.7 As stated earlier, Veblen’s ideas provided the basis for the socio-economic theory employed in this thesis, as a way of understanding ideas of drivers of consumption upon which the Benjamin and Campbell ideas can be layered. Veblen initially starts with examining what he considers to be the development of the idea of ownership, which is largely associated with the development and progress of society.8 Veblen goes on to develop his ideas about how this progression in societal development began to lead to ideas about the link between social status and the ownership of objects or goods, particularly around ideas of private property “wherever institutions of private property is found… the economic process bears the character of a struggle between men for the possession of goods”.9 Here Veblen is clearly talking about how the development of the economic progress and process that comes about as society develops fosters the need for possession of goods (in order to carry on the economic process) but that this continually creates a point of contention between men, a need to be better or ‘possess’ more than those around them. Veblen goes on to examine and develop ideas about what this drive of economic process in creating and continuing consumption, essentially the beginning and development of capitalism in driving consumption.10 He talks about the hierarchy of wants and needs that consumption meets at initial levels, but that capitalism drives- striving for the next level.11 Veblen conceptualises this as “Consumption may be conceived to serve the consumer’s physical wants and his so-called higher wants spiritual, aesthetic, intellectual etc. latter class of wants served indirectly by an expenditure

6 Veblen, 1899, pg vii. 7 Veblen, 1899, pg vii. 8 Veblen, 1899, 20. 9 Veblen, 1899, pg 21. 10 Veblen, 1899, 22. 11 Veblen, 1899, pg 22. 4 of goods”. 12For Veblen, the initial wants that consumption meets, those of the physical wants, are driven by societal development (and economic development as capitalism develops) to begin to fulfil the criteria of non-essential wants, which can often only be achieved by, as Veblen says, paying for objects. It is this meeting of non-essential wants, that drives the struggle for possession of goods- driving increasing competition and consumption (of objects, resources, and materials). Veblen begins to develop this into ideas of emulation of aspects of society (that are tied to class), thus he asserts “The motive that lies at the root of ownership is emulation”.13 For Veblen this is at the heart of the key ideas surrounding the theories of the leisure class, that of emulation and its role in consumption. Veblen, in introducing ideas of emulation as being key to ownership, states that

The possession of goods, whether acquired aggressively by one’s own exertion or passively by transmission through inheritance from others, becomes a conventional basis, of reputability.…Wealth is now itself intrinsically honourable and confers honour on its possessor.14

He espouses the idea that the ownership of objects becomes the indicator of wealth (valued by capitalist societies), which in turn is an indicator of honour and status within society. He develops this theory further in his chapter on pecuniary (monetary) emulation.15 As such pecuniary emulation becomes a driver across capitalist society for consumption for a specific reason, that of competition and emulation of social status across society. So, Veblen indicates that individuals in society are constantly wanting to emulate those around them, this applies to those of the same social status and those above in standing16. Veblen argues that…

So soon as the possession of property becomes the basis of popular esteem, therefore, it becomes also a requisite to that complacency which we call self-respect.…In order to his own peace of mind, that an individual should possess as large a portion of goods as others with who he is accustomed to class himself.17

In participating in emulation of society, the ownership of objects confers status and becomes the marker of community respect but also self-respect, to maintain or gain social standing, a person must emulate through the possession of objects that confer status. In discussing the maintenance of pecuniary emulation through object consumption, Veblen affirms that because of this an individual can never be satisfied, either with emulation or their social

12 Veblen, 1899, pg 22. 13 Veblen, 1899, pg 22. 14 Veblen, 1899, pg 24. 15 Veblen, 1899, pg 20. 16 Veblen, 1899, pg 25. 17 Veblen, 1899, pg 25. 5

status.18 This continual dissatisfaction, even when successfully achieving emulation continues as Veblen indicates

As long as the comparison is distinctly unfavourable to himself, the normal average individual will live in chronic dissatisfaction with his present lot… this chronic dissatisfaction will give place to a restless straining to place a wider and ever widening pecuniary interval between him and this average standard.19

Veblen indicates that this dissatisfaction with social standing happens regardless of whether the people are on the same social standing or not. Veblen says this continues to drive consumption and thus emulation because of the “Power conferred by wealth also affords a motive to accumulation… describing comparison of persons with a view to rating or grading them in respect of relative worth or value.”20 For Veblen, the power and status that comes with consumption, and the ownership of objects cannot simply be solved by emulation, people are continually driven to strive for the next level, to achieve and strive to constantly emulate those around them and above them, thus they are never satisfied with the objects they accumulate, driving further consumption. Veblen’s theories of pecuniary emulation of social standing and respect along with how this drives the capitalist consumption of objects are a good base theory for examining the patterns produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company, that were associated and tied with specific actresses and studios. Veblen’s theories can be used to examine what these patterns were allowing the women who purchased them to do, that of emulating the clothes of their favourite actresses, imitating the look and feel of haute couture clothing; whilst these patterns were not aimed at the absolute poorest in society, they were aimed at ordinary women with some disposable income and leisure time in which to create the garments. This idea of emulating the look and feel of this style of clothing is important as the aura associated with these actresses with- the status of power, beauty, and the prestige of someone worth emulating, the patterns were allowing everyday women to access or associate with some of that status by creating garments presented as being similar to those which Hollywood actresses wore- however this would only occur because the actresses were worth emulating.

Walter Benjamin and the Reproduction of Art:

Benjamin and his article ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ which was published in 1935, is the second theorist to be utilised as part of this thesis21. His theories provided

18 Veblen, 1899, pg 26. 19 Veblen, 1899, pg 26. 20 Veblen, 1899, pg 26-27. 21 Benjamin, 1998, pg 1. 6 the next level in terms of delving deeper in examining consumption of objects applicable to the examination of the Hollywood Pattern Company. Benjamin’s broader theories are aimed at examining art.22 Particularly he is focused on the way society views art and its reproduction, dissemination, production, and reception.23 Benjamin’s particular focus is that the arrival of mechanical reproduction techniques (such as Lithography, photography, and film) adversely affected the authenticity of the ‘auras’ of objects of art.24 Indeed, Benjamin describes the artistic aura as “that which withers in the age of mechanical reproduction”.25 Benjamin goes on to explore the reasons for this and its impact on society. Benjamin exploration of the role of mechanical reproduction in the loss of aura of art is connected both to the arrival of the modern age as well as what Benjamin refers to as process reproduction (the mechanical reproduction process of the title).26 This process reproduction is that of mass production, Benjamin argues that it can “bring out aspects of the original that are unattainable to the naked eye”.27 However, process reproduction creates a degradation in the aura of objects of art due to the fact that “technical reproductions can put the copy of the original into situations which would be out of place for the original itself”.28 Consequently Benjamin argues this contributes to the loss of the aura imbued in the original in the reproduced copy. Due to this reproduction and of putting copies into situations where the objects would not normally have been, Benjamin argues that “it substitutes a plurality of copies for a unique existence”.29 The creation of the copies then according to Benjamin simply creates degradation in the objects uniqueness due to having gone from being the ‘only one’, to the creation of many copies- which means the aura of original is not maintained nor acquired by the copies. Benjamin also argues that this degradation of object aura’s affects the way that society produces and views art, but that this also further drives the changes in aura.30 He states that

the social bases of the contemporary decay of the aura is driven by the increasing significance of the masses in contemporary life … their desire to bring things closer spatially and humanly- removing some of the distance that makes auras of historical and natural objects unique.31

22 Benjamin, 1998, pg 3. 23 Benjamin, 1998, pg 3-4. 24 Benjamin, 1998, pg 4. 25 Benjamin, 1998, pg 6. 26 Benjamin, 1998, pg 5-6. 27 Benjamin, 1998, pg 5. 28 Benjamin, 1998, pg 5-6. 29 Benjamin, 1998, pg 6. 30 Benjamin, 1998, pg 8. 31 Benjamin, 1998, pg 8. 7

For Benjamin it is the public’s need for ownership (and perhaps on a related note emulation) that drives the mass production of copies because they want to bring art that previously was inaccessible to them (or only accessible through public spaces such as museums) into a format or for a price that is accessible, but for Benjamin the “mechanical reproduction of art changes the reaction of the masses toward art”.32 For most people, as Benjamin has proposed this only happens when copies are made. However, this need to bring art closer, the mass process reproductions, and the changes in the way people view art creates a spiral of sorts. This spiral is the need of ordinary people to continually have access to mass reproductions, to feel as if they are bringing the new desirable art closer, so this continues to create new reproduced pieces of art- continuing the spiral of aura degradation of the original pieces and the primary, secondary, and tertiary copies. With Benjamin’s ideas about the degradation of auras of objects of art and how people seem to continue to want or need to access this, there are two authors who have illustrated how this idea can be applied to other areas. Firstly, Arthur Asa Berger in his book ‘What Objects Mean: An introduction to Material Culture’ demonstrates the variety of objects that Benjamin’s theory can be applied to besides art- (so in that sense all desirable unique objects hold an ‘aura’).33 Berger argues that “Benjamin’s notion about auras can be applied, with a slight twist, to all manner of artifacts, especially name brand ones like watches, handbags, perfumes, and clothing”.34 In particular when talking about clothing, Berger specifically references the aura of branded goods, because the original branded clothes (many of which are associated with certain celebrities) have an ‘aura’ about them.35 As Benjamin has indicated about artworks, these types of clothing are susceptible to being reproduced en masse.36 This fact means that multiple copies are produced of objects that are highly desirable to consumers around the globe, however they lack the aura of the original and in consequence the aura of the original and the subsequent copies can enter a spiral of decline.37 As Berger indicates on this “For the people who use these knock offs, the fact that they are using imitations is of little concern”.38 So for Berger, people who use copies of the high branded clothes do not necessarily care that they are using imitations, for them all they care about is the look and feel of the clothes and the status that having a branded object brings even if it is not authentic (which suggests that copied branded clothing in particular has some aura, otherwise there would not be such a market in it and people would not spend money purchasing it). Berger’s interpretation of Benjamin’s ideas can be applied to the Hollywood Pattern Company and their products as this

32 Benjamin, 1998, pg 21. 33 Berger, 2016, pg 85. 34 Berger, 2016, pg 85. 35 Berger, 2016, pg 85. 36 Berger, 2016, pg 85. 37 Berger, 2016, pg 85. 38 Berger, 2016, pg 86. 8 is what they are allowing women to do, create clothing that gives the look and feel of haute couture clothing (the patterns are effectively copies of what the celebrities were wearing). These women probably did not care that what they would end up wearing was not the true haute couture clothing of the stars, as long as it gave them the ability to emulate the look and feel of high end clothing, that was what mattered. The decline in the ‘aura’ can itself be part of the process of driving emulation in that people who style themselves as trend setters or influencers in the modern parlance must look for new exclusives to distinguish themselves from everyone else, which then in turn gets emulated. The second set of authors to utilise Benjamin’s theories are Stephen Gundle and Clino T. Castelli in their book ‘The Glamour System’.39 Gundle and Castelli discuss Benjamin’s theories in relation to the rise and popularity of cinema in the 1930s, particularly in relation to the glamour of the film industry and film stars.40 When discussing Benjamin’s ideas, Gundle and Castelli argue that the loss of aura affects imagination “The problem is without aura, imagination is impoverished and commercial potential undermined”.41 This is particularly problematic for Hollywood- being an industry that thrives and drives consumption of both its films and tie in products. Gundle and Castelli are arguing that a consumer’s ability to interact and created imagined scenarios is directly linked to the aura of an object, for without the aura the imagination cannot interact with the object in the same way, and this affects the desirability and consumption of these products.42 However, Gundle and Castelli indicate that Hollywood created a way round this lack of aura in the copies of objects they created, Gundle and Castelli argue that “Glamour therefore is the manufactured aura of capitalist society, the dazzling illusion that compensates for authenticity and reinforces consumerism as a way of life”.43 For Hollywood, Gundle and Castelli demonstrate that the creation of glamour made an object desirable, glamour provides the illusion and is located in its associations with actresses who are glamourous. The aura of glamour is inauthentic (as Gundle and Castelli say, manufactured) that can only come through mass reproduction but also through mass marketing- both phenomena associated heavily with the modern age. The glamour aura of the object is what makes the object desirable and thus consumable on a large scale, through glamour, as Gundle and Castelli indicate, Hollywood can emphasise consumerism and advertise their tie in products as holding the glamour consumers seek. The aura of the object fed off the glamour of the star and the glamour of the star was added to by the aura of the object.

39 Gundle and Castelli, 2006, pg 9. 40 Gundle and Castelli, 2006, pg 9. 41 Gundle and Castelli, 2006, pg 9. 42 Gundle and Castelli, 2006, pg 9. 43 Gundle and Castelli, 2006, pg 9. 9

Berger, along with Gundle and Castelli s interpretations and usage of Benjamin’s theory of aura provide an important point for understanding the production, consumption, and usage of the Hollywood Pattern Company’s patterns. Women cannot buy the actual clothes worn by the stars (that are glamourous both because they are haute couture and because they are worn by actresses synonymous with glamour). Instead, the Hollywood Pattern Company is providing them a way of gaining access to the manufactured glamour aura of Hollywood, by allowing them to create close to copies (or outfits inspired by the stars) to gain access to that aura that they desire. These patterns do not have the actual aura desired by the women, but they are the ‘illusion’ that means their imagination is not affected through not being able to access objects with a glamour aura. Gundle and Castelli’s link between the lack of aura, the creation of the glamour aura and consumer imagination ties in very well with the theories of Campbell to be discussed next.

Colin Campbell and the Creation of Fantasy and Desire through Objects:

The final layer of theory is that of Campbell and his notions of consumption of objects as driven by fantasies, dreams and desire.44 For Campbell, desirable objects allow the owner to dream or imagine a better life, interaction with these objects create “the pleasurable dramas which they have already enjoyed in imagination”.45 So, in Campbell’s view the objects often create or sustain imagined dreams because of the objects symbolism or allow the owners to interact with in their mind. But Campbell argues that the relationship between objects and the imagination has to have specific interaction in order to work, “dynamic interaction between illusion and reality is key to understanding modern consumerism … tension between the two creating longing as permanent mode”.46 For Campbell the interaction between illusion and reality, the object and the imagination, is the key to understanding how modern consumers view and buy objects, via the demand created, indeed he further goes on to specify “concomitant sense of dissatisfaction with the ‘what is’ and yearning for ‘something better’’.47 Campbell is demonstrating that in driving and maintaining consumption, the objects need to be desirable to create the longing in consumers between what the objects promise them and what their lives actually are. It is important that the objects fuel the imagination thus driving the need in the consumers to ‘consume’ a particular product, the imagination is an as important part of the experience as actually owning and using the object. However, what Campbell also indicates here is that you do not want the imagined fantasies and

44 Campbell, 2018, pg 141. 45 Campbell, 2018, pg 145. 46 Campbell, 2018, pg 145. 47 Campbell, 2018, pg 145. 10 dramas (that bring pleasure to the consumer) to be completely fulfilled through buying the desirable objects, the fantasies need to be enhanced by the objects but not completed; for the companies producing the objects, it is about keeping the fantasies far enough out of reach that people keep on buying the products, but fulfilling them enough that consumers will buy the objects in the first place48. Campbell also seems to indicate that fantasy fulfilment and fantasy continuation are important to the consumer as it fuels the escapism and pleasure of object driven dreams. Campbell’s idea of desirable objects creating in the mind of consumers dreams and fantasies that can only be partially fulfilled through purchasing particular objects is particularly pertinent for studying Hollywood, celebrity, and the Hollywood Pattern Company’s impact. Hollywood was a dream machine, it created desirable exotic fantasies, particularly focused on the people, experiences and places portrayed in its films, as well as in creating the aura surrounding the actresses of the studios. These women were the starting point, the original desirable consumable object, everything about the actresses was meant to be consumable, both on screen and off screen (particularly through tie in products). These tie in products exemplify Campbell’s ideas of objects creating desire and fantasies as they allow women to create and indulge in the fantasies of being like or looking like their favourite actresses through buying skin care, makeup and clothing advertised or bearing the image or promise of making ordinary women into film stars. The tie in products allowed some but not complete fantasy fulfilment, this created a drive to continue to consume the tie in products to maintain, sustain and continue to fuel the fantasy. In some sense each drives the other, consumption of the tie in products drives production, but the creation of the products and the creation of the star system and desirability of objects drives fantasies and consumption. These tie in products were allowing women to create and fuel fantasies of what their life might be, of achieving better lives, more money, more desirable partners, more glamourous clothes and even allowing the women to create associations and have things in common with the actresses, thus beginning to foster an imagined community between the actresses and their audience (even if this was only one way). Part of this fantasy driven consumption relied heavily on the starting point, the actresses and how they were nurtured to become a desirable commodity. Purdy discusses an interesting point around consumption driven by sentimental literature in the Eighteenth-Century German Empire, particularly utilising Campbell’s idea of fantasy driven consumption.49 The sentimental literature achieved this through a discussion of the desirable consumable objects found in high society abroad (through societal journals) and in literature such as that written by Goethe.50 He raises the point

48 Campbell, 2018, pg 141, 144. 49 Purdy, 1998, pg 23. 50 Purdy, 1998, pg 24. 11

how literature during this period encouraged and “provided a journalistic alternative to the stylistic examples set by the royal courts”.51 This idea can also be applied to Hollywood and their production of consumable goods and messages of consumption encouraged through their films and activities. Hollywood was, as Purdy argued of sentimental literature, providing an alternative to previously aristocratically dominated ideas of taste and style particularly during the 1920s, 30s and 40s. In many senses Hollywood had created a new royal court that, alongside Paris, had become a trend setter and point of emulation in fashion. Campbell’s ideas about objects driving fantasy, desire and the imagination which then drives consumption, when applied to Hollywood and glamour, link well to those of Gundle and Castelli about glamour and the inauthentic aura of glamour created by Hollywood during the 1930s. The glamour of the actresses was often faked, they often maintained little of their original life (with most changing their name, looks and accent once signed by a studio). Thus, the Hollywood Pattern Company seeks to benefit from the fake aura of Hollywood and the actresses, through creating imitations of their clothing (also the Hollywood Pattern Company is in itself creating a fake aura of glamour through its patterns by evoking the haute couture feeling of those garments worn by Hollywood actresses). The fake aura of Hollywood and that of the patterns provide the producer and wearer of the garments from the patterns with an association with the aura of the Hollywood actresses, thus creating the fantasy of feeling like a Hollywood actress (with everything that went along with that fantasy- even if they were only imitating or emulating the clothing) and fostering a sense of imagined community between the wearer and the actresses embodied on the pattern envelope. The ways in which objects and the feelings they create have been examined by theorists as drivers of economy and consumption are important in providing the theoretical structure of this thesis. The important of patterns as objects and as sources of material culture will be explored in the subsequent section on the material cultural approach to studying sources. This section will cover what material culture is, how it is studied, what types of objects can be examined, the fields and areas of history that have best utilised this approach in relation to the sources of this thesis, as well as the research questions, an overview of the sources (the patterns) to be examined here, and the analytical approaches that will be utilised later in the thesis. This section aims to present how the methodological tools of studying material culture can be used in conjunction with theoretical approaches to analyses the impact of Hollywood Company patterns on American women during the Second World War.

51 Purdy, 1998, pg 26. 12

Material Culture Methodology:

Material culture is the study of objects, especially those which have been produced over time by human cultures.52 The object record is studied in a variety of fields in order to elucidate and understand the past. In their research guide on material culture, Longair and Hannan indicate the important role of objects in society, “Objects influence our needs and define our aspirations- drives of consumption, status and progress”.53 As the authors are indicating here, objects influence our needs (and as Veblen demonstrated our wants as well), however because objects are things that can be owned they also have the ability to fulfil theses needs and wants, as the authors demonstrate this influence on the needs and aspirations of consumers actively drives consumption. They also indicate (as Veblen demonstrated) that objects can generate social status for their owners and allow them to gain social standing and progress.54 Longair and Hannan also argue that “objects also frame our experiences and are constitutive of them”.55 Objects are an important constituent in human experiences across time and can show how experiences have changed across time. These points by Longair and Hannan show why objects are important as a source of study, the objects can provide insights into the lives of their owners (what issues were important, what status they held or what status they aspired to hold) as well as expressing issues that were culturally important at the time. Objects thus tell historians important things about the past, that might be more difficult to obtain from traditional source- for instance, those histories that are not captured in traditional historical records. In examining the material record and gathering sources it is important to acknowledge the perishability of sources, and how this can affect the material record for certain sources. Indeed, Longair and Hannan indicate that there are several aspects that can affect the historical record for objects “There are two main factors that determine survival: material composition and societal value… different perceptions of value (economic, cultural, or social).”56 So, it is important to consider the materiality of objects and how this may affect their survival and state they are in. Furthermore, an object’s social value determines its survival- people being more likely to protect what they value, and as indicated by the authors this value can fall into several categories (economic, social and cultural).57 However, it is important to note that the value of an object can change over time, so some objects may become collectors’ objects over time, which may affect their presence

52 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 1. 53 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 1. 54 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 1. 55 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 4. 56 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 4. 57 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 4. 13

in museum collections or their availability for study.58 These issues in relation to the sources of this thesis (the Hollywood Pattern Company dressmaking patterns) will be discussed in greater detail later. So why is the material cultural approach appropriate for examining dressmaking patterns as the main source of this thesis? The obvious main reason is because dressmaking patterns are manmade objects, they are designed for the creation of clothing at all levels of production. In that sense they are objects in their own right that are consumed and utilised (they serve a practical purpose for the owner) for the purpose of creating a final object (in this case the garment) that is in turn also consumed by the owner. Thus, dressmaking patterns can be regarded as a two-stage object or consumable good. Whilst dressmaking patterns are used at all levels of the clothing industry, these particular patterns were designed for home usage on the low scale of home production. However, dressmaking patterns of this type are mass produced objects designed for large scale sale and consumption - they give uniqueness to the wearer because the maker can choose the fabric and some variation in style when using the pattern. As stated previously it is important to acknowledge the perishability of objects. This is particularly pertinent is studying dressmaking patterns, because unlike some other objects of material culture the dressmaking patterns are delicate. Dressmaking patterns for home use are made from paper- which is a highly perishable material.59 Everything about dressmaking patterns is made of paper, from the pattern envelope to the instructions and pattern pieces themselves. The pattern pieces are often particularly vulnerable as they are made of thin tissue paper, which is susceptible to rips and tears, common occurrences when using dressmaking patterns. Consequently in using dressmaking patterns, the pattern pieces are often damaged, particularly if they have been used many times over; it is also impossible to return the patterns to a pristine condition- as the pattern pieces will suffer damage and they along with the instructions are impossible to put back into the envelope folded exactly as they had been when created in the factory. As such most patterns have had some level of use and some patterns can be viewed in certain states of deterioration even in museums- containing rips, tears, missing envelope flaps or missing pieces or instructions. These aspects must be considered when handling, examining and analysing dressmaking patterns as sources. Dressmaking patterns from the late nineteenth century onwards hold a cachet as collectors’ items. There is a large market in vintage dressmaking patterns, which are often considered desirable, by collectors- particularly from people interested in reproducing historical clothing. Historical

