Notes

Introduction 1. BBC News Africa, “Tunisian Martyr,” http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ world-africa-12241082. 2. Filiu, Arab Revolution, 20. 3. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 606. 4. Filiu, Arab Revolution, 15. 5. Ibid., 21. 6. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity & Change, 372– 73. 7. Filiu, Arab Revolution, 7. 8. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 167. 9. Filiu, Arab Revolution, 8. 10. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 576– 80. 11. Jones, Qur’an, 114. I wish to thank Professor Alan Jones for drawing my attention to this reference and to the ones listed below. 12. Ibid., 270. 13. Ibid., 329. 14. Ibid., 411. 15. Ibid., 95. 16. Afsaruddin, First Muslims, 26. 17. Madelung, Succession, 18. 18. Ibid., 253. For Ghadir Khumm, see Afsaruddin, Excellence & Prece- dence, 158, 160, 161, 173, 200, 212, 214, 215, 219, 226, 228, and 267. 19. Madelung, Succession, 18– 27. 20. Afsaruddin, First Muslims, 19.

Chapter 1 1. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 178. 2. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 7– 11; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 1832 and 1837. 3. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 7; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 1839. 4. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 7; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 1823 and 1842. 5. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 1842– 43. 166 Notes

6. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 9; al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 1843– 45; Kennedy, Prophet, 53. 7. Kennedy, Prophet, 54– 57. 8. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 92– 105, 107– 116, 120– 25; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 28– 34, 38– 42, 46– 49. 9. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 52. 10. Ibid., 53; Kennedy, Prophet, 70– 71. 11. Madelung, Succession, 80. 12. Ibid., 364–65. 13. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 55– 56; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2793– 94. 14. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 56 and 70– 71. 15. Madelung, Succession, 90. 16. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 157; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 59. Later, cousin and son-in- law Sa‘id b. al- ‘As was appointed to the post. By this time, the people of Kufa had had enough; they expelled him and appointed a governor of their own choosing. 17. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 61; Madelung, Succession, 87. 18. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 157; Kennedy, Armies of the Caliphs, 4. 19. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 71; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2952. 20. Madelung, Succession, 87. 21. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 157; Madelung, Succession, 86. 22. Black, Islamic Political Thought, 15; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societ- ies, 46. 23. The person in question was Abdullah ibn Khalid ibn Asid: al-Zubayri, Nasab Quraish, 112; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 60 and 64; Madelung, Suc- cession, 364– 67. 24. Madelung, Succession, 81. 25. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 64 and 70; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2952– 54. 26. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 145; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2950– 51 and 2954. 27. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2961– 62. 28. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 73; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2962. 29. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 146–47; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2976–79 and 2988. 30. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 72– 73; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2985. 31. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3050. 32. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 73; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3046. 33. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3039– 40. 34. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 77; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 180. See also Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh, I 185– 86; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3807. 35. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 78– 79. 36. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 160–61; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 80–82; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3181– 3218. 37. Kennedy, Armies of the Caliphs, 8. 38. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3090– 91; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 75– 76. Notes 167

39. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3255. 40. Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VII, 228. 41. See al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3271, for ‘Ali’s supporters’ views of this. 42. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 173– 74; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 87– 91; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VII, 253– 76; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 78– 83. 43. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3329– 49. 44. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 173– 74; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 89–91; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VII, 276–78. See also Hinds, “The Siffin Arbitration Agreement,” 93– 129 (in particular 100). 45. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 3350– 54 and 3360–90. 46. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 180– 81; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 91– 93. 47. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 182. 48. McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 43. 49. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 183; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 118– 19; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VII, 324–31. See also Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 102– 4; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 182. 50. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 4– 5; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VIII, 41. See also Hitti, History of the Arabs, 189. 51. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 1848. 52. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh I, 365–67; al- Fasi, al-Balad al-Haram II, 142– 43; Rodinson, Mohammed, 174. 53. Ibn Hisham, al- Sirah, 581. 54. Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 61– 62; Hawting, First Dynasty, 31– 32.

Chapter 2 1. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 187; Madelung, Succession, 326. 2. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 197. 3. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 151– 53, 157– 61; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya, 19. 4. McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 49– 50. 5. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 189; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 125; Lapidus, His- tory of Islamic Societies, 48. 6. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 130. 7. They were Marwan b. al-Hakam and Sa‘id b. al-As. See McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 56– 60. 8. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 145; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil III, 461. 9. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 204; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 171– 72. 10. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 69. 11. McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 45– 47. 12. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 152– 53. 13. Madelung, Succession, 334. In Ibn al-Athir, al- Kamil III, 405, one of al- Hasan’s conditions for giving up his claims to the caliphate was that his father would not be cursed in his presence. The caliph had him cursed just about everywhere else: even during the pilgrimage in Mecca. 168 Notes

14. Sources disagree over the year: it is either 50 or 51 in the Islamic calen- dar. The Islamic calendar is lunar and moves forward by 11 days each year, so every 30 years the pilgrimage falls twice in the same solar year. That happens here: the pilgrimage of 50 began in 670 and ended in 671, and the pilgrimage of 51 was later in 671. For full references to Yazid’s pilgrimage, see McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 46. 15. It is not clear exactly which year al- Hasan died: 669, 670, or 671, which corresponds to year 49 or 50 in the Islamic calendar. Many of the sources give both years: Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 194; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 133; al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 2323–24; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil III, 460; al- Dhahabi, Ta’rikh II, 211– 12 and 220. 16. Ibn al-Athir, al- Kamil III, 460; Madelung, Succession, 331. 17. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 151, 152–53, 157, 158–161. Other sources make no mention of a shura: see Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 187 and al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 3– 7. 18. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 224– 25; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VIII, 79. 19. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 154; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 195. 20. These men were Ibn ‘Abbas (a member of the Prophet’s family); Abdullah ibn al- Zubayr (a son of a member of the shura that elected ‘Uthman caliph and later rebelled against ‘Ali); and sons of three of the first four caliphs: ‘Abd al-Rahman (son of the first caliph Abu Bakr), Abdullah (son of the second caliph ‘Umar), and al-Husayn (son of the fourth caliph ‘Ali). See Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 199– 200; al-Baladhuri, Ansab IV A, 122–23; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 138; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 141– 42 and 164– 65; Chejne, Succession, 43– 44. No one from the third caliph’s family seemed to have objected. 21. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 138; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VIII, 233 and 235. 22. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 199. 23. Al-Mawardi, Ahkam, 6– 8 and 10– 11; Kennedy, Prophet, 88– 89. 24. The process of designation was not new: Abu Bakr appointed ‘Umar to be his successor. But ‘Umar was a man of impeccable Islamic creden- tials who enjoyed widespread support. Yazid was not. See al-Zubayri, Nasab Quraish, 104; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 24; al-Mawardi, Ahkam, 10; Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, 210; Madelung, Succession, 55– 56. 25. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 142–43; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VIII, 19; Hawting, First Dynasty, 43; Kennedy, Prophet, 88; Madelung, Succession, 326. 26. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 229. 27. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 199– 205; Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 235– 49. 28. The man in question is Marwan b. al-Hakam. He later became caliph but not due to anything Mu‘awiya did on his behalf. This version of events seems to appear only in al-Mas‘udi, Muruj, 1827–28 and 1830. 29. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh IV, 247– 49 and 256– 67. 30. Al-Baladhuri, Ansab IV B, 12– 13. 31. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 227– 94. 32. Ibid., 295–388; Kennedy, Prophet, 89. Notes 169

33. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 49. 34. Landau-Tasseron, Biographies, 27– 28 and 105. 35. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 170; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VIII, 332. 36. Al-Dhahabi, Ta’rikh III, 167–68; Robinson, ‘Abd al- Malik, 13–14 and 17. 37. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh I, 2724, 3005, 3009, 3014, and 3181– 3218. 38. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 224; al-Baladhuri, Ansab IV B, 13; Ibn A‘tham, Futuh V, 20–21; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 161; Wellhausen, Kingdom, 146. 39. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 222. 40. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 245 and 249; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 422. 41. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 401– 2; Ibn Kathir, Bidaya VIII, 215. 42. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 168– 69. 43. All except Jordan: al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 170– 71. 44. Hawting, First Dynasty, 48; Robinson, ‘Abd al-Malik , 35– 36. For Marwan, see Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 255; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 171; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 476; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 182; Dixon, Caliphate, 19. 45. Al-Zubayri, Nasab Quraish, 160; Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 257; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 1969; Chejne, Succession, 47; Blay-Abramski, From Damascus to Baghdad, 74. 46. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 260– 61; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 718– 50. 47. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh VI, 260–61 and 264–70; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil IV, 323– 36. 48. Hugh Kennedy makes this point with reference to the ‘Abbasids: see his ‘Abbasid Caliphate. 49. Kennedy, Prophet, 98– 99. 50. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 854. 51. Kennedy, Prophet, 99. 52. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 862. 53. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 301. 54. Ibid., 316; Crone, Slaves on Horses, 126. 55. Al-Zubayri, Nasab Quraish, 160; Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 300. 56. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 201– 2; Ibn al-Athir, al- Kamil IV, 513– 15; Chejne, Succession, 46– 47. 57. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 300; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1165. 58. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 353 and 377. 59. For 698, see Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 277 and 301, and al- Dhahabi, Ta’rikh III, 127. For 699, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1047 and Ibn Kathir, Bidaya IX, 32. 60. This took place in 709, 710, or 713 depending on the source: al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 216; al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1217 and 1256; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil IV, 555. 61. McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 138n70. 62. Ibid., chaps. 2– 9. 170 Notes

63. The exceptions were Sulayman (r. 715–17), ‘Umar (r. 717– 20), and Yazid II (r. 720–24), who at various times appointed someone outside the family to govern one or both of the Holy Cities. 64. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1174. 65. Ibid. 66. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 171. 67. Ibid., 173. 68. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 854–55; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil IV, 358–59 and 365. 69. The first pilgrimage of Mu‘awiya’s caliphate was led by someone out- side the family: al-Mughira ibn Shu‘ba. He did it on a forged authori- zation. The caliph sent his brother to lead it, but he did not arrive in time. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 187. 70. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 264, 266, 268, and 301; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 203. 71. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 207. 72. Kennedy, Prophet, 100– 101. 73. Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 249– 50; Kennedy, Prophet, 102. 74. Kennedy, Prophet, 102; Blankinship, Jihad, 58. 75. Kennedy, Prophet, 102– 4. 76. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 209– 17. 77. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1272– 73. 78. Al-Dinawari, Akhbar, 234; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 206; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1194. 79. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1196. 80. Al-Dinawari, Akhbar, 235; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 206. 81. Flood, Great Mosque of Damascus, 187. 82. The phrase “visual culture” is Flood’s: see his Great Mosque of Damascus. 83. Chejne, Succession, 47. 84. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1274– 75; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil V, 10. 85. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1282; Ibn ‘Asakir, Ta’rikh Madinat Dimashq, vol. 66, 46; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 258. 86. The governor of Medina, ‘Uthman ibn Hayyan, was flogged: al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1282. The governor of Iraq, Yazid ibn Abi Muslim, was sacked: Ibn A‘tham, Futuh VII, 252. Qutayba ibn Muslim, the con- queror of Bukhara, was tortured and killed: Ibn A‘tham, Futuh VII, 265– 80. See also Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 318 and 323, and al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 218– 20. 87. Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 259. 88. Kennedy, Prophet, 104. 89. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh VII, 209–14; al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1209– 17; Crone, Slaves on Horses, 45; Kennedy, Prophet, 104. 90. Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 259; Kennedy, Prophet, 105. 91. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh VII, 252; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1282. Notes 171

92. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 281. 93. Al-Zubayri, Nasab Quraish, 165; al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 223; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1317; Ibn ‘Asakir, Ta’rikh Madinat Dimashq, vol. 10, 102; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 264. 94. Al-Zubayri, Nasab Quraish, 165; Ibn ‘Asakir, Ta’rikh Madinat Dimashq, vol. 10, 103. 95. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 315; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1254; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 251, 267– 68. 96. Al-Mas‘udi, Muruj, 2171; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 309– 10. 97. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1346– 47, 1350– 57, and 1359– 61; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 269– 70. 98. Kennedy, Prophet, 108. For the change in governors, see also al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 237; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1394; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 312– 13, 320, and 323. 99. Kennedy, Prophet, 107– 8. 100. Wellhausen. Arab Kingdom, 325; Chejne, Succession, 48. 101. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1466. 102. Kennedy, Prophet, 108–10. For a detailed discussion of Hisham’s caliphate, see Blankinship, Jihad. 103. Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 328– 33; Kennedy, Prophet, 108. 104. Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom, 333– 35; Kennedy, Prophet, 111. 105. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1572; Ibn al- Athir, al- Kamil V, 182. 106. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh I, 379; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1751 and 1776. 107. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 264; Ibn ‘Asakir, Ta’rikh Madinat Dimashq, vol. 7, 259 and vol. 63, 328. 108. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1779– 80; Hawting, First Dynasty, 93. 109. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh II, 380– 83; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 264– 65. 110. Hawting, First Dynasty, 93. 111. Ibn A‘tham, Futuh VIII, 141; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 2236. 112. Kennedy, Prophet, 113. 113. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh II, 388; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1836– 50. He soon made way for a son of the second caliph ‘Umar. 114. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1831– 36; Ibn al-Athir, al- Kamil V, 294– 95. 115. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh II, 393; al- Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 267– 69. 116. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 281. 117. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 1836– 50 and 1895; Kennedy, Prophet, 115– 17. 118. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 270– 71; Kennedy, Prophet, 114– 15. 119. Ibn Khayyat, Ta’rikh II, 434. 172 Notes

Chapter 3 1. Al-Tabari, Tar’ikh III, 30. In his first speech as caliph, Abu l-‘Abbas refers to himself as al- Saffah, a name which, in this context, means someone who spills blood. It also means a generous ruler. See Wil- liams, ‘Abbasid Revolution, 154n379. 2. Blay-Abramski, From Damascus to Baghdad, 84; Kennedy, ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 42; Zaman, Religion and Politics, 45. 3. The ‘Abbasids were not direct descendants of the Prophet and could not use that argument to undermine the right of ‘Ali’s family to rule. That did not stop them trying. The compromise was to widen the con- cept of family to include all branches of the Hashim clan. This included both ‘Alids and ‘Abbasids. 4. The movement’s leader was the caliph’s brother Ibrahim who was arrested and killed by the Umayyads in the run-up to the revolution. For the family’s claims to political legitimacy, see Lassner, ‘Abbasid Rule, 8– 9. 5. Shacklady, “‘Abbasid Movement in Khurasan,” 98–112 (in particular 98); Lassner, ‘Abbasid Rule, 219– 20. 6. Omar, “Some Observations,” 139–50 (in particular 139); Kennedy, ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 41. 7. Blay-Abramski, From Damascus to Baghdad, 298 and 301–2; Donner, “Formation of the Islamic State,” 283– 96 (in particular 295). 8. Omar, ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 151. 9. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 293; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 72. 10. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 72. 11. Ibid., 72–73. 12. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 285; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 72. 13. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 285– 86. 14. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 75. There were even more paternal uncles appointed as governors: al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 73; Kennedy, ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 52– 53. 15. For Marwan’s death, see al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 38– 42. 16. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 289– 90; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 285– 86. 17. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 72. 18. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 298 and 331; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 72, 75, 81, 84, 86–87; al-Mas‘udi, Muruj, 3642; Crone, Medieval Islamic Politi- cal Thought, 97. 19. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 296; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 84– 87 and 99. 20. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 298. 21. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 92– 99. 22. Ibid., 421. 23. Cobb, White Banners, 27 and 30–31. Family members continued to exercise power, but it was balanced with men tied by patronage to the caliph. See Nicol, Early ‘Abbasid Administration, 14– 15; Lassner, ‘Abbasid Rule, 11– 12, 14, 53, 56, 67–68. Notes 173

24. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 84– 86. 25. Ibid., 99–119. 26. Ibid., 117. 27. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 290– 91. 28. For the caliph’s rebuttal of all the rebel’s claims, see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 211–15. The issue was not straightforward for the ‘Alids either: if they were God’s chosen family then why had another branch of the Prophet’s family, al- Mansur’s, ousted the Umayyads? For the legiti- macy of success, see Omar, ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 223. 29. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 319– 26. 30. He was the son of an Arab woman of status, Arwa bint Mansur, from the royal family of Himyar. Such was her standing: she made al-Mansur sign a prenuptial agreement not to take other wives during their mar- riage. When she died ten years into al-Mansur’s reign, he married again, but only Arwa’s surviving son Muhammad was old enough to be placed in the succession. Her eldest son, Ja‘far, died during al- Mansur’s reign. Al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 359 and 423. 31. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 319. 32. Many of the armies were now quartered in Baghdad to be closer to the caliph. The province, however, remained as important as when the armies were based there. 33. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 330; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 290. 34. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 331– 52. 35. Ibid., 352. 36. See Bacharach, “Laqab for a Future Caliph,” 271– 74. 37. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 364– 65. 38. Ibid., 369 and 371; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 3644. 39. This was a deliberate omission on the part of the caliph as ‘Isa had been asked to lead it previously in 761. See al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 142; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 3643. 40. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 482– 83, 486, and 520. 41. Kennedy, Prophet, 138– 39. 42. This was unprecedented and owed much to al-Mansur’s emphasis on paternity as the determining factor in a caliph’s lineage. It was also a sign of al- Mahdi’s power that he was able to do it. For both marriages, see al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 466. For a history of Khayzuran, see Abbott, Two Queens of Baghdad. For Salih’s branch of the ‘Abbasid family in Syria, see Cobb, White Banners, 27– 28. 43. This was 776: see al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 467–69. Two heirs, Musa and Harun, are mentioned here although the oath is only given to one: Musa. 44. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 467. 45. Ibid., 471–76. 46. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 346; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 482 and 492; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 3644 and 3645. 174 Notes

47. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 518– 19. 48. Ibid., 500, 503– 5, and 506. 49. Ibid., 523. 50. According to some reports, the caliph’s son Ja‘far received the oath of allegiance as caliph upon his father’s death but abdicated in favor of his uncle. See Kimber, “Succession to the Caliph,” 428–48. 51. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 569– 79. 52. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 395; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 605–7, 609, 612, 628– 29, 638, 646–51, 688, 694–95, 701, 707, 711, 730, and 733. (Al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 739– 40 in particular shows how many royal princes served as governors in Mecca, Medina, Kufa, and Basra.) 53. Kennedy, Prophet, 141– 42; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 294– 96. 54. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 611– 12. 55. Kennedy, Prophet, 143– 44. 56. Kimber, Harun al- Rashid. 57. These conditions were modified to include a third son, al-Qasim, as al- Ma’mun’s heir, although al-Ma’mun was free to alter the succession when he became caliph. No such concession was given to al-Amin. Al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 653, 658– 59. 58. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 651– 67. 59. The story, often repeated, belongs to myth and legend: the Arabs actu- ally progressed further the following year, but their logistics failed. I am grateful to Professor Alan Jones for bringing this to my attention. 60. Cook and Herzman, Medieval World View, 183– 84. 61. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 667– 88; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 295– 96. 62. Kennedy, Prophet, 144. 63. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 776 and 795– 96. 64. Ibid., 777. 65. Ibid., 911–33. 66. For the ‘Abbasid contribution to science, see Bennison, The Great Caliphs, 158– 202. 67. Kennedy, Prophet, 152. 68. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1012– 13. 69. Ibid., 1013–14, 1025– 29, and 1036–39. 70. Ibid., 1039; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 3648– 50; Kennedy, Prophet, 156. 71. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1081– 85. 72. Ibid., 995–96; Kennedy, ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 164–65. His son al- ‘Abbas was made governor of al-Jazira, and his brother, Abu Ishaq, made gov- ernor of Syria and Egypt: al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1100. 73. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1106– 7. 74. Ibid., 1039 and 1063– 65. 75. Ibid., 1112–33; Black, History of Islamic Political Thought, 29– 30; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 102. Al-Ma’mun’s immediate suc- cessors also endorsed the doctrine. Al-Mutawakkil officially abandoned the doctrine in 848– 49. 76. For his nomination, see al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1133– 34. Notes 175

