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Die Mär Von Den Intelligenten Monstern SCIENCE FACTS 23 Die Mär von den intelligenten Monstern Werden Computer bald intelligen- sichtlich haben sich beide Vor- vierzig Jahre Computervision ter sein als Menschen? Werden hersagen nicht erfüllt. Es liessen scheinen dies zu bestätigen – wir in naher Zukunft von macht- sich dafür viele weitere Beispiele hat man realisiert, dass sich das gierigen Robotern versklavt? Will anfügen. Wahrnehmungsproblem nicht man den Prognosen gewisser Wie kommt es dann, dass die durch reine Erhöhung der Re- selbst ernannter Propheten glau- Vorhersagen von selbst ernann- chenleistung lösen lässt. ben, so ist dies in zwanzig bis fünf- ten Propheten wie etwa Hans Der bekannte Robotiker und zig Jahren der Fall. Wieso solche Moravec, Ray Kurzweil, Hugo Direktor des Artificial Intelli- Prognosen wissenschaftlich un- de Garis, Kevin Warwick und Bill gence Laboratory am MIT, Rod- haltbar sind, zeigt die Forschung Joy von einem breiten Publikum ney Brooks, leitete dann Mitte der am Artificial Intelligence Lab. – von Wissenschaftlern, Ingeni- Achtzigerjahre einen Paradig- euren und Technologie-Experten menwechsel ein, indem er über- genauso wie von Journalisten zeugend argumentierte, dass VON ROLF PFEIFER und Politikern – trotzdem ernst Intelligenz einen Körper, ein genommen und weiterverbreitet «Embodiment» braucht; die In- ehlprognosen sind allgegen- werden? teraktion eines kompletten Orga- F wärtig: Wetterprognosen sind nismus mit seiner Umwelt rückte chronisch falsch, Prognosen über Intelligenz ist nicht gleich ins Zentrum des Interesses. Man die Entwicklung der Wirtschaft Rechenleistung hatte erkannt, dass zwischen for- und Börsenindizes ebenso. Die Das Argument, das von den meis- malen Computerwelten und rea- künstliche Intelligenz schlägt ten «Propheten» vorgebracht len Welten unterschieden werden aber in Sachen Fehlprognosen wird basiert auf dem mooreschen muss. sämtliche Disziplinen. So hat der Gesetz, welches besagt, dass sich Versteht man einmal die fun- kürzlich verstorbene Politik- die Rechenleistung der Compu- damentalen Unterschiede, so wird wissenschaftler und Ökonomie- terchips etwa alle ein bis zwei auch sofort klar, in welchen Be- Nobelpreisträger Herbert Simon Jahre verdoppelt. Weil dem so ist reichen sich die Prognosen, die – einer der Gründungsväter der – so das Argument – können wir sich durch Extrapolation aus dem künstlichen Intelligenz – im Jahre annehmen, dass normale PCs in mooreschen Gesetz ergeben, er- 1965 verkündet, «Machines will naher Zukunft mehr Speicherka- füllt haben. Schach, beispielswei- be capable, within twenty years, pazität und Rechenleistung als se, ist ein formales Spiel, bei dem of doing any work that a man can das menschliche Gehirn erbringen es genau definierte Situationen, do.» werden. Nimmt die Rechen- und Operationen (die Züge), und Stanley Kubrick, in seinem Speicherkapazität weiter mit die- Regeln gibt. Es war deshalb vor- grandiosen Film «2001: A Space ser Geschwindigkeit zu, und die auszusehen, dass die Schach- Odyssey», basierend auf einem vergangenen dreissig Jahre lassen programme einmal Menschen Roman von Arthur C. Clarke, dies tatsächlich vermuten, so wer- besiegen werden, sogar den Welt- prognostizierte 1968, dass Com- den in Kürze die Computer die meister – «Deep Blue» ist dafür puter im Jahre 2001 nicht nur Leistung unseres Gehirns bei der beste Beweis. natürliche, gesprochene Sprache weitem übertreffen. Beim moore- Im Gegensatz dazu ist die verstehen werden, sondern auch schen Gesetz handelt es sich nun natürliche Sprache kein formales noch Emotionen und entspre- um eine der ganz wenigen Vor- Spiel, sondern hat mit Interakti- chendes Einfühlungsvermögen hersagen, die sich bislang tatsäch- on und Kommunikation in einer haben werden. Nun schreiben wir lich erfüllt haben. komplexen, dynamischen, realen das Jahr 2001, und wir sind be- Die klassische Sichtweise der Welt zu tun, in der es vor allem reits 16 Jahre über Simons Prog- künstlichen Intelligenz geht da- um Bedeutungen geht. Computer nosehorizont hinaus. Ganz offen- von aus, dass sich Intelligenz als kennen keine Bedeutungen, son- Computerprogramm verstehen dern verarbeiten lediglich Daten. lässt; es wird vom Körper, von der Wenn ich mir die Abfahrtszeiten Dr. Rolf Pfeifer ist ordentlicher spezifischen Realisierung des je- der Züge nach Bern vom Internet Professor für Informatik und Leiter weiligen Programms abstrahiert. herunterlade, so werden sämtli- des Artificial Intelligence Lab am Spätestens als man versucht hat, che Bedeutungen von mir als Be- Institut für Informatik der Univer- Kameras an die Computerpro- nutzer den einzelnen Zeichen zu- sität Zürich. gramme anzuschliessen – und gewiesen; der Computer hat nur MAGAZIN UNIZÜRICH 3/01 24 SCIENCE FACTS ABIntelligenz, und – wie beim Men- schen – so etwas wie Bewusstsein geschaffen. Die Evolution kann also als hervorragender Ingeni- eur, als Designer betrachtet wer- den, wie das der Evolutionsbiolo- ge Richard Dawkins in seinem Buch «The blind watchmaker» eindrücklich geschildert hat. Der Gedanke ist nun nahe liegend, zu versuchen, die Prozesse der Evo- Die optimale Form des Verbin- dungsstücks von zwei Rohrleitun- lution auf dem Rechner nachzu- gen wurde mit Hilfe simulierter vollziehen. Ist diese Nachbildung Evolution gefunden. Optimal Komponenten abhängig und genügend naturgetreu, so müsste heisst, dass der Reibungswider- kann nur verstanden werden, eigentlich mit der Zeit, genau wie stand minimal sein soll. Während wenn man «Embodiment», also in der Natur, am Computer si- man intuitiv denken würde, dass physikalische und nicht nur In- mulierte Intelligenz entstehen. ein Viertelskreis (A) die beste formationsprozesse, mit einbe- Die Idee, simulierte Evolution Lösung darstellt, zeigte die simu- lierte Evolution, dass ein eigen- zieht. auf Designprobleme anzuwen- artiger «Buckel» (B) die Turbulen- Schon aus diesen kurzen Über- den, stammt von Ingo Rechen- zen besser minimiert. (Nach Ingo legungen wird klar, dass sich berg von der Technischen Uni- Rechberg: Evolutionsstrategie, Intelligenz und Rechenleistung versität Berlin, der bereits in den Frommann-Holzboog [1994]) nicht gleichsetzen lassen. Nie- 1960er-Jahren schwierige Proble- mand glaubt ernsthaft, wir hätten me so gelöst hatte. Er konnte zei- jetzt «wirklich intelligente» Com- gen, dass der Reibungswiderstand puter, nur weil«Deep Blue» Garri in einem Rohr am kleinsten ist, Datensätze manipuliert; er würde Kasparow im Schach geschlagen wenn das Verbindungsstück nicht garantiert jeden Zug verpassen, hat. Für tatsächliche künstliche ein Viertelskreis ist, sondern einen da er keine Ahnung hat, was ein Intelligenz braucht es reale physi- eigenartigen «Buckel» hat, eine Zug ist, geschweige denn eine Ab- kalische Systeme, Roboter etwa, Lösung, auf die man – als Mensch fahrtszeit. Um Bedeutungen er- die mit der Umwelt interagieren. – nicht so ohne weiteres gekom- werben zu können, braucht es die Eine einfache Erhöhung der Re- men wäre (siehe Abbildung Interaktion mit der physikali- chenkapazität auch im «Gehirn» oben). Will man nun entspre- schen und sozialen Umwelt. Dem- eines Roboters macht diesen nicht chend der modernen Konzeption entsprechend war auch die Pro- wesentlich intelligenter. Man von Intelligenz ganze Organismen gnose von Stanley Kubrick über müsste zumindest die Komple- mit ihrem «Embodiment» auf der den sprechenden, einfühlsamen xität der Sensorik und der Moto- Basis simulierter Evolution erzeu- Computer HAL vollständig ver- rik in einem ähnlichen Ausmass gen, so muss man nicht nur ein fehlt. steigern. Aber die Fortschritte in Computerprogramm, also gewis- diesen Bereichen sind viel langsa- sermassen das «Gehirn» erzeu- Morphologie und Information mer und folgen nicht dem moore- gen, sondern auch die Morpholo- Ganz anders als Computer kön- schen Gesetz. Hugo de Garis, der gie, das heisst die Position und die nen Roboter direkt die Umwelt sich selbst «Brainbuilder» nennt, physikalischen Charakteristiken verändern und über ihre Sensorik möchte ein Gehirn «... so gross der Sensorik, die Motorik und die Information über die Umgebung wie der Mond» bauen – von In- Materialien. aufnehmen. Diese Information ist telligenz hat er offensichtlich nun bedingt durch die Morpho- nicht sonderlich viel verstanden. Test und Selektion logie, das heisst durch die Form Josh Bongard vom Artificial In- und die Materialien des Körpers, Simulierte Evolution telligence Laboratory am Institut die Art und Form der Sensoren Nun gibt es aber vielleicht eine an- für Informatik der Universität und ihre Positionierung (bei- dere Möglichkeit, wie man die aus Zürich hat nun, ausgehend von spielsweise viele Tastsensoren an dem mooreschen Gesetz resultie- Erkenntnissen aus der Entwick- den Fingerspitzen, Augen nach rende Rechenleistung nutzbar lungsbiologie, ein Computer- vorne gerichtet und im obersten machen kann – nämlich durch si- system entwickelt, das die Wachs- Teil des Organismus liegend). mulierte Evolution. Die Evoluti- tumsprozesse eines Organismus Was also das Nervensystem ver- on hat aus toter, nicht intelligen- simuliert und diese in einen Evo- arbeiten muss, ist von all diesen ter, anorganischer Materie Leben, lutionszyklus eingebettet. Dies MAGAZIN UNIZÜRICH 3/01 SCIENCE FACTS 25 AB C Simulierte Evolution eines «Block-Pushers» gehend von einer einzelnen «Zelle» (links), ist in Abbildung C Mit Hilfe simulierter Evolution wurden Organismen erzeugt, illustriert. Jeder Organismus wurde in einer physikalisch rea- die in der Lage sind, einen grossen Klotz zu schieben. Die listischen Simulation auf seine «Fitness» – wie weit er einen
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