58 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 4. 59 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 134. 14 patterns are consequently readily purchasable on websites such as eBay and Etsy (where the patterns held in the author’s personal collection came from). The perishability and desirability of dressmaking patterns can make identifying the number of patterns produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company exceedingly difficult. Even museums and archives (such as in the Commercial Pattern Archive in Rhode Island), do not have copies of all the patterns produced by pattern companies. This can present challenges in analysing the sources, since a rigorous statistical approach is not possible, however with this limitation in mind a degree of analysis will still be possible and should be able to elucidate the nature and impact of the patterns. When considering the developing of the methodological approaches utilised in examining material culture it is important to consider several things. According to Longair and Hannan there are several ways a material cultural methodological approach can be driven.60 This can be done through the selection of a period or theme as the starting point, the selection of a single object as the starting point or choosing a group or type of objects as the driver of the thesis.61 In the case of this Master’s thesis, the starting point chosen was the type of objects that would be the sources- that is dressmaking patterns produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company between the years 1939 and 1945. In the case of looking at this type of object, a large number were selected in order to give plenty of opportunity for analysis and comparison. In selecting this type of object as the starting point, it is also important to note that Longair and Hannan discuss how the material culture methodology can bring about new perspectives on established and new areas of period research through objects. They argue this can be done in several ways; through examining specific objects, symbolic objects, and research where exhibition is key in examining objects with culture. For the purposes of this thesis, it is interesting to consider the aspect of symbolic objects and the case study provided by Longair and Hannan.62 The case study they provide is by Matt Houlbrook, who looks at the symbolism of the powderpuff in newspaper reports of the trials of homosexual men in interwar Britain.63 Whilst Longair and Hannan demonstrate that Houlbrook does not directly look at the powderpuff as an object (he uses no direct examples of this object), he does look at what the powderpuff symbolised in trial reports and newspapers regarding homosexuality in this period.64 The patterns could also be viewed as symbolic, both of the actresses on the pattern envelope, as well as the fantasies and imagined community created through buying and using the patterns. These garments can be seen as symbolic

60 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 44-46. 61 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 44-46. 62 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 82-85. 63 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 83-85. 64 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 83-85. 15

as those worn by the actresses as well as emulating the look and feel of the actresses and their clothing. This is in addition to their core use as a means of producing clothing to be worn. Longair and Hannan also discuss how the material cultural approach has been utilised to give voice to experiences that otherwise have been left out of other more traditional records.65 Indeed, a field they say has utilised the approach well is that of women’s or gender history.66 This is important to the theoretical, methodological approaches used here, as well as the main focus of this thesis, because it is concerned with an area that is largely associated with women- that of home sewing and dressmaking patterns. However, this thesis is trying to analysis women’s deeper experiences of using dressmaking patterns, and it is examining the impact of these specific objects on women’s experiences and the agency that these objects gave women through fantasy and emulation- and as an embodiment of their yearning for a better life. These objects may also demonstrate how women bought into ideas of glamour, consumerism and fantasy during this period also considering how these aspects might have changed under situations of extreme duress, that of World War Two and the restrictions of the home front. In developing the methodological approaches, it is important to have clear established research parameters guiding and shaping research and analysis. Longair and Hannan argue that between 2 and 3 overarching research questions should be enough to guide a material cultural approach, with smaller questions to structure and analyse the sources.67 In the case of this thesis, the overarching research questions are: 1. How did the war impact on women’s fashion and dressmaking? 2. What changes in the relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and the Hollywood studios can be detected by an examination of the patterns of the Hollywood Pattern Company during the period 1939-1945? 3. How did the war time change in fabric restrictions and clothing styles, alongside branding, studio and actress representation throughout the Second World War affect the construction and continuation of emulation, fantasy driven desires, imagined community, and escapism between the actresses and the audiences? Other subsidiary research questions are: 4. How did fabric restrictions affect American women’s ability to produce homemade clothing? 5. Can a response to restrictions be observed in pattern design -were patterns created requiring less fabric to produce the same looks?

65 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 32. 66 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 32. 67 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 47. 16

These questions will provide the structure of the analysis of the sources further on in the thesis as well as covering the major analytical and theoretical avenues to be examined from the evidence provided by the dressmaking patterns- on topics such style, fabric, fashionable inspiration, and the influence of Hollywood on consumerism, imagined communities and dressmaking during this period. Additionally, in developing a material cultural methodology it is important to acknowledge the decisions that went into guiding the research and selection of sources. When researching the Hollywood Pattern Company, it became apparent that the company produced patterns that both did and did not contain images of the actresses on the front of the pattern envelopes. Those patterns that did not include actresses on pattern envelope are near impossible to analyse in relation to the impact of Hollywood and actresses (in relation to certain research question), beyond the fact that they were produced by Hollywood Pattern Company they lacked any direct industry ties. For this reason, in order to be able to try and answer the research questions- examining the impact of Hollywood and to limit the overall scope of the thesis it was decided to just focus on patterns in the Commercial Pattern Archive and those which could be purchased, which contained direct reference (through photography and naming) to actual actresses, films and studios. Once having made the decision to limit the patterns that would be analysed to only those containing direct Hollywood references, it was appropriate to begin compiling in an Excel spreadsheet (for the purposes of listing and to be able to identify more easily categories of analysis), the patterns that would be of use as sources in this thesis. Through research on the online section of the Commercial Pattern Archive in Rhode Island, 195 patterns were identified and complied that met the requisite criteria. Obviously, the coronavirus pandemic of 2020 and 2021, had an impact on the research undertaken for this project. Whilst the author would have liked to visit several museums and private archives in the United Kingdom to conduct research, the pandemic rules and events meant that this was not possible in the end. Neither was a desired visit to the Commercial Pattern Archive in Rhode Island, which would have provided invaluable opportunities to directly interact with more patterns and to be able to ask questions directly of those archivists who had an in depth understanding of dressmaking patterns as a whole. This issue was overcome in several ways, firstly the author endeavoured to purchase some patterns personally, a number are held in the authors possession and thus directly accessible. Secondly, the author contacted Karen Morse, Director of Distinctive Collections at the Commercial Pattern Archive to see if they would be willing to scan requested patterns. A total of 53 patterns were requested from the archive (as the online section only contains a photograph of the front of the pattern envelopes- meaning that a lot of crucial data is missing), to

17

try and access the complete data for them which would help in analysis. Of these 53 patterns, the archive provided scanned copies of 36 patterns. The remaining 159 patterns will also be utilised to some extent in this thesis as they can answer questions regarding actresses, studios, and stylistic changes even if they cannot answer more nuanced questions due to lack of data. In addition to this there are 14 patterns that the author holds within their personal collection and a further 17 patterns were retrieved from the internet. These patterns will also be utilised in providing extra data to answer all the research questions proposed earlier on. The author is hoping that by using 226 patterns for analysis even if they are not all providing complete information will be sufficient to answer the research questions in a satisfactory way and to provide a thought-provoking insight into an area of research that has been neglected by most fashion historians. (See Appendix 1) For those academics and interested parties who may be worried about the intricacies and difficulties of interacting with this number of patterns from a distance (given the preference in material culture analysis of directly interacting with the source material). The author believes that by interacting directly with 14 patterns held within the author’s collection that this will alleviate some of the difficulties in examining the rest of the patterns from a distance. Thus, allowing to develop the skills and mindset necessary of observing, detailing and analysis the requires patterns. Table 1 below gives an overview of the number of patterns examined and their different characteristics by format. Description Number Patterns which met the thesis parameters on the 195 Commercial Patterns Archive (COPA) website Patterns held in the author’s own collection 14 Patterns which met the thesis parameters 17 accessed from the internet Total number of patterns available for 226 examination at varying levels

Breakdown of Analysis

Scanned copies of patterns provided by COPA 36 Patterns held in author’s own collection 14 Total number of patterns examined in detail with 50 access to most of the pattern elements (Envelope front and back, envelope flap, instructions and pattern pieces) Patterns examined with limited access to some of 17 the pattern elements e.g., no pattern pieces or instruction sheets Patterns examined where the only element is the 159 front of the pattern envelope. Table 1 Overview of sources examined. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

18

When analysing the dressmaking patterns in answering the research questions it is important to apply a particular approach or protocol across all patterns to extract the necessary information. For this reason, the approach that will be taken in this thesis is that proposed by Batchelor, he proposed a six-step approach for analysing objects.68 Firstly, it’s important to identify the ‘idea’ of the object- what is it for.69 Secondly the material the object is made from.70 Thirdly the manufacturing of the object.71 Fourthly the marketing of object and its broadly contemporary cultural context.72 Fifthly, the decoration and design of the object, the role this serves for the object and the owner, and how this can be interpreted.73 Sixthly the use of the object, has the object since its creation to the modern day been used.74 These steps provide particularly important aspects for the analysis of the Hollywood Patterns, the sixth-step concerning whether the object has been used during its lifetime is important because many objects as well as being status symbols actually have a purpose, so it is important to acknowledge not just the use the object was made for but whether at any point it has fulfilled this direct use. Batchelor’s approach thus gives a set of more encompassing tools to be applied to the analysis of the patterns. In applying this approach, the first three steps will probably be discussed in relation to all patterns, as they are unlikely to change with each individual pattern. The final three stages will be dealt with in sections and will be applied to each pattern individually as these are aspects of analysis that will vary with each pattern as different information will be presented in each pattern to fulfil each of the three steps. The theoretical and methodological approaches presented in this chapter will frame the rest of the thesis sections- the socio-economic theoretical section (with its presentation of the theories of Veblen, Benjamin, and Campbell- as well as those authors who have implemented their ideas) in particular can also be utilised in understanding the context of the period as well as actually being a framework for understanding the patterns. The methodology will be of particularly importance once direct interaction and analysis of the patterns is discuss. The next section will build upon some of theoretical ideas and applied them to the contexts of dressmaking patterns, Hollywood and its operations, and the Second World War.

68 Batchelor, 2003, pg 140. 69 Batchelor, 2003, pg 140. 70 Batchelor, 2003, 140. 71 Batchelor, 2003, 140. 72 Batchelor, 2003, pg 141. 73 Batchelor, 2003, pg 142. 74 Batchelor, 2003, pg 142. 19

Chapter 2: Dressmaking Patterns, Hollywood and the Second World War- A historical perspective:

Having outlined the theoretical and methodological tools and theories that will be used to analyse the Hollywood Company Dressmaking Patterns, it is important to understand the other aspects that will contribute to this analysis and allow for a rounded understanding of the patterns produced from 1939 to 1945. This chapter will provide an overview of these other aspects, examining the contexts within which the Hollywood dressmaking patterns were produced. In addition to providing an overview of the contexts, this Chapter will also serve as a literature review for the both the contexts and the main topic focus of this thesis. For each section of context, the literature review aspect will be covered by examining some of the works read in preparation and research for this thesis, providing an overview of the layout of previous research. For some sections (such as Hollywood) there is a wealth of previous research on the subject. However, in other contexts, the limitations of resources will mean that fewer authors and texts will be presented in relation to previous research. The Chapter will weave together the contexts and the literature review to present a rich view and understanding of the Hollywood Pattern Company, providing other backgrounds and perspectives in preparation for the analysis of the pattern that will take place later in the thesis. These contexts will fall into three main categories, that of the Hollywood Pattern Company, its products, and the state of the dressmaking pattern sector during the 1930s and 1940s. The second context will cover Hollywood and its two main meta-systems (the Studio and the Star Systems) used in driving its business, and how the industry of Hollywood allowed for the creation of tie in products of which the Hollywood Dressmaking Patterns are one example. The final area of context is that of the Second World War, the associated shortages and restrictions imposed on civilian life and hence dressmaking abilities. These three sections of context aim to provide an understanding of the various aspects that led to the creation and development of the Hollywood Pattern Company and its patterns during the period under consideration.

The Hollywood Pattern Company, Its Origins and Products.

Before beginning the description and analysis stage of examining the sources, it is important to understand the background for the Hollywood Pattern Company, its products, and the markets the patterns were aimed at. Firstly, it is important to recognise that the Hollywood Pattern Company was created and run by Condé Nast. Condé Nast the individual was born in the United States of America in 1873, he was a publisher principally known for his acquisition of Vogue and Vanity Fair, which he built into

20 global fashion brands.75 He incorporated under the name of Condé Nast, but he died in 1942.76 In this work when referring to Condé Nast the individual the term ‘Nast’ is used and when referring to the corporation ‘Condé Nast’ is used. The Hollywood Pattern Company was established in 1932 and operated until 1947.77 Condé Nast had previous experience in producing this type of product and the creation of the Hollywood Pattern Company was an extension to these activities. Condé Nast already produced several patterns lines in association with Vogue Magazine, these patterns were known as Vogue Patterns. Vogue Patterns had existed as an adjunct to Vogue Magazine from before the Nast acquisition of Vogue in 1909.78 According to Joy Spanabel Emery, pattern production prior to Nast’s ownership was at the equivalent of one pattern per week, by 1905, Spanabel Emery indicates they had reached Pattern No. 334.79 Once Nast took control of Vogue, he established a particular direction for Vogue Patterns, that of desirability and an association with high fashion.80 In doing this, Spanabel Emery writes “Nast promoted the image that Vogue patterns were the most fashionable high styles”81 Spanabel Emery argues that Nast’s driving force with Vogue Patterns, was that he “wanted to convince the world that Vogue patterns possessed the utmost chic in clothing styles… the image created by Nast of having the ne plus ultra was established and was to endure.”82 Due to the promotion and idea that Vogue Patterns offered more upmarket designs, they were priced accordingly and were marketed at a more expensive price point, between $1-$2. 83 However, by the 1930s with the events of the Great Depression, offering patterns that only catered to high fashion styles was unsustainable as a business practice. This stimulated the creation of the Hollywood Pattern Company in 1932, as an attempt at diversification and market exploitation. Condé Nast created the company to access a different segment of the pattern market that Vogue patterns were not normally aimed at. This area was that of “less expensive, mass market patterns”, marketed to those women who had skills to produce their own clothing but not the pecuniary ability to purchase more expensive patterns.84 As such the Hollywood Pattern Company was created, mainly because Condé Nast did not want to devalue the image of Vogue patterns by producing cheaper patterns under the Vogue name.85 So, the Hollywood Pattern Company was a subsidiary company, set up to meet the mass market demand.

75 Sumner, 2010, pg 42. 76 Sumner, 2010, pg 42. 77 Joy Spanabel Emery, Patterns and Pattern Making, Love to Know, Patterns and Pattern Making | LoveToKnow, date accessed 02 April 2021. 78 Spanabel Emery, 2016, pg 72. 79 Spanabel Emery, 2016, pg 72. 80 Spanabel Emery, 2016, 72. 81 Spanabel Emery, 2016, pg 72. 82 Spanabel Emery, 2016, pg 73. 83 Spanabel Emery, 2001, pg 93. 84 Spanabel Emery, 2001, pg 93. 85 Spanabel Emery, 2001, pg 93. 21

Further, in being linked to Hollywood through actresses and studios, it sought the mass market appeal of Hollywood and its actresses providing a unique selling point of allowing the buyer to dress like their favourite Hollywood actress. The price point chosen for the new range reflected its appeal to the mass market audience; Hollywood patterns sold at 15cents in the USA throughout the majority of the companies fifteen- year production run, in Canada during the same period (Hollywood patterns soldf for 25cents).86 In addition to producing the patterns, the Hollywood Pattern Company also produced several other items, both to promote, advertise and allow people access to their patterns, as well as offering other avenues to profit from the Hollywood tie in relationship. One notable product was that of the Hollywood Pattern counter catalogue, this allowed pattern users to select which patterns they liked and would have been produced for usage in department stores and haberdasheries across the country. With the Hollywood Pattern Company these appear to have been released by the month of the year (concluded from a digital copy of the counter catalogue for June 1940 held in the authors possession)- they display an overall list of the patterns for the year so far, with a shorter headed list of the new patterns for the month of publication as well.87 The rest of the catalogue is taken up with the pattern images for that year or month.88 This would have allowed the shopper to select which patterns they desired and seek assistance in buying them. An interesting additional source is what Spanabel Emery calls the Hollywood Pattern Book.89 This was a magazine produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company that advertised its patterns. In its early years, the Hollywood Pattern Book appears to have followed the format of the fan film magazines that were popular at the time90- giving people insight on the lives of the Hollywood stars, promoting gossip, and which was often used to advertise Hollywood tie in products (considered later). Indeed, Spanabel Emery reveals that the Hollywood Pattern Book “included promotional photos from new films, articles about what the stars were wearing and information about the designers, as well as a catalogue of new Hollywood patterns”.91 In addition to promoting films and cataloguing the new patterns Spanabel Emery indicates that garments costs were also discussed.

Price breakdowns for the offered patterns featured regularly in the Hollywood Pattern Book and included cost of fabric, notions and the pattern. The average costs per garment ranged between

86 Glamour of Hollywood, April 1939, pg 102, Media History Digital Library, Glamour of Hollywood (Apr 1939- May 1941) : The Condé Nast Publications, Inc. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive, date accessed 02 April 2021. 87 Counter Catalogue, Hollywood Patterns, June 1940, held within authors possession. 88 Counter Catalogue, Hollywood Patterns, June 1940, held within authors possession. 89 Spanabel Emery, 2001, pg 93. 90 Spanabel Emery,2001, pg 93. 91 Spanabel Emery, 2001, pg 93. 22

$3.70 and $4.50 in the mid1930s. To verify the costs, the fit and smartness of the clothes made from Hollywood Patterns, editor Barbara Dean requested customers to send snapshots of themselves in their homemade frocks and prices of the completed garment.92

Here clearly Spanabel Emery indicates that the Hollywood Pattern Book contained articles that were typical of a film fan magazine of the time- news about new films, and information and gossip about the stars; whilst also serving the needs of those customers using the patterns, providing useful information about outfit costs, and generating a sense of community between sewers by encouraging them to send in photographs of themselves in Hollywood pattern garments. Much like the main Hollywood Patterns, the Hollywood Pattern Book underwent some changes during the company’s run and the period under consideration. In 1939, the Hollywood Pattern Book underwent a name change becoming Glamour of Hollywood magazine, at this point it was still functioning as a film fan magazine along with pattern promotion and information.93 However, in 1941 it underwent another name change, becoming Glamour magazine (at this point the magazines focus changed slight, such that film historians no longer consider it to be a film fan magazine).94 In addition to the Hollywood Pattern book/Glamour of Hollywood magazine, there were also thin pattern books produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company and sold at dollar stores all over the country, indicated by the August 1939 brochure, which proclaims ‘National Dollar Stores Long Beach Calif.’.95 These had a range of about 10 pages and are more focused in promoting Hollywood patterns.96 They were produced for each month and feature particular patterns for that month, the August 1939 edition states “August 1939, all patterns”97 These interactions between the Hollywood Pattern Company, its products and Hollywood show the relationship between the two industries and how beneficial tie in products could be for both. A key author in researching the Hollywood Pattern Company and the next sub section on the history of dressmaking patterns generally and in relation to the 1930s and 1940s, is Joy Spanabel Emery. Her article, ‘Dress like a Star’ elucidates the history, development, and products of the Hollywood Pattern Company. Further, she has written a book and several articles/chapters on the history of the pattern industry, with a key book being ‘A History of the Paper Pattern Industry’ which charts the development of paper patterns and key producers from the birth of the industry up until the modern day. This thesis differs from Spanabel Emery’s research relating to the period

92 Spanabel Emery, 2001, pg 93. 93 Slide, 2010, pg 235. 94 Slide, 2010, pg 235. 95 Hollywood Patterns of youth, pattern brochure, August 1939, Hollywood Pattern Company, held within authors possession. 96 Hollywood Patterns of youth, pattern brochure, August 1939, Hollywood Pattern Company, held within authors possession. 97 Hollywood Patterns of youth, pattern brochure, August 1939, Hollywood Pattern Company, held within authors possession. 23

in question because Spanabel Emery’s work largely presents more of the general development and history of paper patterns. This thesis alternatively aims to implement the theories of Veblen, Benjamin, and Campbell as well as Batchelor’s material cultural approach in examining the effect that Hollywood and the Second World War had on dressmaking patterns and experiences women gained through using them. Moreover, she was a prominent pattern collector, with her patterns ending up in the Commercial Pattern Archive in Rhode Island- some of which have been used as sources in this thesis. She was probably the most prominent author researching and using dressmaking patterns as historical sources. However, the field is still largely under researched so academic sources on the topic are more difficult to find.98

Dressmaking patterns: A history and development in the 1930s and 1940s:

The history of dressmaking patterns for home usage begins in around 1850 with the Demorest company, producing patterns that were aimed more at the professional market, to be sold to seamstresses or used by a demographic that had at least some sewing experience and a reasonable skill level.99 Consequently, these patterns required more fitting and had more limited instructions that later examples. Alongside Demorest, other companies (largely journals and local seamstresses) were also providing patterns for their readers and customers. A sea change occurred in 1860 when Ebenezer Butterick began producing paper patterns for men’s and children’s clothing.100 Butterick’s pattern contained clear printed instructions on the pattern envelopes. Between 1863 and 1865 Butterick moved company operations to New York and moved to focus on creating patterns for women. By 1870 “two wholesale depots had been created to sell to stores and agent stockists, by 1872, some 1,100 branches had been established to sell Butterick’s patterns”.101 Butterick’s was one of the first major companies to produce women’s patterns on a large scale, and others soon followed “between 1894 and 1900, other noteworthy pattern companies started (some of which still exist now)- New Idea (1894), Royal (1895), Elite (1897), Pictorial Review (1899), and Vogue (1899)”.102 All these patterns generated a democratisation of women’s fashion, allowing women who could sew greater control over and access to a wider range of items and styles in their wardrobe. In addition, as Spanabel Emery

98 Another author who is also important in contributing to the history of dressmaking patterns is that of Margaret Walsh, she alongside Spanabel Emery is one of the few historians to tackle the history of dressmaking patterns, particularly her article on how patterns democratised fashion. 99 Walsh, 1979, pg 303. 100 Walsh, 1979, pg 304. 101 Walsh, 1979, pg 304. 102 Joy Spanabel Emery, Patterns and Pattern Making, Love to Know, Patterns and Pattern Making | LoveToKnow, date accessed 02 April 2021. 24 indicates of Condé Nast’s intentions for Vogue patterns, they allowed women to feel as though they were part of or had access to a high level of fashion because of how they were advertised and links between the pattern industry and haute couture (real or imagined). For a large part of the nineteenth and twentieth century, dressmaking patterns were single size patterns. Butterick’s was one of the first companies to create a graded patterns system that were more flexible and able to produce garments for a wider range of customers. 103 So they were cut to size and the pattern purchased would make a garment in the size of the pattern only. So, if a person purchased a size 18 pattern, then the garment produced would be a size 18. Patterns from the late nineteenth century onwards until the late 1920s were what was known as perforated patterns, the pattern markings, for example tailor tacks, grain line, were indicated by holes punched into the tissue paper pattern pieces. However, this changed in 1921, when McCalls introduced printed patterns, so the pattern markings were indicated with ink printed onto the pattern pieces rather than perforations.104 McCalls patent expired in 1938, from this point onwards, other companies began producing printed patterns using inked pattern markings.105 All except Vogue patterns, as a company Vogue continued to use pattern perforations to indicate pattern markings until 1956.106 As Vogue Patterns was the parent company of the Hollywood Pattern Company, through out their entire existence, Hollywood patterns continued to use perforated patterns as well.