77. Ismail, “Mu‘tasim and the Turks,” 12–24 (in particular 15– 17 and 21); Kennedy, Prophet, 158. 78. For a history of the army in this period, see Gordon, Thousand Swords. See also Kennedy, Armies of the Caliphs, 118–47. For the idea of a “slave” army, see Crone, Slaves on Horseback, and Pipes, Slave Soldiers. 79. Kennedy, Armies of the Caliphs, 120– 24 (in particular 121). 80. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1179– 81. 81. Northedge, “New Urban Settlement,” 231– 65 (in particular 252–53); Kennedy, Prophet, 165. 82. Ismail, “Mu‘tasim and the Turks,” 23. 83. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1256– 67. 84. Ibid., 1171–79 and 1236– 56 (in particular 1236– 37). 85. Ibid., 1300–1301. His name was al- Hasan; hers was Utrunja. 86. Ibid., 1302, 1303– 13, and 1314– 18; Kennedy, Prophet, 167– 68. 87. It is not clear from the sources that he was appointed by his father. 88. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1368– 70. See also 1372–73. 89. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1370, 1372–73, 1377–79, and 1384–87; Miah, Al- Mutawakkil, 19 and 21. 90. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1394– 1403; Gordon, Thousand Swords, 85. 91. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1412– 13 and 1437–39. 92. To al- Fath ibn Khaqan, a second generation Turk: al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1453. 93. Public prayer in Islam, particularly the community prayer on Fridays, always had a political dimension because it mentioned the sovereign’s name. Al-Muntasir was supposed to lead it at the end of Ramadan in 861 but was passed over for his brother al-Mu‘tazz: a snub that left the heir apparent believing he was about to be ousted from the succession. See al- Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1452– 54; Kennedy, Prophet, 171. 94. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1455– 65 and 1471–72. 95. The six confirmed acts of caliphicide were of ‘Umar I, ‘Uthman, ‘Ali, al- Walid II, Marwan II, and al-Amin. Marwan I and al-Hadi may also have been killed by irate wives or slave girls armed with pillows. 96. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1485– 95. 97. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1501– 3. They went as far as to say the caliphate should always remain in the hands of the descendants of al-Mu‘tasim. 98. Kennedy, Prophet, 173–75, sums up the confusion of this period admirably. 99. Al-Tabari, Ta’rikh III, 1697; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 452– 55. 100. See Hitti, History of the Arabs, 450– 60, for the families ruling the West. 101. See ibid., 461– 83, for the families ruling the East. 102. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 108. 103. They defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071, for example. They were less useful against the crusaders, however. See Hitti, History of the Arabs, 471– 83; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 117– 20. 104. Lapidus. History of Islamic Societies, 292. 176 Notes

105. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 672. 106. Holt, Age of the Crusades, 82– 89. 107. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 674. 108. Holt, Age of the Crusades, 85– 86 and 142–43; Hitti, History of the Arabs, 674. 109. Holt, Age of the Crusades, 82. The three preceding attacks were in 1197, 1217, and 1229. See Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 291. 110. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 487. 111. Holt, Age of the Crusades, 92– 93 and 142. 112. Blair and Bloom, Art & Architecture, 97–103: Hitti, History of the Arabs, 675. 113. Holt, Age of the Crusades, 151. 114. Ibid., 99 and 143. 115. Ibid., 142–43. 116. See Hitti, History of the Arabs, 673 for a very helpful family tree. There were two sons: Khalil al-Ashraf (r. 1290–93) and the legendary al- Nasir Muhammad (r. 1293– 94, 1298– 1308, and 1309– 40). There were eight grandsons: Abu Bakr (r. 1340–41); Qujuq (r. 1341–42); Ahmad (r. 1342); Isma‘il (r. 1342–45); al- Kamil Sha‘ban (r. 1345–46); al- Muzaffar Hajji (r. 1346–47); al- Hasan (r. 1347– 51 and 1354–61); and al-Salih (r. 1352–54). There were two great-grandsons: Muham- mad (r. 1361–63) and al- Ashraf Sha‘ban (r.1363–76); and two great- great-grandsons: ‘Ala al- Din ‘Ali (r. 1376– 81) and al- Salih Hajji (r. 1381– 82 and 1389– 90). 117. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 673. 118. Holt, Age of the Crusades, 143 and 178– 79. 119. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 695– 96.

Chapter 4 1. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 20– 21. 2. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 705. 3. Baghdad became part of the empire in 1534; Basra in 1546. 4. Aden became part of the empire in 1547, Muscat in 1551, and Yemen in 1568. 5. Algeria became an Ottoman territory in 1529, Tripoli in 1551, and Tunis in 1574. 6. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 3– 4 and 5. 7. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 7– 8. 8. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 17. 9. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 12– 13. 10. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 20– 25; Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 13– 26. 11. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 715. 12. Ibid., 713. It is from Osman—in Arabic, ‘Uthman—the dynasty took its name, which came into English as Ottoman. Notes 177

13. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 182, 184, and 266. 14. The Ottoman Empire was a conquest rather than a jihad state, as the Ottomans were not averse to attacking their fellow Muslims: their first competitors for territory were Turkish (Muslim) chieftains. They later fought the Mamluks in Egypt and the Safavids in Iran. Nor were the Ottomans opposed to making alliances with Christian kings when it suited them. See, for example, the pact between Francis I of France and Suleyman in 1542–43 and the treaty between the Habsburg Charles V and Suleyman in 1547. 15. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 85, 95, 103, and 107. 16. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 30– 31; Imber, Ottoman Empire, 118–19, 121, and 125. 17. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 125. 18. Ibid., 95 and 97. 19. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 613. 20. Ibid., 323 and 325; Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 27–28; Imber, Otto- man Empire, 12, 167, 168, and 175. 21. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 33– 34. 22. The pre-1595 deposition was Bayezid II (r. 1481– 1512). The sultans deposed after 1595 were Mustafa I (r. 1617–18 and 1622–23) who was deposed twice; Mehmed IV (r. 1648–87); Mustafa II (r. 1695– 1703); Ahmad III (r. 1703–30); Selim III (r. 1789–1807); Mustafa IV (r. 1807–1808); Abdulaziz I (r. 1861–76); Murad V (r. 1876); and Abdulhamid II (r. 1876–1909). The two regicides were Osman II (r. 1618–22) who was murdered and Ibrahim I (r. 1640–48) who was executed. See Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 555– 56. 23. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 195 and 331. 24. Also known as Muhammad XI, he was the last of the Nasrid dynasty. He ruled from 1482– 83 and 1486– 92. See Hitti, History of the Arabs, 553– 55. 25. Hamdani, “An Islamic Background to the Voyages of Discovery,” 281– 82. 26. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, vol. 3, 19. 27. The Times Atlas of World History, 142, 151, and 152; Hobsbawm, Revolution, 22. 28. Ibid., 143. 29. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 136– 37; Imber, Ottoman Empire, 51– 52. 30. The Times Atlas of World History, 156. 31. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 223. 32. Ibid., 222–23. 33. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 249. 34. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 716. 35. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 198, 276, 290, and 293. 36. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 377– 79. 37. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 78– 79. 178 Notes

38. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 269. 39. Lewis, What Went Wrong?, 31. 40. Imber, Ottoman Empire, 211– 30. 41. Even the name “Rightly Guided Caliphs” is a loaded one: it suggests everything that came afterward was somehow deviant. 42. This was the line taken by Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703– 87), spiritual guru of the Saudi family. 43. Black, History of Islamic Political Thought, 267– 72. 44. For education’s role in premodern societies, see Armstrong, Short His- tory, 87. 45. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 169. 46. This corresponded with a decline in the devşirme system: graduates from this system staffed the sultan’s household, so when his influence waned, there was less need of them. See Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 99 and 101. 47. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 33. 48. Ibid., 43. 49. According to Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 43, this change happened around 1656 when Sultan Mehmed IV gave executive powers to his vizier. 50. This system came into use in 1695: see Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 48. 51. Rasheed, History of Saudi Arabia, 23. 52. His forces fought heroically, but the war was lost through no fault of their own. 53. Muhammad ‘Ali was asked to send his troops against the Greeks during their war of independence in the 1820s. He did so on the understand- ing he would receive Syria as a reward. He did not, and on returning to Egypt, he sent his son Ibrahim to conquer Syria in 1831. The cam- paign lasted a decade and required European involvement to resolve. See Hitti, History of the Arabs, 722– 26. 54. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, vol. 3, 137, and 204; Armstrong, Short History, 121– 22. 55. Hobsbawm, Revolution, 220– 22 and 365–66. 56. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, vol. 3, 215– 17. 57. Owen, Middle East in the World, 57– 58; Armstrong, Short History, 116– 17; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 494. 58. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, vol. 3, 216; Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 413– 18 and 424. 59. Owen, Middle East in the World, 58. 60. Ibid., 62. 61. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 495; Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 66. 62. The European powers talked much of the rights of men, but no one— European, Ottoman, or otherwise—was remotely interested in the rights of women. Notes 179

63. This issue of the status of Jews and Christians in the Muslim world is a complicated one. They were never equal to Muslims and suffered the disadvantages of being a minority community, subject at times to special laws. However, as the Qur’an stipulates that the People of the Book (Jews and Christians) are to be protected, they were therefore spared the persecution and mass murder that Jews, in particular, suf- fered in Europe. There was no Pale of Settlement in the medieval Mus- lim world. 64. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 79– 80. See how the French reacted to the massacres of 11,000 Christians (mostly Maronites who were under French protection) in 1860 at Mount Lebanon; they invaded, and the mount gained autonomy: see Hitti, History of the Arabs, 735– 36. 65. Owen, Middle East in the World, 90– 91. 66. See Owen, Middle East in the World, chaps. 2, 5, 6, and 9 for Egypt and Lebanon in the global economy. 67. Quataert. Ottoman Empire, 129– 30 and 132. 68. Hobsbawm, Empire, 76– 77. 69. The war (1853–56) came about because Russia demanded a role in Jerusalem and claimed the right to protect all of the sultan’s Christian subjects. In reality, Russia’s strategic aim was access to the Mediter- ranean and a warm water port. For the loan, see Owen, Middle East in the World, 100– 101. 70. Owen, Middle East in the World, 100. 71. Ibid., 101. 72. Ibid., 101. 73. These figures come from Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 282. A Turkish pound was equivalent to 90 pence sterling. 74. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 324– 25. 75. Joll, Europe since 1870, 81. 76. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 515–16; Calvert, Sayyid Qutb, 34. 77. There were three British consul-generals: Lord Cromer, Sir Eldon Gorst (r. 1907– 11), and Lord (and General) Kitchener (r. 1911–the start of WWI). See Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 13– 14. 78. The model for governing Egypt was India: see Calvert, Sayyid Qutb, 35. 79. Hobsbawm, Empire, 85. 80. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 519. 81. The seven states are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujayrah, Ras al-Khaymah, Sharja, and Umm al-Qaywayn. 82. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 427– 28. 83. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 570. 84. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 153, 154, and 156. 85. See Cannadine, Ornamentalism, for an examination of the British Empire as a “class act” whose officials preferred to liaise on an elite-to- elite basis with local rulers. He makes a very convincing case that offi- cials of the British Empire were less concerned about race and religion than they were about class and status. 180 Notes

86. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 475. See also Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 271; 428– 29; al-Rasheed, History of Saudi Arabia, 7– 8. 87. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 429. 88. Al-Rasheed, History of Saudi Arabia, 40. 89. The French were less than consistent in their attitude toward debt in the Arab world: they occupied Tunisia and Morocco because they were owed money; they invaded Algeria even though they owed the Algeri- ans money. 90. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 587– 90. 91. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 166, points out this policy of seek- ing rewards overseas for losses in Europe, which became even more entrenched after the Great War. 92. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 602. 93. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 284– 85. 94. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 614. 95. Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 72, 134, and 185. 96. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 188– 99. 97. Ibid., 190. 98. For this aspect of imperialism, see Said, Orientalism, and Said, Culture and Imperialism. 99. See Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 218– 28 for Hussein’s revolt. 100. The term “Middle East” was first used in 1902 by Alfred Taylor Mahan and reflects the imperialist vision of the region. Mahan was advising the British on securing the route to India. See Ismael and Ismael, Continu- ity and Change, 1. 101. Egypt was declared a protectorate by the British in 1914 when the Ottomans joined the war on the German side. This gave the British even greater control. 102. Calvert, Sayyid Qutb, 48–49. Zaghlul’s exile led to a widespread uprising. 103. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 395 and 400. 104. Ibid., 397; Pappe, Rise and Fall, 181– 85. 105. Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 15. 106. Ibid., 15–16. 107. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 435– 40. 108. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity & Change, 190. 109. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 502– 6. 110. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 546; Ismael and Ismael, Continu- ity & Change, 242. 111. Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 4. 112. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 82. 113. Ibid., 80–81. 114. Ibid. 115. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, 540– 57; Ismael and Ismael, Continu- ity & Change, 82– 85. Notes 181

116. On nationality, see Berlin, Against the Current, 333–55; Halliday, Nation and Religion, 31– 54. 117. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, vol. 3, 227.