Hollywood, The Studio System and The Star System:

This section covers the early origins of Hollywood, mainly focusing on two of the most important features of the Hollywood industry, the Studio System, and the Star System. These were linking systems, with the studio system creating, sustaining, and controlling the star system. In terms of previous research, Hollywood history has attracted much attention and comment. Consequently, there are many authors from whom information and research can be drawn, this section will draw upon several authors to understand the context around Hollywood and the different systems that operated as part of it. However, that being said a key author who informed this section is Douglas Gomery, with his book providing an overview of the history and

103 Walsh, 1979, pg 305-306. 104 Joy Spanabel Emery, Patterns and Pattern Making, Love to Know, Patterns and Pattern Making | LoveToKnow, date accessed 02 April 2021. 105 Joy Spanabel Emery, Patterns and Pattern Making, Love to Know, Patterns and Pattern Making | LoveToKnow, date accessed 02 April 2021. 106 Joy Spanabel Emery, Patterns and Pattern Making, Love to Know, Patterns and Pattern Making | LoveToKnow, date accessed 02 April 2021. 25

establishment of the Hollywood Studio system.107 To complement this text, another author who has dealt with a major facet of Hollywood history is that of Paul McDonald and his book on the star system of Hollywood which contextualises why Hollywood stars became so popular and why they could become such a powerful marketing tool.108

The Studio System:

The history of the Hollywood studio system dates back to the earliest period of Hollywood in the 1910s and 1920s. At this point in Hollywood History there were hundreds of studios all operating and producing films. However, by the late 1920s, early 1930s this had begun to change, more specifically 1929 was the year that began to see the establishment of what would become the studio system.109 By 1929, 5 major studios (in the literature there appears to be some debate over the rise of the number of ‘major studios) had begun to dominate. These were “Paramount, Warner Bros, 20th Century Fox, RKO Radio, Loews –controlled MGM.”110 These 5 major companies operated alongside other substantial studios (3 of whom were known as the little three). ‘The Little Three’ were “Universal, Columbia, United Artists.”111 Together these studios had control over much of the Hollywood film industry which persisted throughout much of the twentieth century particularly during what is known as the ‘Golden Age’ of Hollywood from the 1930s through to the 1960s. In their control of the Hollywood industry, there were many aspects that the studios were involved with. As Gomery indicates, each of the big 5 studios owned substantial production facilities in Southern California, a worldwide distribution network and sizeable theatre chains: this allowed the studios control over the “‘three stages’ of film- that of production, distribution and exhibition”.112 The studios at the time were the main dominating force of the entertainment industry. By controlling most of the production of films and the distribution and exhibition of films at the time, it gave them total control over the people who worked for them and how the productions were marketed and released. In addition, it limited competition from outsiders and meant it was very difficult to set up new companies in competition when a selective handful of studios controlled the Hollywood operations. Furthermore, the control of the Hollywood industry by these major studios allowed them control of one aspect that was important above all else- it allowed them to make and receive the majority of the profits in the ‘production, distribution and exhibition’ of their films. Indeed, all the efforts in sustaining the studio system throughout the

107 Gomery, 2004, pg 107. 108 McDonald, 2000, pg 1. 109 Gomery, 2004, pg 111. 110 Gomery, 2004, pg 111. 111 Gomery, 2004, pg 111. 112 Gomery, 2004, pgs 108, 111. 26 twentieth century were driven by, and targeted at maintaining, the economic gains it provided for the major studios.

The Star System:

There has been much written about the star system in Hollywood, its production and maintenance of the actors of the time as stars and the way this was sustained and its importance to the production and growth of Hollywood. Several key texts were used throughout the following section, including Richard Dyer’s ‘Stars’ and ‘The Star System’ by Paul McDonald. These texts are to show the varied previous research on the topic of the star system and its links to other aspects of Hollywood. The products of the studios and the studio system were the films and the actors who appeared in them. Much like the films these studios produced, the stars were often a major attraction in going to see these films. A top star could be used to sell a poor film and a good film could be used to popularise a nascent star. Just as they invested in the best scriptwriters and the most up to date technology, so studios invested in ‘their stars’. The studios expected a return on their investment. The star system was very much a system controlled by, and run for the benefit of, the Hollywood studios, from the minute a new star signed a contract, they had effectively signed away control of themselves to Hollywood in the guise of their studio, they lost control over every major aspect of their lives, they could have to change their name, appearance, behaviour and in some cases even their backstory.113 So, for the studios in the creation of the star system, and the sometimes-radical changes demanded of stars as part of their contracts, the star system was about the creation of these stars as desirable objects. As McDonald indicates “The star system has therefore developed through the emergence of mechanisms for the production of popular identities.”114 These popular identities were important in the Hollywood industry overall, it drove the production of films (studios always looking for the next big star). An important aspect of the production of the star system and its popular identities was that of the uniqueness of the stars themselves, indeed McDonald declares that “the star system deals in individualism”, it was important for the audience to be able to distinguish the actors from their names or faces alone.115 It also meant that Hollywood films could be marketed and exhibited on the power of its stars, they were as important as the overall story of the film and, if certain stars appeared, this alone could encourage audiences to go to see certain films. Complications could arise if a particular star was labelled ‘box office poison’, notable in the

113 Dyhouse, 2011, pgs 50-51, 58. 114 McDonald, 2000, pg 1. 115 McDonald, 2000, pg 1. 27

cases of certain stars such as Katherine Hepburn in 1938.116 Whilst this could massively affect a star’s films or career, most films were heavily associated with and marketed based on their leading actors. The stars produced by the star system held a dual purpose. As Richard Dyer in his book ‘Stars’ states they held the phenomenon of production (to be used in production of films and controlled by the studio system and Hollywood imagery, almost like a raw material) and also as a phenomenon of consumption (what meanings they represented to the audience, they became the living embodiment of a film’s characters and story).117 Through these two concepts the audience was allowed to identify with the stars through four categories those of: emotional affinity, self- identification, imitation(beyond simply cinema going, stars acting as models) and projection (imitation merges into projection, process of more than mimicking hair makeup and fashion styles.118 These categories link well to the ideas of Veblen (pecuniary emulation)119 and Campbell’s ideas (desire fantasy and consumption),120 his ideas particularly of how audiences interact and consume the stars through imitation and project directly demonstrate in the context of Hollywood, film stars and the audience, how people seek to imitate, emulate, desire and fantasise about lives and people they see reflected on screen. The stars as a phenomenon of consumption are important as, not only were they consumed in terms of their image, but also in terms of their life story. Due to their roles in production and consumption, the stars were important advertising tools (both for the produced films and related tie in products to the Hollywood Industry).

Tie in Products:

The production of stars and their desirability meant that Hollywood could capitalise on that interest and marketability. This saw the creation of tie in products, these were objects or products that were associated to Hollywood in some aspect (generally marketed at women) and included things like make up, perfume and clothes (both ready to wear and in the case of the sources of this thesis, dressmaking patterns). These products were often connected to particular actresses and displayed their image (the idea being that this object is associated or worn by Hollywood stars so using it will give you the experience or fantasy of looking and feeling like a Hollywood actress), as evidenced on Hollywood Patterns they often contained an image of a particular actresses on the product

116 Bakerman, 2015, pg 24. 117 Dyer, 1998, pgs 10-16, pgs 17-19. 118 Dyer, 1998, pg 18. 119 Veblen, 1899, pg 22. 120 Campbell, 2018, pg 141, 144. 28

(front of the pattern envelope).121 These products were often driven by what experiences and fantasies they could provide, which in turn were often driven by the experiences that the Hollywood films provided people (particularly women), as Basinger indicates “movies were really only about one thing: a kind of yearning. A desire to know what you didn't know, have what you didn't have, and feel what you were afraid to feel. They were a door to the Other, to the Something Else.”122 These ‘tie in’ products are in a sense a direct portal to that something else, a tangible interaction with the feeling of what you did not have but wanted - they also both fulfilled (in some respects) and continued to drive these fantasies, experiences and thus the consumption of both more tie in products and the actors/films themselves. These ‘tie in’ products were often marketed through another Hollywood linked object, that of the film fan magazine. In addition to providing speculation of the loves and lives of the Hollywood elite, film fan magazines provided the space for the advertising of many different products including ‘tie in’ products. With the relationship between the tie in producers and the Hollywood studios, it can be safely assumed that certain agreements were made whereby the Hollywood studios were paid by companies to use their stars image on certain products, it was a ‘win win’ for both companies in making profit and capitalising on the bankability of Hollywood Stars. The same was probably true for the advertisement of these products in Hollywood fan magazines. Overall, these objects existed to make the individuals and companies involved money, however, at the same time it could be argued that these products helped sustain promote the star system and the celebrities within it.

The Second World War and Wartime Restrictions:

This section explores the effects of the Second World War and Wartime Restrictions on women, their clothing as well as on home sewing. It will examine several organisations that is the War Production Board (WPB) and the Office for Price Administration (OPA); as well as wartime restriction orders particularly the L-85 Order; alongside the make do and mend movement, the encouragement of conservation through propaganda messages. Much of the context in this section on restrictions and how this could have affected home sewing come from research on the ready to wear apparel industry, as there are more writings on this, and it seems to have been more directly affected than the paper pattern industry. However, this author thinks that these same restrictions

121 Hollywood Pattern Company, Maris Wrixon, Warner Bros, ‘Pattern No. 728, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within authors possession. 122 Basinger, 1993, pg 5. 29

probably applied to home dressmaking and paper patterns, and that it is only due to lack of research or obvious evidence this is not readily apparent. Several key authors inform this section in relation to several areas of context, the most notably of whom are Jennifer Mower and Elaine Pedersen. Together these authors have written two articles on the effect of the Second World on fashion styles, production, and consumer behaviour, as such their articles inform on all aspects of this context section. Another key author is that of Tara Maginnis, whose article on the effect of the war on the American home from the point of sewing and making do, is one of the few academic sources to contribute to this area.

Home Front Organisations

The two organisations examined are the WPB and the OPA.123 These were government organisations that sought to control civilian consumption in the USA throughout the Second World War. The WPB was responsible for restrictions and directives such as the L-85 Order (discussed later) as well as working to reduce consumption of valued goods needed for military use (without causing civilian panic), and was responsible for reductions and restrictions in fabric and clothing production.124 The WPB was established in 1941 and was in operation until the end of the War.125 The OPA was responsible for price control and as such implemented price freezes for civilians, this meant that prices were not going to be subject to rises (as some goods did experience supply issues) and so would not trigger panic buying.126

The L-85 Order:

The General Limitations-85 Order was one of the core restrictions imposed by the WPB on the fashion industry and affected both ready to wear and the paper pattern and home dressmaking industries.127 The L-85 Order governed women’s clothing for the duration of the War and covered several aspects of women’s clothing. These restrictions on clothing covered more the style of the clothing produced and the types of fabric rather than yardage as had been the case in the British context.128 The most notable aspect of the L-85 Order was that it implemented style changes to women’s clothing- moving away from the more extravagant cuts and designs of the 1930s to a

123 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 44-45. 124 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 45. 125 Mower and Pedersen. 2018, pg 44. 126 Mower and Pedersen. 2018, pg 44. 127 Maginnis, 1992, pg 62. 128 Stansbury Buckland, 1996, pg 164. 30 slimmer fitting ‘utilitarian’ style. In being created, the L-85 Order, controlled fashion stylistic aspect with very clear governing regulations, as Meghann Mason lists in their thesis-

Blouses: -If tucking or pleating is used, ruffling cannot be used and vice versa. -No hoods. -No more than one pocket, inside or out, and no patch pocket using more than 25 square inches of material. Coats: No bi-swing or Norfolk type backs. -No epaulets or tabs on the shoulder. -Sleeve circumference is limited to 16 ½ inches. Skirts, Skirt Suits and Play Suits: -Hem circumference reduced from 81 inches to 78 inches for a misses size 16 made in non-wool fabrics or in wool fabrics of a 9 ounce weight or less. -No culottes, reversible skirts, lined skirts, quilted skirts or skating skirts. -No waistband over 3 inches wide. Dresses: No more than 2 buttons and 2 buttonholes for each cuff. - No quilting using more than 300 square inches. -Evening Dresses: Sweep of taffeta, flat satin, and dresses of similar materials remains at 144 inches.129

In making this style change the L-85 Order effectively froze this style, creating a defined silhouette of the period and regulated certain aspects of style including “lengths, sleeve fullnesses, patch pockets, ensembles, hoods, sweep of skirts, width of belts, and depth of hems.”130 These aspects were readily observable, so it was easy to tell if a manufacturer or retailer was complying with the L-85 Order or not. In addition, if companies were found to be breaking the order, then that was “not only considered out of fashion but also unpatriotic”.131 This order also affected how clothes were sold, after the L-85 Order they tended to be sold as separate items, whereas before it was possible to buy items together as a set.132 The L-85 restriction also attempted to restrict types of fabric consumption (this will be examined in greater depth later). As Mower and Pedersen indicate, the L-85 restriction did eventually apply directly to paper patterns as well, but only from 1943 onwards pattern manufacturers were “required to produce patterns in accordance with the regulations for apparel”, however the L-85 Order would apply only to patterns produced after 1943 and not those in production or circulation before this date.133 However, it is likely that the pattern industry was influenced by the ready to wear industry since the aim was to allow home dress makers to produce fashionable clothing as defined and established by the ready to wear industry, leading to them producing patterns in line with restrictions even when they were not bound to. The overall aim of the L-85 Order was to be able conserve fabric for military use through restrictions in style and fabric amounts without causing civilian panic, shortages, or disruption.

129 Mason, 2011, pg 18-19. 130 Stansbury Buckland, 1996, pg 165. 131 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 40. 132 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 41. 133 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 47. 31

Hollywood and the Second World War:

It is important to acknowledge that Hollywood was also affected by the Second World War, with some actors returning to European countries, and the effect of United States government regulations on Hollywood. Prior to World War Two, Hollywood costume departments were creating the costumes for the film a year in advance, so they were more often anticipating the trends than conforming to them.134 As Gustafson demonstrates in 1940 the fall of Paris created a void for fashion inspiration and leadership, this should have been Hollywood’s moment.135 However, as Gustafson states there was one particular Government order that affected Hollywood like the rest of American fashion at the time, the L-85 Order.136 As previously stated this was about controlling stylistic aspects of fashion as a means of reducing fabric requirements and diverting this for military usage. As demonstrated with Hollywood, the US government clearly expected all manufacturers of clothing to comply.137

The Make Do And Mend Movement:

This was an important movement on the home front in the USA during the Second World War representing a push to conserve what already existed alongside attempts to reduce new consumption. Unfortunately, there have not been many articles or chapters covering the movement itself, what was often involved or women’s experiences of it. A key text that is available is that of Tara Maginnis article ‘She Saves Who Sews for Victory: Home Sewing on the American Home Front’, which deals with home sewing under the constraints of World War Two and its privations. Maginnis talks about how thrifting had now become ‘patriotic and fashionable’ as well as how post 1941 “making do was still a necessity but it no longer held the stigma of shame or poverty” as it had during the depression.138 All classes and economic levels were expected to make do as part of the patriotic war effort.139 Maginnis also discusses the inventiveness of the make do and mend movement, recycling old fabric (from suits, tablecloths, and bedding) and wool into clothing, as well as the rise of stylistic changes beyond that of the L-85 restrictions.140 For instance the rise of the ‘two-toned dress’, made from shorter dresses or two old garments-“they were fashion news during the war”, although Maginnis does imply that two toned dresses were necessity in Europe

134Gustafson, 1982, pg 8. 135 Gustafson, 1982, pg 12. 136 Gustafson, 1982, pg 12. 137 Gustafson, 1982, pg 12. 138 Maginnis, 1992, pg 60. 139 Maginnis, 1992, pg 60. 140 Maginnis, 1992, pg 64. 32 before being a fashion statement in America.141 She also discusses dressmaking patterns, and how in both America and Europe, “patterns were designed in order to accommodate this necessity”.142 Indeed, Maginnis also demonstrate that women did not often buy new clothing, and that whatever clothing they had was worn out or repurposed or passed down amongst family and friends. 143 The make do and mend movement was encouraged as being patriotic and people clearly made some effort to abide by guidelines, with ready to wear and pattern apparel clearly being utilised and accommodating stylistic and construction regulations.

Restrictions:

The main regulation controlling restrictions during the Second World War was the L-85 Order by the WPB. It controlled and regulated styles and fabrics of women’s clothing throughout World War Two. The fabrics that were restricted under the L-85 Order notably included silk at the beginning (post 1941) before it was expanded to include other fabrics.144 Rayon had to stand in for silk, and eventually the restrictions went on to regulate cotton and wool.145 According to Mower and Pedersen manufacturers were encouraged to produce fabric blends, particularly woollen blends, “blends between 25% and 65% wool blends’ were encouraged and manufacturers were rewarded with fabric allowances.”146 These restrictions would have affected the ability of women to make the clothes as accurately as the pattern described, it meant women probably had to substitute in some recommended fabrics with other non-restricted fabrics, this must have meant that women at the time had to have a good knowledge of garment construction as well as what fabric works well in constructing different garments and what fabrics could be substituted for one another.

Conservation propaganda:

Another way consumers were encouraged to limit their consumption was through advertisements and propaganda arounds issues such as reducing and making do and mending. An article by Dalton, Sullivan, Heitmeyer and DuPont, using Robertson’s model to examine consumption and restriction advertising draws several interesting conclusions about the period these advertisements were

141 Maginnis, 1992, pg 65. 142 Maginnis, 1992, pg 65. 143 Maginnis, 1992, pg 65. 144 Mason, 2001, pg 21. 145 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 48. 146 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 48. 33

around.147 Dalton, Sullivan, Heitmeyer and DuPont argue that when examining consumption reduction propaganda in the New York Times Magazine, one can note that the messages started in 1941, before America even entered the War, and stopped in 1944.148 Dalton, Sullivan, Heitmeyer and DuPont state that the year that had the highest number of consumption reduction advertisements was 1943.149 It is interesting that these propaganda advertisements did not carry on until 1945 despite continued fashion restrictions.

Conclusion:

These contexts provide an understanding of time and place that the Hollywood patterns were produced in, the organisations, events, and ideas they were affected by and how they came to be created. In examining the development of the Hollywood Pattern Company and dressmaking patterns alongside that of Hollywood, one can begin to understand and study why the Hollywood patterns were created - that, at its heart, it was about accessing a market of consumers who perhaps did not or could not usually interact with Vogue patterns. In addition, by forming a partnership with some of the major Hollywood studios, both these studios and Vogue patterns could profit from the popularity and marketability of the Hollywood Stars. The Second World War and its restrictions provides the context for how the Hollywood patterns changed over time and how this affected both women’s interactions with the patterns as well as their experiences of being able to make the garments from the patterns. Overall, these contexts provide an enriched understanding of the sources being used in this thesis, as well as allowing for in depth analysis of the patterns in relation to the research questions and what was happening as part of the period specific context.

147 Dalton, Sullivan, Heitmeyer and DuPont, 2012, pg 621. 148 Dalton, Sullivan, Heitmeyer and DuPont, 2012, pg 615. 149 Dalton, Sullivan, Heitmeyer and DuPont, 2012, pg 616. 34

Chapter 3: Dressmaking patterns as objects of desire:

The third chapter of this thesis serves several purposes. Firstly, it provides a more in depth understanding and examination of the two additional products produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company, the brochure, and the department store catalogue. The author feels these are important to be looked at in more detail as they exemplify the ‘purchasing’ experience, a major contributor to experiences of emulation and fantasy that some shoppers would have experienced when obtaining these Patterns. Secondly, this chapter will also provide a bridge between the some of the abstract concepts of the theory and methodological sections by beginning to draw out some of the pattern information through the early steps of Batchelor’s six steps of analysing objects (focusing on the idea, materiality, and manufacturing of the patterns as objects).150 These steps will be applied to all the patterns more generally, so discussions in this part will also apply at a more general level as other patterns are considered later on. It will also elucidate the areas of the pattern information that will be used in examining the more individualised steps, introducing the aspects of design and use of the patterns that will be explored in greater detail in later chapters151 (in certain cases a quantitative approach will be used to analyse change in these patterns over time and thus begin to attempt to answer some of the thesis research questions).

Brochures and Catalogues:

As stated previously the Hollywood Pattern Company products beyond purely the patterns themselves were often designed to aid in the advertisement, in the case of Glamour of Hollywood Magazine, or the direct selling of the patterns. This section will focus on the latter group of items that were produced to help the Hollywood Pattern Company and its distributors to display and sell the patterns to the consumer. These two items were key in the allowing the purchaser the ability to peruse and purchase these patterns. Publications targeted at and catering to the lower end of the economic scale were the Dollar Store and Five and Dime brochures. These sources, as indicated in the previous chapter, were approximately 8 to 10 pages long and are made out of delicate thin paper.152 They were produced monthly, as indicated by the edition of the brochure produced in 1939 and held in the author’s

150 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 151 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 152 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. 35

collections, which states “August, 1939 All Patterns 15c”.153 Clearly, producing these brochures monthly, allowed the Hollywood Pattern Company to only advertise and promote those patterns that were new that particular month, cutting down on the length of each individual brochure and keeping it manageable for readers and distributors. In relation to the design of the front of the brochure, the August 1939 edition features “Hollywood **** Star PATTERNS OF YOUTH” in black writing towards to the top of the cover, underneath is an image of one of the patterns included in the brochure, set against a green striped background.154 The Pattern image is that of a woman wearing a “soft frock in instep length or shorter”, with the view on the front being the short view, with ruffle along the bottom, and neckline, puff sleeves and gathers at the bust line between the bodice and the skirt.155 The image on the front is Pattern ‘1853, view 3’ and more information is listed page 6.156 These brochures largely focus on women’s fashion with 6 of the 8 pages focused on the Hollywood Patterns designed for women, one page focuses on the children’s clothing but there is no reference to any of the patterns that were produced for men.157 These brochures are supposed to be attractive and eye catching, enticing the consumer to view, peruse and hopefully buy the Hollywood patterns showcased within. The backs of these brochures advertise the Glamour (later renamed Glamour of Hollywood) magazine, indeed a copy of the brochure from January 1942, advertises the Glamour of Hollywood magazine’s December issue as containing “14 pages of unusual gifts plus gala clothes for Holiday gayety.”158 On this viewing, all the products produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company seem to be largely self-referential, promoting, with the use and viewing of their items, further consumption by consumers of their main or other products. An important aspect to note about these brochures is that they were clearly produced for specific chain stores (covering the lower end of the retail market including various Five and Dime and Dollar Stores). The August 1939 brochure, contained within the author’s collection, was produced for the chain store “National Dollar Stores”, with the specificity of the brochure being the area of “Long Beach California”.159 Another Brochure from December 1941 is marked as being

153 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. 154 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. 155 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, page 6 held within author’s possession. 156 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. 157 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. 158 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for The Lining Store, Newark, New Jersey, January 1942, held within author’s possession. 159 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. 36 produced for use in “The Lining Store Newark NJ”,160 with a further brochure displaying the shop ‘Neisner Bros, Inc’,161 this was a chain of Five and Dime Stores (or variety stores) started in 1911 and folding in 1978.162 These associations on brochure covers demonstrate that the Hollywood Pattern Company were clearly producing different editions of these brochures for several different stores (both chain and maybe more independent stores) to sell their products at national and local level, and that this was potentially a beneficial relationship for all parties. Additionally, it also demonstrates that Condé Nast was successful in appealing to the mass market lower income audience that were the Hollywood patterns main target audience, if Five and Dime and Dollar Store Chains were stocking the Hollywood Pattern Company patterns. Before examining the next product, it is important to understand the setting, and the social setting of the consumption of the clientele it was associated with, the Department Store. Department Stores were a phenomenon that developed during the mid to late nineteenth century and were designed to house many departments that would previously have existed as separate shops.163 That is they contained homewares, clothing, luxury goods, and haberdashery departments, among others. Due to this they were often large stores, expansively so in large cities, and even in smaller towns they took up considerably more retail space than traditional shops.164 One of the things that set department stores apart was that shopping there was designed to be a pleasurable rather than utilitarian experience, with Sarah Elvins describing the department stores as being “carefully cultivated to please the eye and encourage crowds to give in to the temptation of goods.”165 Department stores were all about luxury, and whilst Evlins indicates that they were aimed at a cross class market, both working and middle class, that for all that “ it allowed dreams to become reality and aspirations of wealth and luxury to be expressed through consumption”.166 However, when Elvin goes on to discuss the setup, design and activities of department stores throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, they very much seem geared towards a middle class audience.