Chapter 5 1. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 353– 56. 2. Ibid., 356–57; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 543. 3. See Fathers and Sons, chap. 6. 4. Hourani points out Bourguiba had given his support to the Free French, which made him a credible negotiating partner for the French: Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 363. See also Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 603. 5. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 364– 65; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 604. 6. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 364. 7. Ibid., 364–65; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 609– 11 (in par- ticular 610). 8. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 595. 9. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 369– 72 (in particular 372). 10. Pappe, Rise and Fall, 304– 41. 11. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 358; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 613– 14. 12. Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 30. 13. Ibid., 30–31. 14. Edward Said’s autobiography, Out of Place, gives a very personal account of how this affected people in Cairo, his own family included: his father’s stationery business was one of those destroyed. 15. Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 39. 16. The khedive of Egypt, Fu’ad I (r. 1917–36), made a similar transition. He started as sultan but ended as king. Egypt was under British occu- pation at the time. 17. The words are often emblazoned in the countryside: the mountains outside the coastal resort of Agadir in the south, for example. 18. Since around 1966: see Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 68. 19. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 604. 20. Ibid., 597. 21. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was never officially a British colony or a client state. The 1915 treaty with Britain, the Anglo-Saudi Treaty, pro- vided Ibn Saud with arms and money, in return for which he pledged not to attack any state under British protection or ally with any state opposed to Britain: see Rasheed, History of Saudi Arabia, 42–43. The assistance from Britain helped Ibn Saud take control of Arabia. 22. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 272 and 279. 182 Notes

23. Independence in the Gulf coincided with state formation. These coun- tries were not created at the conferences held after World War I, as the former colonies were. Much of the discussion process therefore focused on where borders would be. The presence of oil complicated this process as no new state wanted to risk losing out on an untapped oilfield by placing the border a mile or two in the wrong direction. Boundary disputes still linger. Iran and the UAE still argue over own- ership of three sparsely populated islands situated near the opening of the Gulf: Abu Musa and the two Tunbs (the Greater and the Lesser). 24. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 274– 80 (in particular 275). 25. Ibid., 288–89; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 576. 26. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 578. 27. Said Aburish refers to it as “a brutal friendship”: see his book A Brutal Friendship: The West and the Arab Elite. 28. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 567. 29. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 154. 30. Ibid., 105–8 and 109– 18. 31. Ibid., 189– 95 and 214– 22; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 567– 71 (in particular 571). 32. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans, 227– 59; Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 571. 33. Abdullah ruled until his assassination in 1951. His son Talal (r. 1951– 52) succeeded him. Talal was replaced by his son Hussein (r. 1952– 99). Hussein was followed by his son Abdullah in 1999. 34. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 191. 35. Ibid., 195–96 and 198. 36. Aburish, Brutal Friendship, 134– 43; Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 198– 99. 37. Morocco was the exception in the first group. 38. For the power struggle between the two brothers, see Rasheed, History of Saudi Arabia, 106– 14. 39. There was also the feeling among many Egyptians that accepting Nasser’s resignation after the Six Day War would be doing what Israel wanted. 40. Turki al-Hamad’s novels (the Adama trilogy) of Saudi life show how this trade-off works and how it affects the lives of ordinary people. His characters talk of “red lines,” which cannot be crossed. In return for leaving politics to the royals, the royals provide generous welfare bene- fits for their subjects, particularly in education. Most people accept the system without necessarily agreeing with it; those who do not accept the system face the full force of a merciless state. 41. Said Aburish goes into this in detail regarding the Saudi royal family in The Rise, Corruption, and Coming Fall of the House of Saud. Notes 183

42. According to Filiu, Arab Revolution, 15, two million Tunisians (out of a population of 10 million) were in the RCD during the 1990s. 43. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 201. 44. For Kuwait’s place in the Ottoman lands, see Quataert, Ottoman Empire, 200. 45. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 204. 46. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 23. 47. Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 119. 48. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 2, has the Sunnis at 74 percent; Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 1, as 68.7 percent. The figures they give for the ‘Alawis are 11–12 percent and 11.5 percent, respectively. Al-Asad was careful to make sure Sunnis and Christians were given senior positions in his regime in order to silence this opposition and avoid accusations he was creating an elite that did not represent the coun- try. Even so, the fact remains that ‘Alawis were disproportionately represented in his regime. See Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 34–47 and 75–88, for the sectarian make- up of the regime and its military command. 49. Less so for the King of Jordan, even though his country lost the West Bank. 50. Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 90– 92. 51. Ibid., 105–6. 52. Hiro, Islamic Fundamentalism, 98; Pargeter, Muslim Brotherhood, 81. 53. Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 89– 104 and 105– 17. 54. Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 39. 55. Ibid., 42; Calvert, Sayyid Qutb, 191– 92. 56. Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 42. 57. Calvert, Sayyid Qutb, 192– 95. 58. Ibid., 254–71. 59. Esposito, Islamic Threat, 94– 97. 60. Keppel, Prophet and Pharaoh, 191– 92. 61. Khayrat al-Shater, for example, was the Party of Freedom and Justice’s (the new name for the Brotherhood) original candidate for president in the 2012 elections. He was disqualified because of the prison sentence he served relating to the Brotherhood. The next choice, Muhammad Mursi, had also been in prison (part of the Mubarak’s regime’s last stand round- up of opponents in January 2011). But as he had been detained without trial and was not sentenced, he was able to stand for president. 62. Keppel, Jihad, 50– 52; Atwan, Secret History, 42. 63. Vassiliev, Saudi Arabia, 396; see Trofimov’s Siege of Mecca for a detailed account of these events. 64. Similar to the Shi‘i uprising in the eastern oil-rich province of al- Hasa in 1980, it was put down by the military. 184 Notes

65. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 597– 600. 66. It was limited to his military service. He spent his time as a military doctor and left with the rank of captain. 67. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 167–68; Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 132– 33. 68. See Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 59, where Hafiz al-Asad’s decision to have Basil succeed him is dated to the 1990s. 69. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 61 and 63– 65. 70. Van Dam, Struggle for Power, 132. 71. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 255. 72. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 83– 84. 73. See Lewis, What Went Wrong, 62–63, for a very useful discussion of the effects of this kind of economic corruption. 74. Bradley, After the Arab Spring, 45. 75. Kienle, Age of Economic Reform, 150–53. The figures come from Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 374, and are based on a survey done by Muhammad Heikal. See also Whitaker, What’s Really Wrong, 148– 78. 76. Leverett, Inheriting Syria, 167. 77. Al-Rasheed, Saudi Arabia, 164. 78. Bronson, Thicker than Oil, 195– 96 and 226. 79. Al-Rasheed, Saudi Arabia, 164– 68. 80. Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, 196; Atwan, Country of Words, 218. 81. Atwan, Country of Words, 218. For the interview with Bin Laden, see Atwan, Secret History, 15– 37. 82. Bronson, Thicker than Oil, 226. There were other attacks; for example, against the USS Cole off the coast of Yemen in 2000. 83. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 252– 53. 84. Ibid., 351. 85. Filiu, Arab Revolution, 15. 86. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 370. 87. Al-Aswany, State of Egypt, 67– 71. 88. Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change, 400– 402. 89. Halliday, Nation and Religion, 175. 90. Tamimi, Hamas: Unwritten Chapters, 266. 91. Al-Aswany, State of Egypt, 19– 22.

Chapter 6 1. A number of scholars on the subject who are not Muslim take a differ- ent view: see Hawting, Emergence of Islamic Ritual. 2. Jones, Qur’an, 557– 58. 3. When Ramadan falls in the height of summer, European cities, espe- cially London and Geneva, are visited by wealthy Gulf Arabs keen to escape the rigors of Ramadan at home. Notes 185

4. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power, 62; Hourani, History of Arab Peo- ples, 151; Bulliet, Islamo-Christian Civilization, 43; McMillan, Mean- ing of Mecca, 27. 5. McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 51. 6. Al-Ya‘qubi, Ta’rikh II, 155; al- Tabari, Ta’rikh II, 228; al- Mas‘udi, Muruj, 1884. 7. McMillan, Meaning of Mecca, 62– 64, 66– 67 and 70– 73. 8. See Stetkevych, Poetics of Islamic Legitimacy, for how skillfully poets could use these events to their advantage. 9. Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, 65– 69; Black, History of Islamic Political Thought, 33–38. See also Schacht, Introduction to Islamic Law. 10. See Fathers and Sons, chap. 3, section “Brother against Brother: The Road to Regicide Revisited.” 11. See Fathers and Sons, chap. 4, section “From Conquest to Capitula- tion: The Ottoman Empire’s Place in the New World Order.” 12. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 593. 13. De Saint- Exupéry, Le Petit Prince [The Little Prince] (London: Pic- colo, 1982), 15. 14. Hiro, Islamic Fundamentalism, 49– 59. 15. Ibid., 45. 16. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies, 580– 81. 17. Tamimi, Hamas: Unwritten Chapters, 4. 18. Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society, 29. 19. For an in- depth look at Sayyid Qutb’s life and legacy, see Calvert, Sayyid Qutb. 20. See Ajami, Arab Predicament. 21. See Fathers and Sons, chap. 5, section “The Wrong Sort of Stability: The Paradox of Arab Power in the Twentieth Century.” 22. Filiu, Arab Revolution, 1. 23. The political name for the party is the Freedom and Justice Party.