Uniformed doormen welcomed customers at the entrances… a fleet of female clerks showed merchandise to the consumer, bringing pairs of gloves or stockings out from behind glass cases

160 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for The Lining Store, Newark, New Jersey, January 1942, held within author’s possession. 161 Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for Neisner Bros, Inc, January 1942, held within author’s possession. 162 Alan Morell, Whatever Happened to … Neisner’s, 17 05 2014, Democrat and Chronicle, date accessed 10 05 2021. 163 Elvins, 2019, pg 137. 164 Elvins, 2019, pg 137. 165 Elvins, 2019, pg 138. 166 Elvins, 2019, pg 137. 37

for customers to peruse. In departments like women’s clothing, customers could enjoy personal attention.167

Alongside this, there were cafés and libraries for patrons of the store to spend additional time and money in.168 When considering the working-class experience, Elvin argues that some stores welcomed upper class patrons “whilst ushering working class housewives to the bargain basement”,169 suggesting that, at least in some cases, although all classes nominally had access to the store and its products, the reality once they entered was quite different. This author also thinks that it also might suggest that whilst they could in theory shop there, a proportion of working-class people might have chosen not to, staying away from emporia at which they were not welcome. With indeed Elvin’s mentioning the race and class divide of department stores “the experience of shopping in the store helped to reinforce the sense of class distinction among white, middle class patrons. Indeed this was part of the store’s appeal for many.”170 However, Elvin does demonstrate that by the 1930s due to the depression, department stores clientele, and products were affected (they struggled to maintain their client base and some often held discount sales).171 It is possible that because of these circumstance, working class people might have been more welcome and or likely to shop there, but also given the situation that the poor are often the worst affected during economic strife, that this was also not the case. Department store catalogues were designed to cater to the next segment up in terms of the purchasing power, these sources would probably have been produced for use in the haberdashery department of a department store. The author holds a digital copy of Hollywood Pattern Company department store catalogue produced in “June 1940”.172 These department store catalogues are larger and more extensive in their pattern coverage than those brochures produced for Five and Dime stores. This is because they contain a list of all the patterns being run that year (which may or may not include patterns from previous years’ runs) as well as the new patterns that had been produced for the particular month the catalogue corresponds to. This shopping experience and the design of the department store catalogue contribute to a sense that it was probably a product and a way of accessing Hollywood patterns that was more targeted to middle- and upper-class women than working class women. In listing the patterns, the catalogue has two corresponding lists for the patterns. There is a classified list of the patterns (this list appears on the inside front cover of the pattern catalogue),

167 Elvins, 2019, pg 139. 168 Elvins, 2019, pg 141. 169 Elvins, 2019, pg 143. 170 Elvins, 2019, pg 144. 171 Elvins, 2019, pg 147. 172 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 38 this lists the types of patterns in alphabetical order (for instance, “aprons, beach coats, blouses, bolero’s, boys wear, brides, coats, finishing with the s categories sportswear and suits”).173 Alongside the alphabetised list is the pages on which they categories of patterns can be found on.174 Underneath the classified list there is a section about taking body measurements in order to ‘determine your size’ alongside comparative scale of measurements (these indicate the sizing gradients for women, teenagers, girl’s and children’s, boys and men’s sizing), both of these are important for helping customers to select the size most suitable in order to create a correctly fitting garment.175 The catalogue also contains a numerical list of each of the patterns in the catalogue (this is listed on the inside back cover of the catalogue).176 This list is notable because it is split into two sections, all the patterns that are being advertised and are for sale in the June 1940 catalogue (but were actually not new patterns for the June catalogue) and those patterns that are advertised as being new patterns for the month of June 1940.177 The longer list of patterns lists each pattern number separately, as well as the very brief description of the garment, the sizes it is produced in, and the page number on which it can be found.178 For the new patterns, it similarly lists the pattern number, garment description and sizes produced but they come under a heading that tells the reader “to see front section” in order to find out more detail about each pattern.179 The new patterns for the month of June 1940 number about 20 patterns.180 From the numerical list it is also possible to tell that patterns from previous year would be carried over into the following years run, as the pattern from the front cover the National Dollar Store Long Beach California (Pattern No. 1853) is listed in the numerical list of patterns. Pattern 1853 is described as a frock coming in sizes 12 through 20 and can be found on pages 169 and 392.181

173 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 174 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 175 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 176 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 177 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 178 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 179 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 180 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 181 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 39

Additionally, the department store catalogue tries to make explicit links between certain actresses and their patterns. For instance, on page 2 entitled “Ladies Home Journal” there is a picture of the actress Claudette Colbert with the caption describing her outfit in the picture as “in a navy and white dotted swiss organdie afternoon dress with white embroidered organdie frill collar and cuffs and velvet ribbon running through beading. Sizes 12 to 20, 30 to 38. No. 1997”.182 This caption clearly links the dress that Claudette Colbert is wearing as corresponding to that of Hollywood Pattern No. 1997.183 When examining page 136 on which Pattern 1997 is found, one can see similarities between pattern 1997 and the dress Colbert wears in the photograph.184 By showing photographs of actresses wearing very similar outfits to garments produced by the Hollywood Patterns, it strengthens the link between the two and gives a more direct sense of being able ‘to look like a Hollywood starlet’. It also reinforces and affirms the claims of placing (and thus linking) a particular actress to a particular pattern by way of photograph and name and studio on certain pattern envelopes. It was not only photographs of particular actresses wearing garments similar to their patterns that the Hollywood Pattern Company catalogue presents. The June 1940 catalogue also shows that the Hollywood Pattern Company was clearly looking to exploit opportunities offered when certain films proved popular with audiences. This is testified by the June 1940 catalogue promoting Hollywood Patterns that evoke outfits from ‘Gone with the Wind’.185 Over pages 300, 387 and 388, several Hollywood Patterns are displayed that appear to mimic certain outfits worn by the central character of Scarlett O’Hara in the 1940 Oscar winning film.186 Indeed patterns 1989 and 1988 heavily reference two of Scarlett’s dresses in their look, construction and trimmings, both these patterns also are shown alongside photographs of the garments from which inspiration was taken.187 These two levels of access (at both a lower and higher economic level) are important for several reasons. Firstly, the brochures demonstrate the mass market lower economic strata at which the patterns were initially aimed. By providing these brochures that were available in many cheaper stores across the United States, the Hollywood Pattern Company was clearly seeking to capture the

182 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 2, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 183 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 2, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 184 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 136, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 185 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 300, 387, 388, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 186 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 300, 387, 388, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 187 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 300, 387, 388, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. 40 attention and buying potential of the customers that shopped there. The department store catalogue also demonstrates the Hollywood Pattern Company felt they had an appeal and retail potential into other economic segments, so they began producing advertising products serving this market. These two items catering to different economic sectors and thus providing different levels of access link well to two of the theorists utilised in this thesis. They specifically link well to Veblen’s concepts of emulation and consumption,188 and Campbell’s ideas of fantasy driven consumption,189 in that both of these objects despite catering to different economic segments with differing purchasing power provide the same experiences in allowing consumers to buy Hollywood Patterns no matter what level they shop at. This means that for consumers it does not matter where they buy the patterns from, their ability to emulate Hollywood actresses and to create, fulfil and sustain fantasy and desires through these patterns remains the same. These brochures and catalogues also link well to Daniel Purdy’s ideas of democratisation and glimpse of a world that the consumers cannot fully experience for themselves, which he expounded when considering fashion journals in eighteenth century German states.190 These brochures and catalogues (and the patterns as well) serve a similar purpose to Purdy’s German fashion journals, they provide a democratisation of fashion, and they serve different economic levels providing products that allow for the emulation of the fashions of the Hollywood Stars, no matter economic power or where the consumer shops. Additionally, the entire range of items produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company provided a glimpse (and thus creation of a fantasy or dream) of a world out of their reach, Hollywood and everything that entailed, as related through the patterns and popular culture generally. These items and the purchasing (and for many the subsequent use of) the patterns themselves drove the fantasies and desires of consumers across America. Despite these items being available at different economic levels, they provided the same experience (for the same price) for consumers no matter their background, that of a democratisation of fashion and the ability to emulate and create fantasies around looking like the Hollywood elite.

Batchelor’s Six Steps: Idea, Materiality and Manufacturing:

As stated previously Batchelor’s approach to examining and analysing objects is composed of six steps.191 Four of these steps (idea, materiality, manufacturing, marketing (context)) will be discussed in the section below. These steps apply to all objects in this thesis and so should be considered at

188 Veblen, 1899, pg 22. 189Campbell, 2018, pg 141, 144. 190 Purdy, 1998, pg 26. 191 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 41

a general level for all the patterns. This should be done separately from the last two steps of the approach in order to understand the real detail and information the patterns can provide. First step is that of the idea of the object.192 Batchelor describes most domestic objects as “having an evolution of ideas, a discovery or invention”.193 This is most definitely the case with dressmaking patterns and it essentially boils down to what is the object, what is it for and what is it designed to do. For the main sources of this thesis, they are home dressmaking patterns. These patterns consist of heavy paper envelopes containing the pattern pieces and instructions necessary to construct the garment image displayed on the front of the pattern envelope.194 The back of the envelope contains a generalised summary of the garment as well as fabric suggestions and required amounts for producing the outfit195 (see Figure 1 over). The idea and purpose are about the creation of the garment, creating an outfit that is stylish for people to want to create it and the pattern is that which a home sewer (albeit one with significant skill level) could create. Those patterns that still exist still retain their functionality in this regard as evidenced by the garment made by the author using Pattern No. 864 (see Appendix 2). However, it is important to acknowledge that for the consumer the pattern allows more than the production of the garment. It provides a wealth of experience, both in learning skills and creating the garment but it also allows as proposed before the emulation of Hollywood stars. This was a key driving point in the production, sale, and consumer of the pattern products. Additionally, in purchasing and using these patterns, women create and sustain through their emulation, fantasies, and desires of looking, and imagining being like a Hollywood actress and everything that entailed. Manufacturers and distributors would have been aware that in addition to the initial manufacturer’s idea of what the pattern would be, as a simple piece of clothing, for the consumer it could provide so much more, which could be used to drive sales and hence profits.

192 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 193 Batchelor, 2003, pg 140. 194 Hollywood Pattern Company, Phyllis Brooks, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 425, Year 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1940.57.URI., pattern id no.42252. 195 Hollywood Pattern Company, Phyllis Brooks, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 425, Year 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1940.57.URI., pattern id no.42252. 42

Figure 1: Front and Back Envelope. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, Phyllis Brooks, RKO Radio Year 1940, Pattern No. 425. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1940.57.URI. Going beyond the idea of the object, it is important to consider the second step in analysis and object understanding, that of the materiality of the object.196 Batchelor describes the relevance of materiality “Apart from fulfilling some of the aesthetic and practical demands put on the object in use, the choice of materials will in part be governed by the ease of which they can be worked”.197 This has importance for several reasons in the case of the materiality of the dressmaking patterns, in terms of production, and usage. In the case of the pattens, the materiality of these objects is that they are made entirely from paper. Everything from the pattern pieces (made of tissue paper) to the instructions and pattern envelope (made of a slightly thicker but still delicate paper product) are made of paper. The vulnerability of paper as a material is important to acknowledge as it is more susceptible to damage and destruction (the impact of the vulnerability of paper and the extent of damage to the patterns will be discussed in a later section of the 6th step usage). The fact that the patterns are made from paper is important for two reasons. Firstly, paper is not a bulky item, particularly the thin pieces that the patterns were made from. This means that transportation,

196 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 197 Batchelor, 2003, pg 140. 43

display and storage of the patterns was easier in both factories, stores and in the home. It means the patterns take up less space and so more could be stocked by the stores and they take up less space in homes, where storage may be a luxury. Secondly, making the pattern pieces out of tissue paper means that they are malleable, this is a key requirement in the cutting and construction of garments. The pieces need to be malleable for the user to be able to cut round them to create the fabric pieces to begin constructing the garment. If they were made from a thicker paper or other materials, this would become trickier as there would not be enough flex in the pattern pieces to allow for a clean cut. Making the pattern pieces (and other components) out of paper was also a cheaper option compared to other alternatives. This point is particularly important in relation to Batchelor’s second step as it fulfils his idea of the choice of materials as being governed by ease of use,198 clearly here both in terms of ease of manufacturing and in terms of the eventual usage the pattern paper will be put to in terms of home dressmaking production. The third step Batchelor proposed in examining objects, is that of the manufacturing of the object.199

choice of manufacturing methods is in turn governed by choice of materials… The methods must satisfy the practical and aesthetic demands of design, yet at the same time their cost must be justified relative to the wholesale price the maker and manufacturer can expect to realise.200

As Batchelor’s quote demonstrates there is overlap between the materiality and manufacturing of an object, the author feels that this is significant given the identification of paper as the material for production of the patterns in the previous section. It certainly contributes to the cheapness of the manufacturing process of the patterns. Now, whilst the manufacturing process of these patterns is not entirely clear, it can be assumed that the patterns (and other Hollywood Pattern Company products) were mass produced in factories (as these were produced after the industrialisation of the pattern industry in the late nineteenth century). The patterns (when new) arrive ‘factory folded’, this means that the pattern pieces and instructions still have the ‘folds’ that were created in the factory ready for sale, still intact. In this case it means that whilst the pattern envelope might have been opened, the pattern pieces themselves have not been unfolded and used. This allows for determining whether the pattern has been used or not (although, most archive patterns do not currently state whether their patterns contain factory folds or not). If it can be determined whether a pattern has factory folds or not is an important aspect of that object’s history and in the presumed

198 Batchelor, 2003, pg 140. 199 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 200 Batchelor, 2003, pg 140. 44 experience of previous owners in owning the pattern but choosing not to use it. Patterns are ‘intermediate’ objects, that is they are not the finished object (in this case the garment) but they are a means to creating something further, which requires additional input (the process of creation) from the purchaser. It is also important to note the price of Hollywood Patterns, this was 15 cents throughout the majority of its run, increasing to 25 cents in 1944 alongside branding changes.201 In order to maintain this price point and not to sell the patterns below cost, which would have resulted in the Hollywood Pattern Company losing money. It can be assumed that the use of paper, a cheap production material, allowed manufacturing costs of these patterns to be kept down, allowing the long-term maintenance of the final selling price. The fourth step of examining an object is that of placing the object in its historical context and marketing, in order to understand the events, and processes (trade activities, political, cultural, and social process).202 that were in effect when the object was produced and used. In the case of this thesis, the context of the patterns has already been covered in depth in a separate chapter. In brief, the areas of context that inform the patterns is that of the history of the Hollywood Pattern Company and home dressmaking patterns in general. Juxtaposed with the history of Hollywood’s Studios and Star Systems which created the potential for profitable tie in products. Lastly, the Second World War and home front restrictions, which potentially affected the fabrics, styles and actresses that could be utilised in advertising and creating the patterns.

Pattern Design and Usage:

The next two steps in Batchelor’s approach are that of design and usage, it is these aspects of the patterns that will be subjected to a quantitative analysis of the information within the patterns, and thereby provide answers to the research questions posed at the beginning of the thesis. For Batchelor the design aspect of an object was about more than “competing in the marketplace with uglier more efficient rivals”.203 Indeed, Batchelor asserts that design and usage (or use of the object) are interlinked, that for some objects, such as the kettle of Batchelor’s article, “the key to understanding why this kettle is the shape that it is lies in its use”.204 For the patterns the design is important in how it is used, and the usage of the pattern is important in understanding the design features to be explored, because the pattern is an intermediate object, used to create another, its design features are all designed to be informative to the user.

201 Hollywood Pattern Company, Pattern No. 1345, Year 1944, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1944.93.KLS, pattern id no. 9467. 202 Batchelor, 2003, pg 141. 203 Batchelor, 2003, pg 142. 204 Batchelor, 2003, pg 142 45

In order to apply a quantitative analysis later in the thesis, it is important to understand the aspects of design that will be examined in this approach.205 The design of the pattern covers several aspects in relation to the fronts and backs of specifically the pattern envelopes. The design section will also examine the layout and structure of information that is key to garment construction. In relation to the pattern envelope, the design and information held within can be split into two sections, that information that is contained on the front of pattern envelope and that which is contained on the back. The front of the pattern envelope contains several design features (see Figure 2). There is always an image of the garment (and its variations) that the pattern will produce.206 This is meant to entice the consumer to buy the pattern by offering a finished article that is attractive and desirable, it is also meant to serve as a reference for the final garment constructed from the pattern, the two are supposed to look stylistically the same (or as similar as possible).

Figure 2: Design Options. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

205 Hannan and Longair, 2017, pg 124. 206 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 46

The patterns examined for this thesis also all contain an image of the actress the pattern is associated with at the top left-hand corner (see Figure 3), with their name, contracting studio and film (if they have a particular film that is being promoted at the time of the pattern’s production).207 This particular aspect of design underwent a change during the pattern’s overall production history, in the early 1930s the photograph of the actress was a square shape, but by the late 1930s the photograph had changed to be circular (which it remained until actresses stopped being featured on the patterns).208

Figure 3: Film Star Photograph. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942.Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. In the top right-hand corner, the size of the pattern is always indicated (see Figure 4 over), this maybe indicated by a specific size, (for instance a size 12 with the bust and hip measurements alongside) or just purely by bust and hip measurements (this appears to be the case with larger sizes).209 The price of the pattern is always indicated here as well, throughout the majority of the Hollywood Pattern Company’s run, the price started at 15 cents and rose to 25 cents in 1944.210

207 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 208 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 209 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 210 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 47

Figure 4: Pattern Size and Price. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942.Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS. Down the side of the pattern front envelop there is a coloured stripe (see Figure 5) with Hollywood patterns (or variations including Hollywood ****-star PATTERNS OF YOUTH or Hollywood Patterns) written on it in white writing.211 This author has been unable to determine why different colours, red, blue, and green were used.

Figure 5: Colour Branding Stripe. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

As with the front of the envelope, the back of the pattern envelope contains several design elements that will be important in the quantitative analysis to come. In a box on the back of the pattern envelope is a flat layout of all the pattern pieces the pattern contains, they are labelled and

211 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 48 their total number recorded.212 Underneath the pattern pieces, is a detailed description of the garment the pattern produces, here it lists the difference between the variations, the style of the garment, features such as gored skirts, patch pockets, closing features as well as optional features that can be included (see Figure 6).213

Figure 6: Pattern Pieces and Garment Description. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

There is also a line drawing of the backs of the garment (all variations included). Presumably, this is to demonstrate to the buyer what the reverse of the garment image is and what the back of the garment should look like once it has been constructed (see Figure 7).214

Figure 7: Back View Sketch. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

212 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 213 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 214 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 49

Some of the patterns contain a list of recommended or suggested fabrics (this is the list of fabrics that the pattern company recommend for creating the garment).215 These lists vary in length depending on the type of garment and the activity or season for which it has been produced (see Figure 8). Consequently, with some patterns the lists can be lengthy, in addition if the pattern produces separate garments that are to be worn together (for instance, skirt, jacket and blouse) then the fabrics suggested for each separate piece are listed separately.216

Figure 8: Fabric Suggestions. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

A key aspect of the back of the pattern envelope is that it lists the amount of fabric needed to make the garment (see Figure 9 on page over). In listing fabric amounts, the pattern does not just list the amount to create the pattern in whatever size it is bought in (so the fabric to make the garment in a size 12) but the fabric amounts to make the garment in all sizes the pattern comes in (generally ranging from a size 10 or 12 to a size 20 or up to a size 46)217. In listing the fabric, the amounts for each view are listed one underneath the other, so if the patterns makes 3 variations, then at least 3 view of fabric amounts will be listed.218 If other views such as making the sleeves and collars from separate fabric is a way of constructing the garment, then these are listed separately as a different view as well.219 In listing the fabric, it is important to note there were several widths of fabric available at the time, the most common being 35”, 39” and 54” wide fabric.220 Most views of the garment can be made in one or more of these fabric widths, for instance a view made be made in a 35” and 39” widths, the amount of fabric required in each width is listed as a sub sections underneath every ‘view’ heading.221

215 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 216 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 217 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 218 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 219 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 220 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 221 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 50

Figure 9: Fabric Requirements. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

On the envelope flap, some of the pattern’s list what are known as ‘findings’.222 These are the items that are needed to construct and finish the garment (see Figure 10). They include elements such as thread, buttons, snap fasteners, hook and eyes, slide fastenings (in the present period, this is now called a Zip), ribbon, shoulder pads, among many others.223 Some patterns do not include these on the envelope flap, and they often do not seem to appear anywhere else on the pattern, however, in some cases if the pattern uses a slide fastener or shoulder pads, these may be listed underneath the fabric requirements.224

Figure 10: Findings List. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, June Havoc RKO Radio, Year 1942. Pattern No. 889. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.121.BWS.

In identifying those aspects of the pattern design outlined above and applying the methodology to the sources, firstly all the information contained within the pattern envelopes and instructions had to be extracted. This was done by creating an Excel document that was split into specific sheets

222 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 223 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 224 Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. 51

for different aspects. Sheet 1 of the Excel document was set up to contain information about the patterns by actress and film studio, it also recorded information if the patterns were tied to a particular film, and further allowed for the documentation of other aspects, such as number of pattern pieces. The findings were similarly recorded- each individual finding item was noted in the top row and then if the patterns contained reference to particular findings it was noted. As new findings were identified, these were added to the record as well. Sheet two was dedicated to reviewing the patterns by the “views” of the outfits shown on the pattern envelope (this often ran to 2 to 3 views), it was used to record the fabric amounts per view by creating a row dedicated to recording the widths of the fabric, below which was a further row recording associated sizes. This was particularly important because as the size of the garment increases so to do the fabric requirements. This was done for each width of fabric recommended on each of the 67 patterns. Following this, the fabric suggestions were recorded, with the top row dedicated to type of fabric suggested; as with the findings, whenever a pattern was identified that contained a new fabric suggestion this was added to the list. So, whenever a pattern contained references to particular fabrics, this was marked with a yes and where it did not it was marked with a no or not applicable if it did not reference fabrics at all. After this, the different areas of information, were examined in depth and separate columns dedicated to compiling information on certain aspects such as, findings information and whether it was on the envelope flap or in the instructions; fabric types and amounts for different garment views; lengths of dresses and skirts; patterns by actress and year; sweep (circumference) width; and hem widths by year. From this information, tables, and graphs (certain aspects of which will be included in the appendices) were created to be able to identify and track changes in the aspect of pattern design examined and analysed in Chapter 4. The purpose of this chapter was to show the importance of the buying and perusal experiences through brochures and catalogues in creating and establishing the emulation and fantasies driven by the patterns. Different items catered to different economic segments, but still provided the same experiences of emulation and desires; this is important because it demonstrates it did not matter where you purchased the patterns, they could be bought for the same prices and provide the same experiences. They had a universal appeal and purpose and allowed women across social levels the opportunities to look like a Hollywood Star. Developing on from this, a key focus of this chapter has been to provide a bridge between the abstract concepts of theory and methodology and show how the methodological sections will be applied (in a quantitative and qualitative approach). In delving deeper in Batchelors six steps, the author has sought to demonstrate the wealth of information gained from utilising dressmaking patterns as a source, and the important design

52 aspects explored in greater detailer in the next chapter in order to better understand the data the patterns contain and how this can be used to begin to answer and explore the research questions.

53

Chapter 4: Star gazing and stitching the silver screen:

This chapter builds on the discussion and examination of the theory, methodological approaches, and contexts to create an in-depth picture of what information the patterns’ contain and how they can be utilised to answer the three main research questions of this thesis. The analysis used on the patterns and their information will be a mixture of quantitative and qualitative approaches, this allows the presentation of some aspects of the bigger picture of pattern information and change during this period, before focusing on individual patterns to draw out specific pattern details to inform important aspects in answering the research questions. In providing the analysis for this chapter, 226 patterns were utilised at a variety of levels. Of these, 67 patterns form the in-depth basis of analysis for this chapter. In providing two levels of analysis, this will show broader trends and specific details in analysis the three research questions. These are: 1. How did the war impact on women’s fashion and dressmaking? 2. What changes in the relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and the Hollywood studios can be detected by an examination of the patterns of the Hollywood Pattern Company during the period 1939-1945? 3. How did the war time changes in fabric restrictions and clothing styles, alongside branding, studio and actress representation throughout the Second World War affect the construction and continuation of fantasy driven desires, imagined community, escapism between the actresses and the audiences? These sources provide a way of answering these research questions and also implementing the theory and methodology and how this can be applied to the sources. The chapter largely focuses on the element of design, as discussed, and put forward as a key aspect of object analysis by Batchelor. As such most of the analysis for this chapter is concentrated on the design aspects of the Hollywood Patterns, and how these apparently changed over time and in response to external pressures relating to the Second World War.

The impact of the war on the glamour of clothes.

How did the war impact on women’s fashion and dressmaking?

As discussed in the context chapter there were several aspects of the Second World War that impacted on clothing (homemade and ready to wear apparel) during the period under consideration. One of these was the General Limitations Order L-85, which came into effect in

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April 1942.225 It was the order that governed the regulation and control of women’s clothing from a stylistic perspective.226 Whilst it was originally applied to ready to wear apparel, it was subsequently expanded to govern dressmaking patterns as well; although as Mower and Pedersen indicate it was not until 1943 that this came into effect.227 In their article on wartime consumption, Mower and Pedersen provide two interesting illustrations published in a women’s fashion magazine at the time- Women’s Wear Daily.228 The first of these images (see Figure 11 on page over) shows three ‘before and after’ images to exemplify stylistic changes to be implemented as a result of the L-85 Order.229 The first sketch shows the differences between a set of coats pre and post the L-85 Order, with two short sentences directed at the post L-85 Order outfit- that of “no dolman sleeves” and “no patch pockets”.230 Thereby clarifying for readers stylistic differences that could be expected because of the war. The next sketch demonstrates the difference between either a blouse and skirt combination outfit or a one-piece dress, the first image bears an “all over heavily pleated skirt” and “double cuffed sleeves” blouse.231 The annotations in the figure demonstrate aspects of garment design that became forbidden for ready-made wear after the introduction of the L-85 Order. Whilst the L-85 Order only applied officially to dressmaking patterns post 1943, it is possible to see design changes appearing in pattern design, as they adopt a more streamlined, uniform look similar too early to mid-1940s ready to wear apparel. Similarly, it is possible to see these aspects of garment design change in certain Hollywood patterns over the period.

225 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 52. 226 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 52. 227 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 47. 228 “Typical of ‘Before and After’ Style Change Conforming To WPB Limitation Order L85.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 40. 229 “Typical of ‘Before and After’ Style Change Conforming To WPB Limitation Order L85.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 40. 230 “Typical of ‘Before and After’ Style Change Conforming To WPB Limitation Order L85.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 40. 231 “Typical of ‘Before and After’ Style Change Conforming To WPB Limitation Order L85.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 40. 55

Figure 11: “Typical of ‘Before and After’ Style Change Conforming To WPB Limitation Order L85.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 40.

Hollywood Pattern No. 1862 directly shows pre-L-85 Order styles, similar to those shown in sketch B of the Women’s Wear Daily illustrations (see Figure 12 over).232 This pattern is linked to the actress Joan Fontaine of RKO Radio and was produced at some point during 1939.233 Utilising Batchelor’s fifth step of analysing design, this pattern’s stylistic design can be analysed and compared to the L-85 Order and subsequent patterns. The Pattern itself produces a form fitting two-piece suit, with short or long jacket sleeve options and notably “all round pleated skirt”.234 This all-round pleated skirt is shown as part of the overall outfit image on the front envelope and as a line drawing on the front envelope as well.235 This pattern clearly conforms to pre-L-85 Order styles, with the heavily pleated skirt, as well as pocket flaps.236 These aspects all contributed to a large consumption of fabric, with the skirt alone in a 54” fabric with nap requiring 2 yards of fabric in a size twelve.237 The large use of fabric, along with styles of pleating, cutting and other additional features to create the form fitting structured style was common during the 1930s.

232 Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 233 Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 234 Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 235Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 236Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 237Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 56

Figure 12: Pre L-85 Order Styling. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Year 1939, Pattern No. 1862. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.124.BWS.

By contrasting design styles and focusing on changes in design aspects and applying Batchelor’s step of analysing design, it is possible to compare Pattern No. 1862 to a later pattern that shows the implication of the L-85 Order on dressmaking patterns stylistic aspects. Pattern No. 1142 (see Figure 13 on the following page), attached to actress Maureen O’Hara of RKO Radio, is from 1943.238 The pattern produces a one-piece dress, with short or long sleeves and a gored (pieced) skirt.239 The skirt on this dress is more slimline and utilitarian than the pre-L-85 Order pattern. Whilst the skirt does contain a slight flare to it, it is smaller than the previous pattern and has no excessive pleating. Pattern No. 1142 achieves this slim silhouette through the use of multiple pattern pieces in the skirt, which is made up of eight pattern pieces.240 However, these pieces unlike

238 Hollywood Pattern Company, Maureen O’Hara, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1142, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.107.BWS, pattern id no. 20717. 239 Hollywood Pattern Company, Maureen O’Hara, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1142, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.107.BWS, pattern id no. 20717. 240 Hollywood Pattern Company, Maureen O’Hara, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1142, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.107.BWS, pattern id no. 20717. 57

the two pattern pieces of Pattern No. 1862, are much thinner pieces requiring little to no pleating or excessive gathering to make241. An additional advantage of having thinner skirt pattern pieces is that they require less fabric and can be cut top to bottom to make the most of the fabric available. The reason they can be cut from top to bottom is because the pattern denotes no fabric nap (one way fabric grain or pattern); meaning fabric pieces can be aligned more economically as orientation is not critical, so less fabric is needed to produce the garment and the pattern pieces and fabric can be used in the most economical way.

Figure 13: Post L-85 Order Styling. Hollywood Pattern Company, One piece dress, Maureen O’Hara, RKO Radio, Year 1941, Pattern No. 1142. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1941.2.JSE

These two individual patterns show the impact of implementation of the L-85 Order on dressmaking patterns. Stylistic changes apparently in response to this general limitation order, resulted in patterns being more economically and fabric conscious, and as a result less fabric was required to produce the stylish looks of the time. It is possible to see through these changes in the silhouette of the garments produced from dressmaking patterns a certain ‘look’ emerging for

241Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 58 women’s fashion during the Second World War. This look appears to have been a slimmer fitting silhouette, with skirts, blouses, jackets, and coats having a more uniform boxy appearance. Thus, as both Mower and Pedersen observe when discussing fabric requisition for military use and the rise in blended fabrics,242 it appears to be a response to fabrics becoming more limited, as reduction of fabric consumption was important. The nap of a fabric refers to its grain or orientation. An example of the implications of nap on a pattern and the difference between cutting pieces in fabric that has a nap and one which does not can be seen in Pattern No. 654 (see Figure 14 over the page), which is linked to Priscilla Lane of Warner Bros Pictures from 1941.243 Here in the fabric requirements for the skirt, there are two listings for 35” inch material, one with a nap and one without.244 The fabric requirements for the 35” inch material with a nap for a size 12 is 3 yards.245 Whereas the fabric requirements for size 12 35” inch fabric without nap is 2 3/8 yards.246 A difference of 5/8 yard less fabric between having and not having napped fabric; using an unnapped fabric would consume approximately 20% less fabric. This relates to issues of restrictions placed on clothing during the Second World War and how stylistic changes were encouraged to restrict the amount of fabric used. The L-85 Order was designed to restrict fabric usage through change in the styles of garments as well as the types of fabrics that could be used, for example discouraging napped fabrics. This was because those who created the L-85 Order knew that this in turn would reduce the amounts of fabrics being used, reducing fabric usage and consumption released more material resources to be diverted for military use.

242 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pgs 45 and 48. 243 Hollywood Pattern Company, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 654, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1941.141.BWS, pattern id no. 20484. 244 Hollywood Pattern Company, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 654, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1941.141.BWS, pattern id no. 20484. 245 Hollywood Pattern Company, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 654, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1941.141.BWS, pattern id no. 20484. 246 Hollywood Pattern Company, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 654, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1941.141.BWS, pattern id no. 20484. 59

Figure 14: Fabric Comparisons With and Without Nap. Hollywood Pattern Company, Waistcoat and Skirt, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Year 1941, Pattern No. 654. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1941.141.BWS.

Another impact of the war was in the direct requisition of fabric for military usage.247 Initially affecting wool and silk, this was later extended to artificial fabrics. The impact of this becomes apparent through studying fabric suggestions on the patterns. From the years 1939 to 1943, pattern envelopes offer fabric suggestions on the back of the envelope (see Figure 15). Sometimes this is for the entire garment and other times, fabrics are suggested by item of clothing. For instance, on Pattern No. 635, Wendy Barrie RKO Radio in 1941, the pattern makes a jacket, slacks, and bra top.248 The fabrics for the jacket and slacks are listed together and the fabric for the bra top is listed separately.249 These fabrics were there to guide the dressmaker in which fabrics would be appropriate for use in producing that particular garment.

Figure 15: Fabric Suggestions. Hollywood Pattern Company, Jacket, Slacks and Bra Top, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Year 1942, Pattern No. 635, Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.254.URI.

247 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pgs 45. 248 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 635, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.254.URI, pattern id no. 55677. 249 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 635, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.254.URI, pattern id no. 55677. 60

Out of the 67 patterns examined in detail, 48 patterns gave fabric suggestions, and 19 patterns had no fabric suggestions. The drop off in fabric recommendations occurred from 1942 onwards, after the outbreak of war between the United States of America and Japan. This can be viewed as the Hollywood Pattern Company responding to anticipated shortages of certain types of fabric and them wishing to give their consumers greater flexibility in the fabrics used in making the garments. Table 2 shows the proportion of patterns giving fabric suggestions by year. Generally, where fabrics were suggested, there would be a reasonable number of fabrics listed using a number of different fibres, for instance silk (for example, Shantung or Taffeta), wool (for example, flannel or gabardine), cotton (for example, seersucker or pique) and rayon (rayon faille), these were the main fibres being used to create fabrics.

Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of patterns 12 11 17 13 12 1 1* 67 Number of patterns 12 11 16 7 1 0 1 48 with fabric suggestions Percentage 100% 100% 94% 58% 8% 0% 100% * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 2 Number of patterns giving fabric suggestions, by year. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

Of the fabric suggestions, across the range, there were 15 types of silk fabric listed and of the 67 patterns, 41 of them list silk fabrics of some kind, with printed silk and silk crepe the most commonly suggested. Indeed, it is possible to see how fabric suggestions were affected during the period, in 1939 of 12 patterns, 11 listed some type of silk fabric. In 1940, 10 out of 11 patterns suggested some type of silk fabric. However, in 1941 this dropped to 12 out 17 patterns suggesting at least one variety of silk fabric, by 1942 this had dropped further to 7 out of 13 patterns, and in 1943 it dropped to no patterns. Some of these changes are as a consequence of recommendations being removed from patterns. Table 3 and Table 4 below, summarise the number of patterns suggesting the use of silk fabrics and the types of silk fabrics suggested. Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of patterns 12 11 17 13 12 1 1* 67 Number of patterns 11 10 12 7 0 0 1 41 suggesting silk fabrics * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 3 Patterns suggesting silk fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix1.

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n

Silk crepe Silk Silk silk Novelty silk Tie Faille Taffeta Velvet Shantung Satin sati Lingerie Chiffon chine de Crepe Moire sheer Heavy Silk type silk Printed Number 36 36 1 4 1 29 30 2 6 13 3 1 3 2 13 Table 4 Silk types suggested (out of 41 patterns suggesting silk). Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

With woollen fabrics, across the patterns there were 14 different types of wool fabrics listed. Of the 67 patterns that list fabric suggestions, 37 patterns contained reference to some type of woollen fabric. Indeed, a similar reduction to silk can be seen across patterns in relation to woollen fabrics, in 1939 10 out of 12 patterns noted some sort of woollen fabric suggestion, and in 1940 it was 10 out 11 patterns that proffered the use of woollen fabric in making these garments. However, by 1942, this had dropped to 6 out 13 patterns recommending some type of woollen fabric and in 1943 no patterns recommended woollen fabrics. This suggests a similar situation to silk fabrics, that due to the US involvement in World War Two woollen supplies were being diverted for military usage and as such civilian consumption of woollen products had to reduce. Indeed, silk and wool were the two fibre and fabric types that Mower and Pedersen noted as being most heavily diverted by the US government for the military, and how alternatives fabrics were encouraged “fabrics made of cotton and rayon worked double duty to cover the deficiencies in wool and silk”.250 The patterns viewed in the light of Mower and Pedersen’s comments demonstrate how wool and silk fabric supplies and hence suggestions of fabrics to be used in making up the patterns were being affected by government fabric redirection as well as supply issues more generally throughout the Second World War. Table 5 and 6 below, summarise the number of patterns suggesting the use of woollen fabrics and the types of woollen fabrics suggested. Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of patterns 12 11 17 13 12 1 1* 67 Number of patterns 10 10 10 6 0 0 1 37 suggesting woollen fabrics * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 5 Patterns suggesting woollen fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

250 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 48. 62

WoolJersey woollen Novelty Woollen Woolgabardine woollen Light Woolchallis wool Sheer woollen Coat Flannel Tweed Gabardine Duveteen Sharkskin Wool type woollen Dress Number 11 4 3 14 2 2 1 1 2 18 3 2 6 1 Table 6 Woollen Types Suggested. (out of 37 patterns suggesting woollen fabrics) Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

A similar effect, albeit slightly lagging, can be identified in relation to cotton and rayon. Across the range of patterns 22 types of cotton fabric are listed. Of the 67 patterns, 47 patterns list some type of cotton fabric. In 1939, 12 patterns out of 12 had some type of cotton suggestion, in 1940s 11 patterns out of 11 had cotton recommendations. For the 1941 patterns, 15 patterns out of 17 recommended some type of cotton fabric, and in 1942 this dropped to 7 out of 13 patterns. Cotton is the only fabric that appears as a suggestion in 1943, this is because on one pattern corduroy is listed under the fabric amounts as a specific suggestion, and corduroy would have been made from cotton at this time. This is the only fabric to be recommended from the 1943 patterns. For rayon, there was a range of 4 specified rayon fabrics, and of the 67 patterns, 44 patterns list some type of rayon fabric. Rayon appears to follow a similar trend as cotton, in 1939, 11 out of 12 patterns contain reference to rayon fabrics of some type, in 1940, 11 out of 11 patterns do so. In 1941 14 patterns out of 17 reference rayon fabrics and in 1942, 7 out of 13 patterns make reference to rayon fabrics. However, as with wool and silk, in 1943, rayon does not appear. Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10 below, summarise the number of patterns suggesting the use of cotton and rayon fabrics and the types of cotton and rayon fabrics suggested. Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of patterns 12 11 17 13 12 1 1* 67 Number of patterns 12 11 15 7 1 0 1 47 suggesting cotton fabrics * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 7 Patterns suggesting cotton fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

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Chambray Seersucker Chintz Flannelette Velveeteen Corduroy voile Cotton Organdy Denim Challis Cotton type cotton Novelty Number 40 8 26 2 2 20 16 3 3 3 8

Batiste (lawn) Batiste Nainsook Voile Jersey Pique lace Cotton Muslin Cretonne swiss Dotted Gingham Cotton type Eyeletbatiste Number 7 2 1 1 2 28 2 6 1 9 35 Table 8 Cotton types suggested (out of 47 patterns suggesting cotton fabrics). Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of patterns 12 11 17 13 12 1 1* 67 Number of patterns 11 11 14 7 0 0 1 44 suggesting rayon fabrics * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 9 Patterns suggesting rayon fabrics. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

Rayon challis Rayon Gabardine Rayon faille Rayon Rayon type Rayon Number 7 2 1 1 Table 10 Rayon types suggested (out of 44 patterns suggesting rayon fabrics). Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

There are several fabrics; voile, jersey, challis, gingham, faille, gabardine, duveteen, satin, lingerie satin, chiffon and heavy sheer, that can be made from a variety of fibres (either silk, cotton, rayon and occasionally wool for duveteen), so unless the patterns specify which fibre they should be constructed from, it is difficult to identify which type is being recommended. Understanding the importance of fabric suggestions and how they contribute to the use of the patterns is part of understanding how the war affected dressmaking patterns.

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However, from March 1942, the L-85 Order was introduced which would have impacted on what fabrics were available (even if this was a slow process). However, as Mower and Pedersen state, from 1943 dressmaking patterns had to conform to the L-85 Order.251 From this year onwards patterns seem to dispense with fabric suggestions, by utilising Batchelor’s fifth step of design analysis, this can be seen in Pattern No. 1211 (see Figure 16 on page over) featuring Betty Rhodes of Paramount and in Pattern No. 1121 (see Figure 17 on page over) featuring Susanna Foster also of Paramount.252 Both the patterns contain the information for the amount of fabric required in making the garments but the not the types of fabric needed. This could indicate that due to the L-85 Order and its presumed effect on fabric availability and restrictions on nonmilitary uses, that the Hollywood Pattern Company chose to remove fabric suggestions in case certain fabrics were not available, transferring the burden of decision on to the sewer. This impact of fabric availability and fabric suggestions must have impacted on sewers’ ability to create the garments; by not providing fabric suggestions for home sewers, creating garments would be more difficult for those with limited garment construction and fabric knowledge. Hence sewers would have needed greater knowledge of sewing techniques as well as how fabrics perform, to identify suitable fabrics. For instance, the Pattern No. 1211 creates a bolero, skirt, and blouse,253 the fabric used to create a bolero would likely be different to that used to create a blouse. The sewer using this pattern would have need to understand this and select fabrics appropriately.

251 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 47. 252 Hollywood Pattern Company, Betty Rhodes, Paramount, Pattern No. 1211, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.114.BWS, pattern id no. 20724; Hollywood Pattern Company, Susanna Foster, Paramount, Pattern No. 1121, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.1.JSE, pattern id no. 1148. 253 Hollywood Pattern Company, Betty Rhodes, Paramount, Pattern No. 1211, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.114.BWS, pattern id no. 20724. 65

Figure 16: The impact of the L-85 Order of Fabric Suggestions and Requirements. Hollywood Pattern Company, Skirt, Blouse and Bolero Simple Sew, Betty Rhodes, Paramount, Year 1943 Pattern No. 1211. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1943.114.BWS.

Figure 17: The Impact of the L-85 Order on Fabric Suggestions and Requirements. Hollywood Pattern Company, Skirt, Blouse and Skirt, Susanna Foster, Paramount, Year 1943 Pattern No. 1121. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1943.1.JSE.

In addition to types of the fabric available, the amounts of fabric available and stylistic restrictions, dressmaking patterns also display an impact in terms of the length of garments being marketed across the period under consideration. This is illustrated through the length of skirts in

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Hollywood Patterns across the period. In 1939, the average skirt length was 28 ½ inches, by 1940 the average skirt length had reduced to 26 ½ inches. Skirt lengths remained at this length for the following two years, when in 1943 skirts lengths underwent another smaller shortening and reduced to 26 ¼ inches. This was followed by a final reduction of an inch, when in 1944 skirt lengths became 25 ¼ inches. This demonstrates that skirt lengths did shorten across the period; 2 ¾ inches does not look like that much overall, however, 2 ¾ inches represents approximately 10% of the total length of the piece, consequently, if these patterns were being followed, this reduction on its own would have represented a 10% reduction in the consumption of fabric in making skirts at home, a not inconsiderable saving. This can be viewed alongside other stylistic changes across the period, suggesting that as stylistic changes were introduced, so skirts became slightly shorter contributing to a reduction in material consumption. Alongside lengths of skirts, the hems of dresses and skirts were also affected throughout the period. Most patterns envelopes of the period are silent on the subject regarding hem allowances, specific detail is usually given in the pattern instructions inside. Blouses and tops often did not give specific hem lengths instructions usually calling for a rolled hem, where minimal fabric is turned up to finish the garment. Long skirts and dresses tended to have narrow hems whilst shorter length include a wider hem, possibly to allow for personal preference in how short or long the garment would be. Of the 67 patterns studied in-depth 53 specify hem allowances. It is important to note that although the L-85 Order did limit hems to 2” inches or less, this technically did not apply to patterns until 1943. So, for the patterns between 1939 and 1942, this explains those occasions on which patterns exceed this limit. However, in other stylistic ways patterns began to comply with the requirements of the L-85 Order prior to 1943. So, for 1939, 11 patterns give hem allowances and 6 exceed the eventual hem restriction imposed by the L-85 Order. There is a similar situation in 1940, 1941 and 1942 with hem allowances, in 1940 of 7 patterns, 6 exceed a 2” inch hem allowance, and in 1941 of 15 patterns, 11 exceed the L-85 Order hem allowance. In 1942, there are 12 patterns, 7 of which exceed the L-85 Order restrictions limiting hems to 2” inches. After 1942 it is possible to identify the impact of the L-85 Order on Hollywood pattern hems. In 1943, 11 patterns give hem allowance, and none of which exceed the 2” inch hem set by the L-85 Order. In 1944, 1 pattern gives the hem allowance, and none of which patterns exceed that allowance. In 1945, 1 pattern gives hem allowance, and 1 pattern exceeds the L-85 Order hem allowance. However, the pattern that exceeds the allowance and has been nominally associated to 1945 by the Commercial Pattern Archive has been examined by the author and is considered to be earlier than 1945 due to various design aspects (to be discussed in depth later). Table 11 over the page details patterns exceeding L-85 hem allowance limits. Across the period, hems tended to be between 2 ½

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inch and 3” inch hems. From 1942 onwards hems are usually 2” inches or less. There is one exception Pattern No. 846 (see Figures 18 and 19), Ellen Drew, Paramount that has a slip dress with a 4” hem, however, this has a decorative element at the bottom of the skirt which requires more depth. Analysis of hem allowances, shows that after 1943 when dressmaking patterns had to conform to the L-85 Order, the requisite 2” hems were adhered to. Demonstrating again the impact that the L-85 Order had on stylistic changes in an effort to reduce fabric consumption, and also how organisations and producers complied in order not to appear unpatriotic and also unstylish. Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of Patterns 11 7 15 12 11 1 1* 53 with hem allowance Number of Patterns 6 6 11 7 0 0 1 31 exceeding L85 limits Percentage exceeding 55% 86% 73% 58% 0% 0% 100% L85 * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 11 Hem allowance exceeding L85 limits. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

Figure 18 : Front Cover Image. Hollywood Figure 19: Hems and Hem allowances. Hollywood Pattern Pattern Company, One piece dress and slip, Company, One piece dress and slip, Ellen Drew, Warner Bros, Ellen Drew, Warner Bros, Year 1942 Pattern Year 1942 Pattern No. 846. Commercial Pattern Archive, No. 846. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive archive no. 1942.3.JSE. no. 1942.3.JSE.