Epilogue 1. The first Arab head of state to visit Gaza was the amir of Qatar on October 23, 2012, almost a month before the latest conflict began. During the visit, he raised Qatar’s recent donations to the Palestinians to US$400 million. 2. Under public pressure, it was revoked much sooner. 3. Hosni Mubarak ruled through the emergency laws. These were tem- porary measures introduced in 1981 in the wake of the assassination of Anwar Sadat and were intended to protect national security. They were constantly renewed and lasted the three decades of Mubarak’s rule. They were still in place after the revolution. 186 Notes

4. Some commentators believe the Islamists will become dominant: see Bradley, After the Arab Spring. 5. Even Saudi Arabia, with a restive Shi‘i population in the eastern prov- ince of al- Hasa, was overwhelmingly Sunni. 6. When leading Bahraini human rights activist Nabeel Rajab was jailed for three years in August 2012 on what were widely believed to be politically motivated charges, it was barely mentioned in the British broadcast media. The king was visiting Britain around the same time. Selected Bibliography

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‘Abbas, uncle of the Prophet, 40, 43 ‘Abd al- Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, ‘Abbasid dynasty 168n20 and bureaucracy, 49, 50, 51, 52, ‘Abd al- Rahman ibn ‘Awf, 10 53 ‘Abd al- Wahhab ibn al- Muntasir, 61 as caliphs, 43– 64, 68–69 Abdessalem, Rafik, 158 civil war, 53 ‘Abduh, Muhammad, 152– 53 descent, 43, 47–48 Abdulaziz I, Ottoman sultan, 89, falling fortunes, 62–64 177n22 marriage alliances, 49– 50, 54, 58 Abdulhamid II, Ottoman sultan, monarchy- military alliance, 44– 177n22 51, 55, 56– 57, 60–61 Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia, 30, opposition to, 43, 46– 47 116 as political unit, 44– 47, 51, 53– Abdullah ibn al- ‘Abbas, 13 55, 62 Abdullah I, King of Jordan, 98, revolution, 40, 43– 44 113, 114, 116, 182n33 soldier state, 54, 56– 59, 59–61 Abdullah II, King of Jordan, 30, successor sons, 48– 53, 56, 58, 113– 14, 116, 127, 137, 161, 59– 60, 61 182n33Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al- ‘Abd al- ‘Aziz ibn Marwan I, 26, 27 Malik, 27 ‘Abd al- ‘Aziz ibn Sa‘ud, 83 Abdullah ibn al- ‘Abbas, 13 ‘Abd al- ‘Aziz ibn al- Walid I, 34 Abdullah ibn ‘Ali, 45, 46, 47, 48 ‘Abd al- Latif, Muhammad, 123 Abdullah ibn ‘Amir, 11 ‘Abd al- Malik, caliph Abdullah ibn Khalid ibn Asid, 27, as caliph, 26– 32 166n23 marriage alliances, 28– 29, 30 Abdullah ibn Sa‘d, 11, 12 monarchy- military alliance, 30–32 Abdullah ibn Tahir, 55 successor sons, 27, 28, 29, 30 Abdullah ibn ‘Umar, 22, 168n20 Umayyad family, patronage of, Abdullah ibn al- Zubayr, counter- 26, 27, 28 caliph, 24– 26, 30, 146, 168n20 ‘Abd al- Qadir, Moroccan rebel Abdulmajid, Ottoman caliph, 100 leader, 93, 150, 152, 153 Abdulmajid I, Ottoman sultan, 84, 85 ‘Abd al- Rahman, Umayyad ruler of abna’ al- dawla (sons of the state), Spain, 40, 63 48 198 Index

Abraham, prophet and king, 5– 6, Alhambra, 76 143, 144 ‘Ali, caliph, 13, 19, 23 Abu l- ‘Abbas, caliph as caliph, 14– 16, 17 ‘Abbasid family, patronage of, cursing of by Umayyads, 21, 36, 44, 45 146 and armies, 45– 46, 47 Islamic credentials, 11 as caliph, 43– 46, 171n1 murder, 16 heirs, 46 shura, 10– 11 Abu Bakr, caliph, 6, 9– 12, 16, 144, succession to Muhammad, 6, 10, 168n24 14, 22 Abu Hanifa, 149, 153 ‘Alid family Abu Ja‘far, caliph. See al- Mansur, caliph competition with ‘Abbasids, Abu Muslim (scholar), 148 43– 44, 47– 48, 54, 171n3, Abu Muslim (soldier) 172n28 and ‘Abbasid revolution, 40 descent from Prophet, 23, 43 armies from Khurasan, 45, 46 as political unit, 22, 23, 24, 25, murder, 47 26, 31, 40 Abu Sufyan, 17 treatment by Umayyads, 19, 21, Abu ‘Ubaydah al- Jarrah, 9 23– 24, 31, 36, 146 Aden, 91, 112, 176n4 Allenby, Lord, 97 al- Afghani, Jamal al- Din, 152 al- Amin, caliph, 51, 52, 53, 54, Afghanistan, 27, 68, 130, 146, 152 174n57 Africa, 10, 72, 81, 92, 130 Ammar, Rashid, 3 North Africa, 12, 27, 37, 60, 63, Amorion, 58 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, ‘Amr ibn Sa‘id ibn al- ‘As, 29 111, 139, 151, 152, 161 Anatolia, 58, 71, 72, 73, 98 al- Afshin, 54, 56, 58, 59 Anbar, 44 Aghlabid dynasty (Tunisia), 63 Anfal (extermination campaign), 44 Ahmad III, Ottoman sultan, Anglo- Turkish Commercial 177n22 Convention, 87 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 55, 149 Ankara, 100 Ahmad ibn Tulun, 62 Ansar (Helpers), 9– 10, 14, 16 ‘A’isha, wife of the Prophet, 6, 9, 14 Arabia, 7, 10, 16, 20, 24, 25, 40, Albright, Madeleine, 129 60, 64, 66, 72, 83, 84, 85, 91, Aleppo, 68, 122 92, 110, 148, 155 Alexandria, 80, 123 Arabian Nights (book), 51, 118 Algeria Arab League (also known as League civil war, 126 of Arab States), 158, 159 as colony of France, 92– 93, 103, Arab nationalism (Arabism), 104, 100, 111, 150– 53, 180n89 109, 112, 151– 54 Islamist election victory, 134, 138 Arab revolt, 95– 96 as military republic, 108, 109, Arab Spring, 1– 3, 137, 139, 156– 110, 113, 119, 132 57, 160– 63 Ottoman era, 74– 75 ‘Arif, ‘Abd al- Salam, 114 war of independence, 104, 105 Armenia, 10 Index 199

Arwa bint Mansur, 172– 73n30 Bajila tribe, 37 al- Asad, Bashar al- Bakhra’, 38 opposition to, 147, 162 al- Bakr, Ahmad Hasan, 114 presidency of Syria, 4– 5, 123, Balfour Declaration, 106 126– 29 Barcelona FC, 160 al- Asad, Basil, 127, 183n68 Barmakid family, 51, 52 al- Asad, Hafiz Barquq, Mamluk sultan, 67 elections, 132 Barsbay, Mamluk sultan, 68 opposition from Muslim Basra, 11, 12, 13, 14, 27, 31, 44, Brotherhood, 122 47, 51, 54, 95, 121, 173n52, presidency of Syria, 4, 109, 116, 176n3 121, 126, 129, 155 Ba‘th Party (Iraq), 119 successor sons, 4– 5, 126–28, Ba‘th Party (Syria), 119, 121, 127 136, 183n68 Baybars I, Mamluk sultan, 66– 67 al- Asad, Rif‘at, 121–22 Baybars II, Mamluk sultan, 67 Ashnas, 56, 58 Bayezid I, Ottoman sultan, 73 ‘Ashura (religious festival), 24 Bayezid II, Ottoman sultan, 177n22 Atatürk (Mustapha Kemal), 98– 99, bayt al- mal (treasury), 12 100, 152 Ben Ali, Zine El Abidine Atlantic Ocean, 68, 78, 146 and Arab Spring, 2– 3, 4, 136, Atwan, Abdel Bari, 130 137 Austria, 69, 75, 78, 83, 84 presidency of Tunisia, 116, 132, Aws tribe, 10 133, 155, 159, 161 Aybak, Mamluk sultan, 65 Ben Arous Hospital, 2, 3 ‘Ayn Jalut, 66 Ben Bella, Ahmad, 109, 110 Aytakh, 56, 58 Bishr ibn Marwan I, 27 Ayyub ibn Sulayman, 36 Boabdil, ruler of Granada, 76 Ayyubid dynasty (Egypt), 64, 65, Bosnia, 71 66, 67 Bouazizi, Muhammad, 1– 3, 136, Azd tribe, 35 139 Azerbaijan, 58 Bouazizi, Samia, 1 al- Azhar, 153, 154 Boumedienne, Houari, 110, 126 Bourguiba, Habib, 2, 104, 109, Babak, 58 115, 118, 181n4 Badr, Battle of, 17 Boutiflicka, Abdelaziz, 132 Baghdad, 43, 46, 48, 49, 52, 53, Britain 54, 56, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, and client states, 91– 92, 100– 75, 95, 149, 173n32, 176n3 101, 138– 39 Bahrain and colonies, 89– 91, 100– 101, as kingdom, 5, 92, 112, 133 138– 39 oil, 111 independence for colonies, 106– protests during Arab Spring, 137, 8, 110– 14 160 India, 89 and West, 72, 92, 110, 162, loans to Ottoman Empire, 88 185n6 and mandates, 95– 98 200 Index

Britain (continued) conquests Reform Acts, 90 British, 89– 92 World War I, 95 French, 92– 94 World War II, 103– 4 Islamic, 10 See also England; United Constantinople, 20, 71 Kingdom Coptic Christians, 160 Buckingham Palace, 162 Crane, Henry, 96– 97 al- Bukhari, 148 Crimea, 79, 88 Bulgaria, 71 Cromer, Lord, 90, 179n77 Burgundy, 69 crony capitalism, 128– 29 Bu Said dynasty (Oman), 5, 91– 92, Crusades, 81, 95 112 cult of personality, 115, 117 Bush, George W., 131, 132, 134 Cyprus, 91 Buyid dynasty (Iraq), 64 Byzantines, 6, 20 Damascus, 12, 14, 17, 19, 93, 95, 109, 122, 147, 162 Cairo, 40, 63, 64, 66, 68, 85, 89, Damascus, Great Mosque of, 33, 90, 97, 99, 103, 107, 109, 147 116, 136, 137, 143, 153 David, prophet and king, 5 Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate, Dawud ibn ‘Ali, 44 The (book), 153 Dayr al- Jamajin, Battle of, 31 Camel, Battle of, 14, 24, 29 Destour Party (Tunisia), 104 Cameron, David, 162 devşirme (boy levy), 74, 82, 178n46 capitalism, 77, 128, 134 Diamond Jubilee 2012, UK, 162 Catherine the Great, 79 Dinshaway, 91– 92 chamber of deputies (France), 93, Dome of the Rock, 32 100 double standard, 90, 138 Charlemagne, Holy Roman Downing Street, 162 emperor, 52 Dutch East India Company, 77 Charles V, Habsburg emperor, 69, dynasties. See under individual 77, 176n14 dynasties Charles X, French emperor, 92 Chirac, Jacques, 105 early converts, 9–10, 11, 12, 14, 15, Christianity, 5 16, 17, 20, 21 Churchill, Winston, 107 Edirne event, 82 Church of England, 80 Egypt client states, 91– 92, 110–15 ‘Abbasid era, 45, 59, 62– 63 Cold War politics, 120, 129 bankruptcy, 89 colonies, 89– 91, 92– 94, 102– 8, 114 as British colony, 89– 91, 96, 97, Columbus, Christopher, 76 103, 107 Companions of the Prophet, 9, 10, early Islamic era, 10, 11, 13 16 Fatimid era, 63 competitor caliphates, 64, 147 Free Officers’ coup, 107–8 Congress of Berlin, 93 Mamluk era, 64– 69 Index 201

under Mubarak, 4, 116, 124, Fatherland Society (Turkey), 99 128– 29, 131– 33, 135– 37, Fatima, daughter of the Prophet, 157– 61, 185n3 23, 43, 47, 63 under Muhammad ‘Ali, 84, 85, Fatimid dynasty (Egypt, Tunisia, 87, 88, 89, 130 Arabia), 63, 64 and Muslim Brotherhood, 101, Faysal, King of Iraq, 98, 113, 114 122– 25, 131, 133, 154– 57, King of Greater Syria, 97 160, 161 role in Arab revolt, 96 under Nasser, 108– 13, 116– 19, Faysal, King of Saudi Arabia, 30, 123, 125, 132, 135, 137, 116, 125, 129 154, 155, 182n39 Faysal II, King of Iraq, 114 Ottoman era, 71, 72, 76– 77, 80, Ferdinand, King of Spain, 76 84, 85 FIFA World Cup 2022, 161 under Sadat, 116, 123, 124, Fifth Fleet, US Navy, 162 185n3 FIS. See Islamic Salvation Front Umayyad era, 20, 27, 32– 33 (FIS) union with Syria, 109 fitna (strife), 19, 22 ElBaradei, Muhammad, 159 France, 69, 77, 80, 81, 84, 85, 87, elites 100, 120 and economic privilege, 3, 12, and colonies, 92– 94, 107, 111, 111, 115, 117, 135, 136, 138, 150– 51, 152, 161 138, 163 independence for colonies, 2, and Westernization, 90, 91–92, 103– 5, 108 101, 120, 151, 153 loans to Ottoman Empire, 88, Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 89, 94 162 mandates, 95– 98, 103, 122, 153 England, 28, 69, 77, 80, 107. See war of independence (Algeria), also under Britain; United 105 Kingdom Francis I, King of France, 176n14 English East India Company, 77 Freedom and Justice Party (Egypt), Euphrates, 15 183n61, 185n23 Europe, 2, 6, 52, 71, 73, 79, 106, Friday prayers, 20– 21, 33, 34, 36, 134, 150 53, 60, 63, 142, 145– 47, 155– and political language of, 108, 56, 175n93 109, 145 Front de Libération Nationale power of, 6, 69, 75, 79, 80, 81, (FLN), 105, 119 83– 89, 89– 101, 103, 138, Fu’ad I, King of Egypt, 181n16 150, 151– 53 Gaddafi, Muammar, 4, 115, 137, Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia, 30, 159, 161, 162 116, 125, 129, 130, 155 Gaddafi, Saif al- Islam, 4 Faraj, Mamluk sultan, 67 Gallipoli, 99 Farewell Pilgrimage, 6, 144 Gama, Vasco da, 76 Farouq, King of Egypt, 84, 108 Gaulle, Charles de, 105 202 Index

Gaza, 135, 157, 158, 185n1 Henry III, King of England, 69 al- Ghad (Tomorrow), political party Henry VIII, King of England, 28, 69 (Egypt), 133 Hijaz, 23, 26, 28, 31, 33, 44, 54, al- Ghannouchi, Rashid, 2 63 Ghazi, King of Iraq, 114 hijra (flight), 9, 144, 155 Gibraltar, 91 Hind, 17 God, 5, 6, 15, 24, 25, 33, 45, 55, Hira, 44 69, 74, 81, 82, 108, 109, 141, Hisham, caliph, 27, 28, 37– 38 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 156, Hizbullah, 135 172n28 Holy Cities. See Jerusalem; Mecca; Good Hope, Cape of, 76 Medina Gorst, Sir Eldon, 179n77 Homs, 27, 40 Gouraud, General Henri, 95 Hong Kong, 91 Granada, 76, 163 Hormuz, Strait of, 72, 77 Greece, 71, 84, 85 al- Husayn, son of caliph ‘Ali, 23– 24, Groupe d’Intervention de la 146n20 Gendarmie Nationale (GIGN), Husaynid dynasty (Tunisia), 93 125 Husayni family (Palestine), 106 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Hussein, King of Jordan, 30, 116, 137 127, 182n33 Hussein, Qusayy, 121 al- Hadi, caliph, 50, 51 Hussein, Saddam, 4, 114, 116, hadith (sayings of the Prophet), 119– 21, 131, 132, 156 148, 153 Hussein, Sharif of Mecca Hagar, 143 Arab revolt, 95– 96 hajj (pilgrimage), 6, 12– 13, 15, 16, sons as future kings, 97– 98, 113 20, 21, 22, 28, 31, 33, 44, 45, Hussein, Uday, 121 46, 50, 141, 143, 144 al- Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, 26, 30, 31, 32, Ibn Baz, 155 34– 38 Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 30, Halabja, 120 110, 116, 181n21 Hama, 122, 123 Ibrahim, ‘Alid rebel, 47 Hamad, King of Bahrain, 162 Ibrahim, caliph, 39 Hamas, 134, 135, 156, 157, 158 ‘id al- adha, 143– 44 Hamza, uncle of the Prophet, 17 ‘id al- fitr, 143– 44 al- Harith, relative of ‘Uthman, 11 Idris al- Sanusi, King of Libya, 4, al- Hasa, 183n64, 185n5 107, 108, 109, 115 al- Hasan, son of caliph ‘Ali, 19, 21, Idrisid dynasty (Morocco), 63 22, 23, 47, 167n13 ijtihad (independent reasoning), al- Hasan ibn Sahl, 54 153 Hashemite family (Jordan), 113 imperialism. See Britain; client states; Hassan, crown prince of Jordan, 30 colonies; France Hassan II, King of Morocco, 109, independence. See individual 116, 127 countries Index 203

India, 32, 72, 76, 77, 80, 81, 89, Ismailiyya, 101, 107, 137, 154 91, 97, 107, 112 isnad, 148 Indo- China, 104 Israel, 66, 106, 113, 117, 122, 124, intifada, 132 129, 132, 135, 154, 157, 158 Iran, Islamic Republic, 119, 120 Istanbul, 43, 71, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, Iraq 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 94, ‘Abbasid era, 44, 49, 60, 62, 148 97, 99, 151 as British colony, 95– 98 Istiqlal party (Morocco), 105 early Islamic, 10, 12, 15 Italy, 69, 94, 107, 151 ethnic makeup, 118, 120 Iznik, 92 Free Officers’ coup, 114 as kingdom, 97, 98, 103, 113, Jadid, Chadli ben, 126 114 Ja‘far ibn al- Mansur, 173n30 as military republic, 114– 16, 119, Jahiliyya (Age of Ignorance), 155 129 jamlaka (presidential monarchy), 5 under Saddam, 4, 114, 116, 118, Janissary corps, 74, 85 119– 21, 132, 156 January 25 (Egypt), 107, 137 Umayyad era, 20, 23, 26, 27, 31, Jasmine Revolution, 1– 3, 4 35– 39, 40, 146 al- Jazeera news channel, 161 US-led invasion, 105, 121, Jazira, 27, 39, 40, 44, 59, 174n72 131– 32 Jerusalem, 16, 32, 33, 49, 76, 95, Isabella, Queen of Spain, 76 179n69 ‘Isa ibn Musa, 44, 48, 49, 50, Jews, 80, 88, 97, 106, 178n63 173n39 jihad (war, struggle), 45, 55, 130, Ishmael, son of Abraham, 6, 143 176n14 Islam jizya (poll tax), 86 and communal solidarity, 19, 32– Jordan 33, 118, 141– 45, 147 as British mandate, 98 and education, 81– 82 Hashemite Kingdom of, 113, as identity, 86, 141– 45, 149– 50, 134, 137, 161– 62 159 links with Britain, 114 as legitimacy, 5, 7, 71, 113, 124, royal family, 30, 116, 127, 125, 130, 155– 56 155– 56 and politics, 2, 33, 101, 122– 26, Umayyad era, 39 131, 134, 139, 145, 147, Joseph, prophet and king, 5 151– 56, 159 Judaism, 75, 141, 142, 143 rituals of, 19, 20, 21, 141– 44 jumhuriyya (republic), 5 al- Islambuli, Khalid, 124 Justice and Development Party, AKP Islamic modernism, 151– 54 (Turkey), 156 Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), 126, 134 Ka‘ba, 16, 143, 145 Islamocracy, 17, 26 Kalb tribe, 21, 35 Isma‘il ibn ‘Ali, 46 Karacahisar, 72, 73 Isma‘il ibn Muhammad ‘Ali, 89 Karbala’, 24 204 Index