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Other stylistic changes as implemented by the L-85 Order included reducing the sweep (circumference or width) of the garment. 64 patterns out of 67 patterns gave a sweep or trouser width measurement. The L-85 Order did restrict sweep measurements as part of its restrictions (although, once again, this would not have officially applied to patterns until 1943- hence why patterns before this date may be seen flouting this L-85 restriction, at this point it would not have been considered a contentious issue). Mower and Pedersen include a second set of illustrations from the Women’s Wear Daily Magazine in March 1942 (see Figure 20 below) that illustrate the reduction in sweep allowances resulting from the L-85 Order that applied to ready to wear apparel.254

Figure 20: “Authorized Measurements for Daytime Dress.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942, “Authorized Measurements for Evening Dress.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 41.

The L-85 Order provisions in force at the time of this illustration limited the sweep of a garment based on when the garment was meant to be worn and what fabric it was produced from. For instance, daytime dresses and skirts should have a maximum sweep of 78” (2 1/9 yards) or less, for all fabrics other than wool. For daytime dresses and skirts made from wool should have a maximum swing of 72” (2 yards) or less. For Evening wear dresses and skirts should have a maximum swing of 144” (4 yards) or less. Based on this description, in 1939 of 12 patterns detailing sweep amounts, 6 patterns exceed the L-85 recommendations, in 1940 of 10 patterns with sweep

254 “Authorized Measurements for Daytime Dress.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942, “Authorized Measurements for Evening Dress.” Women’s Wear Daily, April 8, 1942 in Mower and Pedersen 2013, pg 41. 69

amounts, 9 patterns exceeded the L-85 recommendations. In 1941 of 15 pattern with sweep amounts, 11 patterns exceeded the L-85 recommendations. This continues in a similar manner for patterns and sweep amounts in 1942. However, in 1943 12 patterns detail sweep amounts, and only 2 patterns exceed it. In 1944 1 pattern has a sweep amount which does not exceed the L-85 Order. The pattern for 1945 is a similar case as described above in relation to hem lengths, as it details the sweep amount, and it exceeds the L-85 Order. However, the author believes that this pattern has been incorrectly dated, analysing its design by utilising Batchelor’s fifth step. As such the sweep infringements would make sense if this dating inconsistency is correct. Table 12 below details patterns exceeding L-85 sweep allowance limits.

Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Number of Patterns 12 10 15 13 12 1 1* 64 with swing or width measurement Number of Patterns 6 9 11 8 2 0 1 37 exceeding L85 limits Percentage exceeding 50% 90% 73% 61% 17% 0% 100% L85 * Incorrectly attributed in author’s opinion. Table 12 Swing or width exceeding L85 limits. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

The patterns under consideration as part of this study also refer to items that are called findings, a North American term, referring to small items required to construct and finish a garment. As such they include items such as thread, trimmings, alongside fastening options. Of the 67 patterns examined in depth, evidence suggests that findings only began to appear on pattern envelop flaps form 1941 onwards. Of these 67 patterns, 21 patterns had a flap with no findings and 33 patterns had a flap with findings; there were a further 13 patterns where the finding flap was missing or unavailable for examination. Before 1941 the need for or appropriateness of findings appears to have been included, where necessary, within the instructions of the patterns rather than on the flap. There are three patterns from 1941 that appear not to have findings on the envelope flap, only one is linked directly to a film from 1941. It is possible that these patterns were incorrectly dated or that the inclusion of the findings on the pattern envelope flap was introduced part way through 1941, such that some 1941 patterns would have findings and some not. Table 13 over details patterns’ findings as listed on envelope flap or instructions.

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Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total No findings on 11 6 1 0 2 0 1 21 envelope flap Findings listed on 1 1 12 9 9 1 0 33 the envelope flap Findings flap 1 3 4 4 1 0 0 13 missing or unavailable to examine* Total number of 13 10 17 13 12 1 1 67 patterns *Envelope flaps are quite easily damaged, so in some cases the flap was missing. In some scans/photos the information on the envelope flap was not available. Table 13 Findings. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

As stated in the previous paragraph, findings lists often contain reference to the types of fastenings for dresses, skirts, jackets, coats and trousers. Fastener types at the time included buttons, snap fasteners (press studs), hooks and eyes and slide fasteners (zip fasteners or zips in the modern parlance), as well as ribbon ties. Some of these fastenings, particularly buttons can be determined from pattern design analysis of the illustrations on the envelope front. Where the patterns listed findings, the number of buttons would be listed, and snap fasteners and hooks and eyes would be listed but without reference to how many would be needed. Slide fasteners were generally not mentioned in the findings list, some patterns occasionally include them underneath the fabric requirements section (here the length of the slide fastener was generally listed). However, often there was no indication of the need for a slide fastener until the pattern instructions were examined and read. Examination of the patterns’ instructions and findings flap suggests that it was not common practice to insert slide fasteners in homemade garments. This may have been for a number of reasons; that they were costly, they were relatively hard to obtain, they were a relatively new commodity (slide fasteners had been around for a number of years since the late nineteenth century, but the style that eventually became known as the zip and which is here referred to as a slide fastener, seems to have appeared around the late 1910s), and probably the most common, that sewers lacked the experience of inserting them continuing to favour the traditional use of snap fasteners.255 Of the 67 patterns examined, 6 patterns instruct sewers to use snap fasteners and hooks and eyes to fasten the garment and then gives a slide fastener as an option but refers sewers to the instructions which come with the fastener. 27 patterns require no slide fastener, other fastening options are given instead. 33 patterns specify slide fasteners, 15 of which provide instructions for inserting the fastener and indicate the size of slide

255 Petroski, 1994, pgs 98, 108, 109. 71

fastener required. 1 pattern had no information to determine whether a slide fastener could or would be used. Having considered this, the use of slide fasteners appears to increase over the period, in 1939 10 patterns did not use a slide fastener, 1 was unknown and 1 offered a slide fastener as an option. By 1943, 4 patterns did not use a slide fastener, 6 patterns did use a slide fastener and 2 patterns offered slide fastener as an option. Alongside slide fasteners, more traditional methods of fasteners were more often employed by the patterns. These were buttons, snap fasteners and hooks and eyes. These types of fasteners were readily used, cheap and could be reused from unwanted or worn-out clothing items. Of the 67 patterns examined, only 9 patterns do not require buttons. Snap fasters and hook eyes would be used to fasten a side seam in a dress or skirt, or a slide fastener might be used instead for this purpose. However, even with the use of slide fasteners, a hook and eye would usually still be used at the top of the slide fastener for added security and strength. Snap fasteners would generally be used on sleeve cuffs or collars in place of buttons. The importance of findings and fastenings in the constructions of garments is that without them, the physical process of construction becomes almost impossible. As Mower and Pedersen demonstrate, zippers were reused within the manufacturing industry for ready to wear as technically new zippers were restricted for military use,256 so it can be assumed that home sewers also reused slide fasteners and other findings, as these would have been more readily available than new (by doing this it reduced wastage, as certain findings such as fabric covered buttons were forbidden).257 Indeed Mower and Pedersen, indicate that the materials some fastenings were made of during the war widened, “Wood was also an alternative material used for shoes, belt buckles, and buttons”.258 Robert Friedel also indicates that the materials and sizes of slide fasteners began to be experimented with during the war years “Lighter and shorter zippers were made in order to stretch available metal supplies.”259 This like the construction of buttons from wood, at least in the ready to wear industry, indicates that the diversion of materials for military purposes was affecting all aspects of garment construction. As such ways of overcoming this had to be invented, be that experimenting with alternative materials, or reusing old findings. This is of particular relevance to home sewing, where there was a presence of reuse (as exemplified in “make do and mend”), particularly on components that were easily changed or removed such as findings, but from the evidence of Friedel and Mower and Pedersen, during the Second World War this took on a new importance in the face of restrictions, stylistic changes and the need to conserve fabrics and materials for military use.

256 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 45. 257 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 46. 258 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 45. 259 Fridel, 1994, pg 200. 72

The impact of the war on the Hollywood Pattern Company and its pattern products can also be seen through their branding. The branding on the patterns is a key design feature, by using Batchelor fifth step of design it is possible to see how pattern branding changed over the years and the impact this had on the Hollywood Pattern Company and potentially the emulation, desire and fantasy created and experienced by the sewers. In the years 1939 and 1940, the colour stripe down the side of Hollywood patterns has the tag line “Hollywood ****PATTERNS OF YOUTH” on it” (see Figure 21).260 However, at some point in 1940, the Hollywood Pattern Company began to move away from this particular branding, instead choosing to brand the patterns “Hollywood Pattern(s)”. Whilst the reason for this is unclear, it could be because there might have been a move at either the studios or the Hollywood Pattern Company, to appeal to perhaps a wider audience than the ‘PATTERNS OF YOUTH’ branding allowed.

Figure 21: Pattern Branding. Hollywood Pattern Company, Lucille Ball, RKO Radio, Year 1939, One piece dress and bolero, Pattern No. 1773. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.98.BWS.

The ways in which the Second World War impacted on the Hollywood Pattern Company were complex and widespread. It impacted the style of the garments that were allowed to be produced

260 Hollywood Pattern Company, Lucille Ball, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1773, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.98.BWS, pattern id no. 19999. 73

under the L-85 Order; while not applying directly to patterns until 1943, studying the patterns shows more utilitarian styles were beginning to appear in Hollywood patterns before this date, perhaps out of a wish to conform to wider stylistic changes, as Mower and Pedersen indicate, wearing styles that did not conform to L-85 Order was seen as wasteful, unfashionable and unpatriotic.261 The war also impacted on fabrics available in both fabric amounts and type, as well as through the post 1943 absence of fabric suggestions- presumably due to the fact that patterns were now subject to the L-85 Order and fabrics were beginning to be requisitioned for military use- reducing availability for home sewing. These changes may have limited those who could use these sewing patterns post 1943, as they might not be so accessible to those with limited technical skills and knowledge. The war might also be a driver of the change in branding on the Hollywood pattern’s, with the company perhaps targeting a wider age audience as opposed to restricting themselves to the more youthful market.

Patterns and Films- The changing relationship:

What changes in the relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and the Hollywood studios can be detected by an examination of the patterns of the Hollywood Pattern Company during the period 1939-1945?

In examining and extracting the information the patterns contain, it is important to examine them not only relation to their relevance for the impact of the war on dressmaking, as well as emulation and desire but also to examine them in relation to the Hollywood actresses and studios (and for some, the films) they were attached to. Considering how the relationship between the studios and actresses represented on Hollywood patterns changed over time, will help contribute to the analysis of the subsequent questions concerning emulation and desire. In these reflections, it is important to establish which studios were choosing to align and promote their stars through Hollywood Patterns. Across the 226 patterns examined, 7 studios were identified. These were, RKO Radio, Warner Brothers, Columbia, Universal, Paramount, 20th Century Fox and Independent. Of these 7 studios, some were identified as having taken advantage of aligning with Hollywood more than others, for instance the studios with the most patterns were RKO Radio (with 73 patterns), Warner Brothers (with 73 patterns) and Paramount (with 49 patterns). These 3 studios represent 3 of the “Big Five” Hollywood Studios. The other studios making up the remainder of the total patterns, (with 20th Century Fox having 13 patterns, Columbia 9 patterns, Universal 5 patterns and Independent studios and producers 4 patterns) had much lower

261 Mower and Pedersen, 2013, pg 40. 74 numbers compared to the major three contributors). However, the only major Hollywood studio not represented in the Hollywood Pattern Company offering was Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. It is interesting to note these differences in pattern amounts by studios, whilst it is not certain why this is the case, there are several hypotheses that could explain this situation. Firstly, it could be that RKO Radio, Warner Brothers and Paramount had signed contracts with the Hollywood Pattern Company that meant more patterns were produced linked to their studio and stars. Secondly, it could be that the patterns by the other studios have been more susceptible to loss, damage, or destruction and as such have not survived to be archived. Thirdly it could be that these patterns are held in private collections, and hence are not known about and so cannot be archived or researched (this also applies to other Hollywood patterns across its production life, those not held in official archives may simply no longer exist or are held in private collections). See Table 14 below which details number of patterns associated by studio.

Number of Film Studio Patterns Warner Bros 73 RKO Radio 73 Paramount 49 20th Century Fox 13 Columbia 9 Universal 5 Independents 4 Table 14 Number of associated patterns by Film Studio. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

Alongside the number of patterns by studio and the potential reasons for it, it is also interesting to note the years in which the greatest number patterns appear to have been produced. It appears that the most productive years for collaboration between the Hollywood Studios and the Hollywood Pattern Company, were 1939, 1940 and 1941. Of the patterns examined 1939 had 52 from the COPA archive (out of a total 70 available for the Hollywood Pattern Company). 1940 had 42 patterns with stars from the COPA Archive (with the total Hollywood Patterns in COPA for that year reaching 76 patterns). Similarly, 1941 has 40 patterns from COPA which have stars (with the total COPA patterns for 1941 being 67 patterns). These three years seem to be those where the associations and links between the Hollywood Studios and Hollywood Patterns was still beneficial and the appeal to the public was still strong. It is important to note that this changed throughout the period under consideration, with 1942 having 29 patterns with stars from the COPA Archive (out of 82 Hollywood patterns), 1943 had 25 patterns with stars from the COPA Archive (with a total of 86 Hollywood pattern in the COPA archive) 1944 had 4 patterns with stars 75

(out of 103 Hollywood Patterns) and 1945 had 3 patterns with stars (out of 103 patterns held by COPA). Table 15 below details number of patterns by year featuring stars.

Year 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Total Total HPC Patterns on COPA 70 76 67 82 86 103 103 587 COPA Patterns with stars 52 42 40 29 25 4 3 195 Other Patterns with stars* 2 3 11 7 7 1 0 31 Total patterns with stars examined 54 45 51 36 32 5 3 226 * Patterns held by the author or identified on the internet. Table 15 Number of Patterns associated with Stars by Year. Hollywood Pattern Company, COPA Archive, author’s own collection, see Appendix 1.

In identifying the number of patterns that the archive held from the period that had stars, which total 195 and how they break down by year, it is also important to consider how these patterns can be divided up with regard to which actress they represent. This can demonstrate ideas surrounding popularity of actresses and studios and indicate which were the most popular and hence the most likely to be the subject of fan emulation. The total number of actresses represented on Hollywood patterns is 58. Notably only 6 actresses appear on patterns more than 10 times. The most popular actress based on the sampled patterns was Betty Grable with 21 patterns, followed by Olivia De Havilland with 14 patterns, Ellen Drew, and Priscilla Lane with 12 patterns each, as well as Ann Shirley and Jane Wyman with 11 patterns each. Most of the actresses that follow can be grouped based on the number of patterns they have; 1 actress has 9 patterns, 1 actress has 6 patterns, there are 4 actresses with 7 patterns each, 2 actresses with 5 patterns, 5 actresses with 4 patterns each, 11 actresses with 3 patterns each, another 11 actresses with 2 patterns. 17 actresses had 1 pattern each. Whilst Betty Grable and Olivia De Havilland were highly popular actresses, which explains why there are more patterns attached to their name, there are other highly popular actresses such as Lucille Ball (7 patterns) and Maureen O’Hara (5 patterns) who have fewer patterns attached to them. This could be because Lucille Ball and Maureen O Hara’s patterns, given the huge popularity of these actresses, were and remain highly collectable items, particularly if they are attached to both actress and film. In this case it is impossible to know if many of these patterns were destroyed or damaged through popular usage, or reside in private collections, which this author has not had access to. The large number of patterns attached to actresses such as Betty Grable, demonstrates the ongoing popularity of the Hollywood patterns and the potential and reality for emulation, and creation of fantasies was popular amongst home sewers. See Appendix 3. As stated the years 1944 and 1945 represent an increase in the number of patterns produced by the company. However, they also represent a reduction in the number of patterns associated with

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Hollywood studios and stars. For 1944 the COPA archive held 103 patterns, with 4 patterns being attributed to studios and stars. Similarly in 1945, the COPA archive had 103 patterns with 3 patterns attributed to stars. This shows that despite increasing pattern production by the Hollywood Pattern Company the direct relationship between the pattern company and the studios was weakening. This change is reflected in the branding of the Hollywood Patterns. Utilising Batchelor’s fifth step of design analysis it is possible to note changes in branding in the last few years of the period under consideration. In 1944 and 1945 there appears to be a shift, from Hollywood pattern branding featuring actresses, studios, and coloured stripes on the front pattern envelope, to patterns that featured coloured stars in the top left had corner and no featured actresses (See Figures 22 and 23 below).262 At the same time Hollywood patterns also began to feature patterns with “Hollywood patterns” written in black calligraphy in the top left hand corner, again these did not feature Hollywood actresses and notably sold for 25 cents rather than the 15 cents that Hollywood Patterns had sold for previously.263

Figure 22: Pattern Branding Changes 1944. Hollywood Figure 23: Pattern Branding Changes 1945. Hollywood Pattern Company, Hollywood Pattern, Year 1944, Red Star Pattern Company, Hollywood Pattern, Year 1945, Black Branding, Pattern No. 1345. Commercial Pattern Archive, Calligraphy Branding, Pattern No. 1583. Commercial Pattern archive no. 1944.93.KLS. Archive, archive no. 1945.72.KLS.

262Hollywood Pattern Company, Pattern No. 1345, Year 1944, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1944.93.KLS, pattern id no. 9467. 263 Hollywood Pattern Company, Pattern No. 1583, Year 1945, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1945.72.KLS, pattern id no. 9512. 77

Indeed, Batchelo’rs fifth step of design analysis in relation to the branding of patterns can be used as a way of dating the patterns. As previously stated in 1939 and 1940, Hollywood patterns used ‘Hollywood **** PATTERNS OF YOUTH’ as its branding, as also stated above, in 1944 and 1945 Hollywood patterns moved to a different branding that did not feature actresses but instead featured coloured stars or calligraphy writing. When looking at the 3 featured actress patterns on the COPA archive from 1945, it is possible to see that they feature ‘Hollywood **** PATTERNS OF YOUTH’ branding, as exemplified by Pattern No. 1753 (see Figure 24) that featured Ann Miller of RKO Radio. Given that this author has identified that this form of branding ended in 1939, it is unlikely that Pattern No. 1753 is indeed a pattern from 1945.264 It is possible the dating is based on pattern numbers, since other patterns that were produced in 1945 are also numbered around the 1700s. But there are patterns in the COPA archive from 1939 that have pattern numbers in the 1700s. In consequence, this author thinks that this pattern (and the other 2 found on the online COPA archive also associated with 1945, are from an earlier year, possibly 1939. This change in branding of Hollywood patterns has an extended impact on the emulation and fantasies created and experienced by home dressmakers at the time (discussed in greater detail later).

Figure 24: Incorrectly dated Pattern. Hollywood Pattern Company, Ann Miller, RKO Radio, Petticoat or Slip, Year 1945, Pattern No. 1753. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1945.37.JSE.

264 Hollywood Pattern Company, Ann Miller, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1753, Year 1945, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1945.37.JSE, pattern id no. 6710. 78

Whilst the reasons for the disappearance of the connection between the Hollywood Studios and Hollywood patterns -associated with a change in branding is unclear, there could be various reasons for it. Firstly, that either side began to find it unprofitable (or not as profitable as it had once been), if this was the case it is unclear which party came to this view. Secondly, it could be the war meant there was a need to change strategy and branding, thereby seeing a drop in associations with Hollywood actresses. What this will have meant is that the ability of the sewers to emulate Hollywood and creating starlet driven fantasies and desire through homemade clothing would have been affected and reduced. If there were fewer or no patterns featuring Hollywood stars, then the ability to copy their fashion through patterns as such begins to disappear. In noting these branding changes and the changes in number of patterns referencing actresses, it is important to consider the presence of foreign and American actresses represented in Hollywood Patterns. Whilst it appears that most of the actresses from the sample patterns were American, there were some foreign (and foreign-born actresses) who are notable amongst the sample. It is important to understand that some foreign actresses were able to make a career in Hollywood, while others had their careers disrupted by the Second World War. Two notable actresses who maintained their careers in Hollywood, were Brenda Marshall and Merle Oberon. Brenda Marshall (born Ardis Ankerson in the Philippines)265 had 7 patterns of the 226 patterns identified, all of which were attributed to particular films. For instance, Pattern No. 658, is tagged, “Brenda Marshall Warner Bros. Pictures, Singapore Woman” in 1941.266 (See Figure 25 over). The pattern produces a piece dress and jacket.267 Her presence alongside that of fellow actress Merle Oberon (pattern No 1167 from 1943) and sustained presence in Hollywood (alongside many others including Marlene Dietrich, Greta Garbo, and Ingrid Bergman) indicates the many actresses stayed throughout the war in Hollywood to continue their careers.

265 Capua, 2010, pg 29. 266 Hollywood Pattern Company, Brenda Marshall, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 658, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 267 Hollywood Pattern Company, Brenda Marshall, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 658, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 79

Figure 25: Foreign Hollywood Actresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Brenda Marshall, Warner Bros, One piece dress and jacket, Year 1941, Pattern No. 658, held in authors possession.

However, there are two patterns from the sample that indicate that for some actresses the war did impact on their career in Hollywood and thus presence in the Hollywood Pattern Company record. The French actress Danielle Darrieux, represented by 2 patterns in the sample, is a notable example of an actress whose Hollywood career was affected by the war. The Pattern No. 1906 (see Figure 26 over) is one of these patterns and is attributed to the year 1939.268 Darrieux signed a contract with Universal studios for seven years in January 1937 (two sources state different lengths of contract- one states 5 years and the other states 7).269270 But she did not start production on any films for Universal until 1938.271 However, as part of her contract she reserved the right to come

268 Hollywood Pattern Company, Danielle Darrieux, Universal Player, Pattern No. 1906, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.129.BWS, pattern id no. 20028. 269 Grandena, 2005, pg 349. 270 Sellier, 2002, pg 202. 271 Sellier, 2002, pg 202. 80 back to France to make two films a year (at this point she was working with her husband Decoin, who appears to have been directing her in many French films at the time).272

Figure 26: Foreign Hollywood Actresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Danielle Darrieux, Universal, Year 1939, Coat, Pattern No. 1906. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.129.BWS. In March 1938 she began work on the Rage of Paris with Douglas Fairbanks Jr; whilst Marshal and Johnston, maintain that this was the start of her film career in Hollywood, she only ever produced 1 film in America, which was the 1938 universal film The Rage of Paris.273 She returned to France in May 1938, with the Rage of Paris being released in June 1938- she was awarded best actress at Venice Film festival. In January 1939 she refused to return to Hollywood, by March 1939 Darrieux announced that she was leaving for USA- to stay for two years and make 4 films.274 however she would be completing a film in France first- however the war interrupted this, and the French film was not completed until 1940.275 Whilst the disruption of Darrieux’s career in the USA

272 Sellier, 2002, pg 202. 273 Sellier, 2002, pg 203. 274 Sellier, 2002, pg 203. 275 Sellier, 2002, pg 203. 81

was a combination of her own dislike of Hollywood and the disruption the War in Europe caused in allowing her back to the USA to fulfil her contract (whether she ever intended to actually return could be debated). She demonstrates the disruption that war could cause to the careers of Hollywood stars (other notable examples David Niven who joined the British army but did return to Hollywood Post War to resume his career)276 preventing them from fulfilling contracts due to trouble with travel arrangements, ability to film (due to prior arrangements) and creating issues in filming schedules. Another actress whose career in Hollywood suffered was that of Hungarian Jewish actress Franciska Gaal. Gaal had three patterns linked to her and her controlling studio, Paramount, all dated to 1939. A pattern attached to her is that of “Pattern No. 1774 Franciska Gaal, Paramount”.277 (see Figure 27 on next page). Gaal had starred in several films for Paramount on the outbreak of the Second World War. However, when by 1940, the world began to see the situation in Europe was becoming worse, Gaal returned to her family in Hungary.278 She survived the War, but never acted in Hollywood again.