Kemal, Mustapha (Atatürk), 98– 99, Lebanon, 122 100, 152 constitution, 98 Kennedy, Hugh, 37 under French control, 87, 95, Kenya, 130 96, 97 Khalid ibn Abdullah al- Qasri, 37, 38 independence, 98, 103– 4, 108, Khalid ibn Yazid I, 29–30 132 Khalid, King of Saudi Arabia, 30, National Pact, 110 116 Liberation Rally (Egypt), 119, 123 Khalifa family (Bahrain), 5, 92, 112, Libya, 75, 158, 160, 162 137 as colony, 94, 103, 151, 153 Khawarij under Gaddafi, 4, 109, 110, 115, belief in meritocracy, 25 137, 162 opposition to ‘Ali, 15– 16 independence, 107 opposition to Yazid I, 24– 25, 40 as kingdom, 115, 108 Khayzuran, wife of al-Mahdi, military coup, 4 49–50 as military state, 113, 129 Khazraj tribe, 10 Lisbon, 76 Khumm, Ghadir, 6, 165n18 Little Prince, The (children’s book), Khurasan, 27, 31, 35, 37, 38, 40, 152 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, Louis IX, King of France, 65 53, 54 khutba (sermon during Friday Macedonia, 84 prayer), 33, 142 madhhabs (legal schools), 148– 49 King- Crane Commission, 96–97 al- Mahdi, caliph, 48– 50 King, Henry, 96–97 Mahmud II, Ottoman sultan, 85, 87 Kitbugha, Mamluk sultan, 67 majlis al- shura (consultative Kitchener, Lord, 179n77 assembly), 133, 134 Küçük Kaynarca, Treaty of, 79, 80 Makhluf family (Syria), 128 Kufa, 10, 11, 13, 16, 27, 31, 40, Maktoum family (UAE), 5, 112 44, 49, 51, 146, 166n16, malik (king), 108 173n52 Malik ibn Anas, 149 kuttab (religious schools), 81 Malta, 91, 96, 97 Kuwait mamlaka (kingdom), 5 as client state of Britain, 92, Mamluks 110– 12 Bahri, 67 independence, 111– 12 Burji, 67 invasion by Iraq, 120– 21, 129 defeat, 68 ruling family, 5, 134, 161– 62 as a dynasty, 67– 69 manipulation of market, 68 Laden, Osama bin, 76, 125, 129, military oligarchy, 64– 65, 68 130 military success, 65– 66 Lajin, Mamluk sultan, 67 patronage of religious Lausanne, Treaty of, 100 architecture, 66 Lawrence, TE, 95 seizure of power, 64– 65 Index 205 al- Ma’mun, caliph, 56, 58, 59, 60, Mediterranean Sea, 65, 72, 80, 81, 62, 63, 64, 174n57, 174n75 93, 94, 179n69 civil war and its aftermath, 53–55 and global economy, 78 as heir apparent, 51– 52 Mehmed II, Ottoman sultan, 71, 75 mihna, 55, 149 Mehmed III, Ottoman sultan, 74, Manama, 4 78 al- Mansur, caliph, 52, 54, 58, 65, Mehmed IV, Ottoman sultan, 79, 172n28, 172– 3n30 177n22, 178n49 ‘Abbasid family, patronage of, 46 Meshal, Khalid, 134, 157, 158 ‘Alid rivals, 47 Midhat Pasha, 99 as caliph, 46 mihna, 55, 149 monarchy- military alliance, 47 Milestones (book), 154 successor son, 48, 49 military republics, 109– 10, 113– 16, al- Mansur ‘Ali, Mamluk sultan, 65 126, 128, 136– 38, 160– 61 Mansur ibn Jumhur, 39 Mina, 143 Marj Rahit, Battle of, 29 monarchy- military alliance Maronites, 98, 179n64 ‘Abbasid era, 45, 47, 48, 49, 53, marriage 57, 60, 68 as political union, 11, 28, 29, 30, monopoly on power, 65, 101, 54, 115 115, 126, 163 Marsh Arabs, 120 Umayyad era, 26, 26– 32, 41 Martel, Charles, 52 Mongols, 43, 65– 66 Marwa, 143 Morocco Marwan I, caliph, 12, 25, 26, 29, 30 ‘Alawi family, 94 Marwan II, caliph, 39, 40 as French colony, 94, 103, 104 Marwan ibn ‘Abd al- Malik, 27 independence, 4, 104– 5 Maslama ibn Hisham, 38 as kingdom, 105, 108, 109, 110, Maslama ibn Marwan I, 28, 37 116, 127, 134, 155– 56 Maysun, mother of caliph Yazid I, mosque 21 as hub of community, 145–47, Mecca, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 22, 150– 51, 154, 155– 56 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 36, 38, 45, Mosul, 44 49, 51, 53, 54, 66, 95– 96, 101, Mount Lebanon, 98 130, 135, 142, 146 Mount of Mercy, 143 aristocracy of, 11, 12, 17, 144– 45 Moussa, ‘Amr, 159 and pilgrimage, 6, 15– 16, 20, 21, Mu‘awiya I, caliph 24, 52, 71, 83, 141, 143, ‘Alid opposition, 19, 20, 21, 23 144, 147 as caliph, 15– 17, 19– 23 siege of, 124– 26 military support, 20 Medina, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 20, Siffin, Battle of, 15, 16 21, 22, 24, 28, 30, 33, 36, 38, successor son, 20 45, 47, 51, 66, 71, 130, 135, Syria, governor of, 12– 14, 20 144, 145, 149 Umayyad family, patronage of, 20 Medina, Great Mosque of, 32, 33 Mu‘awiya II, caliph, 25 206 Index

Mu‘awiya ibn Hisham, 25, 29 in Syria, 122– 23 al- Mu’ayyad, 59–60 in Tunisia, 156 Mubarak, Gamal, 4, 128, 136 Muslim community, 6, 9, 10, 12, Mubarak, Hosni 13, 16, 17, 19, 22, 31, 33, 39, and elections, 132– 33 43, 44, 55, 57, 61, 64, 144, emergency laws, 124, 185n3 145, 147, 151 presidency of Egypt, 4, 116, 124, Mustafa I, Ottoman sultan, 177n22 129, 137, 157– 59, 160, 161 Mustafa II, Ottoman sultan, 82, 83, successor son, 4, 128, 136 177n22 treatment of political opponents, Mustafa IV, Ottoman sultan, 177n22 131, 133, 183n61 al- Musta‘in, caliph, 61 and West, 135– 36 al- Mustansir, caliph, 66 Muhammad, the Prophet, 9, 10, al- Mu‘tadid, caliph, 61 12, 14, 16, 17, 23, 43, 44, 94, al- Mu‘tasim, caliph 125, 141, 142, 144, 145, 148, as caliph, 56– 59 155, 156 Samarra, 57, 58 and political legacy, 6– 7, 64, 69, soldier state, 56– 59 159 al- Mutawakkil, caliph as role model, 6, 9, 11, 22, 64, as caliph, 59 142, 147, 144 mihna, 55, 174n75 successor (lack of), 6 relationship with Turkish soldiers, Muhammad, son of caliph ‘Ali, 2 59– 61 Muhammad V, King of Morocco, successor sons, 59, 61 105, 108, 109, 116 Mu‘tazilism, 55, 149– 50 Muhammad VI, King of Morocco, al- Mu‘tazz, caliph, 59, 61, 175n93 116, 137 al- Muwaffaq, 61 Muhammad ‘Ali, ruler of Egypt, 84, 85, 87, 89, 178n53 Nahayan family (UAE), 5, 112 Muhammad the Pure Soul, ‘Alid al- Nahda (Renaissance), Tunisia, rebel, 47 2, 156 al- Muhtadi, caliph, 61 al- Nahrawan, Battle of, 15, 16 mulk (sovereignty), 5 Na’ila, wife of caliph ‘Uthman, 13, 14 Mumbai, 91 Najda ibn ‘Amir, 25 al- Muntasir, caliph, 59– 61, 175n93 Napoleon, 80, 85 Murad I, Ottoman sultan, 73 Nashashibi family (Palestine), 106 Murad V, Ottoman sultan, 177n22 al- Nasir Muhammad, Mamluk Mursi, Muhammad, 156, 157, 158, sultan, 176n116 183n61 Nasr ibn Sayyar, 38 Musa ibn al- Amin, 53 Nasser, Gamal Muscat, 91, 110, 176n4 presidency, 109, 116– 17, 119, Muslim Brotherhood 123, 132, 135, 137, 154, in Egypt, 123– 24, 131, 133, 155, 155 156, 160, 183n61 redistribution policy, 117 and Hasan al- Banna, 101, 154 Six- Day War, 117, 182n39 and Sayyid Qutb, 123, 125, 154 war in Yemen, 112– 13 Index 207

National Democratic Party (Egypt), Capitulations, 80, 87, 88, 90 4, 133 as conquest state, 71, 72, 73, 75, nationalism 78, 83, 176n14 Arab, 104, 109, 112, 151– 54 constitution (1876), 99 European, 109, 145, 151 coup (1908), 99 Turkish, 99, 151 dissolution, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101 National Liberation Front (Yemen), Eastern Question, 94 133 economic problems, 78, 79, 87, National Salvation Front (Egypt), 88, 89, 94 159 Europe, rise of, 76, 77, 79– 81, Nazareth, 66 84, 86, 87– 88, 92 Neguib, Muhammad, 108, 109, 116 geo- political position, 72, 76– 77, Neo- Destour, 2, 104, 119 78, 81 neomonarchies, 4– 5 Germany, alliance with, 95 Netherlands, 69, 77 military defeats, 75, 78– 79, 83 Nour, Ayman, 133 palace officials, influence of, 75, 82 oil, 72, 111, 118, 120, 121, 125, reforms, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 99, 129, 131, 160, 181n23, 150 183n64 Tanzimat, 85, 88, 89 Oman See also Ottoman dynasty as client state of Britain, 91– 92, 110– 11 Palestine royal family, 5, 92, 112, 116, 133 ‘Abbasid era, 45, 60 Omar Effendi, 118 as British colony, 95, 96, 98, Operation Cast Lead, 135, 157 106– 8 Oran, 72 early Islamic, 10 Organization for Holy War (Egypt), modern era, 106, 122, 132, 157, 124 161, 185n1 Orhan, Ottoman sultan, 73 Umayyad era, 27, 35, 39 Osman, founder of Ottoman Palmyra, 122 dynasty, 72– 73 Paris Saint- Germain, 160 Osman II, Ottoman sultan, 177n22 People of the Book, 178n63 Ottoman dynasty Persian Gulf, 72, 77, 162 family as a political unit, 68, 69, Picot, Francois Georges, 95 73, 82, 86– 87, 109 pilgrimage, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, fratricide, 73– 74 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 30, 32, 33, monarchy- military alliance, 73, 38, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 74 55, 66, 71, 83, 130, 141, 143, origins, 72– 73 144, 146. See also hajj succession, 73– 75 Plantagenet dynasty (England), 69 Ottoman Empire, 71– 101 Portugal, 32, 77, 78 and Arab world, 71, 72, 74, 75, prayer, politics of, 20– 21, 33, 34, 79, 83, 84, 151 53, 59, 60, 63, 71, 81, 141– 56 bankruptcy, 88–89 primogeniture, 29 208 Index