276 David Niven 1910-1983, BFI Screen online, BFI Screenonline: Niven, David (1910-1983) Biography, date accessed 08 May 2021. 277 Hollywood Pattern Company, Franciska Gaal, Paramount, Pattern No. 1774, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.103.URI, pattern id no. 51788. 278 Slide and Waldman, 1996, pg 114. 82

Figure 27: Foreign Hollywood Actresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Franciska Gaal, Paramount, One piece frock, Year 1939, Pattern No. 1774. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1939.103.URI.

Both these actresses appear to have only had a few patterns created for them by the Hollywood Pattern Company and are linked to their studios rather than a specific film. They were not particularly popular actresses in America, so it is unclear why they were selected to appear on Hollywood patterns. However, they go some way to demonstrating the presence of foreign actresses in Hollywood during the late 1930s as well as the impact that the war had on careers and more broadly some of the impact of the War on Hollywood and the global film industry. This demonstrates the difficulty the American industry had with keeping European stars to their contracts and making films around the time the war broke out in Europe, with some selecting to go home and support their countries and families (as with Howard and Gaal) or to return and make films in their own countries (as with Darrieux.) The section has aimed to demonstrate the changing relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and the Hollywood Studios. Through studying pattern branding, studio pattern numbers and patterns by actress, it is possible to determine how the nature of the relationship evolved over

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the period 1939 and 1945. With pattern branding, it is possible to determine that the patterns featuring Hollywood actresses appear to reduce dramatically during 1944 and have disappeared completely by 1945. The same can be demonstrated by analysing patterns by studio and year, which demonstrates again a definite drop and disappearance of actress branded patterns in 1944 and 1945. Whilst the reasons for this are as previously stated unknown, it can be assumed that for either of the parties involved, the relationship was no longer beneficial and was terminated. This has a definitive knock-on effect for the ability of sewers to achieve emulation, to be examined in depth further in the next section. The number of patterns by actress also indicates and furthers an understanding of how the relationship changed, as it appears that specific actresses were more popular than others, it raises questions over what drove the appearance of specific actresses, because certain studios appear to have been more involved with the Hollywood Pattern Company and thus their stars may have appeared more often, again a decrease in general pattern over time, affects the ability of emulation.

Shattering the dream:

How did the war time change in fabric restrictions and clothing styles, alongside branding, studio and actress representation throughout the Second World War affect the construction and continuation of emulation, fantasy driven desires, imagined community, and escapism between the actresses and the audiences?

This section builds on the evidence presented in answering questions one and two (question 3 fits inside questions one and two in terms of aspect and evidence, with each subsequent question increasing in detail and relating the evidence back to the theories of Chapter 1). This section considers the effect these events and changes had on women’s emulation, creation and experience of Hollywood driven fantasy desires and the sense of imagined community and connection between the actresses on the patterns and their audience. Fabric availability and changes to clothing style directly affected the patterns. As with question one, the changes of fashion clothing due to the L-85 Order, as presented by Mower and Pedersen’s illustrations from Women’s Wear Daily directly affected both ready to wear clothing and dressmaking patterns. The adoption of these aspects of the L-85 Order, such as changes in sleeve styles, reduction in patch pockets and reduction in pleating on skirts are reflected in the patterns sampled. By utilising Batchelor’s fifth step of design analysis and implementing it in examining style changes on Hollywood pattern throughout the period, interesting comparisons can be noted. Besides the patterns mentioned earlier, some of these aspects are reflected in other patterns

84 examined, a particularly good contrast to the Joan Fontaine Pattern No. 1862,279 (see Figure 12 previous) with its tailored jacket and heavily pleated skirt is shown in Pattern No. 1024 Shirley Patterson of Columbia Pictures from 1942 (the year that the L-85 was introduced but before patterns were required to comply ).280 Both patterns are designed to produce two piece suits, however their styles are drastically different, reflecting L-85 Order. Whilst Pattern No. 1862 features aspects of style that were popular in the late 1930s before the L-85, featuring a tailored, darted jacket and all-round pleating skirt- both of which required knowledge and greater fabric consumption.281 Pattern No. 1024 (see Figure 28 on next page) makes the same type of garment (two-piece suit), but the style is different. The design no longer features heavy tailoring in the jacket, which features a ‘boxier’ shape with squarer shoulders and less tailoring throughout the piece282 (no noticeable darts on the front of the jacket- which would create a tailored form fitting shape as with Pattern No. 1862). Similarly the skirt presents similar changes, the heavy all over pleating present in the Joan Fontaine pattern is replaced by a skirt that is made up of 4 pattern pieces that are slimmer and produce a slimmer skirt, there is much less pleating on the skirt, with it only featuring an inverted pleated at the skirt centre front.283 These changes in style meant that less fabric would be needed in constructing pattern no, 1024 as the lack of heavy pleating and tailoring features required less fabric to produce.

279 Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercia Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 280 Hollywood Pattern Company, Shirley Patterson, Columbia Pictures, Pattern No. 1024, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.138.BWS., pattern id no. 14434. 281 Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023. 282 Hollywood Pattern Company, Shirley Patterson, Columbia Pictures, Pattern No. 1024, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.138.BWS., pattern id no. 14434. 283 Hollywood Pattern Company, Shirley Patterson, Columbia Pictures, Pattern No. 1024, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.138.BWS., pattern id no. 14434. 85

Figure 28: L-85 Order Style Changes. Hollywood Pattern Company, Shirley Patterson, Columbia Pictures, Two Piece Suit, Year 1942, Pattern No. 1024. Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1942.138.BWS.

In examining these two patterns one can also see the changes in fabric requirements over the period. However, there are several aspects to consider when comparing fabric requirements. This is because comparing one pattern to another in terms of fabric requirements is complex with many factors to account for. These are the length of fabric needed; the width of fabric needed; whether the fabric needed included an allowance for nap (where all the pattern pieces need to be cut orientated in the same direction); the style of the item to be made, designs that have lots of pleats, gathers or flare will take more fabric than ones which are slim fitting. The Pattern Nos 1862 and 1024 illustrate this well. As Pattern No. 1862 features an all over heavily pleated skirt it would be assumed to take a lot of fabric, with a 54” inch fabric, the square yardage for the fabric of the skirt is 4.313 square yards. This is in comparison for the requirements for the skirt for pattern no 1024 which in a 54” inch fabric requires 2.063 square yards. This means due to the L-85 Order by restricting garment design, they could reduce fabric consumption by roughly 2.25 square yards (or more than 50%), this would have been enough to produce a blouse in 1943- Pattern No. 1121 indicates that blouse view 1 required 1.337 square yards to produce. This demonstrates the impact

86 that the L-85 Order and fabric restrictions were having on dressmaking patterns, there was a reduction in the amount of fabric required to produce garments, and in some cases, as in the one above, the amount of reduction was highly significant in terms of its yardage. The comparison between these two pieces represents the changes in fashion styles that the L- 85 Order caused and also serves to demonstrate that pattern companies were beginning to conform to L-85 Order before 1943. A particular result or impact of this control over stylistic features as a way of reducing fabric consumption, is that it meant that choice in terms of how women chose to dress themselves in a stylistic way changed- they had less choice over what was fashionable but also the features their clothing contained. This meant that many garments (this is represented in the patterns) often became remarkably similar. This change in choice meant that women’s ability to emulate changed slightly, as less choice in style means that women would look more uniform than previously, as a result there could have been less individual expression. However, as stated in Chapter 2, Hollywood was also made subject to the L-85 Order and the costuming department made great efforts to conform to the new restrictions, which the Hollywood studios promoted. Indeed, Gustafson indicates this in the work of Edith Head from Paramount, “Head’s fashions from 1940 to 1946 were patriotically within the government regulations”.284 As Bellew Hannon also demonstrates, the impact of the L-85 Order on Hollywood film costumes and other Hollywood Studios, when considering the promotion by Warner Bros of Orry Kelly’s designs in Casablanca, she refers to the studio “focusing on the changes he made for the sake of the War effort”285 as well as announcing at Casablanca’s premier that “the costumes were entirely L-85 compliant”.286 Hollywood had to conform to the L-85 Order but also it was in their interest to be seen as conforming and to be as visibly patriotic as possible, particularly given that at the time fashions that did not comply to the L-85 Order were seen as unpatriotic.287 Consequently because Hollywood was also reflecting the style changes imposed by the US government, the Hollywood patterns also reflected this style change, and hence continued to be vehicles for emulation amongst the home sewers of America as these styles were seen on Hollywood stars and in the patterns thus meaning that a recreation of this was possible, so further and continuing the emulation. Changes in the branding and associations between the Hollywood Pattern Company, and specific Hollywood starlets can be viewed as supporting Veblen, Benjamin, and Campbell’s assertions regarding the link between emulation, fantasy, and aspirations. In the sense that in the later years of the Second World War, patterns in the COPA archive demonstrate a significant drop

284 Gustafson, 1982, pg 12. 285 Bellew Hannon, 2012, pg 102. 286 Bellew Hannon, 2012, pg 104. 287 Mower and Pedersen, pg 40. 87

in the number of Hollywood company patterns that have specific actresses appearing on the outer covers; indeed, as described earlier, patterns contained in the COPA archive do not have any patterns featuring actresses that can be definitely attached to 1945. Inverting the theoretical construction of Veblen, Benjamin, and Campbell, it is possible to see that, following the introduction of the L-85 Order and Hollywood’s conscientious compliance with its provisions, films and associated actresses no longer offered the same level of aura, fantasy and aspiration to a higher or better way of living. Even those cinema fans who sought to emulate the dress of Hollywood actresses were in fact emulating more mundane fashion styles as dictated by the restrictions of the L-85 Order. The fantasy elements so prevalent in Hollywood films of the 1930s and early 1940s were no longer present. As a result, the emulation lost the fantasy and aspirational element that had previously drive consumption of Hollywood patterns. The link between Hollywood, actress, pattern, and sewer was broken. It is not surprising therefore that post L-85 Order, actress branded patterns quickly disappear from the COPA archive and by 1947 Condé Nast, the parent company of the Hollywood Pattern Company had taken what one can only assume was a hard-headed commercial decision to close the Hollywood Pattern Company. Alongside the stylistic changes, the changes in fabric availability because of the L-85 Order’s purpose of diverting material resources for military use without causing public panic, again had an impact on women’s ability to emulate.288 As Mower and Pedersen articulate silk was substituted for rayon,289 but that women overcame these shortages by cutting up old garments and other fabric items to produce outfits- most notably the two-tone dress- a dress made up of two different fabrics.290 This style of garment was a way of using up smaller pieces of fabric that normally would not be enough to create one whole garment. The Hollywood Pattern Company again reflects this stylistic aspect as a means of reducing fabric consumption in Pattern No. 873 (Wendy Barrie RKO Radio), which is a one-piece dress from 1942.291 This dress can be made with contrasting revers- revers that are made in a different fabric to the rest of the garment.292 In Pattern No. 873 (see Figure 29 on next page) there are 4 views of dress given, one which is entirely one tone, one which as has different coloured revers (collar) on the dress, one which has a different coloured bodice (this is the two-tone element of the outfit)

288 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 45. 289 Mower and Pedersen, 2018, pg 48. 290 Maginnis, 1992, pg 65. 291 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 292 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 88 and a fourth view that does not appear to have revers at all293. In comparing the one tone dress with the two-tone dress (that with the different coloured bodice) the fabric amounts are interesting (see Figure 30 on next page). In the one tone dress for a size twelve in 39” material it takes three yards of fabric to produce.294 In the two-tone version the dress is cut in a 35” material (meaning that the fabric width is shorter- so technically requires more fabric): the main skirt and sleeves requires 2 3/8 yard of fabric, whilst the bodice section requires 1 1/8 yards of 35” fabric.295 The total fabric requirement for a two-tone dress is 3 ½ yards of fabric.296 However, the fabric width is slightly shorter, so this is one aspect for that accounts for there being more fabric. Additionally, the two-tone view of the dress could be read in two ways. Making a dress in two fabrics could be seen as extravagant if you were buying the fabric off the bolt as new fabric. However, if you were using what fabric you already had at home, it would be a way of making do and mending and helping the war effort by reducing fabric consumption.

Figure 29: Two-tone Dresses. Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, One piece dress, front envelope, Year 1942, Pattern No. 873, held in authors possession.

293 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 294 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 295 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 296 Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. 89

Figure 30: Two-tone Dresses and Fabric Consumption. Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, One piece dress, Year 1942, Pattern No. 873, held in authors possession.

Another point on fabric changes in the war and impact on emulation was that the patterns post 1942 do not contain fabric references as stated early. This could have impacted on women as it required them to have more knowledge of the way fabrics performed and their suitability for various garments. This could have affected emulation in the sense that this change in pattern envelope design required sewers to have this fabric knowledge, restricting the people choosing to make and emulate these actresses- only more experienced sewers (those who had the benefit of knowledge and understanding of garment construction and fabrics) were now able to create these garments. In this sense the change in including fabric suggestions may have restricted who the patterns could be used by. In examining the connection between Hollywood studios and stars with the Hollywood Pattern Company there is an important point mentioned earlier that would have undoubtably affected the ability of emulation, fantasy driven desires and imagined community. This is the change in change in pattern design, with a move away from featuring Hollywood actresses and studios in 1944 and 1945, towards that of ‘red star’ Hollywood patterns and Hollywood patterns with calligraphy writing on the front. This might have influenced the ability of women’ to emulate Hollywood actresses and the creation of fantasies (those fantasies of looking like and having the life of a Hollywood star and everything that went along with this -the glamorous lifestyle, clothing and partners). Whilst it is not known why this change in pattern design occurred, the impact of it could have been that due to the lack of Hollywood star association women began to find it more difficult emulate the Hollywood actresses as they were not attributed to certain patterns, so there were not the patterns that would allow them the look of a Hollywood star. This change in the object meant

90 that Hollywood patterns were no longer catering to the market of women who wanted to achieve the look of a Hollywood star- who presumably turned to alternative sources to do so. This contrasts with the early years of the period of consideration, in 1939 and 1940 where the ability to emulate actresses through these patterns was easier (more patterns were produced connected to actresses)- across the period Betty Grable had 21 patterns attached to her, 10% of the total sample (see Appendix 3). In addition, the ability of women to emulate and fantasise about the life of Hollywood actresses was offered through other products produced by the Hollywood Pattern Company- these links represented Hollywood actresses wearing clothes (either their own or occasionally film costumes) that were linked to Hollywood patterns. A key example being that of Maureen O Hara wearing a replica Gone with the Wind pattern from the June 1940 department store catalogue.297 This is shown as being a close copy of an outfit worn in that film, although Maureen O Hara does not appear in Gone with the Wind, it is probably the dual association of a highly popular Hollywood actress wearing a replica garment from a highly popular Hollywood film. This presents the push of the Hollywood Pattern Company to demonstrate to its consumers that Hollywood patterns would give you the ability to look like Hollywood stars, and thus expanded women’s desire to emulate and create fantasies and presumably for some- the reality of this through buying and using the patterns. Overall, the changes in fabric restrictions and stylistic changes influenced women’s ability to emulate the Hollywood stars and creating fantasy driven desires through the pattern company’s products. As explained in this chapter, changes in fabric availability presumably affected women’s ability to be able to create the clothing in first place. Fabric restrictions and lack of suggestions would have made getting hold of fabric trickier but not impossible- but probably required more effort in order to do so. The same with the stylistic and fabric changes meaning that throughout the later years, it could be seen as the patterns requiring more technical knowledge of things such as garment construction and fabric technology, as well as having less choice about the style of garment they could create as there were certain aspect that were not allowed. The same with the branding, the fact that the branding of the Hollywood company patterns indicate that after 1944 and 1945, these patterns stopped featuring actresses on the front envelope. All these points affected women’s ability to emulate the Hollywood stars, whether fabric and style restrictions were meaning that the making of garments was becoming more dependent on skill and knowledge; whether the phasing out of actresses meant that there were fewer patterns to emulate from, whether the experience of war made such “frivolity” less attractive, or whether people simply “moved on”.

297 Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, page 2, held within author’s possession. 91

Emulation became more difficult and the creation of fantasy and imagined community, which began in the cinemas with the watching of films, became more difficult to sustain.

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Conclusion:

This thesis has aimed to explore the impact of Hollywood and the Second World War on dressmaking patterns during the period 1939 to 1945. In doing so, this thesis has also attempted to use two key sections of theory, that of Veblen’s emulation298 and Campbell’s creation of fantasy and desire through objects,299 to better understand the idea of dressmaking patterns and the women who used them in the period in question. Additionally, in relation to these theories it was also important to consider how World War Two impacted on the emulation and fantasies created by these patterns- particularly, was there a reduction in the ability to emulate? In examining these aspects, the patterns were analysed in relation to Batchelor’s six steps methodology for material culture. Of these, the fifth step, that of design is most important and can be used to study the myriad of changes the patterns went through in the period under consideration because of war time stylistic changes and restrictions. This approach was utilised in answering the first two research questions. Firstly concerning How did the war impact on women’s fashion and dressmaking? The war impacted dressmaking through stylistic changes to garments through aspects such as reductions in pleating, patch pockets and sweep (circumference) of skirt. It also impacted upon aspects such as restrictions in fabric availability (which were diverted for the war effort)- as demonstrated by the loss of fabric suggestions. These primary impacts had other secondary impacts in that stylistic changes meant that garment styles became more fixed during the period, giving women perhaps less choice in the clothes they could wear. The lack of fabric suggestions may have meant that sewers needed more knowledge about fabric performance and garment construction in order to produce similar garments. As such the war impacted on many aspects both of pattern design and subsequent construction. The second question concerned What changes in the relationship between the Hollywood Pattern Company and the Hollywood studios can be detected by an examination of the patterns of the Hollywood Pattern Company during the period 1939- 1945? The changes in the relationship of the Hollywood Pattern Company appear to be as follows, that there was a decrease in the number of patterns featuring Hollywood actresses and studios in the later years of the period, specifically 1944 and 1945. This is indicated by changes in branding in these latter two years, which feature a clear departure from the early years, including in style of branding from colours, to type face and even price.

298 Veblen, 1899, pg 22. 299 Campbell, 2018, pg 141. 93

The reasons cannot be definitively stated, it is possible that one of the parties (or both parties) decided to end the agreement, and it certainly seems that if it was the studios, then it could have potentially been either RKO Radio, Paramount, or Warner Bros as these are the studios that had the most patterns produced between 1939 and 1945. The impact of the war and the pressures of the L-85 Order may have made meant that Hollywood patterns became less attractive as they began to be really affected by the WPB order from 1943 onwards. How did the war time changes in fabric restrictions and clothing styles, alongside branding, studio and actress representation throughout the Second World War affect the construction and continuation of fantasy driven desires, imagined community, escapism between the actresses and the audiences? The changes in styles and fabrics as previously stated would have made the construction of garments more challenging as a higher-level knowledge and greater skills were required and hence the creation of fantasy and desires as well as the ability to emulate would have become more difficult. Alongside this, based on Batchelor’s fifth step of design analysis, the changes in actress representation on Hollywood Patterns during the period, had a massive effect on the construction and maintenance of fantasy, emulation and most importantly imagined community. This change can be observed in the patterns of 1944 and 1945 which appear to feature few or no Hollywood actresses, as the branding had changed. This directly impacted on these aspects of desire, emulation and imagined community of actresses and audiences, as it made it more difficult to near impossible to create and drive these aspects with the breaking of the direct link to named and photographed actresses (and studios) on the patterns. With this change there was consequently little motivation for sewers in being able to create and sustain emulation, desire, and community with actresses via these patterns anymore (through copying supposedly high-end outfits and imitating the actresses in looks). This might have meant that they moved on to other products or had other reasons for using the Hollywood Pattern Company, but these are not known. So ultimately, it appears that for the Hollywood Pattern Company, the patterns themselves were hugely affected by the Second World War in several ways that had an impact on the style of garments and fabrics they could offer consumers to be made throughout the duration of the war. It also seems that the ability of sewers to emulate, desire and create a community with the actresses through Hollywood Patterns was in large part broken. Whether this occurred through the effects and consequences of the war, and which party chose to end the arrangement or whether the arrangement simply petered out is unknown. This change would, in and of itself, have affected consumers’ experiences with using the patterns and the emulative experiences that the patterns offered, as evinced by the theories of Veblen and Campbell. These conclusions ultimately show

94 the impact of the war on women’s lives during the period 1939 to 1945 as well as the experiences of female sewers and cinema goers in emulating Hollywood actresses. As a final point, in the event of choosing to partake in further research on this topic and related fields of study it would be interesting to provide some comparison with the United Kingdom and sewing patterns at a similar time. It would be interesting to research whether there were similar patterns in the UK market catering to the emulation of Hollywood, or indeed “home grown”, stars, as well as researching the impacts of the Second World War in the UK in relation to those in the United States of America. Furthermore, it might also be interesting to examine whether there was a shift in post war emulation away from that of Hollywood actresses back towards Paris, as the haute couture fashion industry began to develop again; were there dressmaking patterns that were imitating or linked to particular fashion houses? Or, in a similar vein, did the patterns of emulation, fantasy and imagined community shift into other fields entirely?

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Glossary:

Challis: a square weave fabric, with a soft fuzzy surface. It is fine woven, soft and drapes well. Typically made from either rayon or cotton. Chiffon: a sheer fabric, lightweight and typically used as an outside layer. Typically used in the creation of formal wear, blouses and nightgowns and undergarments. Often made from either silk, polyester, or rayon. COPA: The Commercial Pattern Archive is a large pattern archive held at the University of Rhode Island, USA. They hold pattern scans from hundreds of companies, ranged from the late nineteenth century up until the modern day. Duveteen (Duvetyn): twill weave fabric with a velvet effect nap on one side of the fabric. Typically produced from wool or cotton. Fabric widths: the fabric width is measured from one selvedge edge to the other. The selvedge is where the weft thread turns back across the warp threads. The 1940s had a wider variety of fabrics widths than in the modern day including: 35” inch Fabric: one of the most common widths and typically applies to cotton dressmaking fabrics. 39” inch Fabric: is a typically dressmaking width of the period. 54” inch Fabric: a wider fabric offered in the period, these typically applied to non-typical dressmaking fabrics e.g., faux fur and embroidered bordered fabrics. Faille: similar to taffeta, but the cross-grain ribs are more pronounced than in taffeta. It is less tightly woven than taffeta. Findings: the north American term for small articles used in making garments. In the UK they are more commonly known as notions. These often include items such as thread, ribbon, lace, shoulder pads, buttons, and other fastenings such as snap fasteners, slide fasteners and hooks and eyes. Gabardine: a tightly woven fabric with a twill weave, often has a diagonal or herring bone stripe to it. It has good drape, and it can be made from wool, cotton, rayon or polyester. Gingham: is always made of two colours, in a square weave, used in light to medium weight fabrics and made from a variety of fibres, especially cotton. Grain line: refers to the direction of the yarns along the warp thread i.e. the lengthwise yarn which runs along the length of the fabric from top to bottom. Hooks and Eyes: are small metal hooks and eyes that are used to fasten garments. After the invention of the slide fastener, they might be sewn onto the garment above the fastener to add extra strength to the closer.

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Jersey: a knitted fabric, it is easily stretchable, and can be made from a variety of fibres including cotton; wool, polyester, silk or rayon, or a blend of these fibres. Nap fabric: generally, refers to fabric which has a particular pile (raised texture) or a dominant ‘one-way’ pattern. When using a napped fabric all pattern pieces should be cut in the same direction i.e., top to bottom, thus pattern pieces cannot be placed to make best use of the fabric length and garments that are made with napped fabric require more fabric to be produced. OPA: The Office for Price Administration was a United States Government organisation associated with price controls throughout the Second World War. They worked in association with the War Production Board. They were tasked with controlling civilian prices and making sure that goods did not suffer from dramatic prices rises and to mitigate panic buying. Pattern pieces: paper shapes that are pinned to the fabric and cut around in order to produce the fabric pieces needed to construct a garment. These fabric pieces are then stitched together to create the garment. Rayon: a yarn type made from the cellulose fibres from natural sources, such as wood. Another synonym for rayon is Viscose. Rayon can be manipulated to mimic other fibres, such as cottons, linen, and silk. Shantung: similar to taffeta. It uses irregularly shaped yarns, with a thickened slubbed surface (irregularly twisted) which creates an irregular fabric surface. The yarns create a thick/stiffness in the fabric, it is good for sculpted silhouettes, often used in men and women’s formal wear. Slide Fasteners: older term of the zipper or zip. A set of interlocking teeth that are opened or closed using a pull tab and noted for their ease of use. They can be used in place of other closing mechanisms. Snap fasteners: also known as press studs, set of interlocking discs, that are riveted to the fabric, and take the place of buttons in fastening clothing. Taffeta: one of the best-known fabrics, it has a fine cross grained ribbed weave. Often produced as rustling noise. Typically used for skirts, dresses, and formal evening wear. Tailor’s tacks: a stitch taken with a double thread through two pieces of fabric and then cut apart with large loops being left in each piece. Used for marking seam lines, darts, and points of matching for garment construction. Voile: usually produced of spun yarns, and made from either cotton, wool or polyester. It is lightweight, slightly sheer and drapes well. WPB: The War Production Board was one of the organisations created by the United States Government to control production during the Second World War. This organisation regulated

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much of the fabric and clothing production at the time. It created the General Limitations Order 85 (L85 order) that controlled women’s and children’s stylistic clothing restrictions from 1942. One Inch (1”) = 2.5cm One Yard (1 yd) = 0.9 metres, approximately One Yard (1 yd) = 36”

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Appendix 1 Origins of Patterns Examined

Pattern No. Celebrity Star Studio Film Year

Patterns on the COPA archive 1920 Jane Bryan Warner Bros We are not alone 1939 1917 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1939 1916 Betty Grable Paramount 1939 1911 Ellen Drew Paramount 1939 1909 Mary Carlisle Paramount 1939 The private lives of Elizabeth 1908 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros and Essex 1939 1904 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros The Angels wash their faces 1939 1902 Franciscka Gaal Paramount 1939 1897 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1939 1894 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros The Angels wash their faces 1939 1883 Jane Wyman Warner Bros Kid Nightingale 1939 1882 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1939 1875 Jane Wyman Warner Bros Kid Nightingale 1939 1860 Ellen Drew Paramount 1939 1858 Gale Page Warner Bros A Child is Born 1939 1847 Jane Bryan Warner Bros Each Dawn I Die 1939 1843 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros Dodge City 1939 1839 Betty Grable Paramount 1939 1838 Jane Wyman Warner Bros 1939 1832 Ellen Drew Paramount 1939 1830 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1939 1826 Marsha Hunt Paramount 1939 1825 Jane Bryan Warner Bros Each Dawn I Die 1939 1821 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1939 1819 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros Dodge City 1939 1806 Gale Page Warner Bros Family Reunion 1939 1803 Betty Grable Paramount 1939 1796 Mary Carlisle Paramount 1939 1791 Marie Wilson Warner Bros Sweepstakes Winner 1939 1787 Eleanore Whitney Paramount 1939 1782 Maris Wrixon Warner Bros Dark Victory 1939 1781 Olivia De Haviland Warner Bros Dodge City 1939 1778 Joan Fontaine RKO Radio 1939 1761 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1939 1754 Olivia De Haviland Warner Bros Wings of the Navy 1939 1746 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros Yes, My Darling Daughter 1939 1742 Ellen Drew Paramount 1939 1724 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros 1939 1720 Ann Miller RKO Radio 1939 1718 Ellen Drew Paramount 1939 99

1708 Franciska Gaal Paramount 1939 547 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros Santa Fe Trail 1940 543 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros Honeymoon for Three 1940 542 Maureen O'Hara RKO Radio 1940 531 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros Money and the Woman 1940 525 Ellen Drew Paramount 1940 521 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1940 518 Maureen O'Hara RKO Radio 1940 517 Linda Hayes RKO Radio 1940 514 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros My Love Came Back 1940 510 Linda Hayes RKO Radio 1940 494 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1940 482 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1940 470 Linda Hayes RKO Radio 1940 466 Barbara Read RKO Radio 1940 456 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros Torrid Zone 1940 451 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1940 447 Betty Grable Paramount 1940 438 Barbara Read RKO Radio 1940 432 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1940 424 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros 3 Cheers for the Irish 1940 422 Barbara Read RKO Radio 1940 418 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1940 416 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros It All Came True 1940 413 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros It All Came True 1940 409 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1940 402 Betty Grable Paramount 1940 1982 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1940 1962 Rosemary Lane Warner Bros The Return of Dr X 1940 1955 Geraldine Fitzgerald Warner Bros A Child is Born 1940 1949 Rosemary Lane Warner Bros Our Wives 1940 1948 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1940 1945 Geraldine Fitzgerald Warner Bros A Child is Born 1940 1934 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1940 1930 Danielle Darrieux Universal 1940 1923 Joan Fontaine RKO Radio 1940 776 Ellen Drew Paramount 1941 They Died With Their Boots 759 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros On 1941 752 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1941 748 Betty Grable 20th Century 1941 747 Betty Grable 20th Century 1941 740 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros The Smiling Ghost 1941 738 Maureen O'Hara RKO Radio 1941 737 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1941 736 Betty Grable 20th Century 1941 725 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros All Through The Night 1941 715 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros Highway West 1941 100

712 Ellen Drew Paramount 1941 708 Phyllis Brooks RKO Radio 1941 705 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1941 694 Betty Grable Paramount 1941 685 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1941 682 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1941 673 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1941 668 Linda Hayes RKO Radio 1941 667 Ellen Drew Paramount 1941 659 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros Singapore Woman 1941 653 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1941 650 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1941 640 Nan Grey Universal 1941 629 Jane Wyman Warner Bros 1941 628 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros Strawberry Blonde 1941 620 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros Strawberry Blonde 1941 Wheelwright Discovers 618 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros America 1941 616 Linda Hayes RKO Radio 1941 606 Betty Grable Paramount 1941 594 Betty Grable Paramount Mother Daughter 1941 565 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros Four Mothers 1941 564 Rosemary Lane Warner Bros Four Mothers 1941 563 Ellen Drew Paramount 1941 968 Ginny Sims RKO Radio 1942 967 Marjorie Woodworth Hal Roach Studio Players 1942 956 Claire Trevor Columbia Pictures 1942 955 Jane Wyatt RKO Radio 1942 953 Betty Grable 20th Century 1942 930 Shirley Patterson Columbia Pictures 1942 928 Jane Wyatt RKO Radio 1942 927 Marguerite Chapman Columbia Pictures 1942 912 June Havoc RKO Radio 1942 905 Dorothy Lovett RKO Radio 1942 893 Betty Grable 20th Century 1942 870 Betty Grable 20th Century 1942 859 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1942 855 Betty Grable 20th Century 1942 849 Jane Wyman Warner Bros You're in the Army now 1942 830 Betty Grable 20th Century 1942 820 Betty Grable 20th Century 1942 806 Jane Wyman Warner Bros Larceny Incorporated 1942 794 Jane Wyman Warner Bros You're in the Army now 1942 790 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros Dangerously they live 1942 1005 Barbara Britton Paramount 1942 1026 Ruth Warrick RKO Radio 1942 1025 Merle Oberon An Alexander Korda Star 1942 1222 Martha O'Driscoll Paramount 1943 101

1199 Bonita Granville RKO Radio 1943 1165 Ruth Warrick RKO Radio 1943 1163 Barbara Britton Paramount 1943 1161 Glenda Farrell Warner Bros 1943 1144 Ginger Rogers RKO Radio 1943 1143 Agnes Moorhead RKO Radio 1943 1132 June Havoc RKO Radio 1943 1127 Bonita Granville RKO Radio 1943 1118 Sharon Douglass An Edward Small Player 1943 1108 Susanna Foster Paramount 1943 1106 Susanna Foster Paramount 1943 1104 Barbara Britton Paramount 1943 1102 Bonita Granville RKO Radio 1943 1080 Martha O'Driscoll Paramount 1943 1077 Frances Gifford Paramount 1943 1041 Evelyn Keyes Columbia Pictures 1943 1042 Jane Wyatt RKO Radio 1943 1047 Claire Trevor Columbia Pictures 1943 1038 Dona Drake Paramount 1943 1272 Renee Haal RKO Radio 1944 1293 Diana Lynn Paramount 1944 1351 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros 1944 1400 Margaret Lindsey Warner Bros 1944 1567 Olympe Bradna Paramount 1945 1687 Anita Louise Warner Bros 1945 Sub total 159

Patterns in author’s possession 658 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros. Singapore Woman 1941 1132 June Havoc RKO Radio 1943 864 Jane Wyman Warner Bros. Picture Larceny Inc. 1942 728 Maris Wrixon Warner Bros. Bullets for O'Hara 1941 1150 Maureen O'Hara RKO Radio 1943 1167 Merle Oberon An Alexander Korda Star 1943 1272 Renee Haal RKO Radio 1944 721 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros. The Smiling Ghost 1941 583 Nan Grey Universal n/a 1941 1980 Rosemary Lane Warner Bros. Four Wives 1939 955 Jane Wyatt RKO Radio 1942 873 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1942 584 Linda Hayes RKO Radio 1941 1096 Ann Miller Columbia Pictures 1943 Sub total 14

Patterns obtained via the internet 1010 Agnes Moorhead RKO Radio 1942 682 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1941 1921 Ann Shirley RKO Radio 1940 102

766 Betty Grable 20th Century-Fox 1941 774 Betty Grable 20th Century 1941 808 Betty Grable 20th Century-Fox 1942 870 Betty Grable 21st Century-Fox 1942 956 Claire Trevor Columbia Pictures 1942 709 Ellen Drew Paramount 1941 1041 Evelyn Keyes Columbia Pictures 1943 1153 Jane Wyatt RKO Radio 1943 Tugboat Annie 552 Jane Wyman Warner Bros. sails again 1940 1702 Marie Wilson Warner Bros. 1939 628 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros. Strawberry Blonde 1941 1192 Phyllis Brooks RKO Radio 1943 Three Cheers for 427 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros. the Irish 1940 Miss Wheelwright 654 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros. Discovers America 1941 Sub total 17

Patterns scanned from COPA archive 1906 Danielle Darrieux Universal Player 1939 1774 Franciska Gaal Paramount 1939 1828 Jane Bryan Warner Bros. Each Dawn I Die 1939 1918 Jane Wyman Warner Bros. Kid Nightingale 1939 1862 Joan Fontaine RKO Radio 1939 1661 Lola Lane Warner Bros. 1939 1773 Lucille Ball RKO Radio 1939 1914 Nan Grey Universal 1939 1732 Olivia De Havilland Warner Bros. Wings of the Navy 1939 The Adventures 1802 Rosella Towne Warner Bros. of Jane Arden 1939 1795 Vicki Lester RKO Radio 1939 455 Ann Sheridan Warner Bros. Torrid Zone 1940 458 Brenda Marshall Warner Bros. The Sea Hawk 1940 1995 Geraldine Fitzgerald Warner Bros. We Shall Meet Again 1940 Tugboat Annie 544 Jane Wyman Warner Bros. sails again 1940 425 Phyllis Brooks RKO Radio 1940 524 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros. Four Mothers 1940 475 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1940 662 Anne Shirley RKO Radio 1941 Miss Wheelwright 633 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros. Discovers America 1941 Miss Wheelwright 646 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros. Discovers America 1941 Miss Wheelwright 654 Priscilla Lane Warner Bros. Discovers America 1941 635 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1941 785 Wendy Barrie RKO Radio 1941 103

846 Ellen Drew Paramount 1942 889 June Havoc RKO Radio 1942 1022 Martha O Driscoll Paramount 1942 913 Phyllis Brooks RKO Radio 1942 903 Renee Haal RKO Radio 1942 1024 Shirley Patterson Columbia Pictures 1942 1211 Betty Rhodes Paramount 1943 1107 Bonita Granville RKO Radio 1943 1152 Ginny Simms RKO Radio 1943 1142 Maureen O'Hara RKO Radio 1943 1121 Susanna Foster Paramount 1943 1753 Ann Miller RKO Radio 1945 Sub total 36

Total 226

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Appendix 2 Pattern 864 – A modern garment from a 1930’s pattern

Author wearing dress made from Pattern Hollywood Pattern Company, Betty No. 864. Furness, RKO Pictures, Pattern No. 864, Year 1935, produced Greenwich Connecticut, facsimile held in author’s possession.

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Appendix 3 Number of Patterns by Actress

Number of Actress Patterns Betty Grable 21 Olivia De Haviland 14 Ellen Drew 12 Priscilla Lane 12 Ann Shirley 11 Jayne Wyman 11 Olympe Bradna 9 Ann Sheridan 7 Brenda Marshall 7 Lucile Ball 7 Wendy Barrie 7 Linda Hayes 6 Jane Wyatt 5 Maureen O'Hara 5 Bonita Granville 4 Jane Bryan 4 June Havoc 4 Phyllis Brooks 4 Rosemary Lane 4 Anne Miller 3 Barbara Britton 3 Barbara Read 3 Claire Trevor 3 Franciska Gaal 3 Geraldine Fitzgerald 3 Jane Fontaine 3 Martha O'Driscoll 3 Nan Grey 3 Renee Haal 3 Susanna Foster 3 Agnes Moorhead 2 Danielle Darrieux 2 Evelyn Keyes 2 Gale Page 2 Ginny Simms 2 Marie Wilson 2 Maris Wrixon 2 Mary Carlisle 2 Merle Oberon 2 Ruth Warrick 2 Shirley Patterson 2 Anita Louise 1

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Diana Lynn 1 Donna Drake 1 Dorothy Lovett 1 Eleanore Whitney 1 Francis Gifford 1 Ginger Rogers 1 Glenda Farrell 1 Lola Lane 1 Margaret Lindsey 1 Marguerite Chapman 1 Marjorie Woodworth 1 Marsha Hunt 1 Rosella Towne 1 Sharon Douglas 1 Vicki Lester 1 Betty Rhodes 1

Total number of actresses= 58

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Sources and Literature:

Published Sources:

Hollywood Pattern Company:

Hollywood Pattern Company, Phyllis Brooks, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 425., Year 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive, archive no. 1940.57.URI., pattern id no. 42252. Hollywood Pattern Company, Ann Miller, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1753, Year 1945, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1945.37.JSE, pattern id no. 6710. Hollywood Pattern Company, Betty Rhodes, Paramount, Pattern No. 1211, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.114.BWS, pattern id no. 20724. Hollywood Pattern Company, Brenda Marshall, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 658, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession. Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for National Dollar Stores Long Beach California, August 1939, held within author’s possession. Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for Neisner Bros, Inc, January 1942, held within author’s possession. Hollywood Pattern Company, brochure for The Lining Store, Newark, New Jersey, January 1942, held within author’s possession. Hollywood Pattern Company, Danielle Darrieux, Universal Player, Pattern No. 1906, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.129.BWS, pattern id no. 20028. Hollywood Pattern Company, department store catalogue, June 1940, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within author’s possession. Hollywood Pattern Company, Franciska Gaal, Paramount, Pattern No. 1774, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.103.URI, pattern id no. 51788. Hollywood Pattern Company, Joan Fontaine, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1862, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.124.BWS., pattern id no. 20023.

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Hollywood Pattern Company, June Havoc, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 889, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.121.BWS, pattern id no. 14416. Hollywood Pattern Company, Lucille Ball, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1773, Year 1939, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1939.98.BWS, pattern id no. 19999. Hollywood Pattern Company, Maris Wrixon, Warner Bros, ‘Pattern No. 728, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held within authors possession. Hollywood Pattern Company, Maureen O Hara, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 1142, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.107.BWS, pattern id no. 20717. Hollywood Pattern Company, Pattern No. 1345, Year 1944, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1944.93.KLS, pattern id no. 9467. Hollywood Pattern Company, Pattern No. 1583, Year 1945, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1945.72.KLS, pattern id no. 9512. Hollywood Pattern Company, Priscilla Lane, Warner Bros, Pattern No. 654, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1941.141.BWS, pattern id no. 20484. Hollywood Pattern Company, Shirley Patterson, Columbia Pictures, Pattern No. 1024, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.138.BWS., pattern id no. 14434. Hollywood Pattern Company, Susanna Foster, Paramount, Pattern No. 1121, Year 1943, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1943.1.JSE, pattern id no. 1148. Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 635, Year 1941, produced Greenwich Connecticut, Commercial Pattern Archive Rhode Island, archive no. 1942.254.URI, pattern id no. 55677. Hollywood Pattern Company, Wendy Barrie, RKO Radio, Pattern No. 873, Year 1942, produced Greenwich Connecticut, held in authors possession.

Literature:

Bakerman, Sara, 2015, “Too Good for the Fan Rags: The Argument for Agency in the Stardom of Katharine Hepburn”, Spectator 35:2. Basinger, Jeanine, 1993, A Woman’s View: How Hollywood Spoke To Women, Hanover. 109

Batchelor, Ray 2003, “Not Looking at Kettles”, in Interpreting Objects and Collections, Susan M. Pearce eds, London, Pages 139-143 Benjamin, Walter, 1998, The Work of Art in the age of Mechanical Reproduction, translated Harry Zohn, transcribed Andy Bluden, ed. Hannah Arendt. Berger, Arthur Asa, 2016, What Objects Mean: An introduction to Material Culture, Routledge, 2.d Edition, Abingdon. Campbell, Colin, 2018, The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism, (2.d Edition), York. Capua, Michelangelo, 2010, William Holden: A Biography, Jefferson, North Carolina. Dalton Lauren, Sullivan Pauline, Heitmeyer Jeanne, and DuPont, Ann, 2012, “Robertson’s Model: a framework for exploration of World War II conservation consumption policy influence on fashion in the US”, International Journal of Consumer Studies 36. Dyer, Richard, 1998, Stars, London. Dyhouse, Carol, 2011, Glamour: Women, History, Feminism, London. Elvins, Sarah 2019, “History of the Department Store”, eds John Stobart and Vicki Howard in The Routledge Companion of the History of Retailing. Fridel, Robert, 1994, Zipper: An Exploration in Novelty, New York. Gomery, Douglas, 2004, “The Hollywood Studio System 1930-49”, Thomas Schatz eds, in Hollywood Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies Volume 1, London. Grandena, Florian, 2005, “Danielle Darrieux”, in France and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia, eds Bill Marshall and Cristian Johnston, Oxford. Gundle Stephen and Castelli, 2006, Clino T, The Glamour System, Basingstoke. Gustafson, Robert 1982, “The Power of the Screen: The Influence of Edith Head’s Film Designs on the Retail Fashion Market”, The Velvet Light, 19. Hannan, Leonie and Longair, 2017, Sarah, History through Material Culture, Manchester. Maginnis Tara, 1992, “She Saves Who Sews for Victory: Home Sewing on the American Home Front”, Costume 26. McDonald, Paul, 2000, The Star System: Hollywood’s Production of Popular Identities, London. Mower Jennifer and Pedersen, Elaine, 2018, “Manufacturer, retailer and consumer misbehaviour in the United States during the Second World War”, Fashion Style and Popular Culture, 5:1. Mower Jennifer M. & Pedersen Elaine L, 2013, “Pretty and Patriotic”, Dress, 39:1. Orwell, George, 1962, The Road to Wigan Pier, 1.d Edition, London. Petroski, Henry, 1994, The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts--From Forks and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers--Came to Be as They Are, New York. Purdy, Daniel L, 1998, The Tyranny of Elegence: Consumer Cosmopolitanism in the Era of Goethe, Baltimore.

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Sellier, Genevieve, 2002, “Danielle Darrieux, Michele Morgan and Micheline Presle in Hollywood: the threat to French identity”, Screen 43: 2. Slide, Anthony, 2010, Inside the Hollywood Fan Magazine: A History of Star Makers, Fabricators and Gossip Mongers, Jackson. Spanabel Emery Joy, 2001, “Dress Like a Star: Hollywood and the Pattern Industry”, Dress, 28:1. Spanabel Emery, Joy, 2016, A History of the Paper Pattern Industry: The Home Dressmaking fashion revolution, London. Sumner, David, 2010, The Magazine Century: American magazines since 1900, New York. Veblen, Thorstein, 2007, The Theory of the Leisure Class, Oxford. Waldman, Harry and Slide, Anthony, 1996, Hollywood and the Foreign Touch: A Dictionary of Foreign Film makers and their films from America 1910-1995, Folkestone, England. Walsh, Margaret, 1979, “The Democratisation of Fashion: The Emergernce of the Women’s Dress Pattern Industry”, The Journal of American History, 66:2.

Internet Articles:

Joy Spanabel Emery, Patterns and Pattern Making, [no date], Love to Know, Patterns and Pattern Making | LoveToKnow, date accessed 02 April 2021. Glamour of Hollywood, April 1939, pg 102, Media History Digital Library, Glamour of Hollywood (Apr 1939-May 1941) : The Conde Nast Publications, Inc. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive, date accessed 02 April 2021. Alan Morell, Whatever Happened to … Neisner’s, 17 05 2014, Democrat and Chronicle, date accessed 10 May 2021. David Niven 1910-1983, [no date], BFI Screen online, BFI Screenonline: Niven, David (1910- 1983) Biography, date accessed 08 May 2021.

Unpublished papers:

Bellew Hannon, Laura, 2012, “The "Stylish Battle" World War II and Clothing Design Restrictions in Los Angeles,” PhD Thesis, University of California. Mason, Meghann, 2011, "The impact of World War II on women's fashion in the United States and Britain", UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. Stansbury Buckland, Sandra, 1996, “Promoting American Fashion 1940 through 1945: From Understudy to Star, PhD Thesis”, Ohio State University,

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