Qabus ibn Sa‘id, Sultan of Oman, Rida, Rashid, 152– 54 111, 116 al- Rida min Al Muhammad (the al- Qahtani, Muhammad ibn Approved One from the Family Abdullah, 124– 25 of Muhammad), 44 Qa’itbay, Mamluk sultan, 68 Ridda wars, 10 Qalawun, Mamluk sultan, 67 Riyadh, 84 Qandil, Hisham, 157 royalty, 30, 69, 108, 109, 110– Qansawh, Mamluk sultan, 68 19, 125, 133– 34, 136, 137, Qaramanli, Ahmad, 75 160– 62 Qasim, ‘Abd al- Karim, 114 Russia, 69, 79, 80, 81, 87, 88, 134, al- Qasim ibn al- Rashid, 174n57 162, 179n69 Qatar, 5, 92, 110 as client state of Britain, 111, 112 Sabah family (Kuwait), 5, 92, 112 exercise of power, 133 Sabbahi, Hamdeen, 159 and football, 160– 61 sabiqa (precedence in accepting Qays tribal federation Islam), 24 and Umayyad military, 26, 29, Sadat, Anwar, 116, 123– 24, 185n3 32, 34, 35, 40, 50 Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas, 10 Yaman, rivalry with, 35– 39, 40, Safa, 143 50 Safavid dynasty (Iran), 176n14 Quartet, 134 Saffarid dynasty (Iraq/Iran), 63 Qur’an, 5– 6, 7, 11, 13, 15, 25, 38, al- Said, Nuri, 114 55, 60, 81, 142, 147, 148, Sa‘id ibn Hisham, 27 149, 153, 178n63 Sa‘id ibn Taymur, Sultan of Oman, Quraysh, 10 111 Qutb, Muhammad, 125 sa’ifa (summer campaign), 20, 28, Qutb, Sayyid, 123, 125, 154, 155 51 Qutuz, Mamluk sultan, 65, 66 Saint- Exupéry, Antoine, 152 Saladin, 95 Rabat, 105 Salafi political party (Egypt), 159, Rafah, 135, 157 160 Rajab, Nabeel, 185n6 Saleh, Ali Abdullah, 4, 113, 132, 137 Rally for Constitutional Democracy al- Salih Ayyub, Ayyubid sultan, 65 (RCD), 2, 119, 182n42 Salih ibn ‘Ali, 45, 46, 50 al- Rashid, caliph, 50–53, 118 Saljuq dynasty (central Islamic Rashidi family (Arabia), 92 lands), 64 Rashidun (Rightly Guided) caliphs, Samarra, 56, 65 9– 17, 22, 24 soldier state, 57– 61 Reconquista, 76 Sanaa, Great Mosque of, 33 Red Sea, 72, 77, 80 San Remo conference, 96, 98 republics, 98, 104, 109, 110, 113– al- Sanusi, Muhammad, 107 19, 125– 29, 134, 136– 37, 152, Sanusiya Sufi order, 151 160– 61 saqifa (portico), 9, 10, 14 Rescripts, Imperial, 86, 88 Sassanians, 6, 26 Index 209

Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of stability, 19, 101, 115– 26, 129, alliance with Britain, 92, 110, 136, 137, 138 112, 181n21 successor sons and Arab Spring, 3, 136– 37 medieval era, 22, 26– 30, 32, 34– origins, 83– 84, 110, 130 38, 41, 46, 48, 49, 50– 53, political role of ruling family, 112, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 75 113, 116, 133– 35 modern era, 4, 5, 30, 123, 128, siege of Mecca, 124– 26, 146 136, 138 United States, alliance with, 120, successor states, 63, 64, 69, 83, 147 129– 30, 131, 155 Suez Canal, 89, 91, 101, 107 use of religion, 66, 82, 118, 130 Sulayman, caliph, 27, 29, 34, 35, Yemen, war in, 112– 13 36, 169n63 Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 116 Sulayman ibn ‘Ali, 44, 46 Saudi family (Saudi Arabia), 5, 30, Sulayman ibn Hisham, 28, 38 112, 134 Sunna (custom), 6, 11, 148 Saul, king, 5 Sunni Muslims, 6, 97, 98, 120, 122, Sawad, 62 125, 137, 149, 152, 160 sawm (fasting), 141, 142– 43 Supreme Council for Armed Forces Selim I, Ottoman sultan, 71 (SCAF), 68 Selim II, Ottoman sultan, 80 Sykes, Sir Mark, 95 Selim III, Ottoman sultan, 85, Sykes- Picot arrangements, 95, 106 177n22 Syria Sèvres, Treaty of, 96, 97, 163 Arab Republic, 4, 108– 9, 118–19 al- Shafi‘i, 149 under al- Asad family, 4, 121– 23, shahada (statement of belief), 141, 126– 28, 132, 136– 37, 147, 142 155, 160, 162 shari‘a (Islamic law), 149, 159 early Islamic, 12– 13, 14, 15, 17 Sharon, Ariel, 132 and Egypt as UAR, 109 al- Shater, Khayrat, 183n61 ethnic make- up, 98, 118, 122 Shayba ibn ‘Uthman ibn Abi Talha, 16 French mandate, 95– 97, 103– 4 Shi‘i Muslims, 24, 97, 98, 112, independence, 98, 103– 4 120, 121, 125, 135, 137, 160, medieval era, 45, 50, 59, 60, 64, 183n64, 185n5 66, 68, 71, 87 shura (consultation), 10– 11, 13, 14, as military state, 110, 113, 116, 16, 21, 22, 24, 41 125 Sidi Bouzid, 1– 2, 3, 136, 163 and Muslim Brotherhood, Siffin, Battle of, 15, 16, 24 122– 23 Six-Day War, 113, 117, 122, 124, Umayyad era, 19– 41 125, 155 social media, 2, 161 al- Tabari, 16 Society of Muslims (Egypt), 123– 24 Tahir ibn al- Husayn, 53, 55, 63 Solomon, prophet and king, 5 Tahirid dynasty (eastern Islamic Spain, 40, 52, 63, 64, 69, 76, 77, lands), 55, 63 78, 94 Tahrir Square, 137 210 Index takbir (rallying cry), 156 ‘Umar II, caliph, 36, 146 Talal, King of Jordan, 116, 182n33 ‘Umar ibn Hubayra al- Fazari, 37 Talha, Companion of the Prophet, Umayyad dynasty 10, 14, 29 as caliphs, 19– 41 Tanzania, 130 centralization of caliphate, 26– 27 Tanzimat (reforms), 85, 88, 99 coinage reforms, 26 Tatchell, Peter, 162 family infighting, 29– 30, 34–36, Taylor Mahan, Alfred, 180n100 37, 38, 39, 40 Thani family (Qatar), 5, 92, 112, marriage alliances, 28, 29, 30, 39 160– 61 monarchy- military alliance, 20, Thaqif tribe, 26 26, 29, 30– 32, 40, 41 timars (tax farms), 73, 74, 83 opposition to, 19, 21– 22, 23–25, Tlas, Mustafa, 128 26, 40 Trabelsi, Leila, 128 patronage of religion, 32– 34 Transjordan. See Jordan as political unit, 20, 26, 27, 28, Trucial States, 91, 110, 111 40 Tughril Beg, 64 successor sons, 21, 22, 26, 27, Tulunid dynasty (Egypt), 62, 63 28, 29, 34, 36, 37, 38 Tunis, 2, 72, 93, 99, 176n5 ‘Uthman, patronage from, 11– Tunisia 13, 16 bankruptcy, 89 ‘Uthman, political use of, 14– 15, as colony of France, 89, 93– 94, 20– 21 103, 104, 105, 180n89 Umayya ibn Abdullah ibn Khalid, 27 elections, 2– 3, 132, 182n42 ‘umra (lesser pilgrimage), 14, 143 independence, 2, 104, 105 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Jasmine Revolution, 1– 3, 4, 136, (USSR), 103, 113, 120, 121, 137, 155, 158, 160, 163 129, 130 Tunisian Republic, 104, 105, United Arab Emirates (UAE), 5, 91, 108, 109– 10, 113, 115–16, 111, 112, 116, 133, 137 118– 19, 128, 132 United Kingdom, 115, 120 Turan- Shah ibn al- Salih, 65 and Arab Spring, 162– 63 Turkish Republic, 100, 101 See also Britain; England Turkish troops. See Samarra: soldier United Nations, 106, 107, 121, state 134, 162 United States, 103, 115, 134 ‘Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, 20, 23 allies in Middle East, 72, 120, Uhud, Battle of, 17 121, 129– 30, 131, 132, 138, ‘ulama (religious scholars) 162 education, 81 invasion of Iraq, 4, 131 influence in Ottoman Empire, September 11, 2001, 129, 130 81– 82, 85, 153 ‘Urabi, Ahmad, 90 mihna, 55, 149 ‘Utaybi, Juhayman ibn Muhammad, ‘Umar I, caliph, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 124 22 ‘Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, 20 Index 211

‘Uthman ibn al- ‘Affan (caliph) Yaman tribal affiliation appointment as caliph, 10– 11, 16 military support for Umayyads, as caliph, 10– 13 21, 29, 35, 38, 39 legitimation for Umayyads, 14– Qays, rivalry with, 35– 36, 38, 39, 15, 20– 21 40, 50 patronage of Umayyads, 11– 13, 16 rebellion, 37 personal use of state funds, 12 Ya‘qub ibn Layth, 63 siege and murder, 12–14, 17 Yazid I, caliph as caliph, 23– 25 Wafd political party (Egypt), 96 as heir apparent, 20– 23 al- Walid I, caliph opposition to, 22, 23– 25 as caliph, 32– 34, 35, 36 successor son, 25 as heir apparent, 27, 28, 29, 32 Yazid II, caliph, 36– 37 patronage of religion, 32– 34 Yazid III, caliph, 38, 39 successor son, 34 Yazid ibn al- Muhallab, 35, 36, 37 al- Walid II, caliph, 37–38 Yemen al- Walid ibn ‘Uqba, 11 as client of Britain, 91, 110, 112, al- Wallada, wife of caliph ‘Abd al- 113 Malik, 11 Egypt, war with, 112– 13 Washington (DC), 121, 129, 134 independence, 112– 13 Wasif, 56, 60 PRSY, later the PDRY (south Wasit, 31 Yemen), 112, 113, 119 al- Wathiq, caliph, 59 Republic of (reunited Yemen), weapons of mass destruction 4, 113 (WMD), 120, 131 under Saleh, 4, 113, 129, 132, West, the, 77, 87, 90, 101, 106, 137, 160, 184n82 111, 119– 20, 125, 131, 132, Yemen Arab Republic (north 138, 151, 152, 153, 154 Yemen), 4, 112 Wilson, Woodrow, 96, 97 Young Turks, 99, 151 Windsor Castle, 162 Yusuf ibn ‘Umar, 38 World War I, 104, 113, 152, 153, 161, 181n23 Zaghlul, Sa‘d, 96, 97, 180n102 World War II, 103, 106, 107 zaka (almsgiving), 141, 142 Zayed, Prince (Abu Dhabi), 116 Yahya, brother of caliph al- Mansur, Ziyad ibn Abihi, 20, 23 44 al- Zubayr (Companion of the Yamama, 25 Prophet), 10, 14